C at a glance Revision Jumps Functions Expressions C Programs C at a glance Revision Jumps Functions Expressions C Programs C at a glance Revision Jumps

Expressions C Programs C at a glance Revision Jumps Functions Expressions C Programs

Outline What is C?
C is:
UNIX and C Programming (COMP1000) ▶ A programming language – one of thousands.
C at a glance
▶ Not the best, but perhaps the most important.
Lecture 1: Basics and Revision Revision ▶ An old language –
▶ Simple and primitive, powerful and pervasive.
Updated: 30th July, 2019 Jumps ▶ A compiled language –
▶ You write “source code”.
Department of Computing Functions ▶ Then, you convert it to “machine code” using a compiler.
Curtin University ▶ The machine code is the final program.
Copyright © 2019, Curtin University Expressions ▶ A statically-typed language –
CRICOS Provide Code: 00301J ▶ Strict data types: integers, real numbers, chars, etc.
C Programs ▶ These are known at compile time (“static”).
▶ A procedural language –
▶ Not object orientated – no classes or objects.
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The pervasiveness of C Why use C? A very, very brief history

▶ As of July 2015, the Ohloh website tracked about 75
thousand C projects with 5.9 billion lines of code 1 .
▶ “C” itself is descended from other languages (most directly
▶ Well-known software written in C includes:
Because: from “B”).
▶ Much of a typical Linux distribution, particularly the kernel;
▶ Android — the mobile phone/tablet OS (based on Linux); ▶ It’s so widely used already (new graduates often have to ▶ For a long time, C was not well standardised — unlike Java,
▶ Apache — the web server software that runs the majority of maintain old code!). there was no single organisation in control.
the world’s websites. ▶ It’s very efficient (if you know what you’re doing). ▶ Incompatibilities arose between different implementations.
▶ Much more software is written in languages based on C: ▶ However, C standards do now exist — C89/C90, C99 and C11.
▶ It’s portable (to an extent).
▶ Microsoft Windows (C++).
▶ ▶ C89 (ANSI) and C90 (ISO) are the same thing.
Mac OS (Objective C).
▶ Mozilla Firefox (C++). ▶ C99 and C11 are minor updates.
▶ Google Chrome (C++).
▶ Internet Explorer (C++).

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C99 and C11 C++ What is there to know about C?

▶ The new versions — actually not very important. ▶ Pointers, pointers, pointers and pointers.
▶ A major extension to C, implementing object orientation (and
▶ You need to know the old C (i.e. C89/C90).
other interesting features). ▶ Engineering Programming (COMP1004) mostly skips around
▶ The old C is the lowest common denominator; used
everywhere. ▶ Very widely used, alongside C. pointers.
▶ If you want a “new” language, why use C at all? Use Java, ▶ Some features of C++ have been retroactively added to C. ▶ Pointers are the heart and soul of C — most of C’s more
C#, Python, etc. instead. ▶ Like C99, C++ will not be assessed in this unit! useful features are built on pointers.
▶ Unfortunately, some C books (e.g. Kochan) don’t say what’s ▶ That said, you also need to know about:
▶ However, the last lecture will discuss C++, and it is well
C99-specific and what isn’t. ▶ The structure of a C program.
worth learning. ▶ The environment (UNIX) in which you’re working.
▶ The lectures will briefly mention C99 features where relevant.

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Things you should have seen before Remember variables and data types? Variable declarations
These are (essentially) the same in both C and Java: ▶ Each variable stores a single value, depending on its data type. ▶ Variables must be declared before they can be used.
▶ Symbols like semicolons (“;”), braces (“{...}”) and ▶ Simple data types include: ▶ A declaration consists of a datatype and a name:
parentheses (“(...)”). Signed integers: int, short, long. float number; /* Declaration */
▶ Simple data types (e.g. int, double, char). Unsigned integers: unsigned int, unsigned short, number = 5.0 * 2.5; /* Assignment */
▶ Variables and assignments (e.g. “int v = 42;”). unsigned long (cannot be negative).
Reals: float, double, long double. Here, number is declared (created) as a float (real number).
▶ Expressions (e.g. “v = 33 * x + z / 3;”). ▶ Declarations can also initialise variables:
Characters: char (letter, digit, symbol, etc.) –
▶ if, else, switch, break, default, for, while, do, return. technically a kind of integer. float number = 5.0 * 2.5; /* Same as above */
▶ Functions/methods; e.g. ▶ Mainly use int, double and char.
▶ Multiple variables can be declared at once, if they have the
double calculate(double x, double y) ▶ There are no classes or objects in C (unlike Java).
same data type:
{ ▶ Other special data types including pointers, arrays, structs,
unions and enums (which we’ll cover later). int alpha = 3, beta, gamma, delta = 6;
return x * y;
} ▶ C has strings, but no formal “String” data type (we’ll get to Here, alpha, beta, gamma and delta are all ints. Two of
. . . . that too). . . . .
them have been initialised. . . . .
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Variable names A small difference from Java Comments

Use comments to describe code in natural language.
▶ Should reflect the meaning of the variable!
How do you repeat something 100 times? Block comments
▶ Should be concise, but not too concise. Traditionally, comments are enclosed between /* and */
▶ In Java and C99 you can do this:
▶ Can contain letters (a-z and A-Z), digits (0-9) and
/* Speed of light
underscores (_). for(int i = 0; i < 100; i++) { ... }
(metres per second) */
▶ Cannot start with a digit.
▶ In C (in general), you cannot declare i inside the for int speed = 299792458;
▶ Case-sensitive (size, SIZE and Size are distinct names).
statement. Instead, you must do this:
▶ Cannot be a reserved word (auto, break, case, char, const,
int i; Single-line comments (only C99!)
continue, default, do, double, else, enum, extern,
float, for, goto, if, int, long, register, return, short, for(i = 0; i < 100; i++) { ... } In C99, single-line comments start with “//”.
signed, sizeof, static, struct, switch, typedef, union, int speed = 299792458; // Speed of light (m/s)
unsigned, void, volatile or while).
. . . but you can’t do this in C89.
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Comments, meaningful names, indentation and whitespace Revision More Revision

Do you know how functions or methods work?
▶ It’s not just machines that read your code. The following code is valid in both C and Java. Take a minute to int addCubes(void)
figure out what it does. {
▶ Source code must frequently be fixed, updated, improved, etc.
int base = 3; int i, result = 0;
▶ This requires that humans be able to read your code as well.
int exponent = 19; for(i = 1; i < 5; i++)
▶ Comments help remind you, and explain to others, what the result += cube(i);
int result = 1;
code does and how it works. int i; return result;
▶ Meaningful variable names serve a similar purpose. }
▶ Indentation helps you see the code structure instantly. for(i = 0; i < exponent; i++)
▶ Whitespace helps you see words and numbers more easily. { int cube(int x)
result = result * base; {
▶ You must use all these — properly — to make your code return x * x * x;
}
readable! }
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This will give you a result of 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 = 100. . . . .
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Jumps — return, break, continue and goto The break statement The break statement
▶ break immediately ends the current switch, for, while or ▶ Can also end a loop (usually from within an if):
do-while statement.
▶ Often used in a switch statement: while(...) {
▶ These statements jump to another place 2 .
...
▶ return and break are necessary in certain places. switch(...) { if(...) {
▶ Many advise against goto under any circumstances. case 1: break;
▶ Some advise against break (outside of switch) and ... }
break; ...
continue as well.
case 2: }
▶ Some advise against multiple returns in a single function. ...
▶ However, it’s worth noting what they actually do. break;
... ▶ This is not necessary — rearranging the if statement will
} achieve the same thing.
▶ break can lead to more compact code.
2
In fact, if, switch, for, while and do-while all jump as well, but they
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This is normal, and necessary. . . . . ▶ break can also lead to unreadable code. . . . .
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The continue statement The goto statement Spaghetti code

▶ continue ends the current iteration of a loop. ▶ A relic from the bad old days, now very poor practice.
▶ Jumps back to the top of the loop, and continues with the ▶ goto simply jumps somewhere else, ignoring all the rules ▶ goto can easily turn your code into spaghetti:
next iteration, if any. about flow of control. ▶ Not clear what order things happen in.
▶ The target location is marked by a label — a name followed ▶ Very difficult to read, understand and fix — easier to throw it
while(...) {
... by a colon (“:”). out and start again.
▶ Your life will be miserable!
if(...) { while(x > 2.0) { /* Never, ever do this!! */
continue; theLabel: ▶ break and continue are more constrained, and so less
} x = x - 2.0; dangerous, but can still do the same thing.
... } ▶ Newer languages don’t have goto, for good reason.
}
evil ▶ However, in C, goto is sometimes used to separate error
▶ continue is never strictly necessary — if statements can if(x < 3.0) { handling code from the main algorithm, because C lacks
x += 5.0; exception handling.
achieve the same thing.
▶ Like break, continue can lead to more compact code. goto theLabel;
▶ Like break, continue can also lead to unreadable code. . . . .
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What is a function? C functions vs. Java methods Anatomy of a function

▶ C programs are broken up into functions.
The following example function takes (imports) a real number and
▶ Each function is a chunk if code, which may “call” (or returns (exports) either the letter L or the letter H.
▶ For those having studied Java, a function is very similar to a
“invoke”) other functions.
method. char indicator(float measurement)
▶ Functions are separate — they cannot contain one another.
▶ Just like a method, a function has: {
▶ Execution always starts with the main() function. ▶ any number of parameters (imports); char result = ’L’;
▶ When function alpha() calls function beta(): ▶ an optional return value (an export); if(measurement >= 0.5)
1. alpha is paused; ▶ its own set of “local” variables; and {
2. beta receives “parameter” values (data) from alpha; ▶ a chunk of code that performs a specific task. result = ’H’;
3. beta performs its task; ▶ However, functions are stand-alone, whereas methods occur }
4. beta optionally “returns” a value (data) to alpha; inside classes (and classes don’t exist in C). return result;
5. alpha resumes where it left off.
}
(Note: the words “call” and “invoke” always carry this precise
meaning. You cannot “call” anything other than a function.)
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Historical interest Function calls and returns Function calls and returns
▶ Pre-1989 C had a different function parameter syntax: void calc(void) {
int someFunction(x, y) void calc(void) { ...
int x; ... int number = addTwo(5);
float y; int number = addTwo(5); ...
parameter
{ ... }
value (5) control
... }
} int addTwo(int param)
int addTwo(int param) {
▶ In modern C, this would be written as: { int result = param + 2;
int someFunction(int x, float y) int result = param + 2; return result;
{ return result; }
... }
The call:
}
▶ Function calc() calls function addTwo().
▶ The old form is still valid C, but rarely used. . . . . . . . . ▶ calc() pauses, addTwo() begins. . . . .

▶ param becomes 5.
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Function calls and returns The return statement Void

void calc(void) { ▶ Immediately ends a function — jumps back to the caller. ▶ Can show that a function does not return a value:
... ▶ Returns a value to the caller (if this function is non-void).
▶ Multiple return statements can lead to spaghetti code: void outputProduct(int x, int y) {
int number = addTwo(5);
control ... printf("The product is %d\n", x * y);
int badExample(void) { }
} if(...) return x;
return value (7) if(...) return y; ▶ Can show that a function has no parameters:
int addTwo(int param) return z;
{ void hello(void) {
}
int result = param + 2; printf("Hello world.\n");
return result; ▶ Try for one return only, on the last line: }
} int goodExample(void) { (Note: this void is sometimes omitted altogether, but
... technically that means “anything goes”.)
The return:
▶ addTwo() finishes, calc() resumes.
return result; ▶ void has a third use related to pointers, which we’ll discuss in
}
▶ number takes the value of result (7). . . . . . . . . a couple of weeks. . . . .
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Void returns The printf() function The scanf() function

▶ A void function, returning no value, needs no return
statement. ▶ Used to output text and other values.
▶ These functions hand back control at the end, automatically: ▶ A pre-existing function available for you to use. ▶ Used to input values (like the reverse of printf()).
void hello(void) { ▶ Works differently from the Java System.out.println() ▶ Described later in more detail.
printf("Hello world.\n"); method (but used for the same purpose).
} ▶ Described later in more detail. Example
▶ However, you can technically do this: int value;
Examples printf("Enter value: ");
void hello(void) {
printf("Hello world.\n"); printf("Hello world.\n"); scanf("%d", &value);
return;
(The printf() here is not strictly necessary.)
} printf("Coordinates: (%d, %d)\n", x, y);
▶ You can abuse void returns much like the other jump
statements, but you wouldn’t do that, would you? . . . .
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Expressions Statements that require expressions Function calls are values

/* Here we call beta and gamma, and then alpha. */
These statements all use expressions:
▶ Expressions occur virtually everywhere. alpha(beta(), gamma() + 3.0);
▶ someVariable = expression ; ...
▶ They are built up from: ▶ someFunction( expression1 , expression2 , ...);
▶ operands — variables, function calls and “literal” values;
▶ operators — +, *, >=, ++, &&, typecasts, etc.; and ▶ if( expression ) { ... } float beta(void) {
▶ parentheses — “(...)”. ▶ switch( expression ) { ... } return 5.0;
}
▶ They have a resulting data type, based on the operators and ▶ while( expression ) { ... }
operands. ▶ do { ... } while( expression ); float gamma(void) {
▶ Variables, function calls and literal values are syntactically ▶ for( expression1 ; expression2 ; expression3 ) { ... } return 7.0 ;
interchangeable.
▶ Variables and function calls are (generally) allowed anywhere ▶ return expression ; }
that values are needed. There are no limits to how complex expressions can be! (However,
void alpha(float x, float y ) { ... }
simpler expressions are more readable.)
. . . . . . . . Function calls can be part of any expression, just like variables. . . . .
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Function calls are values Function calls are values A simple C program
/* Here we call beta and gamma, and then alpha. */ /* Here we call beta and gamma, and then alpha. */
alpha(beta(), gamma() + 3.0); alpha(beta(), gamma() + 3.0);
... ...
#include <stdio.h>
float beta(void) { float beta(void) {
return 5.0; return 5.0; int main(void)
} } 10.0 (7.0 + 3.0) {
printf("Hello world.\n");
5.0 return 0;
float gamma(void) { float gamma(void) {
return 7.0 ; return 7.0 ; }
} }

void alpha(float x, float y ) { ... } void alpha(float x, float y ) { ... }

Here, beta() and gamma() are called first, and return their values. . . . . These values immediately become parameters to alpha(). . . . . . . . .
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Forward declarations Forward declarations (2) Forward declarations (3)

▶ In C, a function must be declared above its first use.
▶ If needed, you can place the function “prototype” at the top.
What’s wrong with this code?
Some terms:
void printSum(int x, int y) { Example ▶ A prototype consists of the name, parameters and return type
printNumber(x + y); of a function.
} void printNumber(int number);
▶ A forward declaration gives the prototype by itself (usually at
void printSum(int x, int y) { the top of the source code).
void printNumber(int number) {
printf("%d\n", number); printNumber(x + y); ▶ A function definition gives the prototype and the actual code.
} } (You can sometimes just re-arrange the order of the functions, but
this is often inconvenient or even impossible.)
In C, the order of declaration is important (unlike Java). void printNumber(int number) {
printf("%d\n", number);
}
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C program structure C program structure Compiling your C programs

#include <stdio.h> ▶ In Java you use javac.
▶ In C you can use gcc, though there are many alternatives.
void bananas(int n); ▶ To convert your source code (prog.c) into an executable
double mangos(void); program (prog):
▶ A C program consists of one or more files. [user@pc]$ gcc prog.c -o prog
int main(void) {
▶ Each file contains one or more functions.
... ▶ “-o name” gives the output filename.
▶ One file contains the main() function. return 0; ▶ Without it, the executable will be called “a.out”, which is silly.
} ▶ There are other options as well; e.g.
▶ -Wall turns on “all warnings”.
▶ -ansi turns off C99 extensions (leaving C89 only).
void bananas(int n) { ... }
▶ -pedantic turns on additional checks for C89 compliance.
▶ These options help you produce better, more portable code.
double mangos(void) { ... }
... [user@pc]$ gcc -Wall -ansi -pedantic prog.c -o prog
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Running your C programs That’s all for now!

▶ Unlike Java, C programs don’t (typically) run on a “virtual

machine”
▶ You don’t need any other software installed, except for: ▶ Make sure you attempt the pre-lab exercises before coming to
▶ the operating system class.
▶ any libraries your program uses (via #include) ▶ If you have any uncertainties, please see the lecturer or unit
coordinator ASAP!
Example
[user@pc]$ ./prog

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