Lab#4 RC CIRCUIT AS A FILTERING AND PHASE SHIFTING NETWORK

OBJECTIVES:

(I) To study the transfer function and phase shift of a low pass RC filter network.
(II) To study the transfer function and phase shift of a high pass RC filter network.

OVERVIEW:

Filter circuits are used in a wide variety of applications. In the field of

telecommunication, band-pass filters are used in the audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20
kHz) for modems and speech processing. High-frequency band-pass filters (several
hundred MHz) are used for channel selection in telephone central offices. Data
acquisition systems usually require anti-aliasing low-pass filters as well as low-pass noise
filters in their preceding signal conditioning stages. System power supplies often use
band-rejection filters to suppress the 50-Hz line frequency and high frequency transients.
Frequency-selective or filter circuits pass only
those input signals to the output that are in a desired |H(jω)|
range of frequencies (called pass band). The amplitude
of signals outside this range of frequencies (called stop
band) is reduced (ideally reduced to zero). The Pass
frequency between pass and stop bands is called the cut- Band Stop
off frequency (ωc). Typically in these circuits, the input Band
and output currents are kept to a small value and as such, Fig. 1: LPF
the current transfer function is not an important
parameter. The main parameter is the voltage transfer
function in the frequency domain, Hv(jω) = Vo/Vi. ωc ω
Subscript v of Hv is frequently dropped. As H(jω) is
complex number, it has both a magnitude and a phase, filters in general introduce a phase
difference between input and output signals.

LOW AND HIGH-PASS FILTERS

A low pass filter or LPF attenuates or rejects
all high frequency signals and passes only low |H(jω)|
frequency signals below its characteristic frequency
called as cut-off frequency, ωc. An ideal low-pass
Stop
fillter's transfer function is shown in Fig. 1. A high Pass
Band
pass filter or HPF, is the exact opposite of the LPF Band
circuit. It attenuates or rejects all low frequency
signals and passes only high frequency signals above
Fig. 2: HPF
ωc. ωc ω
In practical filters, pass and stop bands are not clearly defined, |H(jω)| varies
continuously from its maximum towards zero. The cut-off frequency is, therefore,
defined as the frequency at which |H(jω)| is reduced to 1/√2 or 0.7 of its maximum value.
This corresponds to signal power being reduced by 1/2 as P α V2.
 |H(jω)| |H(jω)|
  
1
1
0.7 0.7

ωc ω ωc ω

Fig.3: Transfer functions of practical low and high pass filter

RC Filter:

The simplest passive filter circuit can be made by connecting together a single resistor
and a single capacitor in series across an input signal, (Vin) with the output signal, (Vout)
taken from the junction of these two components. Depending on which way around we
connect the resistor and the capacitor with regards to the output signal determines the
type of filter construction resulting in either a Low Pass or a High Pass Filter. As there
are two passive components within this type of filter design the output signal has
amplitude smaller than its corresponding input signal, therefore passive RC filters
attenuate the signal and have a gain of less than one, (unity).

Low-pass RC Filter

A series RC circuit as shown also acts as a low-pass filter. For no load resistance (output
is open circuit, R → ∞):
1 /( jC ) 1
V0  Vi  Vi
R  (1 / jC ) 1  j (RC )
V 1
H ( j )  0 
Vi 1  jRC
To find the cut-off frequency (ωc), we note
1
H ( j ) 
1  (RC ) 2
When ω→0, |H(jω)| is maximum and →1. Fig.4: Low pass RC filter circuit
For ω = ωc, |H(jωc)| = 1/√2. Thus
1 1
H ( j c )  
1  ( c RC ) 2
2
1 1 1 
 c  , H ( j )  , H ( j )  and phase ,    tan 1 ( )
RC j 2 c
1  
c 1   
 c 
Input Impedance:
1 1
Zi  R  and Z i  R 2  2 2
jC  C
The value of the input impedance depends on the frequency ω. For good voltage
coupling, we need to ensure that the input impedance of this filter is much larger than the
output impedance of the previous stage. Thus, the minimum value of Zi is an important
number. Zi is minimum when the impedance of the capacitor is zero (ω→∞), i.e. Zi|min =
R.
Output Impedance:
The output impedance can be found by shorting the source and finding the equivalent
impedance between output terminals:
1
Z 0  R ||
j C
where the source resistance is ignored. Again, the value of the output impedance also
depends on the frequency ω. For good voltage coupling, we need to ensure that the output
impedance of this filter is much smaller than the input impedance of the next stage, the
maximum value of Z0 is an important number. Z0 is maximum when the impedance of the
capacitor is ∞ (ω→0), i.e. Z0|max = R.

Bode Plots and Decibel

The ratio of output to input power in a two-port network is usually expressed in Bell:
P  V 
Number of Bels  log 10  0   2 log 10  0 
 Pi   Vi 

Bel is a large unit and decibel (dB) is usually used:

P  V 
Number of decibels  10 log 10  0   20 log 10  0 
 Pi   Vi 

There are several reasons why decibel notation is used:

1) Historically, the analog systems were developed first for audio equipment. Human ear
‘hears" the sound in a logarithmic fashion. A sound which appears to be twice as loud
actually has 10 times power, etc. Decibel translates the output signal to what ear hears.
2) If several two-port network are placed in a cascade (output of one is attached to the
input of the next), it is easy to show that the overall transfer function, H, is equal to the
product of all transfer functions:

H ( j )  H 1 ( j )  H 2 ( j )  ...
20 log 10 H ( j )  20 log 10 H 1 ( j )  20 log 10 H 2 ( j )  ...
H ( j ) dB  H 1 ( j ) dB  H 2 ( j ) dB  ...
making it easier to understand the overall response of the system.
3) Plot of |H(jω)|dB versus frequency has special properties that again makes analysis
simpler as is seen below.
For example, using dB definition, we see that, there is 3 dB difference between maximum
gain and gain at the cut-off frequency:
H ( j c )  1 
20 log 10 H ( j c )  20 log 10 H ( j ) max  20 log 10  20 log   3 dB
H ( j ) max  2

Bode plots are plots of magnitude in dB and phase of H(jω) versus frequency in a semi-
log format. Bode plots of first-order low-pass filters (include one capacitor) display the
following typical characteristics:

Fig.5: Bode Plots for low-pass RC filter

At high frequencies, ω/ωc>>1, |H(jω)| ≈ 1/(ω/ωc) and |H(jω)|dB = 20 log (ωc)-20 log ω,
which is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade in the Bode plot. It means that if ω
is increased by a factor of 10 (a decade), |H(jω)|dB changes by -20 dB.

At low frequencies ω/ωc<<1, |H(jω)| ≈ 1, which is also a straight line in the Bode plot.
The intersection of these two “asymptotic" values is at 1 = 1/( ω/ωc) or ω = ωc . Because
of this, the cut-off frequency is also called the “corner" frequency.

The behavior of the phase of H(jω) can be found by examining    tan 1 ( ) . At high
c
frequencies, ω/ωc>>1,   90 0 and at low frequencies, ω/ωc<<1,   0 . At cut-off
frequency,   45 0 .
High-pass RC Filter

A series RC circuit as shown acts as a high-pass

filter. For no load resistance (output open circuit),
we have:
R 1
V0  Vi  Vi
R  (1 / jC ) 1  j (1 / RC )
V 1
H ( j )  0 
V i 1  j (1 / RC )
Fig.6: High pass RC filter circuit

The gain of this filter, |H(jω)| is maximum is maximum when denominator is smallest,
i.e., ω→ ∞, leading to |H(jω)|max = 1. Then, the cut-off frequency can be found as

1 1
H ( j c )  
1  (1 /  c RC ) 2
2
1 1 c
 c  , H ( j )  and phase ,   tan 1 ( )
RC c 2 
1 ( )


Input and output impedances of this filter can be found similar to the procedure used for
low-pass filters:
1
Input impedance: Z i  R  and Z i min  R
j C
1
Output Impedance: Z 0  R and Z0 R
jC max

Bode Plots of first-order high-pass filters display the following typical characteristics:
At low frequencies, ω/ωc<<1, |H(jω)| α ω (a +20dB/decade line) and   90 0 .
At high frequencies, ω/ωc>>1, |H(jω)| ≈ 1 (a line with a slope of 0) and   0 0 .
 Fig.7: Bode Plots for high-pass RC filter

Circuit Components/Instruments:

(i) Resistor (5.6 kΩ), (ii) Capacitor (10 kpF), (iii) Function generator, (iv) Oscilloscope,
(v) Connecting wires, (vi) Breadboard

Circuit Diagrams:

(Low pass RC filter) (High pass RC filter)

Procedure:

1. Begin lab by familiarizing yourself with the function generator and oscilloscope.
Check the options available on oscilloscope to measure phase shift between two
sinusoidal waves.
2. Read and also measure the values of R and C.
3. Using the scope set the function generator to produce a sine wave of voltage 5-10
V(pp). This signal will be used for the input. Do not change the amplitude of this
signal during the experiment.
4. Set up the low/high pass RC filter on the breadboard as shown in the circuit
diagram. Apply the function generator output to the input of the filter circuit. Use
the oscilloscope to look at both Vin and Vout. Be sure that the two oscilloscope
probes have their grounds connected to the function generator ground.
5. Adjust the oscilloscope setting such that you can measure frequency (f), Vi, Vo
and phase difference  at a time.
6. For several frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz (the audio frequency range)
measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of Vout. Check often to see that Vin remains
roughly at the set value. Take enough data (at least up to 10 times the cut-off
frequency, for low pass and down to 1/10 times cut-off frequency, for high pass
filter) so as to make your analysis complete.
7. From your measurements determine the ratio
V V ( pp)
H ( j )  o  o
Vi V i ( pp)
and compute this ratio by using the formula

1
H ( j )  , for low pass filter and
2
 
1   
 c 
1
H ( j )  , for high pass filter
2
 
1  c 
 

8. For each listed frequency, measure the phase shift angle  using oscilloscope. Be
careful with the sign of  .
9. Compute the phase shift angle for each frequency for low/high pass filter.

Observations:

R = _____________, C = ___________
 (I) For Low Pass Filter: Vin(pp) = _______,  c = 1/RC = ________

Sl. Frequency,  V0(pp) |H(jω)| |H(jω)| |H(jω)|  

No f (kHz) (Volt) (observed) (in dB) (computed) (observed) (computed)
c

1 ..
2 ..
.. ..
.. ..

(II) For High Pass Filter: Vin(pp) = _______,  c = 1/RC = ________

Sl. Frequency,  V0(pp) |H(jω)| |H(jω)| |H(jω)|  

No f (kHz) (Volt) (in dB) (computed) (observed) (computed)
.
c

1 ..
2 ..
.. ..
.. ..

Graphs: Trace and study bode plots of |H(jω)|dB and  versus. ω/  c in a semi-log format
for low/high pass RC filter. Determine the cut-off frequency from graph. Also, estimate
the frequency roll-off for each filter.

Discussions:

Precautions:

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 Lab # 5: Study of LCR Resonant Circuit

Objectives:

To study the behavior of a series LCR resonant circuit and to estimate the resonant
frequency and Q-factor.

Overview:

Circuits containing an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R, have special

characteristics useful in many applications. Their frequency characteristics (impedance,
voltage, or current vs. frequency) have a sharp maximum or minimum at certain
frequencies. These circuits can hence be used for selecting or rejecting specific
frequencies and are also called tuning circuits. These circuits are therefore very important
in the operation of television receivers, radio receivers, and transmitters.

Let an alternating voltage Vi be applied to an inductor L, a resistor R and a capacitor C all in

series as shown in the circuit diagram. If I is the instantaneous current flowing through the
circuit, then the applied voltage is given by

 1 
Vi  V Rd . c .  V L  VC   Rd .c .  j (L  ) I (1)
 C 
Here Rd.c. is the total d.c. resistance of the circuit that includes the resistance of the pure
resistor, inductor and the internal resistance of the source. This is the case when the
resistance of the inductor and source are not negligible as compared to the load resistance
R. So, the total impedance is given by
 1 
Z   Rd .c .  j (L  ) (2)
 C 
The magnitude and phase of the impedance are given as follows:
1/ 2
 1 2
Z   Rd .c .  (L 
2
) (3)
 C 
1
(L  )
tan   C (4)
Rd . c .

1
Thus three cases arise from the above equations:
(a) ωL > (1/ωC), then tan φ is positive and applied voltage leads current by phase
angle φ.
(b) ωL < (1/ωC), then tan φ is negative and applied voltage lags current by phase
angle φ.
(c) ωL = (1/ωC), then tan φ is zero and applied voltage and current are in phase. Here
VL = VC, the circuit offers minimum impedance which is purely resistive. Thus
the current flowing in the circuit is maximum (I0) and also VR is maximum and
VLC (VL+VC) is minimum. This condition is known as resonance and the
corresponding frequency as resonant frequency (ω0) expressed as follows:
1 1
0  or f 0  (5)
LC 2 LC
At resonant frequency, since the impedance is minimum, hence frequencies near f0 are
passed more readily than the other frequencies by the circuit. Due to this reason LCR-
series circuit is called acceptor circuit. The band of frequencies which is allowed to pass
readily is called pass-band. The band is arbitrarily chosen to be the range of frequencies
between which the current is equal to or greater than I0/√2. Let f1 and f2 be these limiting
values of frequency. Then the width of the band is BW= f2 – f1.

The selectivity of a tuned circuit is its ability to select a signal at the resonant frequency
and reject other signals that are close to this frequency. A measure of the selectivity is the
quality factor (Q), which is defined as follows:
f0  L 1
Q  0  (6)
f 2  f 1 Rd .c . Rd .c . 0 C
In this experiment, you will measure the magnitude and phase of VR and VLC with respect
to Vi (│(VR/Vi)│,│(VLC/Vi) │, ΦR and ΦLC in the vicinity of resonance using following
working formulae.
 1 
VR R  L  
 (7)  R   tan 1  C  (8)
Vi Z  Rd . c . 
 
 

2
 1  
V LC
L   R 
and  C (9)  LC  tan 1 
d .c ,
 (10)
Vi Z  1 
 L  
 C 

Circuit Components/Instruments:

(i) Inductor, (ii) Capacitor, (iii) Resistors, (iv) Function generator, (v) Oscilloscope, (vi)
Multimeter/LCR meter, (vii) Connecting wires, (viii) Breadboard

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
Measuring VR, VLC and ΦR, ΦLC:

(a) Using the multimeter/LCR meter, note down all the measured values of the
inductance, capacitance and resistance of the components provided. Also,
measure the resistance of the inductor. Calculate the d.c. resistance of the circuit.
Calculate the resonant frequency.
(b) Configure the circuit on a breadboard as shown in circuit diagram. Set the
function generator frequency Range in 10-20 KHz and Function in sinusoidal
mode. Set an input peak-to-peak voltage of 5V (say) with the oscilloscope probes

3
 set in X1 (attenuation factor= =1) position. Set the function generator probe in X1
position.
(c) Feed terminals 1,4 in the circuit diagram to channel 1 and 3,4 to channel 2 of the
oscilloscope to measure input voltage Vi and output voltage VR, respectively.
Note that terminal 4 is connected to the ground pin of the function generator and
oscilloscope. Keep the settings such that you can measure f, Vi, VR and Φ
simultaneously.
(d) Vary the frequency in the set region slowly and record VR and Vi (which may not
remain constant at the set value, guess why?). Read the frequency from
oscilloscope. Also, measure the phase shift angle ΦR with proper sign.
(e) Replace the resistor with another value and repeat steps (c) and (d). No phase
measurement is required for the second resistor.
(f) Now, interchange the probes of the function generator and oscilloscope, i.e. make
terminal 1 as the common ground so that you will measure VLC output between
terminal 3 and 1 and Vi between 4 and 1. Repeat step-(d) to record VLC, Vi and
ΦLC.

Observations:
1
L = _________ mH, C = ________ μF, f 0  = _________ kHz
2 LC
Internal resistance of inductor = _________ Ω
Output impedance of Function generator = __________ Ω

Table:1 R1 = _______ Ω
Sl.No. f Vi VR VR/Vi VR/Vi ΦR ΦR
(kHz) (V) (V) (Calculated) (Calculated)

4
Table:2 R2 = _______ Ω

Sl.No. Frequency,f Vi VR VR/Vi VR/Vi

(kHz) (V) (V) (Calculated)

Table:3 R1 = _______ Ω

Sl.No. Frequency,f Vi VLC VLC/Vi VLC/Vi ΦLC ΦLC (deg)

(kHz) (V) (V) (Calculated) (deg) (Calculated)

Graphs:
(a) Plot the observed values of VR/Vi, VLC/Vi, ΦR and ΦLC versus frequency.
Estimate the resonant frequency from graph in each case.

Discussions/Results:
Precautions: Make the ground connections carefully.

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