TRANSPORTATION

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TRAFFIC vehicles passing a point within a given interval

• Is considered very difficult due to several of time. Distance or length or roads must be
factors that cause its irregularities or known in order to measure speed. This distance
unpredictability. These factors could be is normally called trap length in spot speed
attributed to several events which could happen studies.
on the road:
▪ Accidents
▪ Stalled Vehicles
▪ Parking Maneuvers
▪ Lane Changing or Swerving
▪ Etc

UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
• Flow occurs at long sections of road vehicles 2. Space mean speed – is used to describe the rate
are not required to stop by any cause external to of movement of a traffic stream within a given
the traffic stream. section of road. It is the speed based on the
average travel time of vehicles in the stream
INTERRUPTED FLOW within the section. It is also called the harmonic
• Flow occurs at intersections or driveways speed.
where vehicles are required to stop by any cause
outside the traffic stream, such as traffic signs,
traffic lights, etc.

Uninterrupted flow can be described using any of the

following variables:
1. Flow rate or Volume Density – is defined as the number of vehicles in a given
2. Speed
length of road at an instant point in time.
3. Density
If N vehicles counted at time t divided by length of the
Flow rate – defined as the number of vehicles passing
section L gives a measure of density k:
a point during a specified period of time. It is often
referred to as volume when measured over an hour.

SPEED
• Defined as the rate of motion in distance per
unit of time. When describing traffic stream,
two types are used:
- Ui = speed of vehicle i, kph
- uT = time mean speed of vehicles, kph
- us = space mean speed of vehicles, kph
- ti= time it takes for vehicle ito traverse
- the trap length, seconds
- ∆x = trap length, meters
-

1. Time mean speed – also called spot speed,

simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of
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CAPACITY
• Defined as the maximum hourly rate at which
persons or vehicles can reasonably be expected
to travers a point or uniform section of lane or
roadway during a given period under prevailing
roadway, traffic, and control conditions.
Carriageway Rural Urban
width
Single less than 600 600
4 meters
4.0-5.0 1200 1200
5.1-6.0 1900 1600
6.1-6.7 2000 1700
6.8-7.3 2400 1800
2x6.7 or 2x7.3 7200 6700
meters
• The table shows the BHCC (basic hourly
capacity in passenger car units)
LEVEL OF SERVICE
• The capacity is normally expressed in
• Represents a qualitive ranking of the traffic
passenger car unit per hour (pcu/hr) and would
operational conditions experienced by the users
depend on the so-called passenger car
of the facility under specified roadway, traffic,
equivalent factors (PCEF) of the different
and a traffic control conditions.
vehicles classes that compose the traffic.
• Current practice designates six levels of service
ranging from A to F, with level of service A
representing the best operating conditions and TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
level of Service F the worst. • Is a term used to embody the activities
• To apply the level of service concept to the undertaken by a highway transportation agency
traffic analysis, it is necessary to select a
performance measure that is representative of
how motorists perceive the quality of service
that are receiving in a facility.
• Motorists tend to evaluate their received quality
of service in terms of factors such as speed and
travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic
interruptions, and comfort and convenience.
CAPACITY

Level of Volume/Capacity Description

Service Ration
A Less than 0.20 Free flow traffic
B 0.21-0.50 Reasonable
freedom to select
speed
C 0.51-0.70 Restricted in
selecting speed
D 0.71-0.85 Moderate/Unstable
flow to improve roadway system safety,
E 0.86-1.00 Heavy Traffic efficiency, and effectiveness for both providers
F >1 Forced flow, stop and consumers of transportation services.
and go
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There two distinct types of traffic management: Every traffic control must meet all these requirements
in a logical sequence. The effectiveness of a sign or
➢ Utilizing traditional traffic engineering tools or
marking normally depends on its size, color contrast,
simple devices;
shape, relative position, and maintenance to compel
➢ Advanced technology through Intelligent
attention.
Transportation System (ITS)
TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS
Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control
Uniformity of design includes shape, color, dimension,
of both vehicle (registration, ownership, mechanical
symbols, wording, lettering, and illumination.
fitness, accessories, size, weight) and driver (age, ability
to operate specific types of vehicles, financial SHAPE
responsibility).
Fundamental requirements for an effective traffic ➢ Equilateral triangular shape with one side
regulation: horizontal shall be used for danger warning
signs.
➢ Regulations should be rational
➢ Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.
➢ Regulations should be developed progressively
➢ Rectangular shape shall be used for informative
➢ Regulations alone often are not enough
signs.
TRAFFIC REGULATIONS ➢ Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs
Three Elements of Road System: only.
➢ Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for
➢ The Road YIELD signs only.
➢ The Vehicle
➢ The Driver COLOR

The road and vehicle may be subject to constant change

and improvement. However, in a given period of time, ➢ Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or
they may be considered inflexible. The major portion of white background with black symbols and red
existing regulations are therefore aimed at the driver. border.
➢ Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES have a white background with black symbols
Three distinct functional groups of traffic control and red border.
devices: ➢ Mandatory signs except YIELD and STOP
➢ Regulatory Devices – these have the authority signs shall have a blue background and white
of law and impose precise requirements upon symbols.
the action of the road user. CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNS
➢ Warning Devices- These are used to inform
road users of potentially hazardous roadway
conditions or unusual traffic movements that ➢ Regulatory Signs (Type R)
are not readily apparent to passing traffic. ➢ Warning Signs (Type W)
➢ Guiding Devices – these are employed simply ➢ Guide Signs or Informative Signs (Type G)
to inform the road user of direction, destination, ➢ Signs for Expressways (Type GE)
and other pertinent information. ➢ Signs for Special Purposes (Type S)
➢ Hazard Markers (Type HM)
Four (4) Elementary Requirements of Every Traffic
Control Device:
➢ It should compel attention.
➢ It should convey a simple clear meaning at
a glance.
➢ It should allow adequate time for easy
response.
➢ It should command the respect of the road
users for whom it is intended.
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TRAFFIC STUDIES f. Screen line counts are classified counts taken at some
• Traffic studies generally involve time and may points along a line that bisects a given area.
entail much cost. It is therefore necessary to
Time of Study
carefully plan all data collection efforts. This
chapter discusses the methodology for a. Twenty-four-hour counts from midnight to
conducting surveys, how they are processed midnight.
and analyzed. b. Sixteen-hour counts from 6 AM to 10 PM.
c. Twelve-hour counts from 6 AM to 6 PM.
TRAFFIC VOLUME
d. Peak period counts from 7 AM to 9 AM, 5 PM
• The most basic data needed for any traffic
to 7 PM, or other time intervals corresponding
study. Volume studies are conducted to obtain
to a very high level of traffic volume.
information on the number of vehicles and/or
e. Short counts of about one hour or less with
persons that pass at a specified point on the
intervals of 5-15 minutes to analyze
highway system. The resulting volume data are
characteristics of peak hours.
expressed in relation to time.
Abnormal conditions are usually avoided unless the
Types of Volume
purpose is to obtain information concerning those
- Annual traffic is used to determine conditions. These would include:
annual travel, estimate expected
a. Special occasions such as public holidays or
highway user revenue, and compute
fiestas.
accidental rates.
b. Days with abnormal weather conditions.
- Annual Average Daily Traffic
c. Strikes or demonstrations.
(AADT) is used for measuring the
present demand of service by the road, Methods
and programming capital
improvements. a. By tallying - This is the simplest and most
- Hourly traffic is used for evaluating practical in the absence of any mechanic or
capacity deficiencies, geometric automatic counting device. Tally sheets are
design, or improvement of streets and used to record the number of vehicles.
intersections. b. Using Manual Counters - A mechanical
- Short-term count is used to estimate device that is useful when the volume is high.
the maximum flow rate and determine c. Using Automatic Counters - When a traffic
the characteristics of peak hour count of very long duration is required, one may
volumes. resort to automatic counters through the use of
detectors. A simple type of automatic counter is
Types of Data Collected a pneumatic tube laid transversely across the
road.
a. Mid-block counts are used for preparing traffic flow
d. Using Video Cameras - This may be used to
maps and determining trends.
take footage of the traffic flow. Counts may be
b. Directional counts are used for determining then carried out later through tally or manual
directional distribution for capacity analysis, signal method while watching the video.
timing, justifying traffic control, etc.
Presentation of Traffic Volumes
c. Turning movement or intersection counts are used
- Traffic volume summaries may be
for signal timing, designing or improving the geometry
presented in ways that should be easily
of intersections, planning turning prohibition, and
understood by the readers.
analyzing high accident intersections.
AADT and ADT
d. Classification counts are used for determining the
modal split and estimating the effects of heavy vehicles - The Annual Average Daily Traffic or
on capacity. AADT is a common measure of daily
traffic at a given location. AADT = sum
e. Cordon counts are used to determine the number of
of all vehicles passing the site in a year
vehicles and/or persons entering and leaving an
/ 365 days
enclosed area.
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SPOT SPEED STUDIES This impedance can occur either as side friction, where
• The objectives of conducting a spot speed study the stream flow is interfered with by other traffic
are to: (parking or unparking vehicles), or as internal friction,
➢ Determine the range and magnitude of where the interference is within the traffic stream
speeds as a basis for formulating design (reduction in the capacity of the highway). Stopped-
standards. time delay is that part of the delay during which the
➢ Establish maximum and minimum vehicle is at rest.
speed limits.
Methods
➢ Determine the need for posting
advisory speed signs. a. Test Car Technique
➢ Determine the need for school zone - The method makes use of a test vehicle
protection. that is driven over the road section
➢ Evaluate the performance of a under study. The driver is instructed to
geometric improvement or traffic travel at a speed that in his opinion is
control device through a “before and representative of the speed of the traffic
after” study. stream.
b. License Plate Method
Methods
- When details on delay are not
a. Radar Speed Meter important, the license plate method
- The radar speed meter is positioned at may be conducted. The method
the edge of the roadway at an angle of basically consists of observing and
about 15 degrees with the centerline recording the license plates of vehicles
and is directed toward the incoming and the time of arrival at two points or
vehicles. more on the road where the vehicles are
b. Manual Method expected to pass.
- Also called the “trap length” method. c. Moving Observer Method
In this method, two lines, 30-50m - One of the most common survey
apart, are drawn transversely on the methods for obtaining information on
pavement. A stopwatch then measures traffic volume, speed, and density of a
the “travel time” of the vehicle within given section of road is the so-called
the “trap.” The length of the trap is observer method. The method
divided by the travel time to estimate consists of one or two test cars
the speed. traveling back and forth within the
section. A team is composed of at least
TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES two observers and one timer. One
- Travel time studies normally give observer counts the number of vehicles
information on the performance of a moving in the opposite direction;
particular roadway. Independent another observer counts the number of
measurements of stops and their vehicles that pass them as well as the
observed reasons may also be included number of vehicles they pass; the timer
to give information on delays. notes down the time it takes to traverse
Travel time - the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a the section.
given section of a highway.
Running time - the time a vehicle is in motion while
traversing a given section of a highway.
Delay - the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond
the control of the driver.
Operational delay - that part of the delay caused by the
impedance of other traffic.
Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data
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a. Determination of the efficiency of a route for its ➢ Lack of supervision

ability to carry traffic.
Steps to be taken for preventing Road Accidents
b. Identification of locations with relatively high delays
and the causes for those delays. • 90 % of accidents can be avoided by strict
enforcement of speed limits.
c. Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate • Existing speed limits should be brought down
the effectiveness of traffic operation improvements. • Heavy Penalty should be imposed on all those
who cross speed limits. If this is strictly
d. Determination of the relative efficiency of a route by
developing sufficiency ratings or congestion indices. implemented, nobody will dare to go at high
speed.
e. Determination travel times on specific links for use in • Helmet should be made compulsory by law in
trip assignment models. every state. Helmet should be made compulsory
for back seat riders also.
f. Compilation of travel time data that may be used in
• Ensure that the money recovered as Road Tax
trend studies to evaluate the changes in efficiency and
is fully utilized for the construction
level of service with time.
/maintenance of roads.
g. Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of
ROAD SAFETY SIGNS
traffic operation alternatives that reduce travel time.
- Traffic signs and road markings are
ROAD SAFETY silent speakers to the road users. Every
- refers to methods and measur educing road user should know the marking and
the risk of a person using the road signs on the road and the meaning there
network for being cilled or seriously of.
injured. The users of a road include - Many different traffic signs are to be
pedestrians, cyclists, motorists, their seen on the roads. They give advance
passengers, and passengers of on-road information about road conditions
public transport, mainly buses. But due ahead. Road markings also give orders,
to ignorance of safety on the roads warning or guidance to drivers or
there are accident happening on the riders. Learn the meaning of these signs
road causing injuries and deaths. and markings and look out for them
when on the road. You will not then be
Why are these road accidents happening? surprised by a bend, a one-way street or
- Road accident is most unwanted thing a junction ahead. Good drivers and
to happen to a road user, though they riders are always prepared.
happen quite often. The most Road signs are classified under the three heads:
unfortunate thing is that we don't learn
from our mistakes on road. Most of the - Mandatory Signs (Regulatory Signs)
road users are quite aware of the - Cautionary Signs (Warning Signs)
general rules and safety measures while - Informatory Signs
using roads but it is only the laxity on
Mandatory Signs
part of road users, which cause
accidents and crashes. Main cause of - These signs are used to inform road
accidents and crashes are users of certain laws and regulations to
➢ Over Speeding provide safety and free flow of traffic.
➢ Drunken Driving These include all signs which give
➢ Distractions to Driver notice of special obligation, prohibition
➢ Red Light Jumping or restrictions with which the road user
➢ Avoiding Safety Gears like Seat must comply. The violation of these
belts and Helmets signs is a legal offence. Some of the
➢ Unawareness of road rules, signs, which fall under this category,
regulation and signs. are provided as follows.
➢ Improper management of speed
breaker
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Cautionary Signs: (Warning Signs)

Causes of Accidents
- These signs are used to warn the road
users of the existence of certain - Road Defects
hazardous condition either on or - Vehicle Defects
adjacent to the roadway, so that the - Driver’s Behavior
motorists are cautious and take the - Pedestrian Error
desired action. Some of the sign: fall - Enforcement Related
under th us category are provided as - Environmental Factors
follows. Problems
• Traffic Signals
• Human factors
• Pedestrian Safety
• Traffic Congestion
• Central area suffered from inadequate circular pattern
• Intermixing of Traffic
• Lack of traffic regulation & enforcement
• Problems faced by pedestrians at intersections

Informatory Signs:
- These signs are used to guide road
users along routes, inform them about
destination and distance, identify
points of geographical and historical
interest and provide other information
that will make the road travel easier,
safe, and pleasant.
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TRAFFIC ACCIDENT ANALYSIS - A blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)

Accident of 0.05g/dl or below reduces alcohol-
related crashes. Enforcing sobriety
- An unexpected, unplanned occurrence
checkpoints and random breath testing
that may involve injury.
can reduce 20% of alcohol-related
- Unpremeditated events resulting in
crashes.
recognizable damage.
3. Motorcycle Helmets
- Occurrence in a sequence of events,
- Reduce the risk of death by 40% and
which usually produces unintended
the risk of severe injury by 70%.
injury, death or property damage.
4. Seatbelt Restraints
MEASUREMENT OF PROBLEMS - Reduce the risk of fatality among front
1. Mortality seat passengers by 40-50%, and rear
➢ Proportional mortality rate seat passengers by 25- 75%.
➢ Number of deaths per million 5. Mobile Phone usage
population - Four times the risk of crash increases.
➢ Death rate per 1000 registered vehicles 6. Factors influencing exposure to risk
per year - Rapid motorization
➢ Number of accidents or fatalities as a - Demographic factors
ratio of number of vehicles per km or - Transport, land use and road network
passengers per km. planning
➢ Deaths of vehicle occupants per - Increased need for travel
thousand vehicles per year - Choice of less safe forms of travel
2. Morbidity 7. Risk factors influencing crash involvement
➢ Serious Injuries - Speed
➢ Slight Injuries - Pedestrians and Cyclists
3. Disablity - young drivers and riders
➢ Temporary or Permanent - Alcohol
➢ Partial or Total - Medicinal and recreational drugs
- Driver fatigue
ROAD ACCIDENTS - Hand-held cell phones
- Data from the Philippine Statistics 8. Risk Factors Influencing Injury Severity
Authority (PSA) indicate that road - Lack of in-vehicle crash protection
traffic deaths increased by 39% from - Non-use of crash helmets by two-
7,938 deaths in 2011 to 11,096 deaths wheeled vehicle users
in 2021. Road traffic injuries are the - Non-use of seatbelts and child
leading cause of death among Filipinos restraints in motor vehicles
15-29 years old, and a major killer - Roadside objects
among children. In 2020, the number of 9. Risk factors influencing post-crash injury
deaths dropped to 8,746 deaths, and outcome
this is likely due to the reduced - Pre-hospital factors
mobility of the population during that - Hospital care factor
year because of the COVID-19
pandemic. In 2021, the number of Reasons for more Accidents in Developing Countries
deaths again increased to 11,096,
coinciding with the end of lockdowns • Large numbers of pedestrians and animals share
and mobility restrictions. the common roadway
• Large number of old, poorly maintained
RISK FACTORS vehicles
1. Speed • Large number of buses often overloaded
- Pedestrians have a 90% chance of • Large number of motorcycles and other small
surviving a car crash at 30kph or below. vehicles
• Low driving standards
• Widespread disregard of traffic rules
2. Drunk-Driving
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• Defective roads, poor street lighting, defective ➢ Barbiturates, amphetemines and

layout of crossroads and speed breakers Cannabis
• Unusual behavior of men and animals ➢ Education
➢ Law enforcements
5. Primary Care
➢ Planning, organization and
management of trauma and emergency
care services improved
➢ At accident site->Transportation-
>Hospital
➢ Skill of the Health Care Provider
➢ Accident Services Organization and
one fully equipped specialized trauma
care hospital in all major cities
6. Elimination of Causative factors
➢ Improve roads
➢ Improse speed limits
PREVENTION ➢ Mixed Traffic
✓ Data collection ➢ Bad weather
✓ Safety education ➢ Mark danger zones
✓ Promotion of saety measures ➢ Improve the Vehicle Conditions
✓ Alcohol and other drugs ➢ Drunk and drive
✓ Primary care ➢ Lack of body protection
✓ Elimination of causative factors 7. Enforcement of laws
✓ Law enforcement ➢ Driving tests
✓ Rehabilitation ➢ Medical fitness to drive
✓ Accident research ➢ Speed Limits
➢ Compulsory wearing of seat belts
➢ Compulsory of blood alcohol
1. Data Collection concentration
➢ Basic reporting of all cases ➢ Road side breath analyzer
➢ Supplementation by national surveys ➢ Regular and periodic inspection of
➢ Eliciting the data about conditions and vehicles
environmental factors leading to ➢ Periodic examination of drivers above
accidents the age of 55 yrs.
➢ Making Police investigation of an 8. Rehabilitaion services
accident mandatpry ➢ Medical rehabilitation
2. Safety education ➢ Social rehabilitation
➢ If Accident is a disease, Education is ➢ Occupational rehabilitation
its vaccine 9. Accident research
➢ Initiated at the school level ➢ Accidentology
➢ Educate regarding risk factors, traffic ➢ Gathering information about Type,
rules, safety precautions and first aid. extent & characteristics of accident
3. Promotion of safety measures control measures
➢ Seat belts Government Initiatives
➢ Safety helmets
➢ Safety measures for children ➢ Multi-pronged road safety programmes and
➢ Others like door locks, proper vehicle initiatives
design, air bags ➢ Mass awareness/ education programmes
4. Alcohol and other drugs ➢ Engineering measures (both road and vehicles)
➢ Abstinence from alcojol and depressant ➢ Enforcement of safety Laws
drugs before and during driving ➢ Emergency care to raod accident victims.
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RA11229
- Child Safety in Motor Vehicles Act
RA1066
- Banning a child from riding
motorcycles as passengers on public
road especially those having fast and
heavy volume of motorists
4 E’s for Injury Prevention
➢ Education
➢ Environmental modification
➢ Enforcement of Laws
➢ Engineering