Overview: Techniques. Furthermore, We'll Present The Basic Idea Behind These
Overview: Techniques. Furthermore, We'll Present The Basic Idea Behind These
Overview: Techniques. Furthermore, We'll Present The Basic Idea Behind These
Overview
In this tutorial, we’ll discuss multiplexing and demultiplexing
techniques. Furthermore, we’ll present the basic idea behind these
techniques and highlight some popular variants.
Finally, we’ll list some important advantages and disadvantages of both
techniques.
3. Multiplexing
3.1. Introduction
What Is multiplexing?
Multiplexing (Muxing) is a term used in the field of communications and
computer networking. It generally refers to the process and technique of
transmitting multiple analog or digital input signals or data streams over a single
channel. Since multiplexing can integrate multiple low-speed channels into one
high-speed channel for transmission, the high-speed channel is effectively
utilized. By using multiplexing, communication carriers can avoid maintaining
multiple lines, therefore, operating costs are effectively saved.
Multiplexer (Mux) is a device which performs the multiplexing process. It is a
hardware component that combines multiple analog or digital input signals into
a single line of transmission.
3.2. Types
There’re several types of multiplexing used in communication systems.
Let’s discuss some of them.
Analog Multiplexing
The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are analog in nature.
The analog signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or
wavelength (WDM).
Digital Multiplexing
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence the available
data is in the form of frames or packets, which are discrete.
In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to transmit a
signal over a single communication channel, with allotting one slot for each
message. Of all the types of TDM, the main ones are Synchronous and
Asynchronous TDM.
In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number
of connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated
for each input line. In this technique, the sampling rate is common to all signals
and hence same clock input is given. The mux allocates the same slot to each
device at all times.
In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and
the clock signal is also not in common. If the allotted device, for a time-slot,
transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot is allotted to another device,
unlike synchronous.
Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame
collects data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in
Synchronous TDM.
In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the
slot that is being sent to the output frame.
A1 is a signaling bit that is used in T1 and E1 digital transmission systems 1. It is a 1-bit signal
that is transmitted in the framing bit of every other frame of a DS1 signal 1. The A1 signal is
used to monitor the quality of the transmission line and detect any errors that may have
occurred during transmission 1. If the A1 signal indicates that there are too many errors on the
line, the system can take corrective action, such as reducing the data rate or switching to a
different transmission line 1.
B1 is a bit error rate (BER) monitoring signal that is used in T1 and E1 digital transmission
systems 1. It is a 1-bit signal that is transmitted in the framing bit of every other frame of a DS1
signal 1. The B1 signal is used to monitor the quality of the transmission line and detect any
errors that may have occurred during transmission 1. If the B1 signal indicates that there are too
many errors on the line, the system can take corrective action, such as reducing the data rate or
switching to a different transmission line 1.
4. Demultiplexing
4.1. Introduction
What Is demultiplexing?
Demultiplexing (Demuxing) is a term relative to multiplexing. It is the reverse of
the multiplexing process. Demultiplex is a process reconverting a signal
containing multiple analog or digital signal streams back into the original
separate and unrelated signals.
Although demultiplexing is the reverse of the multiplexing process, it is not the
opposite of multiplexing. The opposite of multiplexing is inverse multiplexing
(iMuxing), which breaks one data stream into several related data streams.
Thus, the difference between demultiplexing and inverse multiplexing is that the
output streams of demultiplexing are unrelated, while the output streams of
inverse multiplexing are related.
Demultiplexer (Demux) is a device that performs the reverse process of
multiplexer.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating and directing individual
data streams combined for transmission over a shared communication
channel or medium. In other words, demultiplexing is the reverse process
of multiplexing:
4.2. Types
5. Conclusion
Difference Between Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
Actually, you can see the difference between multiplexing and demultiplexing
in essence from their definitions. Multiplexing is method or technique in which
more than one signals are combined into one signal that travels on a medium.
demultiplexing is the reverse of multiplexing, in which a multiplexed signal is
decomposed in individual signals.
In additional, you can have more understandings on the difference between
multiplexing and demultiplexing by devices of multiplexer and demultiplexer that
perform the corresponding process. Applications of multiplexer and
demultiplexer are listed blow:
Multiplexer (Mux):
• In Communication System: increase the efficiency of the communication
system by allowing the transmission of data, such as audio and video
data transmission.
• In Computer Memory: keep up a vast amount of memory in the computers
and decrease the number of copper lines necessary to connect the
memory to other parts of the computer as well.
• In Telephone Network: integrate the multiple audio signals on a single
line of transmission.
Demultiplexer (Demux):
• In Communication System: receives the output signals from the
multiplexer and converts them back to the original form at the receiver
end.
• In Arithmetic Logic Unit: The output of the arithmetic logic unit is fed as
an input to the Demux, and the o/p of the Demux is connected to a
multiple registers.
• In Serial to Parallel Converter: The serial to parallel converter is used to
reform parallel data. In this method, serial data are given as an input to
the Demux and a counter is attached to the Demux to sense the data
signal at the Demux’s o/p. When all data signals are stored, the output of
the Demux can be read out in parallel.
From all the above, it is easier for you to tell the difference between multiplexing
and demultiplexing. They are the reverse process of each other and can be
applied to many occasions.
How does a multiplexing work?
T1 is a high speed digital network (1.544 mbps) developed by AT&T in 1957 and
implemented in the early 1960's to support long-haul pulse-code modulation (PCM)
voice transmission. The primary innovation of T1 was to introduce "digitized" voice
and to create a network fully capable of digitally representing what was up until then,
a fully analog telephone system.
Perhaps the way to really begin this discussion is to discuss the AT&T Digital Carrier
System referred to as "ACCUNET T1.5". It is described as a "two-point, dedicated,
high capacity, digital service provided on terrestrial digital facilities capable of
transmitting 1.544 Mb/s. The interface to the customer can be either a T1 carrier or a
higher order multiplexed facility such as those used to provide access from (fiber
optic) and radio systems."
T1 DIGITAL CARRIER
• T1 digital carrier system is a North American digital multiplexing standard since 1963.
• T1 stands for transmission one and specifies a digital carrier system using PCM
encoded analog signal.
• A T1 carrier system is time division multiplexes PCM encoded samples from 24 voice
band channels for transmission over a single metallic wire pair or optical fiber
transmission line.
.Compared to standard telephone lines that used a modem to transfer voice and data at a
mere 56 kbps, the T1 was an important step forward in delivering higher speed
connections 1.
T1 service for small business is still utilized today for high-speed data transmission,
internet access and voice, depending on the type of T1 and the configuration 1.
T1s can be provisioned as channelized or unchannelized service. In channelized T1s,
bandwidth is segmented into 24 channels. Each channel has a capacity of 64 Kbps. 23 of
these channels can support 23 simultaneous voice calls. The 24th channel is reserved for
signaling information such as caller ID 1.
Well, you might ask, 1.544*2 = 3.088 Mbps and not 3.152 Mbps for T1C, how come?
Well, the answer is that the T1C frame is made up of 1272 bits and is quite different
from the 193 bit frame of the T1 data stream. It should be pointed out that the frame
length of T1C and higher signals are not related in any technical way to the T1 stream
which is treated simply as a string of bits. The simplistic diagram in Figure 1 is
correct from an organizational point of view and does not show the relationship of the
formatted data.
Now I have been using the term "T1 data stream". To be consistent with AT&T
parlance, a "T1 data stream" is called a "DS1". Equally, a T1C stream is referred to as
"DS1C", etc. Another summary chart to show the relationship is in Figure 3:
DS1 is the digital signal, which includes framing bits as well as all
the data (or voice) within the frames. DS1 does not include
definitions for physical cabling, or line coding, etc.
T1
1. Type of Connection: T1 lines are a type of digital telephone line that has been
used traditionally for voice and data transmission.
2. Technology: T1 lines are made up of twisted copper wires. They are a legacy
technology that predates the modern internet but have been adapted for
digital data transmission.
3. Speed: A standard T1 line typically provides a dedicated symmetric
bandwidth of 1.544 megabits per second (Mbps). This means that the
upload and download speeds are the same.
4. Reliability: While reliable and offering dedicated bandwidth not influenced
by other users, T1 lines are generally considered less advanced than fiber
optics. However, because of their dedicated nature, they can be quite
stable.
5. Distance: T1 lines can run relatively long distances from the user to the ISP
without significant signal degradation, although repeaters are often
needed to boost the signal over longer runs.
6. Usage: T1 lines are often used by small to medium-sized businesses that
require a reliable connection but don’t have the need for extremely high-
speed broadband internet services.
Fiber Optic
Key Differences
• Speed and Bandwidth: Fiber optic provides much higher speeds and
bandwidth compared to T1.
• Technology Medium: T1 uses copper lines, while fiber optic uses glass or
plastic fibers.
• Signal Type: T1 transmits electrical signals, whereas fiber optics transmit
light.
• Distance Capability: Fiber optics can carry signals over much longer
distances without the need for as many repeaters or signal boosters.
• Interference: Fiber is less prone to electromagnetic interference, which can
be a concern for T1 lines.
• Future-Proofing: Fiber optic infrastructure is considered to be more future-
proof due to its higher capacity for speed and bandwidth improvements.
• Cost: T1 lines can be less expensive in the short term, particularly where
fiber optic infrastructure is not yet in place, but fiber optics offer more
value in terms of speed and capacity for bandwidth.
In summary, while T1 lines are a stable and reliable technology for transmitting
data, fiber optics offer significantly higher speeds, bandwidth, and reliability,
which make them more suitable for modern high-speed internet and data
transmission needs.
Overview
With the development of communication systems to the present, voice communication is still
play an important role in all communication traffic. the method used in the initial
communication system is Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM Frequency Division
Multiplexing).
With the pursuit of transmission rate, transmission quality, and transmission cost, digital
systems such as PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) and TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) technology
have been widely used in communication systems.
In PDH (Plesiochronous digital hierarchy), two basic PCM communication systems are used as
the basis, one is the T1 system recommended by ANSI, and the other is the E1 system
recommended by ITU-T. The T1 system is widely used mainly in North America (the J1 used in
Japan is basically similar to the T1), while the E1 system is used in Europe and other Asian
countries.
What is PCM ?
What is TDM ?
What is T1 ?
What is E1 ?
Products related to E1
What is PCM
PCM (Pulse code modulation) is a method used to converter analog signals, such as a
telephone call, to digital signals, In PCM, an analog signal is sampled and converted to a series
of binary bits.
PCM consists of three steps: sampling, quantizing, and encoding, you can see the whole process
of PCM as shown in the figure below.
Sampling
Sampling is a process of finding a sufficient number of samples, so that the original signal can
be represented by those samples completely and it should be possible to reconstruct the
original signal. Samples are basically discrete values of amplitudes with a regular interval over
time. that is why the process of sampling is also called PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation).
PAM signal is simply the result of series of these discrete sample values. The number of
samples per second is called sample rate.
◆ Telephone, sample rate is 8KHz (8000 samples per second)
◆ Voice over IP (VoIP), sample rate is 16KHz
◆ Audio CD or MP3, sample rate is about 44KHz(44000 samples per second)
◆ For very high quality sound such as Blu-ray disc, 1MHz (1million samples per second)
Quantizing
Sampling converts a time-varying signal into a discrete-time signal, a sequence of real numbers.
Real numbers are any number you could find on a line segment. On any line segment, we can
find an infinite set of real numbers. However, we only need a finite set of values which can be
converted to binary numbers. Quantizing process exactly server this purpose, Quantizing
process is the process of rounding off the amplitudes of flat top samples a manageable number
of levels. We try to make each sample to match each level because each level has a specific bit
value.
Encoding
In encoding step, we will convert each sample from right to left, in time order, the sampled PAM
signal is not yet a binary signal, and the PAM signal must be converted into a binary code
through quantization and encoding. In actual PCM equipment, quantization and coding are
closely integrated. The process of quantization is the process of encoding sample pulses. After
the quantization is completed, the encoding is over.
T1 Frame Types
The T1 interface supports 4 different frame structures, dictated by the mode of operation, they
are Frame, Super Frame (SF), Extended Super Frame (ESF) and Unframed.
A transmitting portion of a Channel Bank digitally encodes the 24 analog channels, adds
signalling information into each channel, and multiplexes the digital stream onto the
transmission medium. The receiving portion reverses the process 2. The purpose of a
Channel Bank in the telephone company is to form the foundation of multiplexing and
demultiplexing the 24 voice channels (DS0) 2.
DS1 is a digital signal that uses T1 transmission technology to transmit data at a rate
of 1.544 Mbps 1. It is a digital signal level 1 (DS1) signal that is used to transmit voice and
data over a T1 line 1. DS1 is a 24-channel signal that is used to transmit voice and data
over a T1 line 1. The D4 Channel Bank is an example of a digital source that produces a
DS1 signal 2.
In summary, a Channel Bank is a device that performs multiplexing or demultiplexing of a
group of communications channels, while DS1 is a digital signal that uses T1 transmission
technology to transmit data at a rate of 1.544 Mbps 21.
Frame
A basic T1 frame DS1 (digital signal-level one) contains 24 DS0 (64kbps) time slots, numbered
from 1 to 24, each time slot has 8 bits, a total of 192 bits. The T1 basic frame also includes an F
bit (framing bit), which is used as a frame synchronization bit to indicate the end of the current
frame and the beginning of the next frame. The transmission rate of DS1=193*8k= 1.544 Mbps.
● T1 frame is constructed of 24 timelsots (each timeslots is of 8 bits) plus one framing bit
added.
● Total frame length is 193 bits.
● Each TS is regarded as a channel of 64 kbit/s bandwidth.
● Framing bit creates a channel of 8kbit/s and is used for messages, synchronization, and
alarms.
● A frame is the basic building block for the SF and the ESF.
The SF frame format (also known as the D4 frame format) is the most commonly used format in
the current public switched telephone network. Each SF consists of 12 basic DS1 frames. The
193th bit of each frame is used as the control bit, and the 12th 193bit of the SF Combine them
to form a 12-bit control word (eg 100011011100) to provide frame synchronization and
signaling management information. The odd bits of the 12-bit control word of the SF frame
(called the Ft bit, and the corresponding frame is called the terminal frame) are used to mark
the frame and superframe boundary so that the receiving device can correctly process user
data; the even bits of the control word (called Fs) Bit, the corresponding frame is called
signaling frame) used to carry signaling flags.
Extended Super Frame (ESF)
The ESF frame format extends the SF frame mode from 12 frames to 24 frames, a total of 193*
24 = 4632 bits. ESF and SF frame format are basically the same.
Frame synchronization is the process of identifying the beginning and end of a frame in a
stream of data being received 1. In telecommunication, incoming frame alignment signals,
such as a distinctive bit sequences or syncwords, are identified, permitting the data bits
within the frame to be extracted for decoding or retransmission 1.
The framing bit is a common practice in telecommunications, for example in T-carrier,
where a non-information bit is inserted in a dedicated time slot within the frame that is
used for synchronization of the incoming data with the receiver 1. In a bit stream, framing
bits indicate the beginning or end of a frame. They occur at specified positions in the frame,
do not carry information, and are usually repetitive 1.
The North American Digital Hierarchy (NADH) is a digital voice system that was created by the old US
‘Bell system’ (AT&T) in the early 1960s 1. It is based on multiples of the DS0 signal with a little bit of
overhead to show its age 1. The North American signal hierarchy consists of T-carrier digital services
that are provided by telecommunications carriers for high-speed permanent voice and data
connections 2. The DS1 line rate is 1.544 Mbps, supporting 24 voice channels or their equivalent in other
services 3. The NADH uses time division multiplexing (TDM) to divide a circuit into a continuous
stream of time slots and multiple channels are multiplexed into the circuit 4.
The Picturephone was a video telephone system developed by Bell Labs in the 1960s 1. It
was first demonstrated at the 1964 New York World’s Fair and later commercially
introduced in Pittsburgh and Chicago in 1970 1.
The Picturephone was a major attraction at the fair, and visitors were able to make their
own video telephone calls using a set of eight Picturephone booths 1.
It was the first system that allowed people to see each other while talking on the phone 2.
The Picturephone required three pairs of twisted copper wires to operate: the first carried
the audio as it would in a conventional telephone circuit, and the additional two pairs
carried the video 1.
While video telephony is now cheap, easy, and readily available over the internet on
computers and smartphones, it remains but a small sliver of the total volumes of calls 1.
The Picturephone was a futuristic demonstration of a long-held vision that one day all
telephone calls would have video as well as audio 1.
The Picturephone was a major attraction at the fair, and visitors were able to make their
own video telephone calls using a set of eight Picturephone booths 1.
However, the Picturephone was not a commercial success and was withdrawn from the
market a few years later 13.
Today, video telephony is cheap, easy, and readily available over the internet on
computers and smartphones, but it remains but a small sliver of the total volumes of calls 1.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is a device that communicates with the data circuit-
terminating equipment (DCE) to transmit and receive digital data over communication
channels 1. DTE is responsible for generating, sending, receiving, and interpreting digital
data signals. It is also responsible for controlling the flow of data between the DTE and
DCE 1.
DTE is an essential component of data transmission systems as it provides the interface
between the user and the communication network 1. It is used to connect devices such as
computers, printers, and routers to communication networks such as the internet, local
area networks (LANs), and wide area networks (WANs) 2.
In summary, DTE is necessary for data transmission as it provides the interface between
the user and the communication network, allowing digital data to be transmitted and
received over communication channels.
Digital carrier line encoding
Digital carrier line encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link 1. The common types of line
encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester 1.
Digital Biphase is a type of encoding that uses one cycle of a square wave at 0 phase to
represent a logic 1 and one cycle of a square wave at 180 phase to represent a logic 0 1. It is
a popular type of encoding that produces a strong timing component for clock recovery and
does not cause DC wandering 2.
Digital Biphase is used in various applications such as encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes 1. It is also
used in digital transmission systems to minimize Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) by
avoiding distortion and overlapping of consecutive pulses 1.