†WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 207

6
†WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g
Database Management System lô Aa¨vq

 G Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l wkÿv_©xiv  cÖavb kã ¸”Q

 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U Gi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡e|  †WUv‡eR (Database)
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U Gi Kvh©vewj we‡kølY Ki‡Z cvi‡e|  g¨v‡bR‡g›U (Management)
 wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷‡gi aviYv e¨vL¨v  DBMS
 RDBMS
Ki‡Z cvi‡e|
 Kz‡qwi (Query)
 wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷‡gi ˆewkó e¨vL¨v
 mwU©s (Sorting)
Ki‡Z cvi‡e|
 Bb‡Ww·s (Indexing)
 wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡e|  wi‡jkb (Relation)
 †WUv‡eR ˆZwi Ki‡Z cvi‡e|  K‡c©v‡iU (Corporate)
 †WUv wmwKDwiwUi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡e|  wmwKDwiwU (Security)
 †WUv wmwKDwiwUi ¸iæZ¡ we‡kølY Ki‡Z cvi‡e|  Gbwµckb (Encryption)
 †WUv Gbwµckb‡bi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡e|
 †WUv Gbwµckb‡bi Dcvqmg~n e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡e|
†WUv‡eR (Database)
†WUv‡eR nj Z_¨i mymsMwVZ msKjb| Avgiv wewfbœ ai‡bi Z_¨‡K Avgv‡`i †evaMg¨ Dcv‡q
msiÿY, cÖwµqvKiY I AbymÜv‡bi Rb¨ †WUv‡eR e¨envi Kwi| ev¯Íe D`vniY wn‡m‡e GKUv ¯‹z‡ji
K_v aiv hvK| Avgiv ¯‹z‡ji QvÎ-QvÎx‡`i Z_¨ fwZ©i mgq msMÖn Kwi| GB Z_¨ mvj I †ivj
Abymv‡i msiÿY Kwi| Zvici Zvi ¯‹z‡ji cixÿvi djvdj mn wewfbœ Z_¨ †m Abymv‡i msiÿY
Kwi| cÖ‡qvRb co‡j †h †Kv‡bv mgq Avgiv †h‡Kv‡bv mv‡ji QvÎ-QvÎx‡`i Z_¨ †m Abymv‡i Luy‡R
†ei Ki‡Z cvwi| KvM‡R Kj‡g GB cÖwµqv †hgb kÖg I mgq mva¨ †Zgwb axi MwZ‡Z nq me wKQy|
GB mKj Z_¨ Kw¤úDUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ Lye `ªæZ msiÿY I cÖwµqvKiY Kiv hvq| cÖ‡qvR‡bi mgq
†m‡KÛiI Kg mgq Zv AbymÜvb I Dc¯’vcb Kiv hvq| Avgiv Kw¤úDUvi e¨envi K‡i †hfv‡e GB
Z_¨¸wj msiÿY, cÖwµqvKiY, AbymÜvb I Dc¯’vc‡bi KvR Kwi ZvB g~jZ †WUv‡eR|
208 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

wWweGgGm/DBMS Kx? †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g (Database Management System)

†WUv‡eR e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡j †WUv‡e‡Ri GKwU wWRvBb ev bKkv K‡i †m Abyhvqx ˆZwi Ki‡Z n‡e|
ˆZwii ci †mB †WUv‡e‡R Z_¨ ivL‡Z n‡e Ges gv‡S g‡a¨B Zv nvj bvMv` Kivi cÖ‡qvRb co‡e|
†WUv‡eR-Gi wba©vwiZ e¨enviKvix Qvov †KD †WUv‡eRGi Z_¨ †`L‡Z bv cv‡i †mB wbivcËvI
wbwðZ Ki‡Z n‡e| †Kv‡bv ÿwZ n‡j hv‡Z Zv ïaiv‡bv hvq †mB e¨e¯’vi `iKvi co‡e| Avevi
cÖ‡qvRbxq Z_¨ †WUv‡eR †_‡K Luy‡R †ei Kivi cÖ‡qvRb co‡e Ges cÖ‡qvRbxq e¨enviKvixi
†evaMg¨ nq Ggb fv‡e Dc¯’vcb Ki‡Z n‡e| GB mKj KvR †h mdU&Iq¨v‡ii gva¨‡g Kiv hv‡e
†m¸wj‡KB †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g(DBMS) ejv nq| A_©vr †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U
wm‡÷g(DBMS) nj GKwU we‡kl ai‡bi mdU&Iq¨vi hv e¨enviKvix, Ab¨vb¨ mdU&Iqvi Ges
†WUv‡e‡Ri wbR¯^ Z_¨ MÖnY I we‡køl‡Yi Rb¨ cvi¯úwiK †hvMv‡hvM m„wó K‡i| †WUv‡eR bKkv Kiv,
ˆZwi, msiÿY, cwieZ©b, D‡Ëvjb, AbymÜvb I cwiPvjbvi myweav msewjZ mdU&Iq¨vi‡KB Avgviv
mvaviYfv‡e †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g ej‡Z cvwi| GiKg wKQy RbwcÖq †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U
wm‡÷g nj IivKj (Oracle), gvB‡µvmd&U GmwKDGj mvf©vi (Microsoft SQL Server),
gvBGmwKGj (MySQL), GmwKDGj-jvBU(SQL-Lite), †cv÷wRAviB-GmwKDGj
(PostGRE-SQL), AvBweGg wWwe2 (IBM DB2), gvB‡µvmd&U G‡·m (Microsoft
Access)|
evRv‡i cvIqv hvq cÖwZwU †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷‡gi PviwU AZ¨vek¨K Dcv`vb i‡q‡Q|
cÖ_gZ, cÖwZwU wWweGgGm GKwU g‡Wj ev MvVwbK Av`k© i‡q‡Q hvi Dci wfwË K‡i IB wWweGgGm
Gi †WUv‡eR¸wj ˆZwi I e¨eüZ nq| GUv Z_¨ msiÿ‡Yi †gŠwjK KvVv‡gv| GiKg †ekwKQy MvVwbK
gvb`Ð i‡q‡Q hvi g‡a¨ nvBqviviwKKvj(Hierarchical), †bUIqvK©, wi‡jkbvj Ges Ae‡R±
D‡jøL‡hvM¨| GB MvVwbK e¨e¯’vi gva¨‡gB wba©vwiZ nq wWweGgGm Kxfv‡e †WUv‡e‡Ri Z_¨i
msMVb, msiÿY I cÖwµqvKiY Ki‡e|
wØZxqZ, †WUv‡e‡Ri cÖwZwU Dcv‡Ëi KvVv‡gv ev †WUv ÷ªvKPvi wba©viY K‡i wWweGgGm| †WUv‡e‡R
†Kv‡bv Z_¨ _v‡K †jLv, †Kv‡bvUv Qwe Avevi †Kv‡bvUv wfwWI| GB wewfbœ iK‡gi DcvËi weï×Zv
iÿv K‡i Z_¨‡K e¨envi Kiv hvq mywba©vwiZ †WUv ÷ªvKPvi Gi Rb¨|
wWweGgGm Z…Zxq Ask nj †WUv Kz‡qwi j¨vs¸‡qR| Gi gva¨‡g e¨enviKvix †WUv‡eR wbg©vY, Z_¨
msiÿY, cÖwµqvKiY, AbymÜvb I wewfbœ cwiPvjbv g~jK KvR Ki‡Z cv‡ib| g~jZ wWweGgGm Gi
mv‡_ e¨enviKvixi †hvMv‡hvM ¯’vcbKvix fvlvB nj †WUv Kz‡qwi †j½y‡qR| GB fvlvq †WUv‡eR‡K †h
KgvÛ †`Iqv nq Zv‡K Kz‡qwi e‡j| cÖwZwU e¨enviKvixi Z_¨ †WUv‡e‡R _v‡K| wWweGgGm †m
Abyhvqx e¨enviKvixi Kz‡qwi cixÿv-wbixÿv K‡i Ges wbe©vn K‡i| e¨enviKvixi AbygwZ bv _vK‡j
msiÿY, cwieZ©b , AbymÜvb I wewfbœ cwiPvjbv g~jK Kv‡R evav †`q| d‡j AbygwZ †bB Ggb
e¨enviKvix Z_¨i †Kv‡bv ÿwZ Ki‡Z cv‡i bv Ges Z_¨i wbivcËv wbwðZ Kiv hvq|
me©‡kl, Uªvb‡RKkb nj cÖwZwU wWweGgGm-Gi GKwU †gŠwjK ¸iæZ¡c~Y© welq| Gi gva¨‡g GKB
mv‡_ A‡bK e¨enviKvix GKB mg‡q †WUv‡eR e¨envi Ki‡Z cv‡i| GKB mgq GKvwaK e¨enviKvix
GKB Z_¨ wb‡q KvR Ki‡j mgm¨v ˆZwi n‡Z cv‡i| Avevi GKB Z_¨ GKvwaKevi ev Wywcø‡KU Z_¨
msiÿY Kivi m¤¢vebvI _v‡K| Uªvb‡RKkb-Gi gva¨‡g wWweGgGm GB ai‡bi mgm¨v cÖwZ‡iva K‡i
†WUv‡eR‡K ÿwZ †_‡K iÿv K‡i Ges eû e¨enviKvix‡K GKB mgq †WUv‡eR e¨env‡ii myweav K‡i
†`q|
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 209

†WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷‡gi Kvh©vejx:

†WUv wWKkbvwi g¨v‡bR‡g›U
†WUv wWKkbvwi(Dcv‡Ëi Awfavb) Gi †fZi cÖwZwU DcvËi iƒc(msL¨v, mvaviY †jLv, Qwe, wfwWI
BZ¨vw`), Zvi m¤úK© Ges AvqZb msµvšÍ Z_¨ _v‡K| wWweGgGm Z_¨ msiÿY I AbymÜv‡bi mgq
GB †WUv ÷ªvKPvi e¨envi K‡i KvR K‡i| mvaviY e¨enviKvix‡K G wb‡q fve‡Z nq bv| g~jZ
†WUv‡eR †cÖvMÖvgvi I cwiPvjbvKvixiv †WUv ÷ªvKPvi wb‡q KvR K‡ib| e¨enviKvix nq‡Zv gvby‡li
bvg UvBc K‡i BbcyU K‡i Ges bvg w`‡q †Kv‡bv Z_¨ Luy‡R †ei K‡i| GB bvgwU †WUv ÷ªvKPvi
Abyhvqx GK ai‡bi K¨v‡i±vi(character) †WUv hvi bvg name Ges hvi m‡e©v”P AvqZb 300| wKš‘
e¨enviKvix †fZ‡ii GB RwUjZv bv †R‡bB GUv‡K bvg wn‡m‡e e¨envi Ki‡Z cv‡i|
†WUv †÷v‡iR g¨v‡bR‡g›U
†WUv‡e‡Ri wewfbœ iKg Z_¨ i‡q‡Q †hgb bKkv, Z_¨ BbcyU Kivi B›Uvi‡dm, cÖwZ‡e`b KvVv‡gv,
Z_¨ ï×Zv iÿvi wbqg, wewfbœ iKg Kz‡qwi; AviI Av‡Q †WUv‡e‡R BbcyU Kiv wewfbœ iKg I
AvqZ‡bi †jLv, Qwe, wfwWI| GB me wKQy Z_¨¸wj Kw¤úDUv‡ii ¯’vqx ¯§„wZ †hgb, nvW©wW¯‹,
†UcWªvB‡f Z_¨¸wj msiÿY Ki‡Z nq| wWweGgGm-Gi Ab¨Zg KvR GB me wKQy myPviæfv‡e
Kw¤úDUv‡ii ¯’vqx ¯§„wZ‡Z msiÿY K‡i| d‡j e¨enviKvixi Z_¨ msiÿY I cwieZ©‡bi RwUj
cÖwµqv Rvbvi cÖ‡qvRb c‡o bv|

†WUv UªvÝdi‡gkb Ges †cÖ‡R‡›Ukb

Z_¨ †hfv‡e msiÿY nq Ges †hfv‡e e¨enviKvixi Kv‡Q Dc¯’vwcZ nq Zv GK iKg bv| hv Avgiv
bvg ev Qwe AvKv‡i †`wL Zv A‡bK¸wj 0 Ges 1 A_ev wdwRK¨vwj A‡bK¸wj PvR© Ges wWmPvR©
Ae¯’v| wWweGgGm Z_¨i †hŠw³K Ae¯’v †_‡K wdwRK¨vj Ges wdwRK¨vj Ae¯’v †_‡K †hŠw³K
Ae¯’vq iƒcvšÍi K‡i|

wbivcËv e¨e¯’vcbv
wbivcËv nj wWweGgGm Gi me‡P ¸iæZ¡c~Y© KvR| wbivcËv e¨e¯’vcbvq †WUv‡eR e¨env‡ii wewfbœ
wbqš¿Yg~jK wbqg Ges cÖwZwU wbw`©ó e¨enviKvix †WUv‡e‡Ri KZUzKz Ges Kxfv‡e e¨envi Ki‡Z
cvi‡eb Zv wba©viY K‡i †`Iqv nq| e¨enviKvix‡`i GKUv BDRvi †bg Ges cvmIqvW© _v‡K|
e¨enviKvixMY GB BDRvi †bg Ges cvmIqvW© e¨envi K‡i †WUv‡eR e¨envi Ki‡Z nq| Zv‡K
†`Iqv AbygwZi evB‡i †m wKQyB Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|

gvwëBDRvi GK‡mm K‡›Uªvj

GKvwaK e¨enviKvixi e¨envi wbqš¿‡Yi D‡Ïk¨ n‡”Q Z_¨i weï×Zv I msMwZ iÿv Kiv| GKB mgq
GKvwaK e¨enviKvix bv †R‡bB GKB wRwbm wfbœ wfbœ fv‡e cwieZ©b Ki‡Z cv‡i| Avevi GKB Z_¨
GKvwaKevi msiÿY Ki‡Z cv‡i| GKvwaK e¨enviKvix‡`i wbqwš¿Z e¨envi GB mgm¨vi nvZ †_‡K
†WUv‡eR‡K iÿv K‡i|
210 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

e¨vKAvc Ges wiKfvwi g¨v‡bR‡g›U

¯’vqx ¯§„wZ wn‡m‡e e¨eüZ nvW©wW¯‹ ev †Uc WªvBf wewfbœ Kvi‡Y bó n‡q †h‡Z cv‡i| wm‡÷‡gi ÎæwUi
Kvi‡Y ev Ab¨‡Kv‡bv `yN©Ubvq †WUv‡eR ÿwZMÖ¯’ n‡Z cv‡i| n¨vKv‡ii Avµg‡Y ev fvBiv‡mi Kvi‡Y
†WUv‡eR bó ev ÿwZMÖ¯’ n‡Z cv‡i| d‡j AZ¨šÍ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© Z_¨ wPiw`‡bi Rb¨ nvwi‡q †h‡Z cv‡i|
GiKg `y‡h©vM †_‡K iÿv cvIqvi Rb¨ wWweGgGm G †WUv‡eR e¨vKAvc Ges wiKfvwi(cybiæ×vi)
Kivi e¨e¯’v _v‡K|
†WUv Bw›UªwMÖwU g¨v‡bR‡g›U
GKB DcvË †hb GKvwaK bv _v‡K, AcÖ‡qvRbxq Z_¨ hv‡Z bv _v‡K, Z_¨i ga¨ m‡e©v”P mvgÄm¨Zv
_v‡K †m Rb¨ K‡Vvi wbqš¿Yg~jK wbqg Av‡ivc K‡i| d‡j GKB AbymÜv‡bi djvdj mg mgq GKB
iKg nq| aiv hvK GKwU K¬v‡mi GKwU mv‡ji 14 bs †iv‡ji QvÎi bvg cÖkœ Kiv nj Zvn‡j `yR‡bi
bvg Avm‡e bv KL‡bv| KviY wWweGgGm 14 bs †iv‡ji GKvwaK Z_¨ msiÿY Ki‡Z †`‡e bv|
†WUv GK‡mm j¨vs¸‡qR Ges A¨vwcø‡Kkb †cÖvMÖvwgs B›Uvi‡dm
†WUv‡eR‡K Kx Kx Ki‡Z n‡e Zvi wb‡`©kbvi Rb¨ Kz‡qwi j¨vs¸‡qR e¨envi Kiv nq| Kz‡qwi
j¨vs¸‡qR mvaviY †cÖvMÖvwgs j¨vs¸‡q‡Ri gZ avivevwnK wb‡`©kbv _v‡K bv| SQL(structured
query language) nj GiKg GKwU eûj e¨eüZ j¨vs¸‡qR| eZ©gvb cÖvq mKj wWweGmGm GB
j¨vs¸‡q‡Ri e¨env‡ii myweav Av‡Q| Gi gva¨‡g wWweGgGm‡K e¨enviKvix Kxfv‡e Ki‡Z n‡e bv
†R‡bB Kx Ki‡Z n‡e †mB wb‡`©kbv Lye mn‡RB w`‡Z cv‡i| †WUv‡eR e¨envi K‡i GiKg mdU&
Iq¨vi¸wj GB Kz‡qwi j¨vs¸‡qR e¨envi K‡i mn‡RB wWweGgGm Gi mv‡_ Z_¨ Av`vb cÖ`vb Ki‡Z
cv‡i Ges wWweGgGm †K w`‡q wewfbœ iKg †WUv‡eR msµvšÍ KvR Kiv‡Z cv‡i|
†WUv‡eR KwgDwb‡Kkb B›Uvi‡dm
†WUv‡eR ïay GKwU Kw¤úDUv‡i Ges ïay GK Rb e¨enviKvix e¨envi K‡i bv| Gi e¨enviKvix
Awdm †bUIqv‡K©i wewfbœ Kw¤úDUvi n‡Z cv‡i| B›Uvi‡b‡Ui †Kv‡bv `~ieZ©x e¨enviKvix n‡Z cv‡i|
e¨enviKvix‡`i Kw¤úDUv‡ii Acv‡iwUs wm‡÷g Ges mdU&Iq¨vi wewfbœ iKg n‡Z cv‡i| GiKg
wewfbœ iKg e¨enviKvix hv‡Z wWweGgGm Gi mv‡_ mshy³ n‡q e¨envi Ki‡Z cv‡i †mRb¨ we‡kl
ai‡bi ms‡hvMKvix B›Uvi‡dm _v‡K|

Uªvb‡RKkb g¨v‡bR‡g›U
Uªvb‡RKkb ej‡Z Avgiv Ggb GKwU e¨e¯’v eywS hv Øviv wWweGgGm wbwðZ K‡i GKwU ev GK¸”Qi
Kgv‡Ûi me¸‡jv Kvh©Ki n‡q‡Q A_ev GKUvI nqwb| aiv hvK GKwU e¨vs‡Ki †WUv‡e‡R GKRb
K¬vqv›UGi A¨vKvD›U †_‡K 1000 UvKv Aci Av‡iK Rb e¨enviKvixi A¨vKvD‡›U UvÝdvi Ki‡Z
n‡e| †m‡ÿ‡Î GKR‡bi e¨vjvÝ 1000 Kgv‡Z n‡e Ges AciR‡bi e¨vjvÝ 1000 evov‡Z n‡e|
Zv‡`i GB †jb‡`b K‡e KLb Kvi Aby‡iv‡a Ges Aby‡gv`‡b Kiv nj Zvi †iKW© msiÿY Ki‡Z
n‡e| GB †jb‡`b nIqvi mgq hw` cÖ`vbKvixi A¨vKvD‡›U UvKv Kgv‡bv n‡jv wKš‘ MÖnYKvixi
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 211

evov‡bv nj bv Zvn‡j Lye eo GKUv mgm¨v n‡q hv‡e| GLv‡b wbwðZ Ki‡Z n‡e me¸‡jv wb‡`©k nq
Kvh©Ki n‡q‡Q bv nq GKwUI nqwb|
†WUv‡eR g‡Wj
†WUv‡e‡R mvaviYZ wKQy e¨w³ _v‡K †hgb Kv÷gvi, Kg©Pvix, mvcjvBqvi, QvÎ-QvÎx Avevi wewfbœ
Kg©KvÛ _v‡K †hgb AW©vi, †c‡g›U, µq-weµq Ggb A‡bK wKQy| †WUv‡e‡Ri bKkv Ggb n‡e hv‡Z
GB Z_¨¸wj GKwUi mv‡_ Av‡iKwU m¤úK© eRvq _vK‡e| Z‡_¨i GB m¤úK© Kxfv‡e ¯’vwcZ n‡e †mB
welqUv‡KB ejv nq †WUv‡eR g‡Wj|
Avgiv mvaviYZ Pvi ai‡bi †WUv‡eR g‡Wj †`wL|
1. nvqviviwKKvj †WUv‡eR
(Hierarchical Model): GB
g‡Wj cwiev‡ii wcZv-cy‡Îi
m¤ú‡K©i gZ Dci bxP †mvcv‡b ˆZwi
nq m¤úK©| GK Rb wcZvi A‡bK
mšÍvb _vK‡Z cv‡i wKš‘ †Kv‡bv
mšÍv‡bi GKvwaK wcZv _vK‡Z cvi‡e
bv| †hgb GKRb Kg©xi GKvwaK
g¨v‡bRvi _vK‡Z cvi‡e bv| d‡j
GB g‡W‡ji G‡Ki mv‡_ GKvwaK wPÎ bs-1: nvqviviwKKvj †WUv‡eR g‡Wj
m¤úK© ˆZwi Kiv hv‡e| †gBb‡d«g Qwei Drmthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model
Kw¤úDUv‡i GB g‡Wj Abym„Z
†WUv‡eR †`Lv †hZ|
2. †bUIqvK© g‡Wj (Network
Model): †bUIqvK© g‡Wj
nvqviviwKKvj g‡W‡ji Dci wfwË
K‡i ˆZwi nq| Z‡e GLv‡b GKwU
mšÍv‡bi GKvwaK wcZv _vK‡Z
cvi‡e| A_©vr GKRb Kg©xi GKvwaK
g¨v‡bRvi _vK‡j Amyweav †bB| d‡j
A‡b‡Ki mv‡_ A‡b‡Ki m¤úK© GB
g‡W‡j ˆZwi Kiv hv‡e| GB g‡Wj wPÎ bs-2: †bUIqvK© †WUv‡eR g‡Wj
¯^í mg‡qi Rb¨ RbwcÖqZv †c‡jI
wecøevZ¥K cwieZ©b Av‡b‡Z cv‡iwb| * Qwei Drm
eZ©gvb mg‡qi RwUj m¤ú‡K©i http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model
†WUv‡eR ˆZwii Rb¨ GB g‡Wj
212 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

Dc‡hvMx bq Ges †Zgb †Kv_vI e¨enviI nq bv|

3. wi‡jkbvj g‡Wj (Relational Model): GB g‡WjwU me‡P AvaywbK Ges Av‡Mi¸wj †_‡K
m¤ú~Y© bZzb ai‡bi| GB g‡W‡j GK ¸”Q †Uwe‡j Z_¨ ivLvi aviYv D™¢vweZ nq| †Uwej¸wj GKB
mv‡_ Z_¨ Ges m¤úK©
wb‡`©k Ki‡e| Av‡Mi
g‡Wj¸wj‡K Z_¨ D‡Ëvjb
Ki‡Z n‡j e¨enviKvix‡K
Rvb‡Z nZ Z_¨¸wj
Kxfv‡e †Kvb µ‡g mvRv‡bv
Av‡Q wKš‘ wi‡jkbvj g‡W‡j
e¨enviKvix †h‡Kv‡bv Drm
n‡Z Z_¨ D‡Ëvjb Ki‡Z
cv‡i| wPÎ bs-3: †bUIqvK© †WUv‡eR g‡Wj
* Qwei Drmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model

4. Ae‡R±-Awi‡q‡›UW g‡Wj
(Object-Oriented Model):
†WUv‡eR g‡W‡ji cieZ©x
ms‡hvRb nj Ae‡R±-Awi‡q‡›UW
g‡Wj| Gi Av‡Mi wZbwU g‡W‡ji
Zzjbvq GwU A‡bK †d¬w·ej
(bgbxq) Ges AvaywbK| GB
g‡W‡j Z_¨ Ae‡R± iƒ‡c _v‡K|
Ae‡R±¸wj‡Z GKB mv‡_ Z_¨
Ges Z_¨i AvPiY _v‡K| G‡Z
Ae‡R± Iwi‡q‡›UW †cÖvMÖvwgs Gi
wPÎ bs-4: Ae‡R±-Awi‡q‡›UW g‡Wj
A‡bK aviYv †WUv‡e‡R AšÍf©y³ ev * Qwei Drm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model
e¨envi Kiv nq| d‡j ev¯Íe
RMr‡K †WUv‡e‡R aviY Kivi Rb¨
AviI Dc‡hvMx nq| Z‡e g‡WjwU GLbI me©Zfv‡e cwicK¡Zv jvf K‡iwb| ZvQvov g‡W‡ji mv‡_
e¨envi m¤¢e GiKg †Kv‡bv SQL(structured query language) ‰Zwi nqwb| GB g‡W‡ji Rb¨
†Kv‡bv ÷vÛ©vB‡Rkb (Av`k© wba©viY) nqwb| A‡bK mdU&Iq¨v‡i GB g‡Wj mdjfv‡e e¨envi n‡jI
GiKg RwUj g‡W‡ji Rb¨ †Kv‡bv †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g ˆZwi nqwb|

wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

(Relational Database Management System)
†h wWweGgGm wi‡jkbvj g‡W‡ji Dci wfwË K‡i KvR K‡i Zv‡K wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U
ms‡ÿ‡c AviwWweGgGm ejv hvq| evRv‡i cvIqv hvq Ggb me †WUv‡eR wm‡÷gB Kvh©Z m¤ú~Y©
A_ev AvswkKfv‡e wi‡jkbvj g‡Wj m~‡Îi Dci ˆZwi|
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 213

wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR ˆZwi nq Z_¨i cvi¯úwiK m¤ú‡K©i Dci wbf©i K‡i| wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡e‡R †iv
Ges Kjvg w`‡q ˆZwi nq †WUv †Uwej| GLv‡b †Uwej ej‡Z GK A‡_© Z_¨i m¤úK©‡KB †evSvq|
†Uwe‡ji cÖ‡Z¨KwU †iv nj †iKW©(record) ev †Uvcjm(Tuples) Ges cÖ‡Z¨KwU Kjvg nj
A¨vwUªweDU(attribute) ev wdì (Field)| GKwU †Uwej †_‡K GKwU Kjvg Ges GKwU †iv wb‡j
†Kej GKwU Z_¨ cvIqv hv‡e Zv‡K e‡j Uzcj(tuple)| cÖ‡Z¨K †Uwe‡ji GKUv wdì _v‡K hv Ab¨
GKwU ev GKvwaK †Uwe‡j Abyiƒc Av‡iKwU wdì _v‡K| GB Abyiƒc wdì w`‡q ˆZwi nq m¤úK© Ges
GB m¤úK© Øviv GKwU †Uwej †_‡K Ab¨ GK ev GKvwaK †Uwe‡ji m¤úK©hy³ Z_¨ GK‡mm Kiv hvq|
welqwU fv‡jvfv‡e †evSvi Rb¨ Avgiv GKwU Awd‡mi Kg©x‡`i †WUv‡e‡Ri K_v wPšÍv Ki‡Z cvwi|
GKwU Awd‡mi Kg©x‡`i Rxeb e„ËvšÍ‡Z Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB Zvi bvg, wcZvi bvg, gvZvi bvg, Rb¥
ZvwiL, wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zv BZ¨vw` Z_¨ i‡q‡Q| mevi Gme Z_¨ †gvUvgywU GKB iKg nq| wkÿvMZ
†hvM¨Zvi †ÿ‡Î wewfbœ Rb wewfbœ iKg wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zv i‡q‡Q| †KD gv÷vm©, †KD ïay mœvZK Ges
†KD †KD D”P gva¨wgK ch©šÍ †jLvcov K‡i‡Q| GLv‡b Avgiv Zvi mvaviY Z_¨ Ges wkÿvMZ
†hvM¨Zvi Z_¨i Rb¨ GKwU †Uwej Ki‡Z cvwi| `yBwU †Uwe‡j cÖ‡Z¨K Kg©xi Rb¨ GKwU BDwbK
AvBwW w`‡q GKwU m¤úK© ˆZwi Ki‡Z cvwi|

attribute/Field
†Uwej 1: EmployeeTable
Employee_ID FullName FatherName MotherName City BirthDate
01 জামাল ম আিমনা বগম যেশার ১২-১-১৯৭৪
আহােমদ
০২ কামাল উি ন কিফল উি ন রিহমা খা ন মা রা ১৩-২-১৯৭০
০৩ আব স সালাম রহমত আিল সােবরা বগম যেশার ১৯-১২-১৯৭৫
Tuple(second column + third row)

Touples/Record/Row

†Uwej 2: EmployeeEducationTable
BoardInstitut

StudyDuratio
Exam

Year
ClassDivision
ion

n
EmployeeID
StudyID

01 ০১ এসএসিস যেশার ি তীয় ১৯৯০ ২

02 ০1 এইসএসিস যেশার থম ১৯৯২ ২
০৩ ০২ এসএসিস যেশার থম ১৯৮৬ ২
০৪ ০৩ এসএসিস ঢাকা থম ১৯৯০ ২
০৫ ০৩ এইচএসিস ঢাকা থম ১৯৯২ ২
06 03 weKg(Abvm©) XvKv wØZxq 1996 4
wek¦we`¨vjq
wPÎ bs-5: wi‡jkbvj †WUv †Uwej I m¤úK©
214 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

wPÎ bs-5 G †`Lv hv‡”Q †Uwej 1 G Kg©x‡`i mvaviY Z_¨¸wj ivLv n‡”Q| Z_¨¸wji g‡a¨ ¯^vfvweK
AvšÍ m¤úK© i‡q‡Q hv mvaviY Ávb †_‡KB Avgiv eyS‡Z cvwi, †hgb GKRb Kg©x GKRb e¨w³ hvi
bvg Av‡Q, wcZvi bvg Av‡Q, gvZvi bvg Av‡Q, Zvi Rb¥ ZvwiL i‡q‡Q| GB m¤úK©hy³ †Uwej †_‡K
mn‡RB Avgiv DwÏó Z_¨ msMÖn Ki‡Z cvie| GB †Uwej †`wL‡q †Kv‡bv e¨w³‡K hw` cÖkœ Kiv nq
†h Kg©xi bvg Kvgvj DwÏb Ges wcZvi bvg Kwdj DwÏb Zvi Rb¥ ZvwiL KZ| †h †KD Lye mn‡R
bv‡gi N‡i bvg Ges wcZvi bv‡gi N‡i wcZvi bvg †`‡L m¤úK©hy³ Zvi Rb¥ ZvwiL 13-2-1970
ej‡Z cvi‡e| Zvi wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zvi †iKW© ivLvi Rb¨ Avgiv †Uwej 2 ˆZwi K‡iwQ| †mLv‡b
GKRb e¨w³i hZ¸wj cÖ‡qvRb wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zv AšÍf©y³ Kiv m¤¢e| `yBwU †Uwe‡ji g‡a¨ Avgiv
m¤úK© ˆZwii Rb¨ Abyiƒc GKwU wdì employeeID e¨envi K‡iwQ| †h Kg©xi EmployeeID wdì-
G 01 i‡q‡Q Zvi Rb¨ `yBwU wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zvi †iKW© i‡q‡Q, hvi 02 Zvi wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zvi GKwU
†iKW© i‡q‡Q Ges hvi 03 Zvi wZbwU wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zvi †iKW© i‡q‡Q| GLv‡b bvg Kvgvj DwÏb
Ges wcZv Kwdj DwÏb †h Kg©x Av‡Q Zvi Kx Kx wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zv Av‡Q Ggb cÖkœ Kiv n‡j †`Lv
hv‡e †Uwej 1 Gi wØZxq †iK‡W©i mv‡_ wg‡j hvq| †mLvb †_‡K †h employeeID 02 cvIqv hvq
Zvi mv‡_ †Uwej 2 †gjv‡j †`Lv hvq Zvi GKwU wkÿvMZ †hvM¨Zv Av‡Q| †m 1986 mv‡j h‡kvi
†evW© n‡Z cÖ_g wefv‡M GmGmwm cixÿvq DËxY© n‡q‡Q| Gfv‡e m¤úK©hy³ †WUv †Uwej w`‡q ˆZwi
nq wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR|
wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡e‡Ri ˆewkó¨:
1. †evSvi Rb¨ me‡P mnR, e¨env‡ii †ÿ‡Î bgbxq Ges wkígvb m¤úbœ|
2. Z_¨i g~j wfwË nj m¤úK©|
3. †iv Kjv‡gi wfwˇZ †Uwej Abymv‡i Z_¨ msiÿY K‡i
4. cÖvBgvwi wK ˆZwii myweav †`q hv w`‡q †h‡Kv‡bv †iv‡K BDwbKwj Luy‡R †ei Kiv hvq
5. Z_¨ †LuvRv, D‡Ëvjb I cÖwµqvKiY `ªæZZvi Rb¨ Bb‡W· ˆZwii myweav †`q|
6. view myweav †`q hvi gva¨‡g GK ev GKvwaK †Uwej †_‡K Z_¨ mwbœ‡ewkZ K‡i †`Lv hvq
Ges msiÿY Kiv hvq| cÖ‡qvR‡b mvaviY Kz‡qwi Pvjv‡bv hvq|
7. cÖvBgvwi wK I d‡ib wK AvKv‡i Abyiƒc Kjvg GKvwaK †Uwe‡ji g‡a¨ ivLv hvq| Ges
Zv‡`i ga¨ m¤úK© ˆZwi Kiv hvq|
8. Kgb wdì Av‡Q Ggb †Uwej¸wji g‡a¨ mgwš^Z Kz‡qwi Pvjv‡bv hvq|
9. GKvwaK e¨enviKvix GKB mv‡_ e¨envi Ki‡Z cv‡i| e¨enviKvix‡`i cÖ‡qvRb Abymv‡i
wbqš¿Y Kiv hvq|
10. GKvwaK †Uwej †_‡K m¤úK©hy³ Z_¨ wb‡q wi‡cvU© ˆZwi Kiv hvq|
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 215

wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡e‡Ri e¨envi

mnR e¨envi Ges †evaMg¨Zvi Rb¨ c„w_exi me‡P RbwcÖq †WUv‡eR wm‡÷g nj wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡eR
g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g| ZvB †hLv‡bB †Qv‡Uv-e‡ov †WUv‡e‡Ri cÖ‡qvRb †mLv‡bB AviwWweGgGm
e¨envi n‡”Q| mvaviY ¯‹z‡ji Z_¨ †_‡K ïiæ K‡i Awd‡m, wegvb e›`‡i, †nv‡U‡j, wkíKviLvbvq,
e¨emvq cÖwZôv‡b, M‡elYv †K›`ª, B‡jKkb Awd‡m, e¨vsK, ¯^v¯’¨ †mev mn cÖvq me †ÿ‡ÎB
AviwWGgGm Gi e¨envi n‡”Q eûjfv‡e| B›Uvi‡b‡U WvBbvwgK I‡qe mvBU, †hgb AvgvRb, ¸Mj,
Bqvû, †dmeyK BZ¨vw` ˆZwii Rb¨I AviwWGgGm cÖvq me©‡ÿ‡Î e¨envi n‡”Q| wewfbœ mdU&Iq¨vi I
I‡qe mvBU Zvi wbR¯^ Z_¨ ivLvi Rb¨I e¨envi K‡i AviwWGgGm| GK K_vq Kw¤úDUvivBR Z_¨
e¨e¯’vcbvi cÖ‡qvRb †hLv‡bB Av‡Q †mLv‡bB AviwWGgGm Gi e¨envi i‡q‡Q|
SQL(Structured Query Language)
Z_¨ D‡Ëvjb I cÖwµqvKiY Gi Rb¨ cÖwZwU wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡e‡RB GmwKDGj e¨envi nq| mKj
wWweGgGm Gi Rb¨B GUv ÷¨vÛvW© j¨vs¸‡qR| Av‡gwiKvb b¨vkbvj ÷vÛvW© Bbw÷wUDU(ANSI)
1986 mv‡j Ges B›Uvib¨vkbvj AM©vbvB‡Rkb di ÷vÛvW©(ISO) 1987 mv‡j GmwKIGj-†K
AviwWweGgGm Gi ÷vÛvW© j¨vs¸‡qR wn‡m‡e wba©viY Kiv nq| GmwKGj GKUv bbcÖwmwWIivj
j¨vs¸‡qR| A_©vr Gi e¨envi K‡i e¨enviKvix wK Pvq ïay ZvB wba©viY Ki‡e Kxfv‡e KvRwU n‡e
†mUv wb‡q e¨enviKvixi fvevi cÖ‡qvRb †bB| GK K_vq ejv hvq GmwKGj nj AviwWweGgGm Gi
mv‡_ K_v ejvi fvlv|
GmwKDGj j¨vs¸‡q‡Ri wZbwU Ask:
1. Data Definition Language(DDL)
†WUv †Wwd‡bkb j¨vs¸‡qR w`‡q g~j †WUv‡eR ˆZwi Ges Gi †fZi wewfbœ Ae‡R± †hgb †Uwej,
wfD, Bb‡W· BZ¨vw` ˆZwi Kiv nq|
2. Data Manipulation Language(DML)
†WUv‡e‡R Z_¨ msiÿY Kiv Ges Z_¨‡K cwieZ©b I we‡køl‡Yi KvR Kiv|
3.Data Control Language (DCL)
GB As‡k †WUv wbivcËvi Rb¨ BDRvi‡K wewfbœ AwaKvi †`Iqv Ges Le© Kivi KvR Kiv nq|
SQL e¨envi Kivi Rb¨ Gi wKQy †gŠwjK wel‡q aviYv _vKv cÖ‡qvRb:
†WUv UvBc (Data Type)
†WUv‡e‡R †h Z_¨ ivLv nq †hgb †jLv, msL¨v, Qwe, wfwWI BZ¨vw` G¸wji cÖK…wZ wfbœ wfbœ| GB wfbœ
wfbœ cÖK…wZi Z_¨¸wj msiÿY Kivi c×wZI ZvB wfbœ nq| Avevi GB Z_¨i cÖK…wZMZ wfbœZvi
Kvi‡Y Zv‡`i wb‡q GKB iKg KvR Kiv hvq bv| aiv hvK GKwU msL¨vi mv‡_ Av‡iKwU msL¨vi
MvwYwZK cÖwµqv †hgb †hvM, we‡qvM, ¸Y, fvM BZ¨vw` Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i wKš‘ `yBwU †jLv †hgb bv‡gi
mv‡_ GiKg MvwYwZK KvR Kiv hv‡e bv| ZvB †WUv‡e‡R hLb Z_¨ ivLvi Rb¨ †Uwej ˆZwi Kiv nq ZLb
216 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

†Kvb Kjv‡g wK ai‡bi Z_¨ ivLv n‡e Zv wba©viY K‡i w`‡Z nq| aiv hvK GKwU Kj‡gi †WUv UvBc wn‡m‡e
ZvwiL wba©viY Kiv nj| GB KjvgwU‡Z ZvwiL wfbœ Ab¨ †Kv‡bv cÖKvi Z_¨ ivLv hv‡e bv|
ANSI SQL G wbgœiƒc †WUv UvBc Av‡Q:
K. character strings(†jLv/Aÿi)
char(n)Ín msL¨K Aÿi _vK‡e, Lvwj _vK‡j †¯úm w`‡q c~iY Kiv n‡e|
VARCHAR(n)- m‡e©v”P n msL¨K Aÿi _vK‡e| n †_‡K Kg AÿiI n‡Z cv‡i|
NCHAR(n)- mywbw`©ó n msL¨K B›Uvib¨vkbvj K¨v‡i±vi †mU †_‡K Aÿi _vK‡e|
L. Bit strings(weU Aÿi)
BIT(n)- n msL¨K we‡Ui GKwU Array.
M. Numbers (msL¨v)
Integer- Bw›URvi UvB‡c -2,147,483,648 n‡Z 2,147,483,647 ch©šÍ msL¨v ivLv hv‡e|
SMALLINT-¯§j AvBGbwU UvB‡c -32,768 n‡Z 32,767 ch©šÍ msL¨v ivLv hv‡e|
FLOAT- d¬U †WUv UvB‡c -1.79E +308 n‡Z 1.79E+308 ch©šÍ msL¨v ivLv hv‡e|
DECIMAL(p,s)- †Wwm‡gj UvB‡c -1038+1 n‡Z 1038+1 ch©šÍ msL¨v n‡Z cv‡i| p Øviv †gvU
KZwU wWwRU `kwg‡Ki Av‡M I c‡i wgwj‡q n‡e Zv wb‡`©k K‡i| p Gi gvb m‡e©v”P 38 n‡e| s
Øviv `kwg‡Ki ci †gvU KZwU wWwRU n‡e Zv wb‡`©k K‡i| s Øviv `kwg‡Ki ci †gvU KZwU wWwRU
n‡e Zv wb‡`©k K‡i| s Gi gvb 0 †_‡K m‡e©v”P p Gi gvb ch©šÍ n‡Z cv‡i|
N. DATE and time
DATE- ‡Kej Zvwi‡Li Z_¨ ivLv hv‡e|
TIME- †Kej mg‡qi Z_¨ ivLv hv‡e, †hgb 12:51:30|
TIMESTAMP- ZvwiL I mgq GK mv‡_ ivLv hv‡e| †hgb: 02-03-2006 8:45:13|
SQL statement
SQL Gi cÖwZwU Kgv‡Ûi GKUv MVb Av‡Q| GB MVb Abymv‡i KgvÛ bv w`‡j †WUv‡eR wm‡÷g
eyS‡Z cvi‡e bv Ges KgvÛ Kvh©Ki n‡e bv| †hgb mPivPi me‡P †ewk e¨envi nq SELECT KgvÛ
Z_¨ D‡Ëvj‡bi Rb¨| SELECT Kgv‡Ûi GKwU MVb (syntax) Av‡Q|
SELECT (Column List)
FROM [Table Name]
Avgiv wb‡gœi †Uwej †_‡K †WUv D‡Ëvj‡bi Rb¨ KgvÛwU cÖ‡qvM Kie|
ItemsTable
ItemId ItemName Qty OrginalPrice SalePrice
K-01 wdwjcm evj&e 500 24 25
c-01 gvDb‡Ub wWD 600 16 17
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 217

K-02 mvbjvBU evj&e 200 22 24

c-02 †KvKvKjv 500 16 18
c-03 †gwiÛv 20 16 17
†Uwe‡ji me¸‡jv †WUv †`Lvi Rb¨ KgvÛ
SELECT * FROM ItemsTable
(GLv‡b * ej‡Z me¸wj Kjvg †evSvq)
GB Kgv‡Ûi d‡j me¸‡jv djvdj †`Lv hv‡e|
ItemId ItemName Qty OrginalPrice SalePrice
K-01 wdwjcm evj&e 500 24 25
c-01 gvDb‡Ub wWD 600 16 17
K-02 mvbjvBU evj&e 200 22 24
c-02 †KvKvKjv 500 16 18
c-03 †gwiÛv 20 16 17
¸iæZ¡c~Y© wKQy SQL statement nj
SELECT - †WUv‡eR †_‡K †WUv D‡Ëvjb K‡i|
UPDATE - †WUv‡e‡Ri †WUv cwieZ©b ev nvj bvMv` K‡i |
DELETE - †WUv‡eR †_‡K Z_¨ gy‡Q †d‡j|
INSERT INTO - †WUv‡e‡R bZzb Z_¨ †XvKvq|
CREATE DATABASE - bZzb †WUv‡eR ˆZwi K‡i|
ALTER DATABASE - †WUv‡eR cwieZ©b K‡i|
CREATE TABLE - bZzb †WUv †Uwej ˆZwi K‡i|
ALTER TABLE - †WUv †Uwej cwieZ©b K‡i|
DROP TABLE - †WUv †Uwej gy‡Q †`q|
CREATE INDEX - Z_¨ †LuvRvi Rb¨ Bb‡W· ˆZwi K‡i|
DROP INDEX - Bb‡W· gy‡Q †d‡j|
CLAUSE
CLAUSE nj SQL statement G e¨eüZ Ask we‡kl| G¸wj cÖvqkB Ackbvj| SELECT
Kgv‡Ûi †ÿ‡Î Avgiv †`‡LwQ FROM K¬R Gi e¨envi|
SQL G ¸iæZ¡c~Y© K‡qKwU CLAUSE nj :
FROM-‡Kvb †Uwej †_‡K †WUv D‡Ëvjb I e¨envi Kiv n‡e Zv wba©viY K‡i|
WHERE-Gi gva¨‡g Zzjbvg~jK hvPvB‡qi ci ïaygvÎ cÖ‡qvRbxq Z_¨ cÖ`k©b ev e¨envi Kiv hvq|
†h †iv-¸wj WHERE clause Abymv‡i mZ¨ bq †m¸wj djvdj †_‡K ev` †`Iqv nq|
218 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

GROUP BY-GB K¬RwUi mvnvh¨ GKB iKg Z_¨¸wj‡K GKwÎZ K‡i †Qv‡Uv AvKv‡i cÖ`k©b Ges
e¨envi Kiv hvq| WHERE BY cÖ‡qvRb n‡j Zv GROUP BY Gi Av‡M e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e|
ORDER BY-Gi gva¨‡g †Kvb Kjvg Abymv‡i Ges Kx µ‡g h_v, DaŸ©µg I wb¤œµg †_‡K
mvRv‡bv n‡e Zv wba©viY Kiv nq|
HAVING- GROUP BY †_‡K cÖvß †iRvë‡K wdjUvi Kivi Rb¨ GB K¬RwU e¨envi Kiv nq|
Acv‡iUim(Operators)
GKwU Z_¨i mv‡_ Aci GKwU Z_¨i Zzjbv Kivi Rb¨ Acv‡iUi e¨envi Kiv nq|
SQL G e¨eüZ Acv‡iUimg~n:
Acv‡iUi (Operator) eY©bv
= mgvb Equal
<> or != Amgvb Not Equal
> Gi †_‡K eo Greater Then
< Gi †_‡K †Qv‡Uv Less Then
>= Gi †_‡K mgvb A_ev eo (Greater than or equal)
<= Gi †_‡K mgvb A_ev †Qv‡Uv (Less than or equal)
BETWEEN `yBUvi gvSLv‡b me¸wj (Between an inclusive range)
LIKE c¨vUvb© ev auvP Abymv‡i †LuvRv (Search for a pattern)
IN GKwU Kjv‡gi Rb¨ m¤¢ve¨ gvb (To specify multiple possible
values for a column)
dvskvb (Functions)
†WUvi Dci MvwYwZK I Ab¨vb¨ Acv‡ikb Pvjv‡bvi Rb¨ SQL Gi †fZ‡i wewfbœ dvskvb Av‡Q|
dvskvb e¨envi K‡i GK ev GKvwaK Kjv‡gi gv‡bi †_‡K bZzb †Kv‡bv djvdj ˆZwi Kiv †h‡Z
cv‡i| †hgb Avgiv sum() dvskvb w`‡q SELECT command cÖvß †Kv‡bv msL¨v evPK Kjv‡gi
me¸‡jv dj †hvMdj †c‡Z cvwi| GB dvskvb mvaviYZ `yB cÖKvi|
K. SQL Aggregate(mgwó) Functions
GB dvskvb¸‡jv Kjv‡gi GKvwaK gvb/value Gi Dci wn‡me K‡i djvdj †`q|
mvaviY Kv‡R jv‡M Ggb K‡qKwU dvskvb:
AVG() – Mo wbY©q K‡i|
COUNT() – KZwU MYbv K‡i|
FIRST() – cÖ_g gvbwU †`q|
LAST() – †kl gvbwU †`q|
MAX() – me‡P eo gvbwU †`q|
MIN() – me‡P †Qv‡Uv gvbwU †`q|
SUM() – †hvMdj wbY©q K‡i|
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 219

L. SQL Scalar functions

GKwU gvÎ djvdj †`q BbcyU Kiv gv‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i|
mvaviY Kv‡R jv‡M Ggb K‡qKwU dvskvb:
UCASE() – †jLv‡K eo nv‡Zi Aÿ‡i iƒcvšÍi K‡i|
LCASE() – †jLv‡K †Qv‡Uv nv‡Zi Aÿ‡i iƒcvšÍi K‡i|
MID() – †jLvi †fZi †_‡K Aÿi †ei K‡i Av‡b|
LEN() – †jLvi g‡a¨ KZwU Aÿi Av‡Q MYbv K‡i|
ROUND() – `kwg‡Ki c‡ii msL¨v ¸wj wbw`©ó wWwRU ch©šÍ ivDÛ K‡i|
NOW() – wm‡÷‡gi eZ©gvb mgq †`q|
FORMAT() – GKUv wdì Kxfv‡e †`Lv hv‡e Zv wba©viY K‡i|

†WUv‡eR ˆZwi Kiv

†WUv‡eR ˆZwi Kivi Rb¨ GKwU AviwWGgGm Bb÷j Kiv _vK‡Z n‡e Kw¤úDUv‡i| Orcale,
Microsof SQL server, Mysql BZ¨vw` AviwWGgGm w`‡q †WUv‡eR ˆZwi I e¨envi Kiv hv‡e|
cÖwZwU †WUv‡eR wm‡÷‡gB GmwKIGj e¨envi K‡i †WUv‡eR ˆZwi I iÿYv‡eÿY Kiv hvq| GB
GmwKIGj KgvÛ †`Iqvi Rb¨ cÖwZwU mvf©v‡ii mv‡_B GKUv KgvÛ B›Uvi‡dm _v‡K| ZvB
GmwKIGj Rvbv _vK‡jB †mB KgvÛ B›Uvi‡dm w`‡q Xy‡K KgvÛ w`‡q me KvR Kiv hv‡e| GLv‡b
gvB‡µvmd&U Gi SQL server express †K D`vniY wn‡m‡e e¨envi Kiv n‡q‡Q| Gi mv‡_ GKUv
g¨v‡bR‡g›U ÷zwWI _v‡K| DB‡Ûv‡Ri †cÖvMÖvgm †_‡K GmwKIGj g¨v‡bR‡g›U ÷zwWI I‡cb Ki‡Z
n‡e| I‡cb nIqvi mgq †Kvb mvf©v‡ii mv‡_ KvR Ki‡Z n‡e Zv †`wL‡q Kv‡b± w`‡Z n‡e|
mvaviYZ G‡ÿ‡Î †jvKvj mvf©vi Ges A‡_bwU‡Kkb DB‡ÛvR †`wL‡q w`‡jB Pvjy n‡q hv‡e|
Pvjy nIqvi ci New Query †jLv evU‡b wK¬K Ki‡j GKUv Kz‡qwi †jLvi DB‡Ûv †ei n‡e| GLv‡b
Kz‡qwi wjL‡Z n‡e| Kz‡qwi Gw·wKDU ev wbe©vn Kivi Rb¨ F5 A_ev Execute evU‡b wK¬K Ki‡Z
n‡e| Kz‡qwii djvdj bx‡Pi AvDUcyU As‡k †`Lv hv‡e| GLv‡b D‡jøL¨ GmwKIGj Kz‡qwi †Km
†mbwmwUf bq| A_©vr †Qv‡Uv nv‡Zi ev eo nv‡Zi n‡j †Kv‡bv mgm¨v †bB| GB eB‡Z eo nv‡Zi
†jLv n‡q‡Q †evSvi myweav‡_©|
wPÎ bs-6: SQLserver Express GwWkb WvDb‡jvW
220 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g
WvDb‡jvW wjsK
http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/sqlserver/|
http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=7593

GLv‡b mvf©vi †bg

local\SQLExpress ev
localhost\SQLExpress cÖf…wZ
wWdë _vK‡e|

†jvKvj mvf©v‡ii mv‡_ mshy³

nIqvi Rb¨ Kv‡b± wK¬K K‡iv|

Kz‡qwi †jLvi Rb¨ New

Query evUb wK¬K Ki‡Z n‡e
Execute: Kz‡qwi GwWU‡i
†jLv KgvÛ¸wj wbe©vn parse: Kz‡qwi GwWU‡i †jLv
(execute) Kivi Rb¨ KgvÛ¸wj wVK Av‡Q wK bv cixÿv
GB evU‡b wK¬K Ki‡Z Kivi Rb¨ GB evUb wK¬K K‡iv|
n‡e|

Kz‡qwi GwWUi: GLv‡b

Kz‡qwi KgvÛ¸wj wjL‡Z
n‡e|

Ae‡R± G·‡cøvivi:
GLv‡b Wv‡U‡eR I
AvDUcyU: GLv‡b
†WUv‡eR Ae‡R±¸wj
Kz‡qwi KgvÛ¸wj wbe©vn
†`Lv hv‡e|
n‡j djvdj †`Lv
hv‡e|
wPÎ bs-7: SQLserver Express Management Studio cwiwPwZ
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 221

†WUv‡eR ˆZwii Rb¨ cÖ_‡gB AviwWGgGm †K KgvÛ w`‡Z n‡e|

CREATE DATABASE syntax: CREATE DATABASE <database_name>
myshop_db bv‡gi GKwU †`vKv‡bi †WUv‡eR ˆZwi Kivi Rb¨ Avgiv bx‡Pi KgvÛwU w`e|
CREATE DATABASE myshop_db
djvdj wn‡m‡e GKwU bZzb †WUv‡eR ˆZwi n‡e|

†Uwej ˆZwi:
†WUv ivLvi Rb¨ †WUv‡e‡Ri †fZi †WUv †Uwej ˆZwi Ki‡Z n‡e|
†Uwej ˆZwii KgvÛ syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type ,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name3 data_type,
....
)
OrderTable bv‡gi GKwU †Uwej ˆZwi Kivi Rb¨ Avgiv bx‡Pi KgvÛwU †`e|
CREATE TABLE OrderTable
(
O_Id int not null,
OrderDate smalldatetime,
OrderPrice Decimal(18,2),
CustomerName nvarchar(255)
)
GLv‡b not null A_© GB KjvgwU‡Z Z_¨ ivLvi mgq dvKv(null) ivLv hv‡e bv|
djvdj wn‡m‡e †WUv‡e‡R OrderTable bv‡gi GKwU bZzb †Uwej ˆZwi n‡e|
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName

†Uwej cwieZ©b Kiv

ˆZwi Kiv †Uwe‡j bZzb Kjvg mshy³ Kivi KgvÛ syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
OrderTable GbZzb City bvgK Kjvg mshy³ Kiv
222 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

ALTER TABLE OrderTable ADD City varchar(150)

djvdj
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName City

†Uwej †_‡K Kjvg gy‡Q †djvi KgvÛ syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name
OrderTable †_‡KCity bvgK KjvgwU gy‡Q †djv:
ALTER TABLE OrderTable
DROP COLUMN City
djvdj
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName

cÖvBgvwi wK ˆZwi Kiv (SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint)

PRIMARY KEY constraint cÖwZwU †iKW© Avjv`vfv‡e kbv³ Kivi Rb¨ e¨envi Kiv nq|
cÖvBgvwi wK Gi gvb¸wj KLb GKB nq bv A_©vr BDwbK (Abb¨) nq| cÖvBgvwi wK Kjv‡g †Kv‡bv
NULL ev Lvwj gvb _v‡K bv| cÖwZwU †Uwe‡ji †Kej GKwU gvÎ cÖvBgvwi wK _vK‡Z cv‡i|
†Uwej ˆZwii ci PRIMARY KEY constraint ˆZwi Kivi syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD PRIMARY KEY (column_name)
GLv‡b †h OrderTable ˆZwi Kiv n‡q‡Q Zvi †Kv‡bv cÖvBgvwi wK bvB| GB †Uwe‡j O_Id Kjvg‡K
cÖvBgvwi wK Kivi Rb¨ bx‡Pi Kz‡qwiwU Pvjv‡Z n‡e|
ALTER TABLE OrderTable
ADD PRIMARY KEY (O_Id)
†Uwej ˆZwii Kivi mgq PRIMARY KEY constraint ˆZwi Kivi syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name3 data_type,
....
)
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 223

Avgiv †`vKv‡bi AW©v‡ii we¯ÍvwiZ Z_¨ ivLvi Rb¨ Av‡iKwU †Uwej ˆZwi Ki‡Z cvwi| Zvi cÖ_g
Kjvg n‡e OrderDetailsID Ges GB KjvgwU n‡e †Uwe‡ji cÖvBgvwi wK| †mRb¨ Avgiv bx‡Pi
Kz‡qwi KgvÛwU Pvjve|
CREATE TABLE OrderDetails
(
OrderDetailsID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY ,
O_Id int,
PrductName nvarchar(255),
Qty int,
Price Decimal(18,2),
TotalPrice Decimal(18,2)
)
d‡ib wK Kbm‡Uª›U (The FOREIGN KEY constraint)
Gi gva¨‡g `yBwU †Uwe‡ji g‡a¨ ms‡hvM ev m¤úK© ˆZwi nq| hv Øviv `yB †Uwe‡ji m¤úK© †Q` NUv‡Z
cv‡i Ggb Z_¨ BbcyU n‡Z evav †`q| d‡ib wK Kjv‡g †h †Uwe‡ji Kjv‡gi mv‡_ m¤úK© Zvi gvb
bq Ggb gvb †XvKv‡bv hv‡e bv| d‡j `ywU †Uwe‡ji g‡a¨ Z_¨i ms‡hvM we`¨gvb _vK‡e| GLv‡b
OrderDetails †Uwe‡ji O_Id Kjvg‡K d‡ib wK wn‡m‡e OrderTable Gi O_Id Kjv‡gi mv‡_
m¤úK© ˆZwi Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i|
†Uwej ˆZwi Kivi ci FOREIGN KEY constraint ˆZwi Kivi syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT foreignkey_name
FOREIGN KEY (column_name)
REFERENCES referance_table_name(referance_column_name)
m¤úK©wU ˆZwii Rb¨ bx‡Pi Kz‡qwiwU Pvjv‡Z n‡e|
ALTER TABLE OrderDetails
ADD CONSTRAINT fk_OrderTableId
FOREIGN KEY (O_Id)
REFERENCES OrderTable(O_Id)
djvdj †Uwe‡j OrderTable Gi O_Id †K †idv‡iÝ Kjvg Ges OrderDetails †Uwe‡ji O_Id d‡ib wK
Kjvg wn‡m‡e fk_OrderTableId bv‡gi GKwU FOREIGN KEY constraint ˆZwi n‡e|
†Uwej ˆZwi Kivi mgq FOREIGN KEY constraint ˆZwi Kivi syntax
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
column_name1 data_type NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
224 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

column_name2 data_type FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES

referance_table_name(referance_column_name),
column_name3 data_type,
[...]
)
hw` m¤úK©wU Avgiv OrderDetails †Uwej ˆZwii mgq w`‡Z nZ Zvn‡j †Uwej ˆZwii Kz‡qwiwU nZ
Ggb:
CREATE TABLE OrderDetails
(
OrderDetailsID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY ,
O_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES OrderTable(O_Id),
PrductName nvarchar(255),
Qty int,
Price Decimal(18,2),
TotalPrice Decimal(18,2)
)
†Uwe‡j Z_¨ BbcyU/BbmvU© Kiv
†Uwe‡j Z_¨ BbcyU Kivi Rb¨ INSERT statement wU e¨envi nq|
INSERT syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...)
INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2,column3,...)
VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...)
OrderTable G Z_¨ BbcyU Kivi Rb¨ KgvÛ †`qv nj|
INSERT INTO OrderTable VALUES (1,'2012/02/30', 1000,N'†mv‡jgvb')
INSERT INTO OrderTable VALUES (2,'2012/03/12’, 1600,N'†bvgvb ')
INSERT INTO OrderTable VALUES (3,'2012/03/14’, 700,N'†mv‡jgvb')
djvdj wn‡m‡e OrderTable bZzb wZbwU †iKW© BbmvU© n‡e:
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
2 2012/03/12 1600 †bvgvb
3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 225

KgvÛ:
INSERT INTO OrderTable (O_Id, OrderDate, OrderPrice, CustomerName)
VALUES (4,'2012/04/02',300,N'†mv‡jgvb')
djvdj:
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
2 2012/03/12 1600 †bvgvb
3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb
4 2012/04/02 300 †mv‡jgvb

Insert KgvÛwU Gfv‡eI †`Iqv hvq-

INSERT INTO OrderTable (O_Id, OrderDate, CustomerName)
VALUES (5,'2012/04/04',N'†mv‡jgvb')
INSERT INTO OrderTable (O_Id, OrderDate, OrderPrice)
VALUES (6,'2012/04/07',300)
INSERT INTO OrderTable (O_Id, OrderDate, OrderPrice,CustomerName)
VALUES (7,'2012/04/09',900, N’Kvjvg’)
djvdj
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
2 2012/03/12 1600 †bvgvb
3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb
4 2012/04/02 300 †mv‡jgvb
5 2012/04/04 †mv‡jgvb
6 2012/04/07 500
7 2012/04/09 900 Kvjvg

5 bv¤^vi AW©v‡i †`Lv hv‡”Q OrderPrice Kjv‡g †Kv‡bv †fjy/gvb bvB| KviY BbcyU Kivi mgq GB
gvbwU †`Iqv nqwb| †Kv‡bv gvb bv _vK‡j ev Lvwj _vK‡j Zv‡K NULL value e‡j| GKB fv‡e 6 bs
AW©v‡i †`Lv hv‡”Q CustomerName †bB| GLv‡b CustomerName bv _vKvq NULL value i‡q‡Q|
226 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

†Uwej Avc‡WU Kiv

UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
OrderTable Gi NULL value `ywU Avc‡WU Kivi Rb¨ bx‡Pi KgvÛ †`Iqv nj:
UPDATE OrderTable
SET OrderPrice=1200
WHERE O_Id =5
UPDATE OrderTable
SET CustomerName=N’‡Kvievb’
WHERE O_Id =6
djvd‡j 5 bs AW©v‡ii cÖvBm wVK n‡q hv‡e Ges 6 bs AW©v‡ii Kv÷gv‡ii bvg wVK n‡q hv‡e|
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
2 2012/03/12 1600 †bvgvb
3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb
4 2012/04/02 300 †mv‡jgvb
5 2012/04/04 1200 †mv‡jgvb
6 2012/04/07 500 †Kvievb
7 2012/04/09 900 Kvjvg

†WUv †Uwej †_‡K gy‡Q †djv

SQL DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value
7 b¤^i AW©viwU gy‡Q †djvi Rb¨ KgvÛ †`Iqv nj:
DELETE FROM OrderTable
WHERE O_Id=7
djvd‡j 7 bs AW©v‡ii †iKW©wU †Uwej †_‡K gy‡Q †Mj|
OId OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 227

2 2012/03/12 1600 †bvgvb

3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb
4 2012/04/02 300 †mv‡jgvb
5 2012/04/04 1200 †mv‡jgvb
6 2012/04/07 500 †Kvievb
†WUv D‡Ëvjb/AbymÜvb
†WUv D‡Ëvj‡bi Rb¨
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
Ges
SELECT * FROM table_name
OrderTable Gi me¸‡jv †iKW© †`Lvi Rb¨ bx‡Pi Kz‡qwiwU Pvjv‡Z n‡e|
SELECT * FROM OrderTable
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
2 2012/03/12 1600 †bvgvb
3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb
4 2012/04/02 300 †mv‡jgvb
5 2012/04/04 1200 †mv‡jgvb
6 2012/04/07 500 †Kvievb

SELECT Gi mv‡_ WHERE e¨envi K‡i mywbw`©ó Z_¨ †`Lv hvq|

SELECT column_name,column_name / *
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
†hgb Avgiv ïay Kv÷gvi †mv‡jgv‡bi AW©vi¸wj †`Lvi Rb¨ Gfv‡e KgvÛ w`‡Z cvwi:
SELECT * FROM OrderTable
WHERE CustomerName=NÕ†mv‡jgvbÕ
djvd‡j †`Lv hv‡e ïay †mv‡jgv‡bi †iKW©¸wj †`Lv hv‡”Q:
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
228 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb

4 2012/04/02 300 †mv‡jgvb
5 2012/04/04 1200 †mv‡jgvb

†WUv mvRv‡bv/mwU©s
†WUv‡K µgvbymv‡i mvRv‡bv †WUv‡eR wm‡÷‡gi GKwU ¸iæZ¡c~Y© KvR|
SQL ORDER BY syntax:
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name,column_name ASC|DESC
Avgiv ïay †mv‡jgv‡bi AW©vi¸wji g‡a¨ eo †_‡K †Qv‡Uv µ‡g mvRv‡Z bx‡Pi WHERE mn
KgvÛwU †`Iqv †h‡Zcv‡i|
SELECT * FROM OrderTable
WHERE CustomerName=N’†mv‡jgvb’
ORDER BY OrderPrice DESC
djvdj:
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice CustomerName
5 2012/04/04 1200 †mv‡jgvb
1 2012/02/30 1000 †mv‡jgvb
3 2012/03/14 700 †mv‡jgvb
4 2012/04/02 300 †mv‡jgvb

†WUv MÖæwcs
Z_¨‡K mvi ms‡ÿc AvKv‡i †`Lvi Rb¨ MÖæwcs Kiv nq|
SQL GOUP BY syntax
SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 229

OrderTable Gi Kv÷gvi‡`i g‡a¨ †K †gvU KZ UvKvi AW©vi w`‡q‡Q †`Lvi Rb¨ bx‡Pi KgvÛwU
†`Iqv †h‡Z cv‡i|
SELECT CustomerName, SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer
djvdj †`Lv hv‡e †h wZbRb Kv÷gv‡ii bvg †`Lv hv‡”Q Ges Zv‡`i †gvU AW©v‡ii cwigvY †`Lv hv‡”Q|

CustomerName OrderPrice
†mv‡jgvb 3200
†bvgvb 1600
†Kvievb 500

†WUv Bb‡Ww·s
†WUv †Uwe‡ji †_‡K Z_¨ `ªæZ I `ÿZvi mv‡_ Luy‡R †ei Kivi Rb¨ Bb‡W· ˆZwi Kiv hvq| GB
Bb‡W· †Pv‡L †`Lv hvq bv Z‡e †WUv‡e‡Ri cvid‡g©Ý evov‡bvi Rb¨ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f~wgKv iv‡L| A‡bK
†WUv _v‡K Ggb †Uwe‡j Bb‡W· ˆZwi Kiv nq| Aí †WUv _vK‡e ev Av‡Q Ggb †Uwe‡j Bb‡W· †Zgb †Kv‡bv
f~wgKv iv‡L bv| Bb‡W· Kiv †Uwe‡j †WUv Avc‡WU I BbmvU© Zzjbvg~jK axi MwZ m¤úbœ| ZvB †h Kjvg¸wj
†LuvRvi Kv‡R †ewk e¨envi nq †m¸wj‡ZB †Kej Bb‡W· ˆZwi Kiv DwPZ|
SQL CREATE INDEX syntax
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
GB Bb‡W‡· Kjv‡g †fjy¸wji g‡a¨ Wywcø‡KU †fjy _vK‡Z cvi‡e|
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
GB Bb‡W‡· Kjv‡g †fjy¸wji g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv Wywcø‡KU †fjy _vK‡Z cvi‡e bv|
Order Table G O_Id Kjv‡gi Rb¨ OrderTableIdIndex bv‡gi GKUv BDwbK Bb‡W· ˆZwi
Kivi Rb¨ bx‡Pi KgvÛwU †`Iqv †h‡Z cv‡i|
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX OrderTableIdIndex
ON OrderTable (O_Id)

Bb‡W· gy‡Q †djv

DROP INDEX syntax
DROP INDEX table_name.index_name
230 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

Order Table Gi OrderTableIdIndex bv‡gi BDwbK Bb‡W·wU †gvQvi Rb¨ bx‡Pi Kz‡qwiwU
Pvjv‡Z n‡e|
DROP INDEX OrderTable. OrderTableIdIndex
†WUv‡eR †_‡K †Uwej gy‡Q †djv
DROP TABLE syntax
DROP TABLE table_name
Order Table bv‡gi †UwejwU †gvQvi Rb¨ bx‡Pi Kz‡qwiwU Pvjv‡Z n‡e|
DROP TABLE OrderTable
†WUv‡eR gy‡Q †djv
DROP DATABASE syntax
DROP DATABASE database_name
myshop_db bv‡g †WUv‡eRwU gy‡Q †djvi Rb¨ bx‡Pi Kz‡qwiwU Pvjv‡Z n‡e|
DROP DATABASE myshop_db

†WUv wmwKDwiwU
A‡bK cÖwZôv‡bi Kv‡Q Z_¨ A‡bK g~j¨evb m¤ú`| miKvwi-†emiKvwi, Avw_©K, e¨emvwqK, wkÿv,
¯^v¯’¨, M‡elYv wewfbœ iKg cÖwZôvb Kw¤úDUvi wfwËK †WUv‡eR e¨envi Ki‡Q| GB Z‡_¨i g‡a¨
Kv÷gv‡ii e¨w³MZ Z_¨, e¨emvwqK †Mvcb Z_¨, Avw_©K Z_¨, M‡elYvjä Z_¨ mn wewfbœ iKg
¸iæZ¡c~Y© _vK‡Z cv‡i| A‡b‡KB GB Z_¨ †c‡j e¨w³MZfv‡e †Kv‡bv Dcv‡q nq‡Zv jvfevb n‡Z
cv‡i| A‡b‡K ïaygvÎ ivM, †ÿvf ev cÖwZwnsmv PwiZvi_© Kivi Rb¨ GB Z_¨ bó ev Rb mg‡ÿ cÖKvk
K‡i w`‡Z cv‡i| GB Z_¨ Pzwi n‡j cÖwZôv‡bi Avw_©K, e¨emvwqK ÿwZ, mybv‡gi ÿwZ GgbwK Avw_©K
RwigvbviI m¤¢vebv _v‡K| ZvB Z_¨i wbivcËv wbwðZ Kiv AZ¨šÍ Riæwi GKwU KvR| GLv‡b
†WUv‡e‡Ri `kwU ¸iæZ¡c~Y© wbivcËv ûgwK Av‡jvPbv Kiv nj|
Threat 1 - Excessive Privilege Abuse
BDRvi-Gi hw` Zvi cÖ‡qvR‡bi †_‡K †ewk AbygwZ _v‡K †m †mB AbygwZ e¨envi K‡i †WUv‡e‡Ri
ÿwZ Ki‡Z cv‡i| †hgb GKRb wek¦we`¨vj‡qi Kg©KZ©v hvi KvR ïay Qv·`i †hvMv‡hv‡Mi wVKvbv
cwieZ©b Kivi AbygwZ Zv‡K AwZwi³ AbygwZ w`‡j †m Qv·`i cÖvß b¤^i cwieZ©b Ki‡Z cv‡i|
ZvB cÖ‡qvR‡bi AwZwi³ Kv‡Ri AbygwZ †`Iqv †WUv‡e‡Ri wbivcËvi Rb¨ GKwU ûgwK|
Threat 2 - Legitimate Privilege Abuse
†Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †ÿ‡Î ˆea AbygwZ‡K e¨envi K‡iI BDRvi †WUv‡e‡Ri ÿwZ Ki‡Z cv‡i| D`vniY
wn‡m‡e Kíbv Kiv hvK GK Rb †gwW‡Kj Kg©x †h Kv÷g GKwU I‡qe A¨vwcø‡Kkb w`‡q GKB mg‡q
†Kej GKwU †c‡k‡›Ui Z_¨ †`L‡Z cv‡i Ges Gi †Kv‡bv B‡j±ªwbK Kwc Kiv‡Z cv‡i bv| GB Kg©xwU
Kv÷g A¨vwcø‡Kkb e¨envi bv K‡i hw` G‡·‡ji †WUv Kv‡bKkb e¨envi K‡i Z‡e †m mKj
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 231

†c‡k‡›Ui †gwW‡Kj wn÷wi †c‡q hv‡e| PvB‡j GB Z_¨ wewµ K‡i †m jvfevb nIqvi †Póv Ki‡Z
cv‡i| GB ai‡bi Ace¨envi cÖwZ‡iva Kivi Rb¨ ZvB KLb †Kvb BDRvi †Kv_vq †_‡K Kx e¨envi
Kij Ges mywbw`©ó c×wZ Qvov Ab¨ †Kv‡bv Dcv‡q †WUv‡eR e¨env‡ii jM ivL‡Z n‡e| hv †_‡K
m‡›`n RbK e¨envi I e¨enviKvix kbv³ Kiv hv‡e|
Threat 3 Privilege Elevation
AviwWGgGm mdU&Iq¨v‡ii †Kv‡bv `ye©jZv Kv‡R jvwM‡q AvµgYKvix mvaviY e¨enviKvix †_‡K
A¨vWwgwb‡÷ªUi wn‡mwe DÇxb n‡Z cv‡i| GB `ye©jZv weëBb dvskvb, GmwKDGj, †cÖv‡UvKj
wbg©v‡Y ev †÷viW cÖwmwWI‡i _vK‡Z cv‡i| AvµgYKvix GB myweav wb‡q wewfbœ iKg ÿwZ Ki‡Z
cv‡i| cÖ_vMZ B›Uªykb wcÖ‡fbkb wm‡÷‡gi mv‡_ mv‡_ †WUv‡e‡Ri UªvwdK wbqwgZ gwbUi K‡i Rvbv
Av‡Q Ggb `ye©jZvq AvµgY †_‡K evPv hvq| Aek¨B AviwWGgGm-Gi wbivcËv welqK
mdU&Iq¨vi¸wj wbqwgZ Avc‡WU Ki‡Z n‡e|
Threat 4 - Platform Vulnerabilities
Acv‡iwUs wm‡÷g cøvUdi‡gi `ye©jZvi Kvi‡YI †WUv‡eR Avµg‡Yi ûgwK‡Z co‡Z cv‡i| wm‡÷‡g
Bb÷j Kiv †Kv‡bv mdU&Iq¨v‡ii `ye©jZvi my‡hv‡MI †WUv‡eR Avµg‡Yi wkKvi n‡Z cv‡i| eøv÷vi
Ig© DB‡ÛvR 2000 Gi `ye©jZv‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q wWbvBj Ie mvwf©m A¨vUv‡K K‡i| GRb¨ Acv‡iwUs
wm‡÷g Avc‡WU Ki‡Z n‡e, Acv‡iwUs wm‡÷g mn wewfbœ mdU&Iq¨v‡i wmKzwiwU Avc‡WU wbqwgZ
Bb÷j Ki‡Z n‡e Ges mv‡_ mv‡_ cÖ_vMZ B›Uªykb wcÖ‡fbkb wm‡÷g e¨envi Ki‡Z n‡e|]
Threat 5 - SQL Injection
GmwKIGj Bb‡RKkb A¨vUvK nj GmwKIGj †÷U‡g‡›Ui g‡a¨ AevwÃZ †÷U‡g›U XywK‡q †`qv|
mvaviYZ †`Lv hvq †÷viW cÖwmwWIi ev I‡qe A¨vwcø‡Kk‡bi Bbcy‡U GiKg †÷U‡g›U XywK‡q †`q|
hv Ab¨ ˆea †÷‡g›U¸wji mv‡_ ¯^vfvweK fv‡eB wbe©vn nq| GmwKDGj Bb‡RKkb e¨envi K‡i AvµgYKvix
†WUv‡e‡Ri me©gq KZ©…Z¡ wb‡q wb‡Z cv‡i| GRb¨ Kz‡qwi †j‡fj A¨vK‡mm K‡›Uªvj AZ¨šÍ Riæwi| I‡qe
A¨vwcø‡Kkb Gi †ÿ‡Î BbcyU c¨vivwgUvi fv‡jvfv‡e cixÿv K‡i †WUv‡e‡R w`‡Z n‡e|
Threat 6 - Weak Audit Trail
cÖwZwU ¯úk©KvZi, ¸iæZ¡c~Y© A_ev A¯^vfvweK †WUv‡eR Uªvb‡RKk‡bi AwWU †iKW© ivLv †WUv‡eR
wWRvB‡bi Ask nIqv DwPZ| `ye©j AwWU cwjwm †WUv‡eR e¨enviKvix cÖwZôv‡bi Rb¨ gvivZ¥K
ûgwK n‡q `uvov‡Z cv‡i| AwWU †iKW© e¨e¯’v `ye©j n‡j Zv miKv‡ii AvB‡bi cwicš’x n‡Z cv‡i|
GUv wmwm K¨v‡givi gZ AvµgY I AvµgYKvix kbv³ Ki‡Z mnvqZv K‡i| wewfbœ iKg Z`šÍ Kivi
Rb¨ GB †iKW© AZ¨šÍ Riæwi|
Threat 7 - Denial of Service
wWbvBj Ie mvwf©m A¨vUvK n‡”Q Ggb GK ai‡bi AvµgY †hLv‡b †Kv‡bv †bUIqvK© A¨vwcø‡Kkb ev
†WUv DwÏó ˆea e¨enviKvix e¨envi Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| Acv‡iwUs wm‡÷g wKsev †WUv‡eR mvf©v‡ii
232 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

`ye©jZv e¨envi K‡i AvµgYKvix GB AvµgY Ki‡Z cv‡i| †bUIqv‡K© I †WUv‡eR wm‡÷‡g
AwZwi³ Z_¨ †evSvB K‡iI Gai‡Yi AvµgY Kiv hvq| GB ai‡bi AvµgY †_‡K evPvi Rb¨
†bUIqvK©, A¨vwcø‡Kkb Ges †WUv‡eR GB wZb RvqMv‡ZB cÖwZ‡iva e¨e¯’v M‡o Zzj‡Z n‡e| mKj
mdU&Iq¨vi Avc‡WU ivL‡Z n‡e|
Threat 8 - Database Communications Protocol Vulnerabilities
†WUv‡e‡Ri †hvMv‡hvM †cÖv‡UvK‡ji `ye©jZv‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q †WUv‡e‡R Avµg‡Yi msL¨v †e‡o hv‡”Q|
Gi gva¨‡g AvµgYKvix A‰ea †WUv‡eR e¨envi, †WUv bó Kiv Ges wWbvBj Ae mvwf©‡mi gZ NUbv
NUv‡”Q| SQL Slammer2 Ig©(worm) fvBivmwU gvBµmdU GmwKIGj mvf©v‡ii †hvMv‡hvM
†cÖv‡UvK‡ji `ye©jZv‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q wWbvBqvj Ae mvwf©m A¨vUvK K‡i| †cÖv‡UvKj †fwj‡Wkb
†UKb‡jvwR e¨envi K‡i GB ai‡bi AvµgY †_‡K iÿv Kiv hvq| GB cÖhyw³‡Z †WUv‡e‡R Avmv me
†WUv‡eR UªvwdK cixÿv K‡i †`‡L Ges A¯^vfvweK ev AbvKvw•ÿZ †Kv‡bv UªvwdK †c‡j mZK© K‡i
Ges eøK K‡i †`q|
Threat 9 - Weak Authentication
`ye©j A‡_bwU‡Kkb ev jMBb e¨e¯’vi my‡hvM wb‡q AvµgYKvix cÖK…Z e¨enviKvixi jMBb BDRvi
†bg I cvmIqvW© Pzwi A_ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv Dcv‡q `Lj wb‡Z cv‡i| GRb¨ AvµgYKvix eªyU †dvm©
A¨vUvK Ki‡Z cv‡i| eªyU †dvm© A¨vUvK nj m¤¢ve¨ mKj BDRvi †bg cvmIqvW© †Póv Kiv hZÿY
ch©šÍ bv mwVKwU cvIqv hv‡”Q| Avevi †m wb‡Ri cwiPq wfbœ fv‡e e¨enviKvix‡K w`‡q Zvi BDRvi
†bg cvmIqvW© cÖZviYv K‡i wb‡q wb‡Z cv‡i| GgbI n‡Z cv‡i e¨enviKvixi †bvUeyK ev dvBj
†_‡KI BDRvi †bg cvmIqvW© Pzwi Ki‡Z cv‡i| GB iKg AvµgY †_‡K evPvi Rb¨ Kgc‡ÿ `yB
¯Í‡ii A‡_bwU‡Kkb e¨envi Kiv| †hgb BDRvi †bg cvmIqvW© Gi mv‡_ mv‡_ wdsMvi wcÖ›U PvIqv|
A¯^vfvweK e¨_© jMBb A‡Uv‡gwUK eøK Kiv| ÷ªs cvmIqvW© cwjwm ev¯Íevqb Kiv, †hgb cvmIqv‡W©i
wgwbgvg Aÿi msL¨v, msL¨v Aÿi wP‡ýi mgš^q Ges `y‡e©va¨ Kiv|wbqwgZ cvmIqvW© †PÄ Kiv| bv
†R‡b KvD‡K cvmIqvW© †`Iqv Ges †Kv_vI wj‡L bv ivLv ev AšÍZ †Pvi aviYv Ki‡Z cvi‡e Ggb
†Kv_vI wj‡L bv ivLv|
Threat 10 - Backup Data Exposure
cÖvqkB †`Lv hvq †WUv‡eR msiÿY Ges e¨vKAvc wgwWqv cÖvq m¤ú~Y© AiwÿZ Ae¯’vq _v‡K| GB
my‡hv‡M e¨vKAvc †Uc Ges nvW©wW¯‹ Pzwi K‡i †WUv‡eR Pzwii eo eo NUbvI N‡U‡Q| GRb¨ mKj
ai‡bi e¨vKAvc nIqv DwPZ A¨vbwµ‡ÞW| fwel¨‡Z nq‡Zv †Kv‡bv †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U †mw÷gB
A¨vbwµckb Qvov e¨vKAvc ˆZwi Ki‡e bv|
WvUv A¨vbwµckb
†WUv‡e‡Ri wbivcËv AZ¨šÍ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© welq| h‡_‡ó cwigvY wbivcËv e¨e¯’v †bIqvi ciI †`Lv hvq
†Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv fv‡e †WUv‡e‡Ri wbivcËv wewNœZ n‡”Q| ZvB mvBevi wbivcËv we‡klÁiv
 †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g 233

†WUv‡e‡Ri Rb¨ ÒMfxi wbivcËv e¨e¯’vÓ M‡o †Zvjvi civgk© †`b| ÒMfxi wbivcËv e¨e¯’vÓ wn‡m‡e
Ab¨vb¨ wbivcËvg~jK e¨e¯’vi mv‡_ mv‡_ †WUv‡e‡Ri Z_¨ mg~n A¨vbwµÞ K‡i ivLv| A¨vbwµckb
nj Z_¨‡K Ggb fv‡e G‡jv‡g‡jv K‡i ivLv hv‡Z †Mvcb Pvwe Qvov Zv †Kv‡bv Ae¯’vq cov bv hvq|
eZ©gv‡b Z_¨‡K eo wWwRUvj msL¨v (Pvwe) w`‡q RwUj MvwYwZK m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ Ggb fv‡e G‡jv‡g‡jv
Kiv nq Zv Avi H Pvwe Qvov cvVE×vi m¤¢e nq bv| Z_¨i wbivcËvi Rb¨ GB A¨vbwµckb GKwU
¸iæZ¡c~Y© welq| Ggb Z_¨ i‡q‡Q hv †WUv‡eR A¨vWwgwb‡÷ªUi ev cwiPvjK‡iI †`LvUv †MvcbxqZv f½
Ki‡Z cv‡i| ZvB Z_¨i wbivcËvi Rb¨ A¨vbwµckb‡K AvBbMZ fv‡e eva¨Zvg~jK Kiv n‡q‡Q Ges
wewfbœ AvšÍR©vwZK wkígvb wba©viYKvix cÖwZôvb A¨vbwµckb‡K wkígvb wn‡m‡e wba©viY K‡i‡Q|
†WUv A¨vbwµck A‡bK RwUj MvwYwZK wn‡m‡ei gva¨‡g Kiv nq ZvB GB cÖwµqvwU GKUz axiMwZ
m¤úbœ| GRb¨ A‡b‡KB mdU&Iq¨v‡ii Kv‡Ri MwZ‡Z e¨vNvZ NU‡Z cv‡i Avk¼vq GB cÖwµqv Gwo‡q
†h‡Z Pvb| eZ©gv‡b nvW©Iq¨vi I mdU&Iq¨v‡ii DbœwZi d‡j GB mgm¨v A‡bKvs‡kB KvwU‡q IVv
hvq| gv‡µvmdU Gi sql server 2008 I cieZ©x fvm©b mg~n‡Z Ges IivKj Gi oracle 10g I
cieZ©x fvm©b mg~‡n transparent data encryption cÖhyw³ ms‡ÿ‡c TDE mshy³ i‡q‡Q| GB
cÖhyw³ Kjvg, †Uwej Ges †Uwe‡ji †fZ‡i Z_¨ mg~n A¨vbwµÞ K‡i nvW© wW‡¯‹ ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv ¯’vqx
¯§„wZ‡Z msiÿY K‡i| cieZ©x‡Z Z_¨ e¨vKAvc †bIqvi mgq GKB iKg A¨vbwµckb K‡i iv‡L|
A¨vbwµck‡bi Pvwe ev wK AviwWweGgGm Gi gv÷vi wK ev Pvwe w`‡q A¨vbwµÞ K‡i msiÿY K‡i|
234 GKv`k - Øv`k †kªwY †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

Abykxjbx-6
 eûwbe©Pbx cÖkœ:
1. bx‡Pi †KvbwU RwbwcÖq AviwWGgGm bq?
K. IivKj L. GmwKGj mvf©vi
M . gvB‡µvmd&U AvDUjyK N. gvBGmwKDGj
2. bx‡Pi †KbvwU AviwWGgGm Gi KvR bq?
K. †WUv msiÿY Kiv L. †WUvi wbivcËv iÿv Kiv
M. Z_¨i weï×Zv iÿv Kiv N. GKB mg‡q GKvwaK e¨enviKvix cÖwZ‡iva Kiv
3. Ae‡R± wi‡jkbvj g‡W‡ji ˆewkó¨¸wj nj-
i. ÷vÛ©vB‡Rkb Av‡Qii. Z_¨i m¤úK© I AvPiY Dfq _v‡K
iii. e¨envi Dc‡hvMx GmwKIGj Av‡Q
(K) i (L) ii (M) iii (N)ii I iii
4. wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡e‡Ri †ÿ‡Î †KvbwU mZ¨?
K. Z_¨ †Uwej AvKv‡i msiÿY Kiv nq L. †iv nj wdì
M. Uzcj nj Kjvg N. †Kv‡bvwU bq
5. A¨vbwµck‡bi Rb¨ †KvbwU mwVK?
K. Z_¨‡K cvV A‡hvM¨ K‡i †d‡j| L. Pvwe QvovI cvV Kiv hvq|
M. Lye MwZ m¤úbœ cÖwµqv N. mvgvb¨ MvwYwZK cÖwµqvq Kiv nq
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ t
1. nvmv‡bi GKUv cvBKvwi i‡Wi e¨vemv Av‡Q| †mLv‡b wewfbœ mvBR I eªv‡Ûi iW Av‡Q| Zvi wKQz
mvcøvBqvi Av‡Q hv‡`i KvQ †_‡K †m bM‡` evwK‡Z gvj µq K‡i Ges cvBKvwi †µZv‡`i Kv‡Q
bM‡` evwK‡Z gvj weµq K‡i| †m Zvi Kw¤úDUvi we‡klÁ eÜz Avwid‡K Zvi cÖwZôv‡bi GKUv
†WUv‡eR ˆZwi K‡i w`‡Z ejj|
K) AviwWweGgGm wK?
L) gvBGmwKIGj †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bRg¨v›U wm‡÷g e¨env‡ii myweav e¨vL¨v Ki|
M) nvmv‡bi †WUv‡e‡R Kx Kx †Uwej I m¤úK© i‡q‡Q †ei Ki|
N) †WUv‡eR e¨envi Ki‡j nvmv‡bi Kx Kx myweav n‡e we‡kølY K‡iv|
iPbvg~jK cÖkœt
1. wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡e‡R g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷‡gi Kvh©vejx Av‡jvPbv Ki|
2. cÖavb PviwU †WUv‡eR g‡W‡ji Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbv Ki?
3. wi‡jkbvj †WUv‡e‡Ri ‰ewkó¨ e¨vL¨v Ki|
4. GmwKIGj Kz‡qwi j¨vs¸‡q‡R †WUv UvBc wK I wewfbœ cÖKvi †WUv UvB‡ci eY©bv `vI|
5. GmwKIGj †÷U‡g›U wK? Z_¨ DËjb Kivi †÷U‡g›UwU D`vniY mn e¨vL¨v Ki|