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Visual Computing:
Geometry, Graphics, and
Vision

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LIMITED WARRANTY AND DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY

CHARLES RIVER MEDIA, INC. (“CRM”) AND/OR ANYONE WHO HAS

BEEN INVOLVED IN THE WRITING, CREATION, OR PRODUCTION
OF THE ACCOMPANYING CODE IN THE TEXTUAL MATERIAL IN
THE BOOK, CANNOT AND DO NOT WARRANT THE PERFORMANCE
OR RESULTS THAT MAY BE OBTAINED BY USING THE CONTENTS
OF THE BOOK. THE AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER HAVE USED THEIR
BEST EFFORTS TO ENSURE THE ACCURACY AND FUNCTIONALITY
OF THE TEXTUAL MATERIAL AND PROGRAMS DESCRIBED HEREIN.
WE HOWEVER, MAKE NO WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, REGARDING THE PERFORMANCE OF THESE PROGRAMS
OR CONTENTS. THE BOOK IS SOLD “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY
(EXCEPT FOR DEFECTIVE MATERIALS USED IN MANUFACTURING
THE BOOK OR DUE TO FAULTY WORKMANSHIP).

THE AUTHOR, THE PUBLISHER, AND ANYONE INVOLVED IN THE

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Visual Computing:
Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

Frank Nielsen

CHARLES RIVER MEDIA, INC.

Hingham, Massachusetts

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Copyright 2005 by CHARLES RIVER MEDIA, INC.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any way, stored in a retrieval system of
any type, or transmitted by any means or media, electronic or mechanical, including, but not
limited to, photocopy, recording, or scanning, without prior permission in writing from the
publisher.

Publisher: Jenifer Niles

Cover Design: Tyler Creative
Cover Image: Stéphane Nullans. Reprinted with permission.

CHARLES RIVER MEDIA, INC.

10 Downer Avenue
Hingham, Massachusetts 02043
781-740-0400 / 781-740-8816 (FAX)
[email protected] / www.charlesriver.com

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Frank Nielsen. Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision.

ISBN: 1-58450-427-7

All brand names and product names mentioned in this book are trademarks or service marks
of their respective companies. Any omission or misuse (of any kind) of service marks or
trademarks should not be regarded as intent to infringe on the property of others. The
publisher recognizes and respects all marks used by companies, manufacturers, and developers
as a means to distinguish their products.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nielsen, Frank.
Visual computing : geometry, graphics, and vision / Frank Nielsen.
p. cm. Includes index.
ISBN 1-58450-427-7 (hc. : alk. paper)
1. Computer graphics. 2. Visual programming (Computer science)
3. Computer vision. 4. Geometry--Data processing. I. Title.
T385.N519 2005
006.6--dc22 2005010610
Printed in the United States of America
05 7 6 5 4 3 2 First Edition

CHARLES RIVER MEDIA titles are available for site license or bulk purchase by institutions,
user groups, corporations, etc. For additional information, please contact the Special Sales
Department at 781-740-0400.

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Ariel by Audrey (3 years old)

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vi Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

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Contents

Foreword xiii

Acknowledgments xv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1. What Is Visual Computing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2. Target Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3. Organization of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4. Future of Visual Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5. Companion Web Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Chapter 2 Abstract Data Structures 7

2.1. Pointers, Arrays, Lists, and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1. Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2. Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Images as Bidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3. Singly and Doubly Linked Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.4. Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Adjacency Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Adjacency Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Images as Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2. Stacks and Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1. Application: Area Flood-filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2. Recursive Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.3. Flood-filling Using Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.4. Flood-filling Using Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.5. Implementing Stacks and Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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2.3. Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.1. Unordered Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.2. Ordered Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.3. Application: Detecting Any Segment Pair Intersection . . . . . 30
2.4. Priority Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.1. Primitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.2. Application: Reporting All Segment Pair Intersections . . . . . 34
2.5. Disjoint Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.1. Application: Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.2. Union-find Data Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6. Geometric Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.1. Hashing by Chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.2. Application: Object Recognition by Hashing Point Sets . . . . 45
2.7. C++ Standard Template Library and Traits Classes . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7.1. Class and Function Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7.2. C++ Standard Template Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7.3. Traits Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Handling Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Unifying Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Geometric Traits Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.8. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Chapter 3 Coordinate Pipelines 63

3.1. Transformation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.1. Coordinate Systems versus Modeling Transformations . . . . . 64
Local and Global Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Modeling Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.2. Transformations as Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.3. Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Coordinates . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2. Geometry Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.1. 2D Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.2. 3D Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.2.3. Rotations as Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.2.4. Normal Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3. Graphics Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.1. Transformation Hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.3.2. Scene Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.3.3. Viewing Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.3.4. Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Orthographic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

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Perspective Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3.3.5. 3D Clippings and Projection Transformations . . . . . . . . . . 119
Orthographic Canonical View Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Perspective Truncated Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.3.6. View Plane Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.4. Vision Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.4.1. Homographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.4.2. Camera Calibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.4.3. Pinhole Camera: Extrinsic and Intrinsic Parameters . . . . . . 138
3.4.4. Epipolar Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.5. Advanced Coordinate Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.5.1. Log-Polar Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.5.2. Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.5.3. Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.5.4. Conics and Quadrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.5.5. Plücker Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.5.6. Eigenvectors and Matrix Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.5.7. Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5.8. Taxonomy of Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.5.9. Cameras with Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.5.10. Tangent Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.5.11. Environment Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.6. Summary and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.7. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Chapter 4 Images 199

4.1. Application: Warping and Morphing Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.1.1. Image Warping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.1.2. Image Morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.1.3. Compositing with Alpha Matting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.1.4. View Morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.2. Interpolations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.2.1. Resampling and Antialiasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Convolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Discrete Convolution Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Antialiasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Supersampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Reconstruction Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Phase Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

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4.2.2. Barycentric Coordinate Interpolations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

4.2.3. Elliptical Weighted Average Interpolations . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.2.4. Superresolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.3. Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.3.1. Radiometry and Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.3.2. Color Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Color Matching and Chromaticity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . 248
XYZ Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
RGB Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
HLS and HSV Color Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
CMY(K) Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
L*a*b* Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Pseudocoloring and Other Miscellaneous Color Techniques . . . 255
4.3.3. Physical Color Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Fluorescence and Phosphorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Iridescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Fresnel Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.3.4. Perceptual Color Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Simultaneous Constrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Mach Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Color-appearance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.4. Halftoning and Dithering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4.4.1. Digital Halftoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.4.2. Dithering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.5. High-dynamic Range Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.5.1. Light Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.5.2. Tone Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.6. Image Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.6.1. Mipmappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.6.2. Gaussian and Laplacian Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.6.3. Applications of Scaled Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.7. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Chapter 5 Meshes 285

5.1. Prelude to Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.1.1. Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.1.2. Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.2. Basic Mesh Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
5.2.1. Mesh Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.2.2. Modeling Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

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5.2.3. Triangulations and Tessellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

5.2.4. Procedural Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
5.3. Data Structures for Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
5.3.1. Static Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Indexed Face List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Bandwidth Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.3.2. Winged Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
5.3.3. Half-edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.3.4. Quad-edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.4. Operations on Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5.4.1. Fairing Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5.4.2. Smooting Meshes by Subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.4.3. Remeshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.4.4. Progressive Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.4.5. Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
5.5. Geometry Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5.6. Alternative to Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
5.7. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

Chapter 6 Animation 363

6.1. Kinetic Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.2. Motion Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.2.1. Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.2.2. Matchmoving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
6.3. Computer Graphics Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
6.3.1. Keyframe Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
6.3.2. Forward and Inverse Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
6.3.3. Active versus Passive Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6.3.4. Particle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
6.3.5. Animating Rotations by Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
6.4. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Chapter 7 Randomization 389

7.1. Randomized Analysis of QuickSort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
7.2. Random Sample Consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
7.3. Monte Carlo Samplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
7.4. Randomizing Incremental Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
7.5. Randomized Incremental Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
7.6. Skip Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
7.7. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

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xii Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

Chapter 8 Higher Dimensions for “3D” 425

8.1. Nearest Neighbors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
8.1.1. Application: 2D Texture Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
8.1.2. kD-Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
8.2. Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
8.2.1. Application: Color Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
8.2.2. Clustering by kMeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
8.3. Mathematical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
8.3.1. Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Application: Closest Pair of Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Lifting for Designing Geometric Predicates . . . . . . . . . . . 456
8.3.2. Approximating Distances in Large Dimensions . . . . . . . . . 461
8.4. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

Chapter 9 Robustness 469

9.1. Identifying Code Weaknesses and Defining Robustness . . . . . . . . . 470
9.2. IEEE 754 Binary Floating-point Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
9.3. Filtering Predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
9.4. Predicate Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
9.5. Overview of Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
9.6. Bibliographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

Acronyms 497

Notational Conventions 503

Colophon 509

Bibliography 514

Index 547

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Foreword

I am really excited to be able to write a foreword to Frank Nielsen’s new book Visual
Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision. The fusion of computer graphics,
computer vision, computational geometry, and discrete algorithms that this book
presents is truly unique and, in afterthought, so obvious. Geometry, graphics, and
vision all deal in some form with the shape of objects, their motions, as well as the
transport of light and its interaction with objects—yet historically they have been
covered by separate courses in curricula, grown around a distinct set of conferences,
and cultivated separate communities. This book clearly shows how much they have
in common and the kinds of synergies that occur when a common core of material is
presented in a way that both serves and is enriched by all three disciplines.

Take coordinates and coordinate transforms as a simple example. Everyone

needs the common math: homogeneous coordinates, matrix representations for
transformations, quaternion representations for 3D rotations, parametrizations for
other flats such as lines in 3-space, and so on. In a graphics course, transform
hierarchies in modeling, or clipping and projection transforms for viewing may get
more attention. In computer vision, epipolar geometry and the relations among
multiple projections may get special treatment. In computational geometry, Plücker
coordinates for lines in 3D may be studied to prepare for problems in stabbing and
visibility. Yet every one of these topics can be very useful in each of the three
disciplines: image-based rendering needs the math of multiview geometry, indexing
lightfields requires the geometry of lines in space, and clipping is an essential geometric
computation problem. The Visual Computing book manages to cover all three points
of view in a coherent yet concise way, to the benefit of all sides.

I have taught an algorithms course for over a decade now and topics like dictionaries
and priority queues are its bread-and-butter. It was truly refreshing to see these same
topics introduced early in this book, but with novel effective examples all motivated
by visual computing. The same happens later on with randomization, a topic that

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xiv Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

has been seriously studied across all these communities, but with different emphases.
This text truly establishes bridges where they will make the most impact: early on in
a student’s education. I can see this book being used for a separate integrated course
of its own, or as a supplement to existing courses and other texts covering algorithms,
computational geometry, computer graphics, or computer vision—thus providing a
fruitful common ground between what are currently separate offerings.

The book can also benefit graduate students and researchers across all parts of
computer science that deal with modeling or interacting with the physical world. The
material is methodically organized, the exposition is rigorous yet well-motivated with
plenty of instructive examples. Major techniques and algorithms are given in actual
C++ code, and these programs and additional materials are available on a companion
Web site. Additional references to the literature are given at the end of each chapter.

Leonidas J. Guibas
Professor of Geometric Computing
Computer Science Department
Stanford University

May 2005

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my friends, colleagues, and peers who took time to review
portions of the manuscript: Paul Agron (State University of New York at Stony Brook,
USA), Pierre Alliez (INRIA, France), Hervé Brönnimann (Polytechnic University,
USA), Patrick Degener (University of Bonn, Germany), Olivier Devillers (INRIA,
France), Richard Nock (DSI-GRIMAAG UAG, France), Stéphane Nullans (Realviz,
France), Shigeru Owada (University of Tokyo/Sony Computer Science Laboratories
Inc., Japan), Sylvain Pion (INRIA, France), Mariette Yvinec (INRIA, France) and
Imad Zoghlami (Siemens Corporate Research, USA).
I am particularly indebted to my colleagues Dr. Shigeru Owada who got the very
early draft, and Pr. Richard Nock who was my first alpha release reader.
I would like to heartfully thank the following people and organizations for their
kind image contributions: Bart Adams (KU Leuven, Belgium), Sue Addleman
(Cyberware, USA), Pravin Bhat (Washington University, USA), Pierre Alliez (INRIA,
France), Yuji Ayatsuka (Sony Computer Science Laboratories Inc., Japan), Patrick
Coleman (University of Toronto, Canada), Patrick Degener (University of Bonn,
Germany), Greg Downing (Consultant, USA), Heather Gentner (Stanford University,
USA), David Xianfeng Gu (State University of New York at Stony Brook, USA),
Stéphane Guy (INRIA, France), Sayed Ibrahim Hashimi (University of Florida, USA),
Stephen Ingram (Emory University, USA), SpherOnVR (Thomas Köllig, Germany),
Bruno Lévy (INRIA, France), Shengyou Lin (Zhejiang University, China), Stefan
Maierhofer (Vienna University of Technology, Austria), Martin Marinov (RWTH
Aachen, Germany), Pascal Müller (ETH Zurich, Switzerland), Stéphane Nullans
(Realviz, France), Konrad Polthier (Zuse Institute Berlin, Germany), Christian
Rochefort (InSpeck, Canada), Steven M. Seitz (University of Washington, USA),
Junichi Rekimoto (Sony Computer Science Laboratories Inc., Japan), Greg Turk
(Georgia Institute of Technology, USA), Emma Wixey (Vicon Motion Systems, USA)
and Jingyi Yu (MIT, USA).
Unfortunately, sometimes for copyright reasons, I could not use some images I
received. Nevertheless, I would like to acknowledge Sumanta Pattanaik (University
of Central Florida, USA), Paul Rademacher (Dreamworks Animation, USA), and
Szymon Rusinkiewicz (Princeton University, USA) for kindly providing me with such

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xvi Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

material. I also thank Professor Marc Levoy (CS, Stanford University) for letting me
use the 3D models (mostly the bunny model) of the Stanford 3D scanning repository
models in the illustrations.
I am deeply honored that Professor Leonidas J. Guibas has kindly accepted to
write the foreword.
This book became possible thanks to the warm encouragements and supports from
Sony Computer Science Laboratories, Inc. I express my gratitude to Dr. Mario Tokoro
and Dr. Hiroaki Kitano, as well as all other members of Sony Computer Science
Laboratories Inc. (as known as Sony CSL for short). Last but not least, during
this book project I particularly enjoyed lunch breaks with my colleague Dr. Yosuke
Tamura who showed much interest in my writing progress!
Further, I would like to extend my thanks to Jenifer Niles who was my principal
contact at Charles River Media. Jenifer with her team (Bryan Davidson, Lance
Morganelli, Meg Dunkerley, and the copyeditor) managed to get the book ready much
before I anticipated!
I apologize for any (involuntary) name omission and remaining errors. As Blaise
Pascal said,1 I have written you a thick book because I did not have time to write a
short one.
Finally, my deepest thanks and love go to my family for their everlasting support.

Tokyo, Japan F. N.
May 2005.

1
“I have written you a long letter because I did not have time to write a short one.”

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Notational Conventions

The following is a brief review of the mathematical notations used throughout the
book.
Scalar Numbers & Ranges:
a, α, λ, ux Scalar values (e.g., 3, e, π,)
θ, φ Angular values (e.g., π2 , 120 deg)
vx , vy , vz or v1 , v2 , v3 Coordinates of 3D vector v
m1,1 , ..., mi,j , ..., mn,m Coefficients of matrix M = [mi,j ]n,m
(x1 , ..., xk ) A k-tuple (for k = 2, a pair; for k = 3, a triple)
[a, b] Closed real interval {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
(a, b) Open real interval {x | a < x < b} (e.g., (−∞, ∞))
[[n]] Integer set {0, 1, ..., n}
[[n]]∗ Integer set [[n]]\{0} = {1, ..., n}
((a, b]], [[a, b)) Integer set closed at one end and open at the other:
((a, b]] = {a + 1, ..., b}, [[a, b)) = {a, ..., b − 1}

Vectors:
−−→
OP Coordinate-free vector defined by points O and P
v Vector notation in some given coordinate system
vT Transpose vector
||v|| Magnitude of vector v (L2 norm)
d2 (p, q) Distance between p and q, length ||pq||
e1 , ..., ed Unit vector basis of a d-dimensional vector space
(or eigenvectors)
 T
p = p x py 2D Inhomogeneous vector
 T
p = px py pw 2D Homogeneous vector, often obtained by appending
to p the w-coordinate set to 1 (p = [p 1]T ),
except for ideal points (w = 0)
 T
s= sx sy sz 3D Inhomogeneous vector (“s” for space)
s 3D Homogeneous vector, often obtained by

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504 Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

appending to s the w-coordinate set to 1 (s = [s 1]T ),

except for ideal points (w = 0)
v⊥ Arbitrary perpendicular vector to v of same magnitude
v1 · v2 Dot or inner product.
(equivalent to vector multiplication v1T v2 = v2T v1 ;
v1 · v2 = ||v1 || ||v2 || cos θ, where θ is the angle made by
vectors v1 and v2 )
v1 × v2 Cross product: ||v1 × v2 || = ||v1 || ||v2 || sin θ

Arrays & Matrices:

S, I 1D or 2D array of elements
S[k]: the kth element of S
I[x, y]: the pixel of (x, y) coordinates
(or I[y, x] depending on the indexing context)
M Matrix or image notation
M[y, x] Matrix coefficient at yth row and xth column
M[y, x] = my,x
MT Transpose matrix
I, Id Identity (d × d) square matrix
det M = |M| Determinant of matrix M (zero if singular)
[u]× = M Skew antisymmetric
⎡ matrix⎤(MT = −M) defined as follows:
0 −uz uy
[u]× = ⎣ uz 0 −ux ⎦ and u × v = [u]× × v
−uy ux 0
rank(M) Rank of matrix M 
trace(M) Trace of matrix M (sum of its diagonal elements: i mii )
adj(M) Adjoint of matrix M (elements are signed cofactors)
R, P, T Inhomogeneous matrices
R, P, T Homogeneous matrices

Quaternions:
q̂ Quaternion q̂ = [s v]T (unit quaternion q̂ = cos θ + u sin θ)
¯
q̂ Quaternion conjugate q̂ ¯ = [s − v]T
q̂1 q̂2 Quaternion multiplication:
q̂1 q̂2 = [s1 s2 − u1 u
!2 u1 × u + s1 v2 + s2 v1 ]T
! 2
||q̂|| Quaternion norm q̂q̂ ¯ = s2 + ||u||2
¯
q̂
q̂−1 Quaternion inverse ||q̂||
q̂λ Quaternion power: q̂λ = (exp(θu))λ = cos λθ + (sin λθ)u
log q̂ Quaternion logarithm: log q̂ = log exp(θu) = θu

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Notational Conventions 505

Space:
R2 , R3 , Rd 2D, 3D, and dD Euclidean spaces
P2 , P3 , Pd 2D, 3D, and dD projective spaces
SO3 Space of 3D rotations
C2 Space of complex numbers (C2 = {a + ib | (a, b) ∈ R2 })
Q Set of quaternions
(Q = {a + bi + cj + dk | (a, b, c, d) ∈ R4 })
A Affine space

Functions & Partial Derivative Operators:

n!  Factorial n! = 1 × 2 × ... × n
n n!
k Binomial coefficient k!(n−k)!
|·| Absolute value
a Floor of a (e.g., 2.312 = 2)
a Ceiling of a (e.g., 2.312 = 3)
sign(a) Sign of a (e.g., sign(−3) = −1, sign(5) = 1, sign(0) = 0)

1 if and only if x = 0 and y = 0,
Dirac function δ(x, y) =
0 otherwise.
(Krönecker symbol)

f (x1 , x2 , ..., xk ) Function f of k variables x1 , ..., xk

" #T
∂f ∂f
Gradient ∇f ∇f = ∂x1 ... ∂xd

∂2f ∂2f
Laplacian Δf Δf = ∂x21
+ ··· + ∂x2d

⎡ ∂f1 ∂f1 ⎤
∂x1 ··· ∂xd
⎢ .. .. .. ⎥
Jacobian Jf f : Rd → Rn , J = ⎣ . . . ⎦
∂fn ∂fn
∂x1 ··· ∂xd

⎡ ∂2f ∂2f
⎤
∂x21
··· ∂x1 ∂xd
⎢ ⎥
Hessian Hf f : Rd → Rd , H = ⎢
⎣
..
.
..
.
..
. ⎥
⎦
∂2f ∂2f
∂xd ∂x1 ··· ∂x2d
(Hf = J∇f )

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506 Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

Geometric entities:

P Point P
S Line segment S
O Object O
H Plane H
H : nT v = 0 Plane H defined by homogeneous equation:
n1 v1 + n2 v2 + n3 v3 + n4 v4 = 0
Ball(B, r) Ball of circumcenter B and radius r
P QR Triangle with vertices P , Q, and R
S = {S1 , ..., Sn } Set of objects
aff(S)/conv(S) Affine/convex space defined by set S

Probabilities, Statistics, and Inequalites:

Pr[Event] Probability of event Event
Ŝ Random variable
E(Ŝ) Expectation of random variable Ŝ
Var(Ŝ) Variance of random variable Ŝ
σ(Ŝ) Standard(deviation of random variable Ŝ
(σ(Ŝ) = Var(Ŝ))
X̂E = I(E) Indicator random variable of event E
E(Ŝ)
Pr[Ŝ ≥ c] ≤ c Markov inequality
(non-negative discrete random variable)

Data Structures:
Q Data structure Q (e.g., a queue)
S.procedure() Call function procedure without argument on S
S.procedure(P) Call function procedure with argument P on S
P←∅ Initialize an empty data structure P

Asymptotic Complexity:
O(f ) Upper bound
Ω(f ) Lower bound
Θ(f ) Optimal bound
o(f ) Nonasymptotically tight upper bound
Õ(f ) Expected running time of randomized algorithms
Ō() Average running time of deterministic algorithms

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Notational Conventions 507

Radiometric Quantities and Units:

W
Radiance sr.m2
Watt per steradian per meter square
cd
Luminance m2
Candela per meter square
W
Irradiance m Watt per meter
Illuminance lx Lux

In this book, we either present algorithms in C++-style language or at a higher-

level pseudocode abstraction style. The argmin and argmax notations are often used
in those algorithms. In practice, in a C++-style, we often compute both the min
and argmin, or max and argmax. Let us consider a d-dimensional vector v. We
mathematically write the maximum of its coordinate as m = maxdi=1 vi . The maximum
coordinate is obtained from the kth principal axis, with k = argmaxdi=1 vi . Thus, we
have the following max/argmax relationship: vargmax = max.

Here is the C++ code for performing those max and argmax operations:

1 c l a s s v e c t o r { public :
2 int d ; double  x ;
3 // create a random vector
4 v e c t o r ( int dim ) { d=dim ; x=new double [ d ] ;
5 f o r ( int i =0; i <d ; i ++)
6 {x [ i ]= rand ( ) / ( double )RAND MAX; }
7 }
8
9 // delete a vector ~ vector () { delete [] x ;}
10 // maximum coordinate value
11 double max ( ) { double v a l u e=x [ 0 ] ;
12 f o r ( int i =1; i <d ; i ++)
13 i f ( x [ i ]> v a l u e ) v a l u e=x [ i ] ;
14 return v a l u e ; }
15
16 // coordinate axis that has
17 // maximum value
18 int argmax ( ) { int a x i s =0;
19 f o r ( int i =1; i <d ; i ++)
20 i f ( x [ i ]>x [ a x i s ] ) a x i s=i ;
21 return a x i s ; }
22 };

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Colophon

This book has been typeset using LATEX system on Microsoft Windows operating
system. A special LATEX class has been written to fit the typesetting rules of
Charles River Media. Most of the figures have been prepared with the Ipe
extensible drawing editor environment of Professor Otfried Cheong (available online at
http:// ipe.compgeom.org/ ). The book project has been managed using the excellent
TeXnicCenter tool (http:// www.toolscenter.org/ ) that provides a visual integrated
environment for editing and compiling a full LATEX book project made of many LATEX
files. I used XnView image browsing software (http:// www.xnview.com/ ) to capture
screenshots and extract frames from movies. XnView was also instrumental for the
various image conversions I needed (bmp, png, eps, etc.). The Internet was a much
appreciable resource for finding related materials and references. I can hardly imagine
how I could have typeset this book without this Web information. I used the ACM
(http:// portal.acm.org/ ) and IEEE (http:// www.computer.org/ publications/ dlib/ )
digital libraries for retrieving original papers, and sometimes their BibTeX labels.

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510 Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

The cover page image was created by compositing images of a photogrammetric set
of a 3D reconstruction of the Vatican library (no religious meaning):

3D Mesh Textured Mesh Photograph

Cover page illustration (composite):

Those images are courtesy of  Stéphane Nullans (France). Used with permission.

There is quite a lot of famous data in visual computing that is constantly used as a
test bed for evaluating and comparing algorithms. We succinctly present the hall of
fame on the next page.

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Colophon 511

Hall Of Fame
The 512 × 512 24-bit lena picture and narrative story on
how it became a de facto test image in the image processing
and computer vision communities can be read online at
http:// www.lenna.org
Warning: the full picture contains nudity.

The Utah 3D teapot has traditionally been used in

computer graphics. There is even a function named
glutWireTeapot in the glut API to draw it. The Utah
teapot history, including the descriptions of the original one
that differs from the glut version, is summarized online, at
http:// sjbaker.org/ teapot/ .

The 3D bunny model of the computer graphics

laboratory of Stanford’s university is often used
for testing mesh algorithms. The 69,451-triangle
bunny was acquired from a real-world model in 1993.
The bunny history can be enjoyed online at either
http:// graphics.stanford.edu/ data/ 3Dscanrep/ , or
http:// www.gvu.gatech.edu/ people/ faculty/ greg.turk/
bunny/ bunny.html .

The Cornell box is a traditional data set used for computing

radiosity or simulating global illumination algorithms
in computer graphics. The Cornell box history, data
set, and experiments (including comparisons with the
measured real-word box) are further described online at
http:// www.graphics.cornell.edu/ online/ box/ . PovRay
(http:// povray.org) provides a script file cornell.pov to
render your own radiosity box image.

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512 Visual Computing: Geometry, Graphics, and Vision

Main Conferences and Publications in Visual Computing:

(List is nonexhaustive)

Main conferences:
• Annual Conf. Comp. Graphics and Interactive Techniques, ACM SIGGRAPH
• Annual Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, ACM CHI
• Biannual Symposium on Interactive 3D Graphics and Games, ACM I3D
• Annual Conference on Vision and Pattern Recognition, IEEE CVPR
• Annual International Conference on Computer Vision, IEEE ICCV
• Biannual European Conference on Computer Vision, IEEE ECCV
• Biannual Conference on Pattern Recognition, IAPR ICPR
• Annual Computer Graphics International, CGS CGI
• Annual Eurographics, European Association for Computer Graphics
• Annual International Conference on 3D Web Technology, ACM WEB3D
• Annual Conference on Point-Based Graphics, IEEE/Eurographics
• Annual Symposium on Geometry Processing, Eurographics SGP
• Annual Canadian Conference on Graphics Interface, GI
• Annual Symposium on Computational Geometry, ACM SoCG
• Annual Symposium on Solid and Physical Modeling, ACM SPM
• Annual Symposium on Information Visualization, IEEE IV
• Annual Canadian Conference on Computational Geometry, CCCG
• Annual Conference on Smart Graphics, SG
• Annual Game Developers Conference, GDC
• Annual Pacific Conference on Computer Graphics and Applications, PG
• Annual Conference on Voronoi Diagrams in Science and Engineering, VD

Main journal publications:

• Transactions on Computer Graphics, ACM TOG
• Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, IEEE TPAMI
• Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, IEEE TVCG
• Discrete & Computational Geometry, Springer-Verlag DCG
• The Visual Computer, Springer-Verlag VCJ
• Computational Geometry: Theory and Its Applications, Elsevier CGTA
• Transactions on Applied Perception, ACM TAP
• Graphical Models and Image Processing, Elsevier GMIP
• Computer Graphics and Applications, IEEE CGA

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Colophon 513

Major tradeshows:
• Annual International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques,
SIGGRAPH
• Annual Electronic Entertainment Expo, E3
• Annual Game Development Conference, GDC
• Annual National Association of Broadcasters, NAB

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[10] Amenta N, Choi S and Kolluri RK (2001) The Power Crust. In Proc. 6th ACM Symp.
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