ADMAS UNIVERSITY

ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE DEPARTMENT

HISTORY GROUP ASSIGNMENT

ZEMENE MESAFINT

SECTION A6

Group members ID

1. Juliyana Arthur………………………………0791/21

2. Yordanos Birhanu…………………………..0755/21

3. Bitania Mamo………………………………..0560/21

4. Bayu Getnet………………………………….1117/21

5. Alemnesh Getaneh………………………….1105/21

6. Bemnet Melaku……………………………….1390/21

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Submitted to

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 Table content page

Introduction.................................................................................1

Zemene mesafint.........................................................................2

Characteristics of Selene mesafint.............................................2

Cause of zemene mesafint..........................................................3

Effect/consequence.....................................................................7

End of zemene mesafint...............................................................8

Conclusion........................................................................9

Groupreview.......................................................................10

Reference...........................................................................11

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 INTRODUCTION
This material (assignment) covers about the period of zemene mesafint / Era
of warlord. It focus on characteristics of zemene mesafint, cause and effect,
and end of the period.
The Zemene Mesafint was a period in Ethiopian history between the mid-18th
and mid-19th centuries, when the country was divided into several regions
ruled by local lords, who often fought against each other for power and
territory. The emperor in Gondar had little authority and was mostly a
figurehead. The name Zemene Mesafint means “Era of the Princes” or “Era of
the Judges” in Ge’ez, the ancient language of Ethiopia
Some of the main causes of the Zemene Mesafint were the decline of the
central government, the rise of the Oromo people, who migrated from the
south and east and established their own kingdoms, and the interference of
foreign powers, such as Egypt, Britain, and France, who sought to exploit
Ethiopia’s resources and influence its politics
The Zemene Mesafint ended when Kassa Hailu, a noble from Qwara,
defeated his rivals and became Emperor Tewodros II in 1855. He tried to
reunite and modernize Ethiopia, but faced resistance from some of the
regional lords and foreign invaders. He died in 1868 after a siege by a British
expedition
The Zemene Mesafint was a turbulent and chaotic time in Ethiopian history,
but also a time of cultural and religious diversity, artistic and literary
achievements, and social and political changes

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 ZEMNE MESAFINT
The Zemene Mesafint variously translated "Era of Judges", "Era of the
Princes," "Age of Princes," etc.; taken from the biblical Book of Judges)
Zemene Mesafint or the "Age of Princes" (1769- 1855) as it is also called was
a time period in Ethiopian history when the country was divided within itself
into several areas or regions with no powerful central authority. It was a time
in which the Ethiopian Emperors were viewed only as figureheads who were
limited to the capital city of Gondar.
The Zemene Mesafint, which lasted eighty-six years, saw twenty-three
emperors occupy the Imperial throne, with most of them being placed on the
throne and removed several times.All this chaos came to an end with the rise
of Kassa Hailu or better known by his later prophesied throne name of
Tewodros II of Ethiopia.

Modern Ethiopia is believed to have begun with the end of the Zemene
Mesafint and the Imperial throne of Ethiopia once again being led by a
powerful single authority.The most powerful lords, nobles, princes, kings, etc.,
during this period were Ras Ali I, Ras Aligaz, Ras Hailu Yosedeq, Dejazmach
Wube Hailemariam, Ras Wolde Selassie, Ras Gugsa, Ras Ali II, and King
Sahle Selassie of Shewa.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ZEMENE MESAFINT

It was a period characterized by the weakening of central authority and the
growth of the power of the regional warlords. It was a period when Ethiopia
was divided within itself into several regions. It was a period of intense power
struggle among the regional nobility for political supremacy.

The Zemene Mesafint was also a period when there was no law and order.
The unlimited power of the regional lords endangered the freedom of the
people. The absence of peace and order brought about arbitrariness,
lawlessness, disorder and destruction in the country. The Zemene Mesafint

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period saw numerous regional authorities abuse their power by choosing
which among the nobles they saw fit to become Emperor of Ethiopia.

On the other hand, the Zemene Mesafint was characterized by the

appearance of a foreign threat that principally came from its western frontiers.
This threat came from Egypt after the rise of Muhammad Ali, who extended
Egypt`s rule over the Sudan in 1821. From the Sudan, the Egyptians began to
encroach on the western frontiers of the Christian highland kingdom.
The Egyptian occupation of Sudan, and the general political situation in
Ethiopia laid fertile grounds for Egyptian expansion. The Egyptian threat
coincided with a period of economic, political and religious crisis in Ethiopia.
As a result of this, the responsibility of checking Egyptian expansion fell on
the shoulders of local chiefs and peoples. Among the local notables who
fought against Egyptian aggression were Dejjazmach Wube of Semien,
Dejjazmach Kinfu and Kasa Hailu (later, Emperor Tewodros II) of Quara.
However, it was only after the era of the princes was over that Egyptian
aggression became more serious.
Generally Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
● absence of effective central government;
● the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
● the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
● rivarly and compeition among regional lords to assume the position of king
maker;
● establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
● Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying
the state due to doctrinal disputes;
● Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”
In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of
literature, arts, architecture etc during the period.

CAUSES OF ZEMENE MESAFINT

The conditions that led to Zemene Mesafint developed over a long period of
time. The erosion of the traditional power and authority of the monarchy led to
the Zemene Mesafint. The factors that led to the erosion of the power and

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authority of the monarchy had their root in the wars of Imam Ahmad. Before
the wars of Imam Ahmad, kings such as Amde Tsiyon and Zera Ya’ekob were
renowned for their military and political achievement.
In most of their campaigns, they emerged victorious and were able to extend
their hegemony over a vast empire. However, this good image of the kings of
the Christian highland kingdom faded away since the time of Libne Dingil who
lived a fugitive life for more than a decade and died in 1540. His successor,
Gelawdewos, lost his life fighting against the forces of Adal led by Emir Nur
ibn al-Wazir in 1559. Several other kings also faced similar defeats at the
hands of the expanding Oromo.

The establishment of the city of Gondar as a permanent capital was another

factor for the erosion of the traditional power and authority of the monarchy.
Before its establishment, the kings lived in mobile capitals and moved along
with their army and retinue constantly from one district to another. In the
absence of an effective administrative structure and garrisoned army, this
ensured the loyalty of the regional lords. But, after the establishment of
Gondar, the kings remained in the city for an indefinite period of time and
neglected the provinces. In the meantime, the regional lords built up their
power which threatened the traditional authority of the monarchy. Some of the
powerful lords such as Welde Sillassie of Tigray and the rulers of Shewa even
ignored the very existence of the highest authority and made their regional
power hereditary. Such regional lords began to defy the authority of the kings
who tried to assert their power.

During this period there was a power struggle in Gondar between groups of
Wollo and Quara political factions. Wollo was represented by Wabi, the wife of
Iyassu II and mother of the young monarch, Iyoas (r. 1755-1769). Quara, on
the other hand, was represented by her mother in - law, Itege Mentewab, who
then controlled state power in the name of her grandson, Iyoas. This rivalry
took place following the death of Ras Bitweded Welde Leul in 1767.
Mentewab had given a power base to the Wallo Oromo by arranging a
political marriage between her son Iyassu II and Wabi, from the Wollo Oromo
family. In addition, she intended to secure their military support to consolidate
her power in the Gondarine state.

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 After that, however, the Wollo Oromo gradually began to enjoy a leading
political role and influence.The conflict between Quara and the Wollo Oromo
factions created political disorder around the capital. This endangered
Mentewab's power. She was thus forced to look for any strong personality
who could help her control the situation. The most powerful candidate in 1768
was Ras Michael Sehul of Tigrai. He had a big army and more modern
firearms due to his access to foreign trade through the Red Sea. Michael
Sehul was invited to Gondar by Mentewab and soon restored peace and
order in the city.
He was awarded the highest title of Ras Bitweded. When king Iyoas ordered
him to go back to Tigrai, Michael felt strong and refused to obey the king's
order. He assassinated King Iyoas in 1769. This event marked the beginning
of a new era in which powerful regional warlords undermined the monarchy's
power.

Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when the actual position of political

power was in the hands of different regional lords. The period from1769 when
Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas to 1855 when Kasa Hailu was
crowned as Tewodros II.
Ras Michael, a kingmaker during the period, took strong measures against
the nobility. A coalition of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo defeated
him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771 and forced him to go back to his
power base in Tigrai. He ruled over Tigray for the next nine years until his
death in 1780. After the defeat of Michael Sehul, chaos and disorder
continued until the coming to power of Ali Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yejju
Oromo family. Ali founded a new ruling dynasty known as the Yejju dynasty or
the Warra Sheh in 1786.

Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative stability, but several
regional lords evolved. The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords
ruled were Tigray, Semen, Debye, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and
Shewa. This era is commonly known in Ethiopian history as the Zemene
Mesafint (1769 – 1855).
The different regionally based northern Ethiopian warlords of the Zemene

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Mesafint fought against each other for various objectives:
• They wanted to expand their territories at the expense of their neighbours
because large territory means enormous human and material resources.
• They wanted to have the title of Ras Bitweded to become guardians of
the weak Gondarine kings and their court.
• They wanted to collect as much tribute as possible in the name of these
weak kings.

During the Zemene Mesafint, the kings at Gondar virtually lost their traditional
power and authority. The last king, with some aspect of power was Tekle
Giyorgis. But he was enthroned and dethroned six times from 1789 to 1800.
Because of this, the Christian tradition has nicknamed him Fitsame Mengist
(the end of the kingdom). The successors of Tekle Giyorgis became mere
puppets in the hands of regional governors and warlords.

The lives of the kings were secluded in the castles of Gondar and they did
not have military force. Their income consisted of custom duties and fines
collected from part of the city of Gondar only and the charity of some pious
peoples of the city. To cite one example, in 1832, the annual income of the
king at Gondar was 300 Maria Theresa Thalers (Austrian unit of currency in
use at that time in Ethiopia). In contrast, in 1816, the annual income of the
Tigrian lord, Ras Welde Sellassie was 75,000, while in 1840; King Sahle
Sellassie of Shewa had an annual income of 85,000 Maria Theresa Thalers.
In short, the kings lived in poverty without any power or authority.

The actual rulers of the Christian kingdom were regional governors, the
Rases and Dejjazmaches of the various provinces. They maintained their own
army and kept the tribute and revenues of their provinces. Nevertheless, even
the regional lords were not secure and did not retain power for long. The
decisive factors in securing regional power for long and contending for more
power were popularity in the eyes of their army and their connection with
other powerful families who might come to their assistance in times of political
difficulty.

The Rasbitwededs appointed and dismissed the kings from power. They

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were the king makers. Therefore, the main aim of the struggle among the
leading regional lords was to secure the title of Rasbitweded. But, before
assuming this position, one had to increase his domains and become
powerful in order to contend for that position. Because of this, the struggle
was conducted at various levels and the country turned out to be a center of
civil wars.

Moreover, the struggle was further aggravated by religious doctrinal disputes

within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Religious conflicts worsened the
regional power conflicts of the Zemene Mesafint. There was an intense
doctrinal controversy within the Orthodox Church during the period.
This weakened the position of both the Ethiopian state and the Church. The
Orthodox Church could not enforce unity among the Christian masses
because it was deeply divided into different factions within itself. The divisions
took a regional character. The internal religious division gave an ideological
dimension to the power conflict and further intensified the power struggle of
the Zemene Mesafint. Therefore, the Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying diverse groups under one central government

EFFECT/CONSEQUENCES
The endless wars of the Zemene Mesafint affected the social and economic
life of the peasantry. The peasants suffered from frequent wars. The peasants
were forced to feed the enormous armies of the local and regional lords. The
many shiftas (bandits) also forced the peasant to supply them food.
Therefore, the various dependents discouraged the peasantry from working
hard and producing surplus production. As a result, many people abandoned
their normal professions and became shiftas (bandits).Moreover, the
farmlands of the peasantry often became battlefields, and their villages were
burnt down. Therefore, agriculture which formed the backbone of the peasant
economy, was depressed in the period of the Zemene Mesafint.

The continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint also affected the development
of trade. Merchants could not travel peacefully along the long-distance trade
routes due to endless wars and robbery. Moreover, they were forced to pay
heavy taxes at the different warlords' gates (tax stations). The most important

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trade items during the Zemene Mesafint were natural products such as ivory,
gold, and civet. Enslaved people formed an important element of trading
items. As a result of feudal wars, war captives increased the supply of
enslaved people who were in high demand in Arabia.

The traditional handicrafts were also disrupted. On the whole, the wars of the
Zemene Mesafit caused decline in agricultural production, stagnation in trade
and the collapse of handicrafts, which impoverished the people of the region
where most of the wars were fought. In one way or another, the country’s
backwardness is attributed to such periods of political instability.
By and large, the continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint had undermined
the sense of nationalism. It was a period of weak national feeling and national
power

END OF ZEMENE MESAFINT

The ZemeneMesafint came to an end in 1855. The man who initiated the
process of restoring the power and authority of the monarchy was Emperor
Tewodros II. Tewodros began his career as a bandit in Quara, Dembiya. At the
time, his name was Kasa Hailu. Dejjazmach Kasa got rid of the powerful
regional lords in four major battles. At the battle of Gur Amba in November
1852, he defeated Dejjazmach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam, and in April 1853,
four vassals of Ras Ali II fell at the battle of Gorgora Bichen. The next victim
was Ras Ali II himself, the then Rasbitweded who was defeated at the battle
of Ayshal in June 1853. The last powerful regional lord, Dejjazmech Wube of
Tigray and Semien, was defeated at the battle of Deresge in 1855. In the
same year, Kasa was crowned emperor by the name Tewodros II (r. 1855-
1868) at the church of Deresge Mariyam.
Therefore, the idea of creating a strong central authority, after the Zemene
Mesafint was over, was initiated by Emperor Tewodros II.

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 CONCLUSION

The Zemene Mesafint, also known as the "Era of Princes," was a significant
period in Ethiopian history characterized by political fragmentation and power
struggles among regional rulers from the mid-18th to the mid-19th century. As
this era drew to a close, Ethiopia experienced a gradual decline in stability
and central authority, paving the way for the rise of Emperor Tewodros II and
subsequent reforms.
The Zemene Mesafint witnessed a marked weakening of central governance,
with local princes and warlords asserting their power and often engaging in
conflicts for territorial control. This power vacuum led to frequent upheavals,
factionalism, and a lack of unity within Ethiopian society. As a result, the
country faced internal strife and external threats, including invasions by
neighboring states such as Sudan and the Ottoman Empire.
However, despite the political chaos, this era also saw the emergence of
important cultural and intellectual movements. The Ethiopian Orthodox
Church played a significant role in preserving religious traditions and
intellectual discourse, while regional rulers patronized art, literature, and
architecture, leaving behind notable cultural legacies.
The Zemene Mesafint eventually gave way to a new era marked by the rise
of Emperor Tewodros II, who aimed to centralize power and modernize
Ethiopia. His reign, starting in the mid-19th century, initiated a series of
reforms and military campaigns aimed at unifying the country and bolstering
its defenses against external threats. Tewodros' efforts set the stage for
subsequent political transformations in Ethiopia.
In conclusion, the Zemene Mesafint was a tumultuous period in Ethiopian
history, characterized by political fragmentation, conflicts, and a decline in
central authority. However, it also witnessed important cultural developments
and paved the way for the subsequent reforms that aimed to unify and
modernize Ethiopia under Emperor Tewodros II.

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 GROUP REVIEW
Before we did the assignment we actually didn’t know what exactly the period
of zemene mesafint means. But while doing this assignment we have learnt
more things about this period.
We have now known that this period was a period of absence of central
government and led by regional government, rivalry and competition among
regional lords to assume the position of king maker and lasts from the time
Ras Michale Sehul assassinated the king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kassa
Hailu was as Emperor Tewodros.

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 REFERENCES
◆ History grade 9 and 10 student text book
◆ Wikipedia
◆ Ethiopian history from emperor Libne Dingel to Emperor Tewodros
( Tekletsadik Mekuria 6th edition 2013)
◆ History of Ethiopia and the horn module( revised 2020)

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