Explain The Importance Of Computer Literacy

Computers have touched every part of our lives: the way we work, the way we learn, the way we
live, even the way we play. It almost is impossible to go through a single day without
encountering a computer, a device dependent on a computer, information produced by a
computer, or a word that was introduced or whose meaning has changed with the advent of
computers. Because of the significance of computers in today’s world, it is important to be
computer literate. Being computer literate means you have knowledge and understanding of
computers and their uses.

Define The Term Computer

A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its
own memory, that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce
results, and store the results for future use. Computers process data to create information. Data is
a collection of raw unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols. Information is data that is
organized, meaningful, and useful. To process data into information, a computer uses hardware
and software. Hardware is the electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment that makes up a
computer. Software is the series of instructions that tells the hardware how to perform tasks.

A computer is an electronic device that is fed with raw data which it manipulates and processes
to produce information. It is made up of two parts - hardware and software. Hardware is the
physical parts of the computer system - the parts that you can touch and see. Hardware is the
term used to describe all the physical components that make up a computer system. Software is
the term used to describe program written in the language of the computer used to make the
computer perform a specific task. Software is a collection of instructions that can be ‘run’ on a
computer. These instructions tell the computer what to do. The computer processes input through
input devices like mouse and keyboard. The computer displays output through output devices
like a monitor and printer. The size of a computer varies considerably from small personal
computers to gigantic supercomputers which require an entire building to host them. The speed
also has a very large range. Computers have become indispensable in today’s world.

Classification of computers

Computers can be classified in terms of type, cost, size, capability and generations.
1.1.1. Classification in terms of type
• Digital computers:

– They use digital circuits and are designed to operate on two states, namely bits 0 and 1. They
are analogous to states ON and OFF. Data on these computers is represented by combinations
of discrete pulses usually denoted by 0’s and 1’s. These computers use the discrete numbering
system in data processing. Digital computers are suitable for complex computation and have
higher processing speeds. They are programmable. Digital computers are either general
purpose computers or special purpose ones. General purpose computers, as their name
suggests, are designed for specific types of data processing while general purpose computers
are meant for general use.

• Analogcomputers:

MIT 3401 Computer Systems and Applications in Education

– These are almost extinct today. These are different from a digital computer because an analog
computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses continuous
variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or electrical energy. These are
the computers in which data is represented by a continuously variable
physicalquantitysuchasvoltageorangularposition. Theyincludevoltmeter, ammeter,
speedometer, etc.

• Hybridcomputers:

– These computers use both analog and digital techniques. In this type of computers, the digital
segments perform process control by conversion ofanalogsignalstodigitalones.
TheyaremostlyusedasExpertsystem that is found in scientific Research & Engineering
computers. They include weather forecasting computers, Astronomical computers, the I.C.U in
the hospitals.

• Embeddedsystemcomputers:

– Thesearemicroprocessorsthatareattachedtootherelectronicmachines and are used to control

the actions of these machines but they are not accessed directly. They include the petrol pump
controller in electric fuel injection cars. They are also found in the modern music machines,
video decks and cameras, etc.

1.1.2. Classification interms of cost, size and capacity Super and maxi computers:
 Thehighlycalculation-
intensivetaskscanbeeffectivelyperformedbymeansofsupercomputers.
Quantumphysics,mechanics,weatherforecasting,moleculartheory are best studied by
means of supercomputers. Their ability of parallel processing and their well-designed
memory hierarchy give the supercomputers, large transaction processing powers.These
perform intensive work like weather forecasting.
 They have a high processing speed
 They have high energy requirements.
 They have very many processors and peripherals.

Mainframecomputers: Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical applications such
as bulk data processing and ERP. Most of the mainframe computers have capacities to host
multiple operating systems and operate as a number of virtual machines. They can substitute
for several small servers.

• They are big in size.

• They have a large memory and backup storage.

• They have vast peripherals.

• They have a high processing speed.

Minicomputers:

• They are smaller than the mainframe computers.

• They have low storage capacity as compared to the

• Mainframe computers.

• They are less powerful than the mainframe computers.

• They are used in stock control.

• They can have up to 8 terminals.

Microcomputers: A computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is known as
a microcomputer. They do not occupy space as much as mainframes or mini do. When
supplemented with a keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers can be called personal
computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input-output devices, computer memory in
the form of RAM and a power supply unit come packaged in a microcomputer. These
computers can fit on desks or tables and prove to be the best choice for single-user tasks.

• These are computers that have got only one microprocessor.

• They are smaller and cheaper in cost compared to mini computers.

• They are slow as compared to mini computers.

• They can allow graphical inputs.

• They are also known as Personal Computers (P.C.)

• They require one person to operate.

• These are popular in small business applications.

Note: In some cases there can be an overlap in terms of cost and performance of the above
classification i.e. there is a possibility of having a microcomputer that is far much costly and
better performance compared to a given minicomputer. Therefore the performance against
cost graph can be drawn as below. Other types of computers include: ˆ

Desktops: A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of a desktop
computer are readily available at relatively lower costs. Power consumption is not as critical as
that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for daily use in the workplace and households. ˆ

Laptops: Similarinoperationtodesktops,laptopcomputersareminiaturized and optimized for

mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that charges the computer
batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid
crystal display. Their portability and capacity to operate on battery power have proven to be of
great help to mobile users. ˆ
Netbooks: They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively smaller in size.
They had a smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison to regular laptops, at the
time they came into the market. But with passing time, netbooks too began featuring almost
everything that notebookshad. Bytheendof2008,netbookshadbeguntoovertakenotebooksin
terms of market share and sales. ˆ

PersonalDigitalAssistants(PDAs): Itisahandheldcomputerandpopularly known as a palmtop. It

has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be used as portable
audio players, web browsers and smartphones. Most of them can access the Internet by means
of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication. ˆ

Servers: Theyarecomputersdesignedtoprovideservicestoclientmachines in a computer network.

They have larger storage capacities and powerful processors. Running on them are programs
that serve client requests and allocateresourceslikememoryandtimetoclientmachines.
Usuallytheyare very large in size, as they have large processors and many hard drives. They are
designed to be fail-safe and resistant to crash. ˆ

Wearable Computers: A record-setting step in the evolution of computers

wasthecreationofwearablecomputers. Thesecomputerscanbewornonthe
bodyandareoftenusedinthestudyofbehaviormodelingandhumanhealth. Military and health
professionals have incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine, as a part of such
studies. When the users’ hands and sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable
computers are of great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers do not have to be
turned on and off and remain in operation without user intervention. ˆ

Tablet Computers: Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to use. They use the
touch screen technology. Tablets come with an onscreen keyboard or use a stylus or a digital
pen. Apple’s iPad redefined the class of tablet computers. These were some of the different
types of computers used today. Looking at the rate of advancement in technology, we can
definitely look forward to many more in the near future.

1.1.3. Classificationintermsofgenerations (evolution of computers)

 The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different
generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a
major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient
and reliable devices. ˆ

FirstGeneration-1940-1956: VacuumTubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive
tooperateandinadditiontousingagreatdealofelectricity,generatedalotofheat, which was often
the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform
operations, and they could only solve one problem at atime.
Inputwasbasedonpunchedcardsandpapertape,andoutputwasdisplayed on printouts. The
UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computingdevices.
TheUNIVACwasthefirstcommercialcomputerdeliveredtoa business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951. ˆ

SecondGeneration-1956-1963: Transistors
Transistorsreplacedvacuumtubesandusheredinthesecondgenerationofcomputers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a
greatdealofheatthatsubjectedthecomputertodamage,itwasavastimprovement over the vacuum
tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages
werealsobeingdevelopedatthistime,suchasearlyversionsofCOBOLandFORTRAN. These were also
the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were
developed for the atomic energy industry. ˆ

ThirdGeneration-1964-1971: IntegratedCircuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semi-conductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards
and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and
monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their

FourthGeneration-1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now be put in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all
the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to
input/output controls - on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home
user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the
realm of desktop computersandintomanyareasoflifeasmoreandmoreeverydayproductsbeganto
use microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and hand-held devices.

FifthGeneration-PresentandBeyond: ArtificialIntelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantumcomputationandmolecularandnanotechnologywillradicallychangethefaceofcomputersi
nyearstocome. The goal offifth-
generationcomputingistodevelopdevicesthatrespondtonaturallanguage input and are capable
of learning and self-organization.

Components of the Computer and Their Use

A computer consists of five primary hardware components: input devices, the central processing
unit (CPU), memory, output devices, and storage devices. These components work together with
software to perform calculations, organize data, and communicate with other computers.

Different types of input devices transmit different types of data or transmit data in different
ways. A keyboard is used to transmit alpha/numeric data by typing. In addition to the standard
keys in the typing area, an enhanced keyboard contains:

 function keys that can be programmed to perform specific tasks

 status lights that indicate modes that can be turned on and off by toggle keys (e.g., caps
lock and num lock)
 a numeric keypad that allows for rapid entry of numbers
 arrow keys and other cursor-control keys (e.g., home, end, page up, and page down) that
control the on-screen movement of the insertion point
 special keys such as esc, shift, ctrl, and alt that have varying functions depending on the
software

The mouse, like a trackball or joystick, is called a pointing device because it controls the
movement of a pointer, or mouse pointer, on the computer screen. The first mouse was a one-
button, rectangle shaped device invented by Doug Engelbart in 1964. A mouse is very easy to
use. It requires empty desk space, however, and forces the user to remove a hand from the
keyboard to give a command.

Different CPUs function at different speeds. The rate at which computer operations take place is
measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of electronic pulses per second. This rate varies
among computers and should be a consideration when purchasing a personal computer.
Computers have two basic types of memory. RAM (random access memory) is volatile, meaning
that its contents are lost when the computer is turned off. ROM (read-only memory) is
nonvolatile because it retains its contents even when the power is turned off. ROM stores
information that does not change, such as the instructions and data used to start the computer
when it is first turned on.

Like input devices, different types of output devices convey different types of information or
convey information in different ways. Printer output sometimes is called hard copy because of its
physical, touchable character. Monitor output, on the other hand, is called soft copy because it
has only an electronic, intangible existence. Non-impact printers represent the fastest growing
segment of the printer market. The drops of ink that form an ink-jet printer character are similar
to the dots that form a dot matrix character figure, but there are many more of them. Good
quality paper must be used with ink-jet printers so that the ink does not bleed. The speed quoted
for impact printers often is measured in characters per second (cps). Like ink-jet printers, laser
printer speed is measured in pages per minute (ppm). Although they are fast, all printers are
much slower than computers. Because of this, most printers have a buffer that temporarily stores
a few pages, allowing the computer to dump output into the buffer and continue processing. The
most widely used PC monitors are 14- or 17-inch (measured from one corner to the diagonally
opposite corner). With the growing popularity of portable computers, the clarity of LCD displays
continues to improve. The quality of a monitor's display depends largely on three factors:

 resolution - the number of pixels displayed

 dot pitch - the distance between pixels
 refresh rate - the speed with which images are redrawn on the screen

Storage devices are different from memory. Memory, sometimes called primary storage, is fast,
short-term, volatile, and relatively expensive. Storage devices, on the other hand, are slower,
long-term, nonvolatile, and less expensive.

The data and information used in a computer needs to be stored for future use. The memory of a
computer only holds items temporarily while they are being processed. When not being
processed, these items must be stored in auxiliary storage devices. These devices include floppy
disks, hard disks, CD-ROM, and DVD-ROM. When selecting a storage device it is important to
know that each device holds different amounts of information.

Although floppy disks once were available in two sizes, the 5.25-inch floppy disk rarely is used
today, and some believe it is destined for the same fate as the eight-track tape. Because of its
rigid plastic shell, it may be difficult to see the 3.5-inch disk as "floppy." The name is justified,
however, not only by the disk's ancestry but also by the flexible character of the disk itself. When
a floppy disk drive is reading from or writing to a floppy disk, a light turns on next to the drive.
Floppy disks never should be inserted into or removed from the drive when this light is on. Most
magnetic disks are read/write storage media. Some optical discs, such as CD-ROMs, usually can
be read from but not written to. Each track on a formatted floppy disk is very narrow. To see
how narrow, try to draw 80 lines in a 11/4-inch space (the approximate radius of the floppy disk
surface). Floppy disks are soft-sectored, meaning that the number of sectors is not
predetermined. Floppy disk access time depends on the time needed to locate the correct track,
the time required to rotate the disk to the proper sector, and the time necessary to transfer the
data into main memory.

Although personal computer hard disks usually are fixed (i.e., not removable), some portable
computers have removable hard disk drives. Unlike floppy disks, hard disks constantly are
spinning, at a rate 10 to 20 times faster than floppy disks. Therefore, access time for hard disks is
significantly less than access time for floppy disks. While a floppy disk read/write head rests on
the disk, the read/write head for a hard disk hovers about 10 millionths of an inch above the disk
surface. Contamination on the disk - a speck of dust (about 1550 millionths of an inch), a
fingerprint (about 600 millionths of an inch), or a particle of smoke (about 250 millionths of an
inch) - can cause a "head crash," destroying data and rendering the disk drive unusable. For this
reason, hard disk drives are sealed and manufactured in an environment that typically is cleaner
than a hospital operating room. Storage capacity can be increased on both hard disks and floppy
disks with compression programs such as Stacker, WinZip, or PKZIP.

Computer Software: System Software and Application Software

There are two categories of computer software: system software and application software.
System software serves as the interface between a user and the computer's hardware. An example
of system software would be an operating system such as Microsoft Windows. Application
software consists of programs designed to perform specific tasks. An example of application
software would be a spreadsheet program, such as Microsoft Excel.

A 3.5-inch floppy disk is computer hardware, but the programs stored on it are computer
software. Although there are two types of software, system software and application software are
designed to work hand-in-glove; that is, application software packages are designed to work with
specific kinds of system software. By telling the computer how to perform common functions,
the operating system frees application software to concentrate on producing information. Popular
operating systems include Windows, the Mac OS, OS/2, UNIX, Linux, DOS, and NetWare.
Operating systems that have a graphical user interface (GUI) often are called user-friendly.
Studies have found that GUI users generally complete tasks more accurately, work faster, are
more productive, and feel less fatigue.

To understand the relationship between application software and system software, draw four
concentric circles. Label the innermost circle CPU, the next operating system, the
next application software, and the last user. The resultant diagram illustrates how the operating
system helps to insulate the user and application program from computer hardware.

Types of Personal Computer Application Software

Many types of application software are available. The more popular application software
includes word processing software, electronic spreadsheet software, database software,
presentation graphics software, communications software, and electronic mail software.
Knowing the function of each type of application software is one of the most important
ingredients of being computer literate.

Several years ago, a survey of large and small businesses showed that the most often used
applications were:

 Word processing and spreadsheet (used by 100% of those surveyed)

 Communications, electronic mail, database, and presentation graphics (used by about
95%)
 Desktop publishing (used by about 85%)
 Project management (used by about 70%)
 Personal information management (used by about 50%)
In word processing, any work developed through the writing process is a document. Word
processing software makes it easier to create, edit, format, and print documents. Many word
processing packages include a spell checker, grammar checker, and thesaurus.

The first spreadsheet software, VisiCalc, was introduced in 1979. By immediately displaying the
results of changes, electronic spreadsheet packages provide a capability called what-if analysis.
Another powerful capability, called goal-seek, finds what value is needed to reach a specified
goal.

A database file is a collection of related data called records, each of which consists of a group of
related facts called fields. The data can be manipulated, or a report, called a query, can be created
based on user-specified criteria. Although most spreadsheet packages can manage data tables of
a few thousand records, database software can efficiently handle much larger data tables.

Word processing and spreadsheet software came out around 1980. Presentation graphics
software was not introduced until the mid to late 1980s. Nevertheless, it can be argued that
presentation graphics software has had almost as great an impact on business, and on how people
do business, as either of the older applications. Presentation graphics packages include libraries
of clip art that can be inserted into slides and a slide sorter that can be used to organize the order
effectively in which slides are presented.

Differentiate Among The Various Types Of Software

There are two categories of computer software: system software and application
software. System software consists of the programs that control the operations of a computer
and its devices. Two types of system software are the operating system and utility programs.
An operating system (OS) coordinates all activities among hardware devices and contains
instructions that allow you to run application software. A utility program performs specific
tasks, usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. You interact with
software through its user interface.

Application software consists of programs that perform specific tasks for users. Popular
application software includes word processing software, spreadsheet software, database software,
and presentation graphics software. Application software can be packaged
software (copyrighted software that meets the needs of a variety of users), custom
software (tailor-made software developed at a user’s request), freeware (copyrighted software
provided at no cost), public-domain software (software donated for public use with no
copyright restrictions), or shareware (copyrighted software distributed free for a trial period).

Describe The Categories Of Computers And Their Uses

The six major categories of computers are personal computers, handheld computers, Internet
appliances, mid-range servers, mainframes, and supercomputers. These categories are based on
differences in size, speed, processing capabilities, and price. A personal computer can perform
all of its input, processing, output, and storage activities by itself. Personal computers include
desktop computers and notebook computers. A desktop computer is designed so the system
unit, input devices, output devices, and any other devices fit entirely on or under a desk or table.
Variations of desktop computers include tower models (computers with tall and narrow system
units that can sit vertically on the floor), all-in-one computers (less expensive computers that
combine the monitor and system unit into a single device), and workstations (more expensive
and powerful computers designed for work that requires intense calculation and graphics
capabilities).

A notebook computer is a portable personal computer small enough fit on your lap. Notebook
and desktop computers are used at home or in the office to perform application software-related
tasks or to access the Internet. A handheld computer is a small computer that fits in your hand.
Handheld computers can perform specific, industry-related functions, or can be general-purpose.

A PDA (personal digital assistant) is a handheld computer that provides personal organizer
functions, such as a calendar, appointment book, and notepad. An Internet appliance is a
computer with limited functionality whose main purpose is to connect to the Internet from home.
A mid-range server is more powerful and larger than a workstation computer. Users typically
access a mid-range server through a personal computer or a terminal, which is a device with a
monitor and a keyboard that usually has no stand-alone processing power.

A mainframe is a large, expensive, very powerful computer that can handle hundreds or
thousands of connected users simultaneously. A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful,
and most expensive category of computer.

Identify The Various Types Of Computer Users

Computer users can be divided into five categories: home user, small office/home office users,
mobile users, large business users, and power users. A home user spends time on the computer
for personal and business communications, budgeting and personal financial management,
entertainment, and Web access. A small office/home office (SOHO) user includes any company
with fewer than 50 employees, as well as self-employed people that work out of their home.
A mobile user travels to and from a main office or school to conduct business, communicate, or
do homework. A large business user works for a company that has a large number of employees
and computers usually connected to a network. The power user – such as an engineer, architect,
or desktop publisher – typically works with multimedia, which combines several media
elements into one application, and requires the capabilities of a workstation or other powerful
computer.

Describe The Components In The System Unit

The system unit, sometimes called the chassis, is a box-like case housing the electronic
components of a computer that are used to process data. System unit components include the
processor, memory module, cards, ports, and connectors. Many of the system unit’s components
reside on a circuit board called the motherboard. The motherboard contains many different
types of chips, or small pieces of semiconducting material, on which one or more integrated
circuits (IC) are etched. An integrated circuit is a microscopic pathway capable of carrying
electronic current. Each IC can contain millions of transistors, which act as switches for
electronic signals.

Explain How The CPU Uses The Four Steps Of A Machine Cycle To Process Data

The central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, significantly impacts overall
computing power and manages most of a computer’s operations. The CPU contains the control
unit and the arithmetic/logic unit. The control unit directs and coordinates most of the
operations in the computer. For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic
operations called the machine cycle: (1) fetching the instruction or data item from memory,
(2) decoding the instruction into commands the computer understands, (3) executing the
commands, and, if necessary, (4) storing, or writing the result to memory.
The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs the execution part of the machine cycle. Specifically,
the ALU carries out three operations:

 Arithmetic operations – performing calculations, which include addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division
 Comparison operations – comparing data items to determine if the first item is
greater than, equal to, or less than the other item
 Logical operations – working with conditions and logical operators such as
AND, OR, and NOT
 Compare and contrast various personal computer processors on the market
today

A personal computer’s CPU usually is contained on a single chip, which some call
a microprocessor. Intel is a leading manufacturer of personal computer processors. Most high-
performance PCs use a processor from Intel called the Pentium® processor. A second Intel
brand, called the Celeron™, is designed for less expensive PCs. Two more brands, called
the Xeon™ and Itanium™ processors, are ideal for workstations and low-end servers. Intel-
compatible processors have the same internal design as Intel processors and perform the same
functions, but are made by other companies and often are less expensive. An alternative design
to the Intel-style processor, the Motorola processor, is found in Apple Macintosh and Power
Macintosh systems. A new type of processor designed for lower-costing personal computers and
Internet appliances, called an integrated CPU, combines functions of a processor, memory, and
a video card on a single chip. Today’s processors are equipped with MMX™technology, a built-
in set of instructions that manipulates and processes multimedia data more efficiently.
Intel’s SSE instructions and AMD’s 3DNow!™ are two other technologies that improve a
processor’s performance of multimedia, the Web, and 3-D graphics. To optimize and extend
battery life for notebook computers, Intel® mobile processors use SpeedStep™ technology and
AMD processors use PowerNow!™ technology.

Differentiate Between The Various Types Of Memory

Memory is a temporary storage place for data, instructions, and information. Memory stores the
operating system, application programs, and the data processed by application programs. A byte
is the basic storage unit in memory. Memory size is measured by the number of bytes available
for use. A kilobyte (KB or K) of memory is approximately one thousand bytes,
a megabyte (MB) is approximately one million bytes, and a gigabyte (GB) is approximately one
billion bytes. The system unit contains several types of memory.

RAM (random access memory) consists of memory chips that the processor can read
from and write to. Most RAM is volatile memory, meaning that its contents are lost when the
computer’s power is turned off. Two basic types of RAM chips are dynamic RAM and static
RAM. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) must be re-energized constantly or it loses its contents. Static
RAM (SRAM) is faster and more reliable than DRAM and has to be re-energized less often, but
it is much more expensive.

Memory cache, also called a cache store or RAM cache, improves processing time by storing
frequently used instructions and data. ROM (read-only memory) refers to memory chips that
only can be read and used; that is, they cannot be modified. ROM is nonvolatile
memory (NVM), meaning that its contents are not lost when the computer’s power is turned off.
A variation of the ROM chip, called programmable read-only memory (PROM), is a blank
chip on which you can place items permanently.

Flash memory, also known as flash ROM or flash RAM, is nonvolatile memory that can be
erased electronically and reprogrammed. Complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) memory, another type of memory chip, stores configuration
information about the computer and uses battery power to retain information when the power to
the computer is off.