Encoding is the process of converting

the data or a given sequence of

characters, symbols, alphabets etc., into
a specified format, for the secured
transmission of data. Decoding is the
reverse process of e1n coding which is to
extract the information from the
converted format.

Data Encoding

Encoding is the process of using various

patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1 s and Os of the digital signals
on the transmission link.

The common types of line encoding are

Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester.

Encoding Techniques

The data encoding technique is divided

into the following types, depending upon
the type of data conversion.
c:i Analog data to Analog signals -
The modulation techniques such
as Amplitude Modulation,
Frequency Modulation and
Phase Modulation of analog
signals, fall under this category.

a Analog data to Digital signals -

This process can be termed as
digitization, which is done by
Pulse Code Modulation
PCM . Hence, it is nothing

but digital modulation. As we

have already discussed,
sampling and quantization are
the important factors in this.
Delta Modulation gives a better
output than PCM.
a Digital data to Analog signals -
The modulation techniques such
as Amplitude Shift Keying

ASK , Frequency Shift Keying

F SK , Phase Shift Keying

PS K , etc., fall under this

category. These will be

.
discussed ,n subsequent
chapters.

a Digital data to Digital signals -

These are in this section. There
are several ways to map digital
data to digital signals. Some of
them are -
Analog to Analog Conversion
(Modulation)
Analog Signal: An analog signal is any
continuous signal for which the time
varying feature of the signal is a
representation of some other time
varying quantity i.e., analogous to
another time varying Signal.

Analog to Analog Conversion -

Analog-to-analog conversion, or
modulation, is the representation of
analog information by an analog signal.
It is a process by virtue of which a
characteristic of carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. This
modulation is generally needed when a
bandpass channel is required. Bandpass
is a range of frequencies which are
transmitted through a bandpass filter
which is a filter allowing specific
frequencies to pass preventing signals at
unwanted frequencies.

Analog to Analog conversion can be done

in three ways:

1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation

1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the amplitude
of the carrier wave is varied according to
the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping phase and
frequency as constant. The figure below
shows the concept of amplitude
modulation:

Modulating Signal

Carrier Siinal

Amplitude Modulation

AM is normally implemented by using a

simple multiplier because the amplitude
of the carrier signal needs to be changed
according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
AM bandwidth:
The modulation creates a bandwidth that
is twice the bandwidth of the modulating
signal and covers a range centered on the
carrier frequency.
Bandwidth= 2fm

2. FREQUENCY MODULATION -

The modulation in which the frequency

of the carrier wave is varied according to
the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping phase and
amplitude as constant. The figure below
shows the concept of frequency
modulation:
 Modulating Signal
/ ~
('
/
I\ (\ I\ I\ (\ (\ (\
'\ I\
Carrier Signal

\ \,
I
" " \) \) \ \ \ V
(\
Frequency Modulation

t
V

FM is normally implemented by using a

voltage-controlled oscillator as with FSK.
The frequency of the oscillator changes
according to the input voltage which is
the amplitude of the modulating signal.
FM bandwidth:

1. The bandwidth of a frequency

modulated signal varies with both
deviation and modulating frequency.
If modulating frequency (Mf) 0.5, wide
band Fm signal.
2. For a narrow band Fm signal,
bandwidth required is twice the
maximum frequency of the
modulation, however for a wide band
Fm signal the required bandwidth can
be very much larger, with detectable
sidebands spreading out over large
amounts of the frequency spectrum.
3. PHASE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the phase of the
carrier wave is varied according to the
instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping amplitude
and frequency as constant. The figure
below shows the concept of frequency
modulation:

Modulating Signal

carrier Signal

Phase Modulation
Phase modulation is practically similar to
Frequency Modulation, but in Phase
modulation frequency of the carrier
signal is not increased. It is normally
implemented by using a voltage-
controlled oscillator along with a
derivative. The frequency of the oscillator
changes according to the derivative of
the input voltage which is the amplitude
of the modulating signal.

PM bandwidth:

1. For small amplitude signals, PM is

similar to amplitude modulation (AM)
and exhibits its unfortunate doubling
of baseband bandwidth and poor
efficiency.
2. For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM
is similar to FM, and its bandwidth is
approximately, 2 (h+t) Fm where h=
modulation index.
Digital to Analog Conversion
Digital Signal - A digital signal is a
signal that represents data as a sequence
of discrete values; at any given time it
can only take on one of a finite number of
values.

Analog Signal - An analog signal is any

continuous signal for which the time
varying feature of the signal is a
representation of some other time
varying quantity i.e., analogous to
another time varying signal.

The following techniques can be used for

Digital to Analog Conversion:

1. Amplitude Shift keying - Amplitude

Shift Keying is a technique in which
carrier signal is analog and data to be
modulated is digital. The amplitude of
analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.
The binary signal when modulated gives
a zero value when the binary data
represents o while gives the carrier
output when data is 1. The frequency and
phase of the carrier signal remain
constant.

0 --'

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I I I
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I I I
I I I
I I I .
•
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I I

ASKMOOUl.AlED SIGNAL
Advantages of amplitude shift Keying -

• It can be used to transmit digital data

over optical fiber.
• The receiver and transmitter have a
simple design which also makes it
comparatively inexpensive.
• It uses lesser bandwidth as compared
to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth
efficiency.

Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying

-
• It is susceptible to noise interference
and entire transmissions could be lost
due to this.
• It has lower power efficiency.
 Amp'IlJ,.Q,u. ~ r IC~,L 0- (0
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2. Frequency Shift keying - In this
modulation the frequency of analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data.

The output of a frequency shift keying

modulated wave is high in frequency for
a binary high input and is low in
frequency for a binary low input. The
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant.

0
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m?UT 8rNARY tiEQ\JI: E

F SK MOOULATEO SIGNAL
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Advantages of frequency shift Keying -

• Frequency shift keying modulated

signal can help avoid the noise
problems beset by ASK.
• It has lower chances of an error.
• It provides high signal to noise ratio.
• The transmitter and receiver
implementations are simple for low
data rate application.

Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying

• It uses larger bandwidth as compared

to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth
efficiency.
• It has lower power efficiency.

3. Phase Shift keying - In this

modulation the phase of the analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data.The amplitude and frequency of the
carrier signal remains constant.
modulation the phase of the analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data.The amplitude and frequency of the
carrier signal remains constant.

INPUT BlNAR'r I EOOEm:E

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PSK tr.WDtJLAtED StGNAl..

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It is further categorized as follows:

1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):

BPSK also known as phase reversal
keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of
phase shift keying. The Phase of the
carrier wave is changed according to
the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase
shift keying, difference of 180 phase
shift is used between binary 1 and
binary o.
This is regarded as the most robust
digital modulation technique and is
used for long distance wireless
communication.

2. Quadrature phase shift keying:

This technique is used to increase the
bit rate i.e we can code two bits onto
one single element. It uses four phases
to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK
uses phase shifts of multiples of 90
degrees.
Advantages of phase shift Keying -

• It is a more power efficient modulation

technique as compared to ASK and FSK.
• It has lower chances of an error.
• It allows data to be carried along a
communication signal much more
efficiently as compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying -

• It offers low bandwidth efficiency.

• The detection and recovery algorithms
of binary data is very complex.
• It is a non coherent reference signal.