Wolaita Sodo University

School of education and Behavioral sciences

Department of educational Planning and Management
GROUP DYNAMICS AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT (EDPM 2043)
Chapter One:
Group dynamics

Learning objectives:
At the end of the lesson students will be able to:

 Explain what groups, teams, and collections are

 Identify the differences between groups and teams
 Identify the different types of groups and teams that help managers and organizations
achieve their goals.
 Explain how different elements of group dynamics influence the functioning and
effectiveness of groups and teams.
 Describe how managers can motivate group members to achieve organizational goals and
reduce social loafing in groups and teams.
 Understand the concepts of group and Conflict
 Identify elements in learning group readiness
 Identify the helping and hindering roles that individuals in groups play
 Understand the Sources and types of conflict
 Resolve conflicts using different approaches

1.1 Concept of Group, Group dynamics and Teams

Introduction
The lone individual or the single man or woman who has no connection to other men and women
is an extraordinarily rare human being. Homosapiens is capable of surviving alone, and the
recluse, ascetic (somebody who is self-denying and lives with minimal material comfort), and
prisoner in solitary confinement can forge a life on their own. But few humans seek or enjoy the
challenges of solitude. Most people prefer to live in groups. Virtually all the activities of our lives
working, learning, worshiping, relaxing, playing, and even sleeping occur in groups rather than
isolated from others. Most people belong to many different groups, so the number of groups in the
world probably reaches well beyond six billion. The world is literally teeming with groups.

For centuries, sages and scholars have been fascinated by groups by the way they form, change
over time, dissipate unexpectedly, achieve great goals, and sometimes commit great wrongs. Yet
groups remain something of a mystery unstudied at best, misunderstood at worst. Here we unravel
some of their mysteries by examining their basic nature, their processes, and their impact on their
members. We begin our task by asking some questions:

What is a collection?
What is a group?
What are the characteristics of groups that most interest us?
What kinds of group processes do we want to study?
What is Team?
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What are the differences between Group and Team?
What do we mean by group dynamics?
What assumptions do we embrace as we describe, analyze, and compare the various groups that
populate the planet?
What approach do we take to the study of groups?
A. Collection/Collectives:

Collection is a mere aggregate of people. It is quite different from group in that in collection
members do not interact with each other and do not perceive themselves to be a group even if
they are aware of each other. For example, a crowd on a street corner watching some event.

1.2 WHAT DO WE MEAN BY GROUP DYNAMICS?

Membership in groups is inevitable and ubiquitous. We are not able to survive without belonging
to groups. We are born into one, and interact in groups for most of our lives. Our personal identity
is derived from the way in which we are perceived and treated by other members we belong to.
This brings change in our way of thinking and action. Dynamics mean change and group
dynamics means the change of behavior through interactions in the group.

Understanding group dynamics is essential to:

 Maintaining a viable family
 Effective business and industries
 Education
 Long term maintenance of psychological health
Thus, knowledge of group dynamics can and will change your life. Hence group dynamics is the
scientific study of:
 The nature of groups
 Behavior in groups
 Group development
 Interrelations between groups and individuals
 Interrelations between groups and others

The Rational to Study Group Dynamics

Nowadays much of the organizations work is accomplished directly or indirectly through groups
or teams. Groups exert a significant influence on individual behavior and in turn on productivity
of the organizations. The study of group dynamics can shed light on how to increase diversity in
a community and how to combat the negative aspects that arise from certain groups with strong
similarities and goals. Evolutionary theory suggests that humans evolved into a species that is best
equipped for survival when it functions in groups. Groups allow for critical support mechanisms
that increase the chance of survival for all group members. For this reason it is only natural that
humans today either unconsciously or consciously form or flock towards groups. Groups,
however, do not possess these survival benefits without important costs such as inter and intra
group competition, inter and intra group conflict, and social shielding from others outside of the
group.

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Definition of Group

A Group is

connections linking the individual members

Two or more individuals.

We define "group" as more than two employees who have an ongoing relationship in which they
interact and influence one another’s behavior and performance. The behavior of individuals in
groups is something more than the sum total of each acting in his or her own way. In other words,
when individuals are in groups, they act differently than they do when they are alone. A group
refers to the association of two or more persons interacting among themselves for the
achievement of common goal.

Jennifer and Gareth have defined a group as set of two or more people who interact with each
other to achieve certain goals or to meet certain needs. A group may be defined as a collection of
people who have a common purpose or objective, interact with each other to accomplish the
group objectives, are aware of one another and perceive themselves to be part of group.

A group can be identified by:

1. Studying the perception of group and cognition of each of the group members to determine as
to which other individuals exist for each of the members psychologically.
2. Analysis of the group itself and the behavior of each of its members to ascertain as to whether
or not a particular individual fits in a member. Here group interaction and common goal are
very important elements of group. The interaction reflects regular discussions and
communication which may influence the behavior of the group members. Moreover, the group
members agree to achieve some common goal which is termed as group goal. The group goal
binds the members together for making effort in the direction of realization of the goal.
Given the important role that groups play in organizations, let us concentrate our focus upon the
meaning of a work group.
In true sense and for our purpose of studying group behavior, the collection of individuals is
called a group, when: They have a common goal;
• The members of the group constantly interact with each other, so that one person’s actions affect
and are being affected by the action of another person;
• Each member of group identifies with other member of the group;
• The member of the group is psychologically aware of each other;
• The behavior of each member is interdependent on others.
Thus, a group is a set of two or more people who continuously interact with each other to achieve
certain goals or meet certain needs. Accordingly, only gathering of individuals cannot be called a
group. Mere collection of people cannot constitute a group. e.g.:-a crowd in front of a shop in the
market, a crowd watching Wolaita Dicha vs Dashen one day football match on T.V. will not be
called as Group. Because people do not interact with one another, do not know one another, and
also do not share a common purpose...

TYPES OF WORK GROUPS:

Whatever may be the causes for which groups are formed, the formation of groups has become
inevitable phenomenon in every organization. There exists a different type of groups in
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organizations. Each group plays crucial role in achieving organizational effectiveness. There are
different ways through which we can classify the groups. One broad way to classify the group is
on the basis of their formation. Accordingly, the group can be formal group or informal group.

1. Formal Work Groups: Formal work groups are formed by the organizations. These groups are
formed in order to help the organization to achieve its specific goals. The goals of formal work
group are determined according to the needs of the organization. For example, purchase
committee, quality control group, disciplinary action committees are the formal groups
constituted by an organization. These groups are established to accomplish certain organizational
goals such as increasing product quality, safety, discipline, etc. in an organization.

 Types of Formal Work Groups: There are different types of formal groups in an
organization.
Four important kinds of formal groups are: command groups, the committees, teams, and self-
managed work teams.
Let us discuss them in detail.

 Command Group: It is the collection of employees who report to the same supervisor.
Command groups are based on the basic reporting relationship in organizations. The
existence of formal groups is represented on organizational charts as departments (such as
finance, personnel, marketing, sales, or accounting). Command groups help an
organization to accomplish variety of tasks. They have tremendous impact upon the extent
to which an organization is able to achieve its goals. The leaders of the command group
play an important role in determining the effectiveness of these groups.
 The Committees: It is the collection of people who are brought together by the
organization to accomplish a specific goal. Once the goal is achieved, the organization
disbands the committees. In case such committees are dealing with long term problems, in
that case they may not be disbanded but the members in the committees can be changed or
rotated on the basis of seniority and other criteria. These kinds of committees are known
as standing committees.
 The Team: It is a formal work group. People work in a group does not mean that they
work in a team. A team is formed by the organisation for some specific purpose. In a
team, there is a high level of interaction among its members. The members of the team
work together very intensely to achieve a common goal. In course of working together, the
member of the team learn the abilities and experiences of their members to accomplish
things that could not be achieved by individuals working separately or by any other kinds
of work groups.
 Self-Managed Work Teams: Self-managed work teams are little different from normal
teams. The members of self-managed work team are responsible for ensuring that the team
accomplishes its goals. Leader of this team is identified by its members. The performance
of leadership tasks is assigned to individual group members. The team is empowered to
discipline its members who are not performing at an adequate level. There is coordinating
efforts across group members, and even hiring and firing for and within the team is done
by the team itself. In the recent years self-managed teams are gaining popularity and they
have created a dramatic impact on organizations as well as on their members.

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Informal Work Groups:

Informal work groups emerge naturally in organizations. It is just like the shadow of the formal
organization. It is because organizational members perceive that it is difficult for their
organizations to formally fulfill some of the bare needs and feel that membership in a group can
help them to achieve their goals and meet their needs. For example, when a group of five factory
workers who go for a picnic, movie, or booze together to satisfy their common need, for
affiliation and friendship this is the case of an informal group. Even sometimes, some employees
form informal group due to their ideological similarity.

Types of Informal Work Groups:

Informal groups can be broadly divided into two types.
They are (i) friendship groups; and (ii) interest groups.

i) Friendship Groups

It is a group of employees in an organization who enjoy each other’s company and love to
socialize with each other. They may socialize on the job and off the job. For example, a group of
workers in a company who go for a picnic or a group of ladies staff who frequently have lunch
together. Friendship groups help its members to meet the needs of social interaction. It also acts
as an important source of social support to them. It contributes to its members to experience
positive moods at work which can ultimately enable them to be satisfied with their respective
jobs.

ii) Interest Groups

Employees may form interest groups when they have a common interest or goal to achieve in the
organization. The interest of the members may be sometimes ignored or neglected by the
organization. The members of this group try to achieve their goal by uniting their efforts. Because
of the common interest, it helps the members to voice their concerns, which sometimes provides
an important pressure for organizational changes.

Why a group is needed?

The need for the formation and existence of group is based on the following theories

Theories of group Formation

There are four theories explaining why people interact and form groups.
These are:

1. PROXIMITY THEORY: Individuals tend to affiliate with one another because of spatial or
geographical proximity or nearness. For instance, peasants in a village or students next to each
other in class interact more and thus will eventually form a group.

2. ACTIVITY THEORY: When people are involved in similar activities, they tend to generate
spontaneous interaction and sentimentality leading to cooperation and problem solving.
Commonness in occupational interests makes it possible for people to socialize on a wide range of
issues related to the particular activity.

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3. EXCHANGE/BENEFIT THEORY: It holds that some groups are formed purely on business-
like relations. Members will only decide to form, join or continue together on the basis of the
gains thereafter. Rewards in this context, will yield gratification while the costs involved include
material loss, privileges, anxiety, frustrations or fatigue. The rewards could be tangible or non-
tangible e.g power, leadership and prestige.

4. BALANCE THEORY: It borders closely with the activity theory except that it would draw on
emotional cum-intellectual dimension of the interaction. People are attracted together on the basis
of similar attitudes towards life e.g likes and dislikes, beliefs, political ideologies etc.

GROUP STRUCTURE and SIZE

A) GROUP STRUCTURE
Group structure refers to the pattern of interrelationships between the individuals constituting a
group and helps to achieve assigned goals. The different aspects or variables of group structure
are: (1) Formal leadership (2) Roles (3) Norms (4) Status (5) Size (6) Cohesiveness (7)
Composition

B) Group size: Group size is an important determinant of the way group members behave. The
size of a group is normally measured by the number of full-time members who are involved in
achieving the group’s goals.
However, a group can be composed of just two or more people. On the basis of number of
members, a group can be a small or large group.

Small Groups vs. Large Groups

 Small Groups: In a small group of two to ten are thought to be more effective because
each member has a chance to know everybody and interact regularly. In a small group, it
is relatively easier for members to share information and recognize individual’s
contribution to the group. The members of a small group identify themselves easily and
quickly with group’s goals. The motivation and commitment of its members to group
goals is very high. Hence, the member of this group derives higher levels of satisfaction.
 Large Groups: In a large group, there are so many members. Because of many members,
they are less likely to know one another and may have little personal contact with each
other on a day-to-day basis. As a result, there exists lower level of interaction among
members of this group and it makes information sharing difficult among them.
Sometimes, the factors which individuals consider lead to their own contributions to the
group may become unimportant to the group, which ultimately reduces their motivation
and commitment towards group. Therefore, people normally tend to be less satisfied in
larger groups.

Advantages and disadvantages of small and large groups

Advantages of small groups:

 Members of small groups, between two and nine members, tend to interact more with
each other, find it easier to coordinate their efforts, and tend to be more motivated,
satisfied, and committed. They also find it easier to share information and to see the
importance of their personal contributions for group success.
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  Large groups with ten or more members offer some advantages. They have more
resources at their disposal to achieve group goals, such as the knowledge, experience,
skills, and abilities of group members. They can also capitalize upon the advantages that
stem from the division of labor.

A disadvantage of small versus large groups:

 A disadvantage of small group is that members of small groups have fewer resources
available to accomplish their goals.
 The disadvantages of large groups include problems of communication and
coordination, and lower levels of motivation, satisfaction, and commitment.

When deciding upon the appropriate size for any group, managers should attempt to gain the
advantages of small group size while also forming groups with sufficient resources to accomplish
their goal. As a general rule, groups should have no more members than necessary to achieve the
required division of labor.
In Research & Development teams, group size is too large when: 1) members spend more time
communicating what they know to others than applying what they know to solve problems and
create new products, 2) individual productivity decreases, and 3) group performance suffers.

CONCEPT AND ESSENTIALS OF TEAM

If you visit an organization, you will find that most of the activities of the organization are
performed by a group of persons. In an organization, activities are arranged in such away that
require collective contribution. Every individual contributes for the achievement of a common
goal. The individuals interact, collaborate, coordinate and influence among the members. Thus,
most of the time individuals work in a team. A team may be defined as a group of two or more
people who interact and influence the members for the achievement of common goal. Steven and
Mary Ann Von have defined team as groups of two or more people who interact and influence
each other, are mutually accountable for achieving common objectives, and perceive themselves
as a social entity within an organization. Based on this definition, the characteristics of the teams
may be elaborated as under:

 a group of two or more persons

 regular interactions among members
 influence the behavior of team members
 mutually accountable
 interdependent
 social entity
 achievement of common goal
 The frequency of interactions, influence and the nature of task may determine the
formation of group, i.e., long-term, short-term, formal, informal etc.

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TYPES OF TEAM

 Formal Team: Formal teams or groups are created deliberately by managers carrying out
specific tasks to help the organization achieve its goals.
 Types of Formal Team
o Command team - The most prevalent type of formal group is the command team,
which includes a manager and all employees who report to that manager. In some
organizations that want to deemphasize hierarchy, the titles may change.
o Committee- Another type of formal team is the committee, which generally lasts a
longtime and deals with recurrent problems and decisions. For instance, your
university or college probably has a committee for student affairs to deal with
recurring issues that involve students’ lives. While members of this committee
may come and go, whereas, the committee remains in place over time.
 Some formal teams are temporary. They may be called task forces or project teams.
These teams are created to deal with a specific problem and are usually disbanded when
the task is completed or the problem is solved.
 Informal Team: Informal teams or groups emerge whenever people come together and
interact regularly. Such groups develop within the formal organizational structure.
Members of informal teams tend to subordinate some of their individual needs to those of
the team as a whole. In return, the team supports and protects them. The activities of
informal teams may further the interests of the organization. Saturday morning games, for
example, may strengthen the players ties to each other. Or a women’s group may meet to
discuss various actions that can make the organization a better place for women to work.
Informal groups independently and outside management auspices. The groups encourage,
recognize, and strengthen the bonds of women at all levels of the company..

TEAM DEVELOPMENT:

As you have already learnt that the team is formed as a result of interactions and influence of
members who strive for the achievement of common goal. In this process, the team members try
to understand others behavior, realize the appropriateness of the behavior and the roles of the
team members. This is an ongoing process because the composition of team may keep on
changing. The new members may join and the old members may leave the team. Thus, the team
members pass through several stages for the development of team.

Bruce Tuckman(1965) has identified five stage model of team development. Forming, Storming,
Norming, Performing, Adjourning. Kormanski and Mozenter have identified following stages of
team development: • Awareness • Conflict • Cooperation • Productivity, and • Separation

TEAM BUILDING:

Team building refers to shaping of the team for smooth functioning. Steven and MaryAnn Von
have defined team building as any formal intervention directed toward improving the
development and functioning of a work team. Thus, the process of team building aims at
enhancing the effectiveness of a team.

Pareek Udai has suggested the following approaches for team building.

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  The Johari Window Approach: This approach aims at helping members to express their
feelings, opinions reactions and accept feedback from team members. This enhances their
sensitivity towards the team members.
 The Role Negotiation Approach: This approach focuses on understanding the
expectations of the team members and accommodating their behaviour according to the
expectations. This enhances the collaborative effort of the team members.
 The Team Roles Approach: This approach advocates that there are certain roles which
each team members are expected to perform.

Belbin has identified eight roles. They are: Chairman/coordinator, shaper, plant, monitor/
evaluator, company worker, resource investigator, team worker and completer/finisher.
Smooth performance of these roles brings harmony in the effort of the team members.

 The Behavior Modification Approach: This approach focuses on examining members’

behavior towards the team. The individual member evaluates his/her own behavior and
finds out the most suitable behavior. Now he/she adopts the most suitable behavior for the
performance of the team.
 The Simulation Approach: In this approach an artificial team is formed where members
interact, discuss, deliberate and learn from other members’ behavior. In this situation, the
team members learn the most effective way of dealing with the challenges and meet the
requirements and the expectations of the team members.
 The Action Research Approach: In this approach, the whole range of behavior is
analyzed and evaluated. The researcher interacts with the team members and evaluates
their behavior. The effort is made to find out most suitable behavior of the team members.
 The Appreciative Inquiry Approach: This approach focuses on the identification of
positive qualities in the team members. The effort is made to channelize these positive
qualities towards the achievements of the team goal.

Pareek Udai has integrated the above approaches and further suggested the following
approaches for team building which are discussed below:

 Projection into Future: In this approach, the team members prepare common vision of
the team. Several small teams may prepare their own vision which may be further
developed as a broader organizational vision. The team members may be encouraged to
make effort towards realizing them,.
 Linkage with Individual Goals: As you must be aware that the building block of the
team is individual. Each person has his/her individual goal as well as team goal.
Therefore, the individual goal must be integrated with the team goal. This brings harmony
in the team effort and enhances the performance of the team.
 Force Field Analysis: Several forces influence the performance of the team. Team
members are required to analyze these forces and identify the positive forces. These
favorable forces are channelized for the achievement of the team goal. These are a)change
in organization b)change in workers c) change in jobs
 Strengthening Positive Forces: The positive forces are identified and further reinforced.
The reinforcement of behavior motivates the members for making efforts towards the
realization of team goal. This further strengthens the positive behavior of the team
members.
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  Reducing Negative Forces/restraining forces: In this approach, the forces which inhibit
the performance of the team are identified. The efforts are made to remove these negative
forces. These are a)individual paradigm( legacy mindset & identity) b) personal autonomy
and control(power, trust, independence needs) c) action bias (self and organization’s)
habit/expectation for doing d) ambiguity tolerance( impatience with deliberation,
frustration threshold) d)organizational hierarchy( shadow of traditional top-down
direction) e)accountability and rewards( how people are incentivized to behave) f)
leadership skill (team leaders, front-line managers, top managers) g)time
pressure( unrealistic deadlines, real or perceived) h) learning curves (inefficiencies of
learning, mastering new skills) i) frustration and self management( individual, group,
stakeholders) j)improper application of team ( mismatch of work to approach)
 Monitoring: The team members chalk out detailed plans and targets to be achieved. The
mechanisms for achieving these targets are spelt out. The steps are devised to monitor
them at each step. The proper monitoring mechanism facilitates the process of
accomplishment of team goal. While building the team; the managers must take into
account those factors which contribute to effective accomplishment of the team goals. The
integrated view of the above approaches may provide better insights for enhancing the
effectiveness of the team.

TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

In an organization, you may find that some teams are very successful and work effectively than
others. The question arises what is team effectiveness? Steven and Mary Ann Von have defined
team effectiveness as the extent to which the team achieves its objectives, achieves the needs and
objectives of its members and sustains itself over time. This means that the effective team has
following parameters:

 The degree to which the objectives of the team are achieved;

 The degree to which the team achieves the needs and well being of its members; and
 The ability of the team to survive.

Steven and Mary Ann Von have suggested following elements of team effectiveness:

1) Organizational and Team Environment: Organizational and team environment relates to

the following elements:
• Reward System,
• Communication,
• Systems,
• Physical Space,
• Organizational Environment,
• Organizational Structure, and
• Organizational Leadership
2) Team Design: It involves following elements:
• Task Characteristics,
• Team Size; and
• Team Composition
3) Team Processes: It includes:
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 • Team Development,
• Team Norms,
• Team Roles; and
• Team Cohesiveness.
Kormasnski and Mozenter have identified following elements which contribute to team
effectiveness:
• Members understand and are committed to group goals;
• They are friendly, concerned and interested in others;
• They acknowledge and confront conflicts openly;
• They listen to others and understand them;
• They involve others in the process of decision making;
• They recognize and respect individual differences;
• They contribute ideas and solutions;
• They value ideas and contributions of others;
• They recognize and reward team efforts; and
• They encourage and appreciate comments about team performance.
These are the major elements contributing to the team effectiveness. Moreover, there may be
several factors which influence the team effectiveness. Managers are required to make detailed
analysis of these factors and find out broader perspectives of the team effectiveness. The proper
management and implementation of these elements may certainly improve the effectiveness of the
team.
Difference between Group and Team

Sometime we are confused that a group is also a team. A group can be called a team when it is
formally formed by the organization. Katzenbach & Smith have defined a team as a small number
of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, set of
performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Thus,
major difference between the team and group is that the group can also be informally formed
without any complementary skills and formal efforts of the organization; team is always
constituted by the organization. It so happens because it is practically impossible for a formal
organization to meet the informal needs of its employees.

Stages of group formation/development

A) Group formation

Groups, which we find in organizations in our day-to-day life, are not formed overnight.
Employee turnover, new selection, transfers and promotions of the employees in the organization
have impact upon the group status and may bring change in the existing group. As a result, group
tasks and goals also change. How do groups change overtime? It is very interesting and
significant. In order to increase group performance, it is very important to manage these changes
effectively. For example when a new batch of employees joins an organization, and starts forming
group on the basis of various factors discussed earlier, they face lot of difficulty to form a group.
In fact, initially at each stage the group faces many difficulties. Similar is the case with work
groups, from their inception to adjournment, they undergo important changes.

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Tuckman(1965) has divided the developments of a group in to five stages. They are: forming,
storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

Let us discuss them in detail.

Forming : The first stage of group development is called forming. At this stage, members try to
know each other and establish a common understanding among them. They struggle to clarify
group goals and determine appropriate behaviour within the group. The forming stage is
completed once individuals within the group feel that they are truly the members of the group.

Storming : As its name implies, this stage is characterised by considerable amount of conflict. At
this stage, group members try to resist for being controlled by the group very often, the members
disagree about who should lead the group. They also have difference of opinion over how much
power should the leader of their group have, etc.This stage is completed when group members no
longer resist the group’s control and there is mutual understanding and agreement about who will
lead the group. Normally this stage is completed when group members consider that it is better to
work together for the achievement of the group goals.

Norming : This is the third stage in the group development. At this stage, group members really
start feeling that they belong to the group. They develop a very close intimacy and relationship
with one another. A feeling of friendship develops among them. A well-developed sense of
common purpose of the group emerges among members. In this stage, group members agree on
standards to guide the behaviour in the group.

Performing : When this stage reaches, the group is ready to tackle all types of group tasks. The
members of the group work toward achievement of the group goals. The real work of the group
gets accomplished at this stage. To arrive at this stage, groups should not take very long time.

Adjourning : This is the last stage of the group development. At this stage, a group disbands after
having accomplished its goals. However, ongoing work groups in organizations do not go through
this stage rather they remain at the performing stage. Thus, the five-stage model of group
development forming-storming-norming-performing-adjourning though sounds logical, research
reveals that not all groups go through each of the stages and groups do not necessarily go through
the stages sequentially. There can be considerable levels of conflict throughout their existence. As
a result, the elements of storming stage continue for a long time.

B) FACTORS OF GROUP FORMATION

There are various factors, which influence the formation of groups in organizations. Let us learn
following important factors of group formation:

Psychological Factors : After joining the organization, individual joins a particular group in
which he/she finds him/her interest, attitude, personality, perception etc. matching with other
individuals within the department or the organization. As a result, group is formed.

Social Factors : Individuals also form or join the group based upon their social class, caste, and
religion to satisfy their social needs. They do it primarily for satisfying their love, affection and
care needs, which initially they feel deprived after leaving their families.
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Security Factors : As an individual, sometimes one can feel insecure over unexpected
developments such as sudden health problem, termination, suspension, local problems etc.,
therefore, everyone likes to be in a group to feel secured to work. Especially in a new place, for a
new employee, the security need could be one of the major factors for joining a group.

Economic Factors: When an individual works in an organization, he/she gets all types of
economic incentives and benefits available within the rules and regulations. Sometimes
organizations cannot meet an individual’s accidental or obligatory needs like money for marriage,
house construction, medical care and other proposes. So he/she gets associated with those people
who help him/her at the time of need.

Cultural Factors: Individuals come to work from different society and culture. In case the places
at which they work are far away from their place of origin, region and culture; they feel like a fish
out of water. It may be due to the absence of cultural celebrations. This is one of the reasons for
which people coming from same culture, tradition and speaking similar language usually form the
group.

Proximity, Interaction, Interest and Influence: This is one of the common and logical reason
for which people form the group in the organization. Some people have to work together. Due to
the similarity of nature of job, they have to interact with each other for this purpose. In course of
interaction, interest develops which ultimately influences each other to sit, eat, discuss and share
besides working together.

C) FUNCTIONS OF THE GROUPS:

1. Formal organizational functions: These relates to basic mission attainment by the
organization. The group completes the work, creates ideas and embraces all activities for which
they are accountable.

2. Psychological Personal functions: The group formation facilitates psychological functioning,

satisfaction of the needs, outlet for affiliation and helps in getting stability and enhancing the
achievements.

3. Mixed or multiple functions: The formal as well as informal both kinds of roles are taken up
by the members of the group. The formal group can try to fulfill various psychological roles and
leading to increased loyalty, commitment and energy for effective attainment of the
administrative and organizational goals.

D) Factors affecting Group Performance

Factors affecting Group Performance are: Group cohesiveness, Group homogeneity, Stability
of membership, Isolation, External pressure, Group size, Group status, Group ability and
confidence, Personality of group members, Communication network, Group role, Presence of
others, and Individual dominance.

1. GROUP COHESIVENESS: Group cohesiveness is nothing but it is the attractiveness of a

group to its members or It is the extent to which group members like and trust each other,
committed to accomplish a team goal and share a feeling of group pride ( Beale, Cohen,

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 Burke & McLendon, 2003 in Aamodt, 2007). A highly cohesive group very much appeals to
their members. The cohesiveness of a group affects its performance and effectiveness.

There are a large number of factors, which influence the level of cohesiveness of a group. Those
factors can be broadly categorized into five types.

They are: size of the group, homogeneous character of group members, success of the group,
competition with other groups, and the exclusiveness of the group.

Let us discuss them in detail.

Size of the Group: Just like small family is more cohesive, similar is the case with a group. In
case the size of the group is large, their members tend to be less satisfied and do not tend to be
cohesive. Normally in a large group, only a few members of the group try to dominate everything
such as suggestion, opinion, its day to day functioning without giving opportunities for
participation to the other members in the group. Therefore, the large groups are more prone to
conflict, and members find it difficult to form close ties with each other, than a small or medium
size group in which there exists cohesiveness.

Homogeneous Character of Group Members : More similarity the member feel with each
other, better the chances that they will well get along with, and feel comfortable to communicate
with each other. The most cohesive group is one where members are more homogeneous in terms
of age, sex, education, marital status etc. and they share certain attitudes, values, experiences, and
other characteristics, which are common to each other.

Success of Group: It is the success of the group which can make it cohesive. A realization
develops among its members to avoid differences for achieving group goals. When groups are
successful in achieving their goals, they become especially attractive to their members, and group
cohesiveness enhances.

Competition with Other Groups: Competition between groups in an organization increases

group cohesiveness when it motivates members of each group to band together to achieve group
goals. For this reason, organizations often promote group cohesiveness by having work groups
competition in the organization between /among groups over sales target, zero defect production,
minimization of wastages; etc. A group of production workers may compete to see which group
can maintain the highest quality standards, and groups of maintenance workers may compete to
have the best attendance record. Giving groups names and publicizing also encourage healthy
competition, which groups are doing extraordinarily well.

Exclusiveness: A group’s exclusiveness is indicated by how is it difficult to become a member of

the group, the extent to which outsider look up to group members. The exclusiveness of a group
gives status in the organization. It also provides special rights and privileges to its group
members.

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Relationship between Group Cohesiveness and Productivity

Thus, in cohesive group members become more active participants in the group activities and the
level of communication within the group increases. They share a common goal, develop high
group loyalty and get united to perceive threat. Moreover, in a cohesive group information flows
through the group very fast.

2. Group homogeneity: It is the extent to which members are similar. Homogeneous or

heterogeneous will lead to the best group performance.
3. Stability of membership: The greater the stability, the greater the cohesiveness. Thus
members who remain for long periods of time are more cohesive and perform better than
groups that have high turnover (Bell, 2005 in Aamodt, 2007).
4. Isolation: Group that is isolated tends to be highly cohesive.
5. External pressure: Groups that are pressured by external forces tend to be highly
cohesive; which can be explained by the phenomena psychological reactance ( Brehm,
1966 in Aamodt, 2007)
6. Group size: Groups are most cohesive and perform best when the size is small. However,
not all small group are always the best; also depends on the tasks.
7. Group status: The higher the group status, the greater is the cohesiveness; thus a group
can be made more cohesive by increasing its status, at least in the eyes of the members.
8. Group ability and confidence: Groups with high-ability members outperform groups
with low-ability members. Groups whose members believe that their team can be
successful perform better than those whose members are not confident.
9. Personality of group members: Groups with members who score high in openness and
emotional stability will perform better that groups whose members do not have these
characteristics ( Bell, 2005 in Aamodt, 2007).
10. Communication network: Communication network affects groups’ performance. The
best network depends on the situation and the goals of the group. A good leader must
choose the best communication network which facilitates the achievement of the group’s
goals.
11. Group role: The extent to which the members of a group assume their roles affect group
performance. Members roles must fall into one of these categories: (1) task-orientated
roles, such as offering new ideas and coordinating new activities(2) social-oriented roles,
such as encouraging cohesiveness and participation (3) individual role
12. Presence of others: Social facilitation provides the positive effects of the presence of
others, but for easy tasks or well learned tasks.
13. Individual dominance: If the leader has an accurate solution to a problem in the group,
then the group performs at high level.
14. Group conflicts: Working together in a group or teams always presents the potential for
the occurrence of conflicts. Conflict is the psychological and behavioral reaction to a
perception that another person is keeping you from reaching a goal, taking away your right
to act in a particular way or violating the expectancies of a relationship. Key component to
conflict is perception. The level of conflict is a function of the importance of the goal,
behavior or relationship.

2. Reasons for joining a group

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Individuals join groups due to either one or more of the following reasons.

 Assignment
 Physical proximity
 Affiliation: The groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that
comes with the group membership
 Identification
 Emotional
 Support
 Assistance or help
 Common interest
 Common goals

1.6. GROUP NORMS, ROLES, STATUS, AND COHESSIVENESS

GROUP NORMS: When there are more than two individual in a group, there is every possibility
of tension, confusion and conflict over the rights, duties and status of the group among its
members. For the smooth functioning of the group, every group develops its role, norms, and
rules irrespective of its type.

Group Roles and rules help the group members as well as managers not only to control the
member’s behavior in group but also specify what behaviors should group members engage in, so
that the group will be effective, perform at a high level, and achieve its goals. Roles and rules are
formal requirements to facilitate the smooth functioning of group.

Norms on the other hand are unwritten rules and regulations, which govern the behavior and
actions of its members. It is the acceptable standards of behavior of a group which is commonly
shared by its members. We can only call a group effective group, which control the behavior of its
members through its norms and channelize their effort for the attainment of group as well as the
organizational goals.

Group rewards its members who conform to the norm in a specified manner through verbal
praise and they also get help from other members. Group also punishes its members when
somebody in the group deviates from the norm.

Norms develop when members in a group share a common idea of acceptable behavior, which,
monitor each other’s behavior in the group. Many norms develop because several members bring
their past experiences from other groups and from other organizations. Sometimes some critical
incidents in the life of the organization may also set the norm for the group. The first and the most
commonly used criteria for conformity of the group norms is compliance. It is assenting to a
norm in order to attain rewards or avoid punishment. A realization is developed among them that
the compliance of norm will bring certain benefits and ignoring it will bring certain costs.

Groups put tremendous pressure on the members to change their attitude and behavior for the
conformity of group norms. Following are the advantages of norms for a group:

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  Norms enables a group to accomplish its goals.
• Norms help the group to control and regulate the behavior of its members without external
influence.
• Norms enable a group to survive in the face of threat and competition from other groups.
They protect the group and its members from outside pressure and interference.
• Norms help the group and its member to express group’s value and give the group a unique
identity of its own.
• Norms of the group enhance the predictability of group members in terms of performance,
appearance etc.

GROUP ROLES
In formal groups, roles are usually predetermined and assigned to members. Each role will
have specific responsibilities and duties. These are, however, emergent roles that develop
naturally to meet the needs of the group. These emergent roles will often replace the assigned
roles as individuals begin to express themselves and become more assertive. Group roles can then
be classified into work role, maintenance roles, and blocking roles.
a) Work roles: are task oriented activities that involved accomplishing the group’s goals.
They involve a variety of specific roles such as initiator, informer, clarifier, summarizer
and reality tester. The initiator defines problems, proposes action, and suggests
procedures.
The informer role involves finding facts and giving advice or opinions. Clarifiers will
interpret ideas, define terms and clarify issues for the group. Summarizers restate
suggestions, offer decisions, and come to conclusions for the group. Finally, reality testers
analyze ideas and test the ideas in real situations.
b) Maintenance Roles: are social-emotional activities that help members maintain their
involvement in the group and raise their personal commitment to the group. The
maintenance roles are harmonizer, gate keeper, consensus tester, encourager and
compromiser. The harmonizer will reduce tension in the group, reconcile differences and
explore opportunities. Gatekeepers often keep communication channels open and make
suggestions that encourage participation. The consensus tester will ask if the group is
nearing a decision and test possible conclusions. Encouragers are friendly, warm, and
responsive to other group members. The last maintenance role is the compromiser. This
role involves modifying decisions, offering compromises, and admitting errors
c) Blocking roles are activities that disrupt the group. They make take the form of
dominating discussions, verbally attacking other group members, and distracting the group
with trivial information or unnecessary humor. Often times the blocking behavior may not
be intended as negative. Sometimes a member may share a joke in order to breaking a
tension, or may question a decision in order to force group members to rethink the issue.
The blocking roles are aggressor, blocker, dominator, comedian, and avoidance behavior.
The aggressor criticizes members’ values and makes jokes in sarcastic or semi-concealed
manner.
d) Blockers will stubbornly resist the groups ideas’, disagree with group members for
personal reasons, and will have hidden agendas. The dominator role attempts to control
conversations by patronizing others. They often interrupt others and assert authority in
order to manipulate members. Comedians often abandon the group even though they may
physically still be a part. They are attention getters in ways that are not relevant to the
accomplishment of the group’s objectives. The last blocking role, avoidance behavior,
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 involves pursuing goals not related to the group and changing the subject to avoid
commitment to the group.
Role ambiguity concerns the discrepancy between the sent role and the received. Supervisors,
directors, or other group leaders often send (assign) roles to group members in formal groups.
Group members receive roles by being ready and willing to undertake the tasks associated with
that role. Ambiguity results when members are confused about the delegation of the job
responsibilities. This confusion may occur because the members do not have specific job
descriptions or because the instructions regarding the task were not clear. Group members who
experience ambiguity often have feelings of frustration and dissatisfaction, which ultimately lead
to turnover.
Role conflict occurs when there is inconsistency between the perceived role and role behavior.
There is several different forms role conflict. Inter- role conflict occurs when there is conflict
between the different roles that people have. For example, work roles and family roles often
compete with one another and cause conflict. Intra role conflict occurs when individuals must
handle conflicting demands from different sources while performing the tasks associated with the
same role.

GROUP PROCESS: Group process includes the communication patterns used by members for
information exchange, group decision processes, leader behavior, conflicts and the like. One
group process that has generated considerable interest among researchers is the social facilitation
effect. Psychologists have given different explanations for the social facilitation effect. Some of
the prominent explanations are: (1) Drive theory. (2) Evaluation apprehension. (3) Distraction-
conflict model.
GROUP TASK: Task may be simple, routine and standardized or they be complex, non routine,
and novel. The nature of the task moderates the group process and effect group performance and
member satisfaction. For certain kind of tasks, large groups are more suitable while for some
tasks smaller groups are desirable. Greater interaction among group members is required when
there is a high degree of interdependence among the tasks that group members must perform.

GROUP DECISION MAKING

PROBLEM-SOLVING and DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES

Simple Processes for Problem-Solving and Decision-Making

Problem solving and decision-making are important skills for business and life. Problem-solving
often involves decision-making, and decision-making is especially important for management and
leadership. There are processes and techniques to improve decision-making and the quality of
decisions. Decision-making is more natural to certain personalities, so these people should focus
more on improving the quality of their decisions. People that are less natural decision-makers are
often able to make quality assessments, but then need to be more decisive in acting upon the
assessments made. Problem-solving and decision-making are closely linked, and each requires
creativity in identifying and developing options, for which the brainstorming technique is
particularly useful.

Decision making experts have developed four techniques to be employed in problem solving.

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 1. ORDINARY GROUP INTERACTION Members meet face to face. Rely on verbal and
nonverbal interaction to communicate each other. Interacting groups often censor
themselves and pressure individual members toward conformity of opinion.

2. BRAINSTORMING Process for generating ideas. Members express themselves freely,

means as many alternatives as they can give. No criticism is allowed. Restrict verbal
interaction between members.

3. NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE: Nominal group is simply a paper group. The

essential idea is to restrict interpersonal communication and increase the deliberation and
contribution of individual members. It is superior to real groups in terms of number of
ideas, uniqueness of ideas and quality of ideas. Generally it helps groups to generate ideas
and evaluate and select solutions. It consists four phases. The first phase consists of
individual members meeting as a group and generate their own procedure ideas related to
the problem. The second phase, round robin procedure ensues whereby each group
member presents her/his idea to the group without any discussion. These ideas are
summarized and recorded by the “group leader” carefully. Third phase, here ideas which
were generated are discussed for clarification and evaluation by the members. In the
fourth phase, all the members individually and silently give their rank-ordering of the
various solutions to the problem. The final decision of the group is determined
mathematically by the pooled outcome of the members’ votes on the issue. The idea with
the highest aggregate ranking determines the eventual group decision.

4. DELPHI TECHNIQUE Members in Delphi technique are physically dispersed and do

not meet face to face. The key to Delphi process is the anonymous input. The anonymous
tends to eliminate the counterproductive effects that status, intimidation, emotion, face
saving and argumentation can have in traditional interacting group decision making
procedures. This technique is used for long range forecasting.

Concept of Group Dynamics

The group dynamics refers to changes which take place within groups and is concerned with the
interaction and forces obtained between group members in social settings. It is a study of forces
operating within a group. A group doesn’t simply mean individuals possessing same identical
features. For instance, a collection of students or beggars doesn’t form a group. These are class. A
group is formed when the “Two or More” individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have
come together to achieve particular objectives. The social process by which people interact face-
to-face in a group environment is called Group Dynamics. The word “Dynamics” comes from the
Greek word meaning “force”; hence group dynamics refers to the study of forces operating within
a group. Suppose we say “one plus one equals eleven.” In the world of Mathematics that is a
logical error, but in the world of Group Dynamics it is entirely rational to say “one plus one
equals eleven”.

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FEATURES OF GROUP DYNAMICS:

• Concerned with group - Group dynamics is concerned with group. Wherever a group
exists the individuals interact and members are continuously changing and adjusting
relationship with respect to each other. The members of the group may interact , may be in
state of tension , may be attracted or repelled to each other , may seek the resolution of
these tensions and return to equilibrium after the resolution.
• Changes - Changes go on occurring like introduction of the new members, changes in
leadership, presence of old and new members and the rate of change – fast or slow. The
groups may dissolve if the members are not enthusiastic about the goals, they have no
faith in the ideology and do not identify themselves with the group. This means that the
cohesiveness in the group has decreased.
 Rigidity or Flexibility - There may be rigidity or flexibility (cohesiveness or conflict) that
influence a group dynamics. If the members get along well there is smooth sailing for the
group and if there is conflict it leads to problems. A rigid group may not change and lacks
adaptability to change. But the members if are able to solves the problems, the equilibrium
can be maintained. The conflict and tension if increases within the group, this can cause an
open flare up and strong measures are urgently.
 Group organization - The group organization is essential. It leads to greater group
effectiveness, participation, cooperation and a constructive morale. The leader will be
effective only if the group is organized and stable. Some degree of organization is
essential for effective functioning of the group and depends on the proportion of the well-
defined roles members have in the group. The organized group is one with every member
having specific roles and acting towards other members in the prescribed manner.
 Continuous process of restructuring, adjusting and readjusting members :
-Dynamic group always is in continuous process of restructuring, adjusting and
readjusting members to one another for the purpose of reducing the tensions, eliminating
the conflicts and solving the problems which its members have in common. The changes
may take within a group and it is interesting to study the way the change do occur. The
frequent changes indicate the capacity of the group to change and adapt.

PRINCIPLES OF THE GROUP DYNAMICS:

1- The members of the group must have a strong sense of belonging to the group .The barrier
between the leaders and to be led must be broken down.
2- The more attraction a group is to its members, the greater influence it would exercise on
its members.
3- The grater the prestige of the group member in the eyes of the members, the greater
influence he would exercise on the theme.
4- The successful efforts to change individuals sub parts of the group would result in making
them confirm to the norms of the group.
5- The pressures for change when strong can be established in the group by creating a shared
perception by the members for the need for the change.
6- Information relating to the need for change, plans for change and the consequence of the
changes must be shared by the members of the group.

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 7- The changes in one part of the groups may produce stress in the other parts, which can be
reduced only by eliminating the change or by bringing about readjustments in the related
parts.
8- The groups arise and function owing to common motives.
9- The groups survive by pacing the members into functional hierarchy and facilitating the
action towards the goal.
10- The intergroup relations, group organization, member participation is essential for
effectiveness of a group.

What Causes Poor Group Dynamics?

Group leaders and team members can contribute to a negative group dynamic. Let's look at some
of the most common problems that can occur:
 Weak leadership: when a team lacks a strong leader, a more dominant member of the
group can often take charge. This can lead to a lack of direction, infighting, or a focus on
the wrong priorities.
 Excessive deference to authority: this can happen when people want to be seen to agree
with a leader, and therefore hold back from expressing their own opinions.
 Blocking: this happens when team members behave in a way that disrupts the flow of
information in the group. People can adopt blocking roles such as:
o The aggressor: this person often disagrees with others, or is inappropriately
outspoken.
o The negator: this group member is often critical of others' ideas.
o The withdrawer: this person doesn't participate in the discussion.
o The recognition seeker: this group member is boastful, or dominates the session.
o The joker: this person introduces humor at inappropriate times.
 Groupthink : this happens when people place a desire for consensus above their desire to
reach the right decision. This prevents people from fully exploring alternative solutions.
 Free riding: here, some group members take it easy, and leave their colleagues to do all
the work. Free riders may work hard on their own, but limit their contributions in-group
situations; this is known as "social loafing."
 Evaluation apprehension: team members' perceptions can also create a negative group
dynamic. Evaluation apprehension happens when people feel that they are being judged
excessively harshly by other group members, and they hold back their opinions as a result.

Key Points

The term "group dynamics" describes the way in which people in a group interact with one
another. When dynamics are positive, the group works well together. When dynamics are poor,
the group's effectiveness is reduced. Problems can come from weak leadership, too much
deference to authority, blocking, groupthink and free riding, among others. To strengthen your
team's dynamics, use the following strategies: Know your team. Tackle problems quickly with
good feedback. Define roles and responsibilities. Break down barriers. Focus on communication.
Pay attention. Keep in mind that observing how your group interacts is an important part of your
role as a leader. Many of the behaviors that lead to poor dynamics can be overcome if you catch
them early.
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Group dynamics and conflict management are important aspects of organizational behavior.
Group dynamics refers to the ways in which individuals within a group interact with each other
and how the group functions as a whole. Conflict management refers to the strategies and
techniques used to address and resolve conflicts within a group or organization.

Effective group dynamics and conflict management are essential for promoting a positive work
environment, fostering collaboration, and achieving organizational goals. Here are some key
concepts and strategies to consider:

1. Communication: Effective communication is essential for promoting positive group

dynamics and resolving conflicts. Group members should be encouraged to express their
opinions and ideas openly, and to listen to each other respectfully.
2. Active Listening: Active listening is a key component of effective communication. Group
members should listen to each other attentively and ask clarifying questions to ensure that
they understand each other's perspectives.
3. Constructive Criticism: Constructive criticism is essential for promoting growth and
improvement within the group. Group members should provide feedback to each other in
a constructive and respectful manner.
4. Conflict Resolution Strategies: Conflict resolution strategies can help to address conflicts
within the group. Strategies may include negotiation, compromise, collaboration, or
mediation.
5. Empathy: Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. It is an
important component of effective communication and conflict management. Group
members should strive to understand each other's perspectives and feelings.
6. Diversity and Inclusion: Embracing diversity and inclusion can help to promote positive
group dynamics and reduce conflicts. Group members should be encouraged to bring
diverse perspectives and experiences to the group, and to respect each other's differences.
7. Leadership: Effective leadership is essential for promoting positive group dynamics and
resolving conflicts. Group leaders should model positive behavior and encourage open
communication and collaboration within the group.

In summary, group dynamics and conflict management are essential for promoting a positive
work environment and achieving organizational goals. Effective communication, active listening,
constructive criticism, conflict resolution strategies, empathy, diversity and inclusion, and
leadership are all important components of effective group dynamics and conflict management in
an organization.

Group Dynamics refers to the study of how individuals interact with each other in groups and
how these interactions affect the group's performance and productivity. It involves understanding
the various processes and behaviors that occur within groups.

Factors that contribute to group formation include:

1. Shared interests or goals: When individuals share common interests or goals, they are
more likely to come together to form a group.
2. Proximity: When individuals are physically close to each other, they are more likely to
form a group.
3. Similar backgrounds: Individuals with similar backgrounds, such as education, culture, or
ethnicity, are more likely to form a group.
4. Personal attraction: People tend to form groups with others they find attractive or
interesting.
5. Task requirements: Groups may form to complete a specific task or project.

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Groups can have a significant impact on organizational performance. They can enhance
communication, increase creativity, and promote innovation. However, they can also create
conflicts, reduce productivity, and lead to groupthink, which is the tendency for individuals to
conform to the group's opinions and ideas.

Proximity theory in group dynamics suggests that physical proximity is a significant factor in
group formation. According to this theory, individuals are more likely to form groups with people
who are physically close to them. This can lead to the formation of cliques or subgroups within
larger groups, which can affect the group's overall performance.

In conclusion, understanding group dynamics is essential for organizations to promote effective

teamwork and collaboration. By recognizing the factors that contribute to group formation and the
impact of groups on organizational performance, organizations can create a positive work
environment that encourages productive group interactions.

Groups can be formal or informal. Formal groups are created by the organization to achieve
specific goals, while informal groups are formed by individuals who share common interests or
goals. Informal groups can have a significant impact on an organization's culture and can
influence the behavior and attitudes of employees.

One of the key factors that contribute to effective group performance is the level of cohesion
within the group. Cohesion refers to the degree to which the members of a group are attracted to
each other and share a sense of belonging. When a group is highly cohesive, members are more
likely to work together effectively and support each other.

However, cohesion can also have negative effects on group performance. When group cohesion
becomes too strong, it can lead to groupthink, which can result in poor decision-making and a
lack of creativity. To avoid groupthink, it's important to encourage diverse perspectives and
opinions within the group.

Another important factor in group dynamics is leadership. Effective leadership can help to
promote a positive group environment and encourage productive interactions. Leaders should be
able to facilitate communication, resolve conflicts, and provide support and guidance to group
members.

Finally, it's important to recognize that groups can go through various stages of development,
such as forming, storming, norming, and performing. During the forming stage, group members
get to know each other and establish the group's goals and objectives. During the storming stage,
conflicts and disagreements may arise as the group members establish their roles and
responsibilities. During the norming stage, the group members establish norms and values, and
begin to work together more effectively. Finally, during the performing stage, the group is
cohesive and productive, and achieves its goals.

Overall, understanding group dynamics is essential for promoting effective teamwork and
collaboration in organizations. By recognizing the various factors that contribute to group
formation and performance, organizations can create a positive and productive work environment
that encourages cooperation and creativity.

situation where group cohesion had negative effects?

One example of a situation where group cohesion had negative effects is the Challenger Space
Shuttle disaster in 1986. The Challenger Space Shuttle was launched by NASA on January 28,
1986, and tragically exploded 73 seconds after liftoff, killing all seven crew members.

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An investigation into the disaster found that there were several factors that contributed to the
accident, including a failure in an O-ring seal that allowed hot gases to escape from one of the
solid rocket boosters. One of the key factors that contributed to the O-ring failure was groupthink,
which was caused by a high level of cohesion within the group responsible for the booster's
design.

The engineers responsible for designing the booster had expressed concerns about the O-rings'
ability to withstand the cold temperatures on the day of the launch. However, due to a strong
sense of cohesion within the group, the engineers did not speak out forcefully enough about their
concerns. They were also under pressure to meet the launch schedule and did not want to delay
the launch.

As a result, the decision was made to proceed with the launch despite the concerns about the O-
rings. The lack of dissenting opinions and the pressure to conform to the group's decision-making
process led to a failure to properly assess and address the safety risks.

The Challenger disaster highlights the negative effects of group cohesion when it leads to
groupthink. When group members are too cohesive and do not allow for dissenting opinions or
diverse perspectives, it can lead to poor decision-making and a lack of critical thinking. It's
important to encourage open communication and diverse viewpoints within groups to avoid the
negative effects of groupthink.

How can group cohesion be balanced with critical thinking and dissenting opinions?

Balancing group cohesion with critical thinking and dissenting opinions can be challenging, but it
is essential for promoting effective decision-making and avoiding groupthink. Here are some
strategies that can help:

1. Encourage open communication: Encourage group members to express their opinions and
ideas openly, and to listen to each other respectfully. This can help to promote a sense of
trust and openness within the group.
2. Foster a culture of constructive criticism: Encourage group members to provide
constructive criticism and feedback on each other's ideas and proposals. This can help to
promote critical thinking and avoid groupthink.
3. Assign a devil's advocate: Assign a group member to play the role of the devil's advocate,
whose job is to challenge the group's assumptions and ideas. This can help to promote
critical thinking and encourage dissenting opinions.
4. Encourage diverse viewpoints: Encourage group members to bring diverse perspectives
and experiences to the group. This can help to promote creativity and avoid groupthink.
5. Evaluate decisions objectively: Evaluate decisions based on objective criteria, rather than
on the basis of group consensus. This can help to ensure that decisions are based on sound
reasoning and critical thinking.

By implementing these strategies, groups can balance cohesion with critical thinking and
dissenting opinions. This can lead to more effective decision-making, better communication, and
a more productive group environment.

How can we identify when groupthink is happening?

Identifying when groupthink is happening can be challenging because it often occurs without
group members realizing it. However, there are several signs that can indicate the presence of
groupthink. Here are some of the key signs to look out for:

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 1. Illusion of invulnerability: The group members may believe that the group is invulnerable
or morally superior, and that their decisions are always correct.
2. Rationalization: The group members may rationalize away any dissenting opinions or
information that contradicts their position.
3. Stereotyping: The group members may stereotype outsiders or those who disagree with
them as being less intelligent or uninformed.
4. Pressure to conform: The group members may feel pressure to conform to the group's
decision-making process, and may not want to speak out against the group's ideas or
decisions.
5. Self-censorship: The group members may self-censor their opinions or ideas, fearing that
they will be rejected by the group.
6. Illusion of unanimity: The group members may believe that everyone in the group agrees
with the group's ideas or decisions, even if this is not the case.
7. Direct pressure: The group members may use direct pressure to enforce conformity and
discourage dissenting opinions.

If you notice these signs in a group, it may be an indication that groupthink is occurring. It's
important to address this issue by encouraging open communication, dissenting opinions, and
critical thinking. This can help to promote a more effective decision-making process and avoid
the negative effects of groupthink.

What are some strategies to avoid the negative effects of groupthink?

There are several strategies to avoid the negative effects of groupthink. Here are some of the most
effective strategies:

1. Encourage diverse perspectives: Encourage group members to bring diverse perspectives

and experiences to the group. This can help to promote creativity, critical thinking, and
avoid groupthink.
2. Assign a devil's advocate: Assign a group member to play the role of the devil's advocate,
whose job is to challenge the group's assumptions and ideas. This can help to promote
critical thinking and encourage dissenting opinions.
3. Encourage open communication: Encourage group members to express their opinions and
ideas openly, and to listen to each other respectfully. This can help to promote a sense of
trust and openness within the group.
4. Foster a culture of constructive criticism: Encourage group members to provide
constructive criticism and feedback on each other's ideas and proposals. This can help to
promote critical thinking and avoid groupthink.
5. Seek input from outsiders: Seek input from individuals outside of the group who can
provide an objective perspective on the group's ideas and decisions.
6. Encourage group members to think independently: Encourage group members to think
independently and to challenge the group's ideas and decisions, even if it means going
against the group.
7. Evaluate decisions objectively: Evaluate decisions based on objective criteria, rather than
on the basis of group consensus. This can help to ensure that decisions are based on sound
reasoning and critical thinking.

By implementing these strategies, groups can avoid the negative effects of groupthink and
promote effective decision-making and communication. It's important for group members to be
aware of the potential for groupthink and to actively work to promote critical thinking, dissenting
opinions, and open communication.

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GROUP NORMS, ROLES, STATUS, AND COHESIVENESS
Group norms, roles, status, and cohesiveness are all important aspects of group dynamics.
Group norms refer to the shared expectations and standards for behavior within a group. Norms
can be explicit or implicit, and they can be established through formal rules or through informal
expectations and customs. Group norms can influence behavior by setting expectations for what is
considered appropriate or acceptable within the group.

Group roles refer to the specific tasks and responsibilities assigned to individual members within
the group. Roles can be formal or informal, and they can be assigned based on expertise,
experience, or other factors. Group roles are important for ensuring that tasks are completed
effectively and efficiently.

Group status refers to the relative standing or prestige of individual members within the group.
Status can be based on a variety of factors, such as expertise, experience, or social skills. Group
members with higher status may have more influence over the group's decisions and may be more
likely to be listened to and respected.

Cohesiveness refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and share a
sense of belonging. Cohesive groups are more likely to work together effectively and support
each other. However, cohesiveness can also lead to groupthink, which is the tendency for
individuals to conform to the group's opinions and ideas.

Effective group dynamics require a balance between group norms, roles, status, and
cohesiveness. Group norms and roles should be established to promote effective communication
and collaboration, while status should be based on expertise and experience rather than social
factors. Cohesiveness should be fostered through positive interactions and support, but dissenting
opinions and critical thinking should also be encouraged to avoid groupthink and promote
productive decision-making.

Tell me more about dissenting opinions.

Dissenting opinions are opinions that differ from the majority or prevailing view within a group.
Dissenting opinions can be valuable because they can challenge groupthink and promote critical
thinking and creativity. When individuals feel free to express dissenting opinions, they can help
the group to consider alternative perspectives and avoid making biased or flawed decisions.

However, expressing dissenting opinions can be difficult, especially in highly cohesive groups
where conformity is valued. Individuals may fear that their opinions will be rejected or that they
will be ostracized from the group. This can lead to self-censorship and a lack of diverse
perspectives within the group.

To encourage dissenting opinions, it's important to establish a culture of open communication and
respect within the group. Group members should be encouraged to express their opinions and
ideas openly, and to listen to each other respectfully. Group leaders can also assign a devil's
advocate to challenge the group's ideas and encourage critical thinking.

When dissenting opinions are expressed, it's important for group members to listen carefully and
consider the alternative perspectives being presented. This can help the group to avoid groupthink
and make more informed decisions. Dissenting opinions should be evaluated based on their
merits, rather than on the basis of who expresses them.

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In summary, dissenting opinions can be valuable for promoting critical thinking and avoiding
groupthink within groups. It's important to encourage open communication and respect within the
group, and to evaluate dissenting opinions based on their merits rather than on the basis of who
expresses them.

In summary, group dynamics and conflict management are essential for promoting a positive
work environment and achieving organizational goals. Effective communication, active listening,
constructive criticism, conflict resolution strategies, empathy, diversity and inclusion, and
leadership are all important components of effective group dynamics and conflict management in
an organization.

• Identify the helping and hindering roles that individuals in groups play

Individuals in groups can play a variety of roles, some of which can be helpful and others that can
be hindering. Here are some of the key helping and hindering roles that individuals in groups may
play:

Helping Roles:

1. Facilitator: A facilitator helps to guide the group's discussion and decision-making

process.
2. Mediator: A mediator helps to resolve conflicts within the group by facilitating
communication and negotiation.
3. Innovator: An innovator brings new and creative ideas to the group, helping to promote
innovation and growth.
4. Encourager: An encourager provides positive feedback and support to group members,
helping to motivate and inspire the group.
5. Active Listener: An active listener listens attentively to others and asks clarifying
questions to ensure that they understand others' perspectives.
6. Task Leader: A task leader helps to organize and delegate tasks within the group, ensuring
that they are completed effectively and efficiently.

Hindering Roles:

1. Dominator: A dominator tries to control the group's discussion and decision-making

process, and may not be open to others' perspectives.
2. Aggressor: An aggressor may use aggressive or confrontational behavior to intimidate or
belittle other group members.
3. Silent Member: A silent member may not contribute to the group's discussion or decision-
making process, which can hinder progress and productivity.
4. Blocker: A blocker may resist new ideas or proposals, preventing the group from moving
forward.
5. Avoider: An avoider may try to avoid conflict or difficult discussions, which can prevent
the group from addressing important issues.
6. Rescuer: A rescuer may try to solve other group members' problems for them, which can
prevent them from taking responsibility for their own actions.

In summary, individuals in groups can play a variety of helping and hindering roles. By
understanding these roles, group members can work together more effectively and avoid common
pitfalls that can hinder progress and productivity.

What are some theories of group formation?

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There are several theories of group formation that describe the process by which groups are
created and develop over time. Here are some of the key theories:

1. Social Identity Theory: Social identity theory posits that individuals form groups based on
shared characteristics, such as race, religion, or nationality. Group members develop a
shared identity and sense of belonging based on these shared characteristics.
2. Social Exchange Theory: Social exchange theory posits that individuals form groups
based on the benefits that they expect to receive from the group. Group members engage
in a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether the benefits of membership outweigh the
costs.
3. Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory posits that individuals learn how to behave
in groups by observing and imitating the behavior of others. Group members learn and
adopt group norms and roles through this process of observation and imitation.
4. Group Development Theory: Group development theory posits that groups go through
various stages of development over time, including forming, storming, norming,
performing, and adjourning. During each stage, group members develop a shared
understanding of group goals, norms, and roles.
5. Functional Theory: Functional theory posits that groups are formed to fulfill specific
functions or needs, such as task accomplishment, social support, or emotional expression.
The success of the group is dependent on how well it fulfills these functions.
6. Symbolic Interactionism: Symbolic interactionism posits that groups are formed through
the interactions between individuals, which are shaped by shared symbols, meanings, and
values. Group members develop a shared understanding of these symbols and meanings
through their interactions with each other.

In summary, these theories of group formation provide different perspectives on how and why
groups are formed. By understanding these theories, we can gain insight into the dynamics of
group formation and development, and use this knowledge to promote effective group
functioning.

Is there any similarity between the theories listed above and proximity theory; activity
theory; exchange/benefit theory and balance theory? Can you please explain what these
theories are?

Yes, there are some similarities between the theories listed in the previous answer and the theories
of Proximity Theory, Activity Theory, Exchange/Benefit Theory, and Balance Theory. Here is an
explanation of each theory:

1. Proximity Theory: Proximity theory is based on the idea that individuals are more likely to
form relationships with those who are physically close to them. This theory suggests that
proximity is a key factor in the formation of social relationships, including friendships and
romantic relationships.
2. Activity Theory: Activity theory suggests that individuals form relationships based on
shared activities and experiences. This theory posits that individuals are more likely to
form relationships with those who engage in similar activities or share similar interests.
3. Exchange/Benefit Theory: Exchange/benefit theory suggests that individuals form
relationships based on the benefits that they expect to receive from the relationship. This
theory posits that individuals engage in a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether the
benefits of the relationship outweigh the costs.
4. Balance Theory: Balance theory suggests that individuals form relationships based on the
perceived balance or imbalance of social relationships. This theory posits that individuals
are more likely to form relationships with those who share similar attitudes and beliefs.

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There are some similarities between these theories and the theories of group formation listed in
the previous answer. For example, social exchange theory is similar to exchange/benefit theory
in that both theories suggest that individuals form relationships based on the benefits that they
expect to receive. Social learning theory is similar to activity theory in that both theories suggest
that individuals learn and adopt behaviors through their interactions with others. Social identity
theory is similar to balance theory in that both theories suggest that individuals form relationships
based on shared characteristics and attitudes.

In summary, these theories provide different perspectives on the factors that influence social
relationships and group formation. By understanding these theories, we can gain insight into the
dynamics of social relationships and use this knowledge to build stronger relationships and
promote effective group functioning.

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 Unit Two
Conflict Management

2. 1 Concepts of Conflict

Conflict is an inevitable and unavoidable part of our everyday professional and personal lives. A
given conflict may be defined in terms of the issues that caused it, the strategies used to
address it, or the outcomes or consequences that follow from it.

Conflict is the psychological and behavioral reaction to a perception that another person is
keeping you from reaching a goal, taking away your right to act in a particular way or violating
the expectancies of a relationship.

Conflict is defined as a "process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed
or negatively affected by another party" (Wall & Callister, 1995, p. 517), and "the interactive
process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or dissonance within or between social
entities" (Rahim, 1992, p. 16).

Conflict has many causes, such as competition of resources etc. People react to conflict
differently. Conflict is part of life in an organization and can be managed wisely and successfully.

2.2 Organizational Conflict

Conflict may have either a positive or a negative effect on organizational performance,
depending on the nature of the conflict and how it is managed Armstrong (2009) in (Mike A.
Iravo. introductory page). For every organization, an optimal level of conflict exists which is
considered highly functional as it helps to generate good performance. When the conflict level is
too high (dysfunctional), performance suffers. Consequently, innovation and change may become
unmanageable and the organization may not adapt to change in its environment (Beardwell and
Claydon, 2007).

2.2.1 Defining organizational conflict

Organizational Conflict is the discord that arises when goals, interests or values of different
individuals or groups are incompatible and those people block or thwart each other’s efforts to
achieve their objectives. Conflict is inevitable given the wide range of goals for the different
stakeholder in the organization. Lack of conflict signals that management emphasizes conformity
and stifles innovation. Conflict is good for organizational performance although excessive
conflict causes managers to spend too much time achieving their own ends

2.2.2 Views on Organizational Conflict

There are three views exercised by individuals, groups and organizations. These are a) traditional
view, b) The behavioral or contemporary view and c) the modern view.

2.2.2.1 Traditional view of Organizational Conflict

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The traditional view (dominant from the late nineteenth century until the mid-1940s) assumes
that conflict is bad, always has a negative impact, and leads to declines in performance as the
level of conflict increases. Conflict must therefore always be avoided. In this view conflict is
closely associated with such terms as violence, destruction, and irrationality.
The response to conflict in the traditional view is to reduce, suppress, or eliminate it. The manager
was responsible for freeing the project of any conflict, often using an authoritarian approach.
Although that approach worked sometimes, it was not generally effective; when they are
suppressed, the root causes cannot be identified, and the potentially positive aspects of conflict
cannot emerge.
This traditional view of conflict is still widely held because industrial and business institutions
that have a strong influence on our society concur with it. This negative view of conflict played a
role in the development of labor unions. Violent or disruptive confrontations between workers
and management led people to conclude that conflict was always detrimental and should therefore
be avoided.

2.2.2.2 The behavioral or contemporary view

The behavioral or contemporary view, also known as the human relations view, emerged in the
late 1940s and held sway through the 1970s. It argues that conflict is natural and inevitable in all
organizations and that it may have either a positive or a negative effect, depending on how the
conflict is handled. Performance may increase with conflict, but only up to a certain level, and
then decline if conflict is allowed to increase further or is left unresolved. This approach
advocates acceptance of conflict and rationalizes its existence. Because of the potential benefits
from conflict, project managers should focus on managing it effectively rather than suppressing or
eliminating it.

2.2.2.3 The Modern View or the interactionist view of Organizational Conflict

The newest perspective, the interactionist view assumes that conflict is necessary to increase
performance. While the behavioral approach accepts conflict, the interactionist view encourages
conflict based on the belief that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, too-cooperative project
organization is likely to become static, apathetic, stagnant, and unable to respond to change and
innovation. This approach encourages managers to maintain an appropriate level of conflict—
enough to keep projects self-critical, viable, creative, and innovative.

Using these three views of conflict, the managerial actions to be taken can be decided by
comparing the actual level of conflict (a) and desired levels of conflict (d). According to the
traditional view, the desired level of conflict is always zero. If a = 0, do nothing, and if actual
conflict rises above zero, it should be resolved. But the behavioral and interactionist views differ
only in terms of the desired level of conflict, which could be equal to or above zero in the
contemporary view and is always above zero in the interactionist view If the desired level of
conflict is above zero, then there are three possible outcomes depending on whether a is more
than d or a is less than d. (See Table 1 for a summary of the three views of conflict, their effect on
performance, and the recommended managerial actions.)

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TABLE 1 A COMPARISON OF CONFLICT VIEWS

Traditional View Human Modern/Interactionist View

relations/Contemporary
View
Main Caused by Inevitable between Results from commitment to goals
Points troublemakers humans Often beneficial
Bad Not always bad Should be stimulated
Should be avoided Natural result of Should aim to foster creativity
Should be suppressed change
Can be managed
Effect on Performance declines Performance mainly Certain level of conflict is
Performa as the level of depends on how necessary to increase performance.
nce conflict increases effectively the conflict Performance increases with conflict
is handled. Generally up to a certain level, then declines if
performance increases conflict increases further or remains
to a certain level as unresolved
conflict level
increases, then declines
if conflict is allowed to
increase further or left
unresolved
Recomm Do nothing if a = d Do nothing if a = d Do nothing if a = d
ended Resolve conflict if a Resolve conflict if a > Resolve conflict if a> d Stimulate
Actions > d (Where d = 0) d (Where d ~ 0) conflict if a < d (Where d> 0)

Note: a = actual level of conflict among team members; d = desired level of conflict that team
members are comfortable with. What if a is less than d, conflict management implies not only
conflict resolution but also conflict stimulation.

According to the behavioral and interactionist views, there is an optimal level of conflict that
maximizes project and organizational performance. A project with no conflict whatsoever has
little incentive for innovation, creativity, or changes because its participants are comfortable with
the status quo and are not concerned about improving their performance.

2.2.3. Types of Organizational Conflict

a) Functional _ support the goal of the group and improves their performance
b) Dysfunctional _ conflict that hinders group performance

According to Q. Noorulhadi , types of conflict are subdivided in to four:

a) Goal conflict: Conflict arises when an individual selects or is assigned goals that are
incompatible with each other. It refers to the extent to which an individual’s goal or
group’s goal are at odds with one another.

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 b) Affective conflict: It can be explained as the incompatible feeling and emotions within the
individual or between the individuals. Interpersonal conflicts as well as antagonisms
( being in opposition) between groups are examples of affective conflict.
c) Cognitive conflict: It occurs when thoughts and ideas within an individual or between
individuals or groups are incompatible.
d) procedural conflict: Exists when group members disagree about the procedure to be
followed in accomplishing the task or goal.

Types of conflict in organization is subdivided in to three; (S.M. Israr )

a. Inter-personal and intra-personal

b. Inter-group and intra-group
c. Competitive and Disruptive

2.2.4. Causes of organizational Conflict

The following are assumed to be some of the cause of conflict

 unclear authority structure
 perception of organizational leaders
 conflict of interest
 personal disputes
 unfair division of work
 incompetent discipline
 absence of esprit de corps
 laissez-faire administration
 Interpretation
 Communication
 Who should do what?
 Poor coordination of activities
 Poorly defined goals
 Divergent personal values
 Lack of cooperation/trust
 Competition of scarce resources
 Unclear roles/lack of job description
 Diversity issues etc.

Poor communication skills

People typically communicate by three methods: verbal, written, and visual. Many
people lack the ability to communicate effectively. Poor communication skills,
regardless of the form, translate into conflict when there should not be. One team
member may be trying to get a point across but unintentionally offends, or perhaps
confuses, the other team members. Often times team members may be agreeing on how
to approach a particular problem, yet, because of poor communication skills, the team
members involved conflict because one or both is not communicating effectively to the
other. A truly effective communicator can understand what the other team member is

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 trying to say without having them actually say it. The major deficiency in
communication for most is not realizing it is a weakness. If all participants in a team
make a concerted effort and can communicate openly and honestly without becoming
defensive, the potential for success by the team is increased exponentially.

Different Views or Values

Conflict can arise from parties having different views or values. Whenever there is a
team, there are as many perceptions of what is happening as there are individuals. The
parties involved see the situation differently because they have all experienced life
through different eyes. Perceptions are shaped by differing life experiences and by
values learned from our family and those closest to us. This is why values and views
are linked together when it comes to conflict. Most of the time, if there is a difference
in values, there is a conflict.

No Clearly Defined Leader

With any team, you cannot have all Chiefs and leaders. The reverse of that saying is also
true. A team with no clearly defined leader is a difficult concept to fathom, as there would
likely be no team, yet a group of individuals. Without establishing a leader, a group of
individuals full of different ideas and strengths would find it difficult to successfully
achieve any goals. There are many consequences involved when there is not a leader: no
direction, no one to guide the flow of work, and no sense of order. Without a leader, the
individuals in the team may seek separate ways to solve the same problem and never
come to any agreement. The team may never solve the problem at all. In absence of a
leader, the team may also have problems with focus and lose understanding or sight of the
goal. The most crippling problem of working leader-free is having multiple leaders. When
there is no leader established, each person in the group, on some level, assumes a
leadership role. This could cause a great deal of conflict among the team, and instead of
working together, the team may become individual pockets of resistance. Leadership is
important in the area of maintaining order within a group, whether at work, home, or
extra-curricular activities. In order to achieve success, you must have someone to make
the final call.

Being Closed-minded

Being closed-minded is a state of mind that can hinder the individual as well as the
team. Closed-minded is to stay steadfast to your personal thoughts and beliefs without
consideration of all the factors. Without any concern for the evidence or case before
them, a closed-minded person has already decided on a course of action or lack of
participation, and will not be moved. The unwillingness of one person to compromise
by incorporating the input of the other team members can prove to be a deterrent in a
team and lead to goals not being achieved. In a team environment, the art of
brainstorming is a pillar of success. Having the ability to understand and discuss
different ideas, as well as incorporate these ideas in to one workable solution, requires
a great deal of openness on the part of each individual within the team. For this reason,

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 closed-minded people are usually a stumbling block in the overall wellness of any
team.

Inadequate Knowledge and Skills

Inadequate knowledge and skills can cause conflict and are a major problem when it comes
to reaching a goal or certain level within a group. Most people would define knowledge as
having a clear understanding of what to do in a given situation. By understanding the
meaning of knowledge, it is easy to understand why knowledge is an integral part of
success in any team environment. Skills are actually a category of knowledge, with the
addition of dexterity or aptitude, and both are needed in order to contribute, with any value,
to the vision of the team. The absence of either of the components in an individual can
usually be masked by projecting a confident or knowing attitude, and may not be seen
initially during conversation or the forming stage of the team. This well-hidden deficiency
will reveal itself at the most inopportune times if there is not a sense of openness within the
team. The embarrassment of not being prepared in crunch-time because of the lack of
knowledge and skill within a team can be readily avoided by taking a poll of strengths and
weaknesses, listening and responding to incorrect assumptions, and being open to give and
take information and criticism that could correct your incorrect information or wrong-
doings.

WHAT CAUSES DISPUTES AND CONFLICT?

Part of developing an effective intervention strategy is knowing the general categories of

causes of conflict.
One model (Moore, 1996) identifies five sources of conflict:
1. Data or information conflict, which involves lack of information and misinformation, as
well as differing views on what data are relevant, the interpretation of that data and how
the assessment is performed.
2. Relationship conflict, which results from strong emotions, stereotypes,
miscommunication and repetitive negative behavior. It is this type of conflict which often
provides fuel for disputes and can promote destructive conflict even when the conditions
to resolve the other sources of conflict can be met.
3. Value conflict, which arises over ideological differences or differing standards on
evaluation of ideas or behaviors. The actual or perceived differences in values do not
necessarily lead to conflict. It is only when values are imposed on groups or groups are
prevented from upholding their value systems that conflict arises.
4. Structural conflict, which is caused by unequal or unfair distributions of power and
resources. Time constraints, destructive patterns of interaction and unconducive
geographical or environmental factors contribute to structural conflict.
5. Interest conflict, which involves actual or perceived competition over interests, such as
resources, the way a dispute is to be resolved, or perceptions of trust and fairness.
An analysis of the different types of conflict the parties are dealing with helps the
intervenor determine strategies for effective handling of the disputes.

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ADDITIONAL CAUSES OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Conflict between individuals can also be brought about by:

Poor communication
Where the parties are unable to express themselves, verbalize their needs, state the case
adequately, provide logical and structured argument, or listen effectively, conflict can
arise. The more limited the communication skills a person has, the greater possibility of
physical violence.

Perceived differences
Humans form groups naturally and so individuals need to distinguish their group from
outsiders. This can lead to possible conflict between races, religions, political systems and,
even, teams or departments at work.

Biological orientation
This stems from the Darwinian concept of the survival of the fittest. Here it is suggested
that conflict is both natural and healthy. Nature is red in tooth and claw. In the end the
strongest survive and those aspects which facilitate their survival are perpetuated. Weak
organizations go to the wall.

Spatial relationships
Individuals seem to need their own space. Consequently, when there is overcrowding
conflict usually increases.

2.2.5. Process of conflict

Antecedent condition

Perceived
conflict Felt conflict

Manifest behavior

Conflict Resolution

Resolution aftermath

Antecedent conditions
 Scarce Resources
 Conflicting attitude
 Ambiguous jurisdiction
 Communication barriers
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  Need for consensus
 Unresolved prior conflicts
 Knowledge of self and others

2.3. Managing Organizational Conflict

Conflict management is the practice of identifying and handling conflict in a sensible, fair and
efficient manner

2.3.1. The Evolution of Conflict Management

2.3.2. Conflict Management Vs Conflict Resolution
2.3.3. Criteria for Conflict Management
2.3.4. Conflict Management Strategies (Styles)

Rahim, Antonioni, and Psenicka's 2001 article deals with two types of leaders. Those who
prioritize their concern and those ho prioritize others concern (Rahim, Antonioni & Psenicka,
2001, p. 195).

They also have degrees of conflict management style.

1. Integrating involves opening up, creating dialogue, and exploring differences to choose an
effective solution for both groups. "This style is positively associated with individual and
organizational outcomes." (Rahim et al., p. 197)
2. Obliging tries to find the same interests of the parties, while trying to minimize the true
feeling of the conflict, to satisfy the other party.
3. Dominating is a coercive manager who forces their own way.
4. Avoiding is ignoring the problem in hopes that it will go away.
5. Compromising is a manager that is willing to make concessions and the employee makes
concessions for a mutual agreement. (Rahim et al., p. 196)

The avoiding and dominating styles are considered ineffective in management. The following
chart shows the interaction between the styles. (Rahim et al., p. 196)

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STYLES OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

POWER 3
Domination(3/1) Collaboration(3/3)

2 Negotiation(2/2)

1 Capitulation(1/1 Procrastination(1/3)
)
1 2 3
INVOLVEMENT

2.3.5. Conflict Management Skills and Behaviors

2.3.5.1 Techniques to Resolve Conflict

There are various means for resolving conflict. There are also techniques for dealing with
difficult team members. Blake and Mouton (1964) proposed a two-dimensional model based
on concern for people and concern for classifying conflict-handling modes. Their methodology
for classifying concern for people and the conflictive situation breaks down the techniques for
resolution into five types: Integrating, Dominating, Obligating, Avoiding, and Compromising.
Difficult team members are divided into six types: the bully, the tantrum thrower, the thinker,
the complainer, the negativist, and the know-it-all bulldozer. When dealing with the bully,
team members should be assertive, but not combative. Members should not take the tantrum-
thrower personally. Team members should be prepared when dealing with a straight-line
analyst or the thinker. Problem-solving activities should quickly be put into motion when faced
with a member of the team who constantly wants to complain about something. Looking at the
glass half full when dealing with the negativist may divert the negativity and help the
individual being pessimistic see the positive side of a situation. The know-it-all has to be
praised, but success may be achieved when dealing with this difficult team member by
focusing on a solution and asking open, probing questions to verify the accuracy of
information shared by the bulldozer. The techniques for resolving conflict that we discuss next
are similar to the roots of conflict in that the list provided below is not all-inclusive.

A) Setting Parameters and Norms

In order for a team to be successful in meeting their objectives and goals, establishing norms
for working with each other and as a team should occur during the third team development
stage. Examples of setting team parameters and norms should be agreed to by each team
member and may include:
 Arriving to meetings on time and being prepared for all assignments.

 Avoiding any side conversations.

 Agreement to maintain confidential discussions within the team.

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 Put issues on the table prior to adjourning the meeting to avoid building frustrations after the
meeting adjourns.
 Every member must participate.
 Team members accept accountability for encouraging participation from others or seeking
other views.
 Clarify agreements and next steps.
 Be positive by remaining on the issue not the emotions surrounding an issue.
b) Active Listening

There are many strategies that can be practiced to assist team members in effectively resolving
conflict. The following listening tips may improve your skills:
c) Pay attention.

 Remove any negative thoughts and feelings about the team member and be receptive to the
messages he or she is providing.
 Begin listening from the very first sentence. Do not allow yourself to be preoccupied during
interaction with team members.
 Do not allow your opinion of that person to interfere with the objective for the conversation or
team meeting.
 Analyze what is being said. Do not try to anticipate what might be said. You should pay
attention to exactly what the individual is saying without wandering off or thinking about your
immediate response.
 While your silence may cause you to appear to be listening, you may interject your feedback
or seek clarification to what is being said to confirm your listening skills.
 Never interrupt or carry on side conversations during team meetings. Interrupting is rude.
 When you ask questions, reinforce the fact that you are truly listening and waiting for your
turn to speak.
 Take notes if you feel that such discussion points require necessary action.
 Get your whole body into listening and showing that you are paying attention. Look the
person squarely in the eyes and use facial expressions. These behaviors reinforce positive
non-verbal skills.
 Do not overreact to highly charged words, tones, or emotions. Your calmness is likely to rub
off on your team member, creating a conversation environment that is stress-free.
d) Soliciting Involvement of Team Members

In order to involve team members in resolving conflict and utilizing the techniques for
resolving conflict, it may be necessary to develop an individual contract or team charter to
achieve a win-win solution for each member and individuals on the team to attain the
objectives and the goals established for the team. An individual team member’s charter
may require answers to the following questions:
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 How will I work to achieve the goal?
 What first steps will I take?
 What target date do I need to establish in order to reach the goal?
 How often will I review my progress against this contract?

e) Persuasion

Regardless of one’s skill, or lack thereof, in other methods used to resolve conflict, if one party
has well-developed persuasion skills, and the other does not, the persuasive party can usually
win over the other side. Persuasion, as defined by Colman (2001), is “the process by which
attitude change is brought about, usually by the presentation of a message containing arguments
in favour or against the person, object, or issue to which the attitude applies.” Persuasion is
commonly used in many sales positions. An effective salesperson must learn the features and
benefits of his or her particular product. Salespeople must also learn rebuttals for any objection
the consumer may have. An example of this can be found in almost any sales process, but we
will illustrate one here that involves the sale of credit life insurance when making a loan. The
loan officer wants the consumer to take the credit life insurance, as its sale means more profit to
the company, while the consumer does not want to pay extra money for the coverage. The
consumer may object by saying he or she has plenty of life insurance. The salesman may reply
by telling the consumer that when the consumer purchased his or her life insurance, the loan
they are taking now was not given any consideration, as the customer did not have this loan at
the time. The salesman may also add that the cost of the coverage only adds a couple dollars to
the customer’s monthly payment and any unused portion of the premium would be refunded in
the event of early payout of the loan. At this point, the customer may or may not take the
insurance.

g) Negotiation

If persuasion does not work to resolve the conflict, then negotiation may be employed as the
next technique used to bring the encounter to a resolve. Simply put, negotiation is the art of
give-and-take, where the parties attempt to compromise. One party may give in to one part of
the conflict in exchange for the other party making a similar gesture. Here is an illustration of
negotiation using the same scenario from the previous paragraph. The customer still does not
want the credit insurance after the loan officer has used all rebuttals in his or her repertoire.
The salesperson then decides to offer the customer a preferred rate in exchange for the
customer accepting the insurance. If done properly, negotiation could create a win-win
situation for both parties involved. The salesman has sold something, even though its not what
was originally on the table, and the consumer gets the same product at a discounted rate. Both
parties could end up walking away from the table happy.

d. Mediation
Mediation is generally the last technique engaged to help resolve conflict. Mediation is a part
of decision-making that is useful in specific situations, where the conflict is an issue that has
not come to resolve after exhausting the other techniques. Mediation helps to clarify the
problem and helps to find a path towards a resolution. The mediator, usually a non-biased
third party, reduces tension and anxiety among the parties and levels the playing field. The
mediator first explains the process of mediation, his or her role in the mediation, and then
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 answers any questions by either party. The mediator meets with both parties individually and
then meets with both parties together. After all steps have been covered, the mediator
formulates an agreement that will be accepted by both parties. Mediation is a structured but
informal process that does not preclude any other dispute resolution.

Conclusion

When developing a formal working team, strengths and weaknesses need to be openly discussed.
Goals for the formal team need to be established and agreed upon by each member. Norms or
ground rules for working with each other are critical to the overall team effectiveness. Team
members also need to identify how they are going to work through conflict management. It is
almost impossible for a team to work effectively together and meet the objectives and goals
without facing conflict. We are human beings and conflict can be perceived as negative or
positive. When teams are able to work through their conflict, it builds cohesiveness among team
members and allows members to develop their problem-solving, conflict resolution and decision-
making skills.

WAYS OF RESOLVING CONFLICT

Conflict resolution is the process of defusing antagonism and reaching agreement between
conflicting parties, especially through some form of negotiation. It can also be thought of as the
study and practice of solving interpersonal and intergroup conflict.

THREE STRATEGIES
Exercise of power
Here, the party with the most power usually wins. Might is right. This is a win/lose orientation
and the conflict remains because the loser still experiences resentment.
This competitive approach uses games and tactics to disadvantage the competition and comes
from an I am right and you are wrong life position. If both parties are fairly equal in power, they
could bring about a lose/lose catastrophe where no one gains.

Exercise of rights
Decisions fall under the requirements of the law or the prevailing culture for the
disputants. Agreements and resolution can be achieved, but this in no way guarantees conflict
resolution. In fact, after a decision all those involved can still be dissatisfied (see page 75 on
arbitration).

Exercise of mutual interests

Because there is mutual interdependency and the parties usually have to continue living and
working together, agreements achieved by recognizing mutual long-term interests can bring about
solutions that are, for the most part, satisfactory to all concerned. Both parties gain something, a
sign of true conflict resolution since all parties continue to work together effectively once the
conflict has been resolved.

Each of us has a preferred style for resolving conflict, influenced by our personality and
experience of dealing with conflict. However, not all conflict situations are the same. If, therefore,
we limit ourselves to just one method of resolution we are likely to encounter difficulties where
that style is inappropriate.
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There are five basic styles that revolve around two axes: the degree of power and the degree of
involvement. All have their advantages and disadvantages.

Domination
Where one party is significantly more powerful and does not need the other.
_ Advantage - You do not have to negotiate if there is no need to do so. For example,
management are unlikely to accept a union recognition claim when the union has minimal
membership in the plant.
_ Disadvantage - What goes around comes around. If you take advantage of people when you
have power, do not expect any leeway when the situation is reversed. The conflict remains; the
aggrieved party is just biding its time for retribution.
Captulation
When a party gives in rather than pushing for what it wants.
_ Advantage - Ideal if you don’t need what the other party wants, or you don’t have the resources
to assist your claim and/or the time is not right. He who fights and runs away lives to fight
another day.
_ Disadvantage - Encourages the other side to take more of what they need and sets a precedent
and an expectation, should there be future conflict.

Negotiation

Negotiation usually occurs when both parties are dependent upon each other, have the power to
frustrate each other and have different objectives. For example, management and unions need
each other, and both groups can frustrate each other (lock out/strike).
One party has responsibilities primarily to the shareholders, the other to the employees.
_ Advantage - Though the parties have different agendas, negotiation brings
about an agreed sharing of resources.
Negotiation reduces the risk of a prize victory to either side, but when done well
can achieve a win/win outcome.
_ Disadvantage - Negotiation tends to work from a power orientation as both sides attempt to
exert pressure on each other, which is not always conducive to harmony and long-term relations.
It can also be costly in time and effort. parties attempt to avoid the situation, hoping that it will go
away.

Procrastination
_ Advantage - Occasionally, the conflict between parties is untimely or incidental and
consequently best left unresolved. Like capitulation, the time, your readiness or the situation may
suggest that now is not the best time to confront an issue.
_ Disadvantage - Issues need to be dealt with and the longer they are left the worse they become.
A stitch in time saves nine. Here the parties work together, concentrating on options and outcomes
that meet each other’s needs and aspirations.

Collaboration
_ Advantage - In our opinion this is the best form of conflict resolution and will lead to a win/win
outcome. When achieved there is no residual conflict left suppurating only to become manifest
later.

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_ Disadvantage - Collaboration is not always possible. If there is no goodwill, integrity and/or
mutual respect from all parties it is unlikely to succeed. Nor does it work when the parties have
totally opposing objectives or views.

WAYS OF RESOLVING CONFLICT

LEVELS OF CONFLICT
Conflict has a way of growing and it takes on a life of its own as it escalates.

Violence
Anger

Annoyance
Irritation

This diagram above makes it obvious that the earlier conflict can be resolved, the better it is for
all concerned.

Irritation
The problems or difficulties are not significant; you could do without them but they are easily
ignored.

Annoyance :The problems bring a growing frustration, stress begins to increase and difficulties
are expected. Objections are usually voiced logically.

Anger: The problems bring about strong feelings of injustice, hurt and enmity. Objections start
being voiced emotionally.

Violence: The position taken is thought to be totally justified. Retribution and payback become
the order of the day; there is a need to win, irrespective of the cost, and for the other party to lose.
Physical action is thought to be appropriate. Objections are expressed physically because
argument using words has been to no avail - people walk off the job, go on strike, abuse the
product, etc.

Although conflicts can be categorized as interpersonal, i.e., conflict arising between individuals or
groups of individuals, and intrapersonal, i.e., conflict within the individual, conflict resolution is
primarily concerned with interpersonal conflict, although intrapersonal conflicts may also be
triggered in the course of resolving an interpersonal conflict.

Conflicts should not be seen as only negatively because they, in fact, provide individuals
with opportunities to create more satisfying relationships, and to make needed changes
in their lives. Conflict itself does not constitute a problem, although the mismanagement
of a conflict can lead to even more conflict.

It is unfortunate that many social settings, an especially common example being the
work place, call for the avoidance of conflict (and the suppression of anger) in the
interest of maintaining a harmonious environment. As a result, some individuals, lacking
the skills to negotiate a realistic settlement of differences, turn to manipulation,
sabotage, insults, and sulking to achieve their personal and professional goals.
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Strategies for resolving or preventing the development of conflict can be classified as
avoidance, diffusion, or confrontation. Turning on the TV rather than discussing an
argument is a form of avoidance. Two teen athletes talking to their peers or counselors
after a dispute on the football field is an example of diffusion. Insulting another student's
girlfriend or arranging to meet after school to fight are examples of confrontation.
Courtroom litigation, like the trial and indictment of a juvenile who has violated the law,
also represents a form of confrontation.

The phrase "conflict resolution" refers specifically to strategies of diffusion developed

during the second half of the 20th century as alternatives to traditional litigation models
of settling disputes. Based on the idea that it is better to expose and resolve conflict
before it damages peoples' relationships or escalates into violence, methods of conflict
resolution that were originally developed for purposes of business management gradually
became adopted in the fields of international relations, legal settings, and, during the
1980s, educational settings. According to the principles of conflict resolution, the only
true solution to a conflict is one that attempts to satisfy the inherent needs of all the
parties involved.

The traditional approaches to resolving conflicts in social, business, institutional, legal,

and interpersonal relationships can be assigned to the following categories:

 Adjudication and arbitration, with a judge of higher authority acting as the

arbitrator. In this approach, the arbitrator listens to each presentations by each
side, and then determines an option based on existing legislation, precedents,
considerations of fairness, etc.
 Counseling, overseen by a counselor, therapist, or manager. When counseling is
used to achieve conflict resolution, the counselor first achieves rapport, then
assesses the real problems and applies intervention strategies.
 Negotiation, conducted by a lawyer or agent, or by the parties themselves. The
process of negotiation involves presenting the position, arguing the position, and
disputing the position; it ends with agreement or final breakdown of the
negotiation.
 Problem solving, carried out by an individual or delegated official of an
organization. In this approach, the problem solver identifies the problem,
communicates with people as appropriate, develops alternatives, decides on an
alternative, takes action, follows up to ensure completion, and evaluates the
effectiveness of the action.
 Mediation, conducted by a mediator or selected third-party facilitator. In
mediated conflict resolution, the mediator or facilitator achieves rapport with the
disputants, gathers facts and isolates issues, helps create alternatives, guides the
negotiation and decision making, clarifies an agreement or plan, provides for legal
review and processing, and carries out follow-ups, reviews, and revisions (if
requested to do so).

Of these approaches to conflict resolution, adjudication and arbitration give the

disputants the least control over the outcome. However, litigation of this sort has been
used so extensively in our society that is has become the accepted norm for resolving
disputes. A major problem with resolutions to disputes imposed by a higher authority is
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that there may be considerable dispute about the criteria used to make the decision.
Thus, if the disputing parties have no faith in the criteria, the original dispute will
resurface again at other times. Another significant problem with achieving the resolution
of conflict through litigation is that the party with least financial resources to draw on
may be at a considerable disadvantage in attempting to present his or her position to the
judge or arbitrator.

Counseling, as a means of conflict resolution, has proven most effective in resolving

intrapersonal conflicts, although some interpersonal conflicts can also be resolved with
this approach.

Negotiation is the most diverse approach to conflict resolution. Most conflict resolution
programs employ some form of negotiation as the primary method of communication
between parties. Negotiation can be distributive, where each party attempts to win as
many concessions to his or her own self-interest as possible (win-lose), or integrative,
where parties attempt to discover solutions that embody mutual self-interest (win-win).
Research on games theory and the decision-making process suggest that the face-to-face
conversation involved in direct negotiation may actually influence people to act in the
interest of the group (including the opposing party), or some other interest beyond
immediate self-interest. Face-to-face negotiation tends to be integrative in its
consequences. Attorneys often serve as designated negotiators. Negotiation has
traditionally been viewed as a zero-sum game, i.e., achieving one position at the expense
of another, though many negotiators have pointed out that it is possible to achieve
mutual gain through such constructive settlement of disputes.

The problem-solving approach can be practiced alone or in combination with other

conflict resolution techniques. Unlike mediation (see below), problem-solving techniques
can be used by individuals or groups to solve problems without outside facilitators.

Mediation is an alternative to litigation, self-help, or violence that differs from

counseling, negotiation, and arbitration. In mediated disputes, the disputants, with the
assistance of a neutral person or persons, isolate their points of disagreement, explore
alternative resolutions to the dispute, and arrive at a consensual settlement that satisfies
all of the disputing parties. The process of mediation involves the following processes:

 Establishment of a plan for the future that all participants can accept.
 Convincing the disputants to accept the consequences of their own decisions.
 Reduction of the anxiety produced by the conflict by helping the disputants
achieve a consensual resolution.

Although mediation may lead to a discussion of the disputants' personality structures in

so far as they may have led to the dispute in question, personality issues are generally not
the main focus of mediation. Instead, mediation tries to stay focused on the resolution of
the conflict, and on the development of a plan, rather than on personal histories. Conflict
resolution through mediation facilitates the following:

 Reduction of the obstacles to communication

 Maximized exploration of the alternatives to resolving the conflict
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  Satisfaction of everyone's needs
 Establishment of a model for future conflict resolution

The success of a given instance of conflict resolution depends on the attitudes and skills
of the disputants and of any intervening parties, e.g., arbitrators, mediators, etc. The
elementary skills that have been identified as promoting conflict resolution overlap to a
high degree with those that reflect social competence in children and adolescents. They
include:

 Awareness of others
 Awareness of the (not necessarily obvious) distinctions between self and others
 Listening skills
 Awareness of one's own feelings and thoughts, and the ability to express them
 Ability to respond to the feelings and thoughts of others

A child or adolescent will employ the basic skills of conflict resolution to varying degrees
in responding to a conflict. Responses can be graded according to the level of cooperation
they reflect, i.e., the level of integration that the child experiences between his own self-
interest and the interest of the opposing party. Thus, threatening the other party reflects
a slightly more integrated, constructive response to conflict than an immediately
aggressive response such as hitting. Examples of progressively more cooperative
responses to conflict are: withdrawing from a conflict; demanding or requesting the
opposing party to concede; providing reasons the opposing party should
concede(appealing to norms); proposing alternatives to the opposing party; and
proposing "if" statements, suggesting willingness to negotiate. Perspective taking, or
articulating and validating the feelings and thoughts of the other party ("I see that you
want...."), reflects the higher orders of conflict resolution skills. Integration of interests
("We both want...") reflects the highest level, leading to a consensual settlement of
negotiations.

Conflict Resolution in Education

Conflict resolution in education includes any strategy that promotes handling disputes
peacefully and cooperatively outside of, or in addition to, traditional disciplinary
procedures. The rise of violence and disciplinary problems, along with an increasing
awareness of the need for behavioral as well as cognitive instruction, spurred the
development of conflict resolution programs in schools during the 1980s. These
programs received national attention in 1984 with the formation of the National
Association for Mediation in Education (NAME). By the late 1990s most major cities had
instituted some form of large-scale conflict resolution program. According to a 1994
National School Boards study, 61% of schools had some form of conflict resolution
program.

Conflict resolution programs differ widely in terms of who participates, the quantity of
time and energy they require, and levels of funding they receive. Funding is usually
provided by an outside source such as the state, a university program, or a local non-
profit organization. Programs can be classroom-wide, school-wide, or district-wide, and
can include any of the following components:
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  Curriculum and classroom instruction
 Training workshops for faculty, staff, students, and/or parents in conflict
management skills, negotiation, and mediation
 Peer education and counseling programs where students either train each other in
conflict resolution skills and/or actually carry out dispute resolution
 Mediation programs in which students, staff, or teachers carry out dispute
resolution

Some conflict resolution programs provide a venue for actual dispute resolution, while
others only provide only training and instruction. School-wide or district-wide peer
counseling and peer mediation programs carry out actual dispute resolution on a larger
scale. Peer mediation, where students are trained in a step-by-step mediation process in
order to provide ongoing mediation service for other students, is the most popular form
of conflict resolution program. While these "applied" programs are more expensive than
strictly curriculum-based programs, they appear to be significantly more effective. One
study demonstrated that curriculum by itself does not change students' behavior in
conflict situations, whereas the structured format of a peer mediation program did
change the way students addressed conflict.

BENEFITS OF CONFLICT
_ Conflict promotes growth, through learning to overcome challenges in unison with others
_ It promotes creativity and innovation as solutions are suggested to overcome the differences
between the stakeholders
_ It promotes the development of interpersonal skills, as individuals strive to get on with each
other in spite of their differences
_ It promotes mutual understanding of different values, aspirations and cultures
(sometimes people are not trying to be difficult, they just have a different mind-set)
_ It promotes social change and progress, as society changes and develops and a culture unfolds
_ It promotes growth as the process of resolution overcomes the stagnation of the status quo
(necessity is the mother of invention and conflict is one of necessity’s prodigies)
_ It can promote originality and reflection when your viewpoint is challenged

ADVERSE COSTS OF CONFLICT

_ Higher stress amongst the parties
_ Lower productivity as effort and resources are redirected into the conflict and away from the
work in hand
_ Lower interpersonal cohesion as individuals - and their supporters - take sides and begin to
stereotype each other
_ Time spent in resolution is taken away from other, more important matters
_ Inappropriate decisions are made to support the various causes and positions of the parties
_ Status and ego become more important than reason and reality
_ The possibility of increased costs to cover negotiation preparation, negotiation time, mediation
and/or arbitration costs and, perhaps, legal costs

THE FOUR POSSIBLE CONFLICT OUTCOMES

There are four possible outcomes from a conflict situation; only one produces a
satisfactory result.
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This relates to a branch of mathematics called game theory where the outcome and the result can
be measured as follows:
Positive sum +2 = Party A (+1) and Party B (+1) satisfied and conflict is resolved
Zero sum 0 = Party A is satisfied (+1) but Party B is resentful (-1)
Zero sum 0 = Party A is resentful (-1) but Party B is satisfied (+1)
Negative sum – 2 = Party A is dissatisfied (-1) and so is Party B (-1) Do nothing if a = d

Resolve conflict if a> d Stimulate conflict if a < d (Where d> 0)

and conflict continues

These outcomes can be drawn as follows:

I win I lose
You win (+2) Positive sum (0) Zero sum
You lose (0) Zero sum (-2) Negative sum

In conflict resolution you work towards the positive sum where both sides are satisfied.
In popular language, this is called a win/win which, obviously, is the best outcome for all
concerned.

TYPES OF CONFLICT
The establishment of a win/win is particularly important when the parties are going to be, or have
to be, in a long-term or ongoing relationship. Where the outcome is a zero sum or, even worse, a
negative sum, the conflict is likely to get worse.

Interpersonal
Ideological clashes - chauvinism v feminism
Dispositional clashes - dominant v mild
Cultural clashes - Arabs v Jews
Religious clashes - Catholics v Protestants
Age clashes - youth v maturity
Value clashes - conservative v liberal
Team/Technical
Sales and Production
Research and Operations
National
Wealth clashes - poor v rich
Civil wars
International
The Cold War
War against terrorism
Organisational:
Between Unions and Management
Intra- and inter-company rivalry
Executive competition for resources and top positions

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 AN ASSIGNMENT ON THE COURSE GROUP DYNAMICS AND
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS

Submission date: To be announced

Total Marks 40%
1. Discuss briefly the likely mechanisms that could
probably create readiness on the part of your
subordinates in organization.
2. Describe clearly the hindering and supporting roles that
the group can play in an organization.
3. Discuss the contemporary challenges of managing the
groups.
4. Distinguish clearly between and among primary,
secondary, out and in groups.
5. Conflict is more likely in developing countries than the
developed ones. How and why?
6. Why do managers give equal attention to both formal
and informal groups in an organization?
7. Identify the types and causes of diversity related conflict
and the best strategy to be used to manage such conflict.
8. Discuss the pros and cons of conflict in organization in
light of organizational performance.

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