Unit 1;

Introduction to sensors & Transducers

Unit 1:
Introduction to sensors & Transducers

Syllabus:
Concept of Sensor, Concept of Transducer, Comparison between Sensors and Transducers ,
Role of Sensors in Automation, Broad Classification of Sensors and Transducers, Role of
Transducer in measurement Systems, Block Diagram Measurement system, Study of Static
and Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Systems: Accuracy, Precision, Reproducibility,
Linearity, repeatability, resolution, Sensitivity, Range, Span, Dead Zone, Hysteresis,
Backlash, Dynamic Characteristics: Fidelity, Time response and frequency response,
Classification of errors – Error analysis. Concept and Basic Principle of working of Resistive,
Capacitive and Inductive sensors.

Course Outcome:

CO1: Classify and evaluate static and Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Systems.
1.1 Concept of Sensors and Transducers:
Recent developments in technology and the availability of cheap microprocessors have led to
an increased interest in sensing devices, particularly so-called digital devices suitable for
direct interfacing to computer systems.
Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other applications.
Sensors in industrial applications being used for process control, monitoring, and safety, and
in medicine being used for diagnostics, There monitoring, critical care, and public health.
Without sensors there will be no automation.

Transducer - A device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding signal
with a different energy form Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
Sensor (e.g., thermometer) is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns
it into a signal which can be measured or recorded. It acquires information from the “real
world”
In other words Transducers: Devices used to transform one kind of energy to another. When
a transducer converts a measurable quantity (sound pressure level, optical intensity, magnetic
field, etc) to an electrical voltage or an electrical current we call it a sensor. When the
transducer converts an electrical signal into another form of energy, such as sound (which,
incidentally, is a pressure field), light, mechanical movement, it is called an actuator.

Need of Sensor/Transducer:
For any closed loop industrial control system, there are three steps applying the input
(reference value) ,control the process and feedback (negative feedback) that measuring the
output and applying it back to the input stage. In the measuring stage we need special devices
which can sense changes in the controlled physical quantity such devices are Sensors.

Fig 1.1: General/Simple Control System

Difference between Sensor and Transducer :
Sensor Tranducer

A device that convert physical A device that convert energy from one form into
parameters to electrical output. another form is known as Transducer.

The word Sensor comes from USA. The word Transducer comes from Europe.

The uses of Sensor is for sensing The uses of transducer is for sensing element
element itself. and also for circuitry.

In Sensor its resistance changes with In Transducers its resistance changes with in
temperature. voltage.

All the sensors are not transducers. All Transducers contain a Sensor.

It is a sensor when it responds to a It becomes transducers when connected in a

stimulus. bridge circuit.

It detects change in physical stimulus It transfers power from one system to another in
and turn it into a signal. the same or in different form.

Examples of Sensor: Temperature Example of Transducer: Strain gauge, and

Sensor, and Proximity Sensor. Piezoelectric Transducer.

To illustrate the place of sensors in a larger system, Fig. 1.2 shows a block diagram of a data
acquisition and control device. An object can be anything: a car, space ship, animal or human,
liquid, or gas. Any material object may become a subject of some kind of a measurement.
Data are collected from an object by a number of sensors.
 Fig 1.2: Data Acquisition system and control device

1.2 Classification of Sensors:

It is very difficult to classify sensors under one criterion and hence, different criteria may be
adopted for the purpose. Some of these include:
1. transduction principles using physical or chemical effects,
2. primary input quantity, that is, the measurand,
3. material and technology, that have acquired more importance lately,
4. application, and
5. property.
The transduction principle is the basic criterion which should be followed for a systematic approach.

• Passive and Active

• Absolute and Relative.
• Sensors are classified on the basis of
– Working Principle
– Conversion Phenomenon
– Input Quantity/ Physical Quantity
– Analog & Digital
– Contact & Non-contact
– Composition
• Passive and Active
• A passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly generates an
electric signal in response to an external stimulus; that is, the input stimulus energy is
converted by the sensor into the output signal.
e.g. – Thermocouple, a photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor
• The active sensors require external power for their operation, which is called an
excitation signal. That signal is modified by the sensor to produce the output. The
active sensors sometimes are called parametric signal because their own properties
change in response to an external effect
e.g. a thermistor
 • Absolute and Relative.
• An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute physical scale that is
independent on the measurement conditions
• E.g. Thermistor, thermocouple
• a relative sensor produces a signal that relates to some special case
– E.g relative pressure sensor

• Sensors are classified on the basis of

– Working Principle
• Electrical sensor
– The resistive sensor
– Capacitive sensors
– Inductive sensors
– The magnetoelectric sensor
– The eddy current sensor
• Magnetic sensor
• Photoelectric sensor
• Potential type sensor
• Charge sensor
• Semiconductor sensor
• Resonant sensor
• Electrochemical sensor

• Sensors are classified on the basis of

– Composition
• (1) Basic sensor: It is a most basic single conversion device.
• (2) Combined sensor: It is a sensor composed of different single
conversion devices.
• (3) Applied sensor: It is a sensor composed of basic sensor or
combination sensor combined with other mechanisms.

Application Based Classification:

1.3 Characteristics
Sensors like measurement systems have two general characteristics, namely
1. static, and
2. dynamic.
Static characteristics refers to the case where the different inputs to the system are either held
constant or varying very slowly with respect to time and steady state value of the output is
expected.
Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the system when inputs are varying with
time.
1.3.1 Static Characteristics:
1. Accuracy-
 A very important characteristic of a sensor is accuracy, which really means inaccuracy.
Inaccuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a value represented by the sensor from the
ideal or true value at its input. The deviation can be described as a difference between the
value which is computed from the output voltage and the actual input value.
For e.g. A linear displacement sensor ideally should generate 1 mV per 1-mm displacement
i.e 1mV/mm & a displacement of s =10 mm produced an output of S =10.5 mV that is sx
−s =0.5 mm more than the actual. Therefore, in a 10-mm range, the sensor’s absolute
inaccuracy is 0.5 mm, Inaccuracy is (0.5mm/10mm)×100% = 5%.
If we repeat this experiment over and over again without any random error and every time we
observe an error of 0.5 mm, we may say that the sensor has a systematic inaccuracy of 0.5
mm over a 10-mm span.
a random component is always present, so the systematic error may be represented as an
average or mean value of multiple errors
Error is because of material variations, workmanship, design errors, manufacturing
tolerances, and other limitations even when sensors are tested under identical conditions.
all runs of the real transfer functions must fall within the limits of a specified accuracy.
These permissive limits differ from the ideal transfer function line by ± ∆ or ± δ
The accuracy rating includes a combined effect of part-to-part variations, a hysteresis, a dead
band, calibration, and repeatability errors
The inaccuracy rating may be represented in a number of forms:
1. Directly in terms of measured value ()
2. In percent of input span (full scale)
3. In terms of output signal
In modern sensors, specification of accuracy often is replaced by a more comprehensive
value of uncertainty
Accuracy specified by inaccuracy or usually error: which is given by

Where
t stands for true value,
m for measured value, and
x stands for measurand.
This is often expressed for the full scale output (fso) and is given by
2. Precision: It describes how far a measured quantity is reproducible as also how close it is
to the true value.
The term ‘repeatability’ is close to precision which is the difference in output y at a given
value of the input x when obtained in two consecutive measurements. It may be expressed as
% FSO. Following Figure shows the plot of repeatability.

3. Nonlinearity-
Nonlinearity error is specified for sensors whose transfer function may be
approximated by a straight line A nonlinearity is a maximum deviation (L) of a real
transfer function from the approximation straight line. A user should be aware that
manufacturers often publish the smallest possible number to specify nonlinearity.
There are several ways to specify a nonlinearity, depending how the line is
superimposed on the transfer function. One way is to use terminal points –i.e. to
determine output values at the smallest and highest stimulus values and to draw a
straight line through these two points Another way to define the approximation line is
to use a method of least squares
Nonlinearity can, however, be specified in two different ways, namely (i) deviation
from best fit straight line obtained by regression analysis, and (ii) deviation from a
straight line joining the end points of the scale.

Linearity
Percentage of deviation from the best fit linear calibration curve
A consequence of nonlinearity is distortion which is defined as the deviation from an
expected output of the sensor or transducer. It also occurs due to presence of additional input
components. If deviation at each point of the experimental curve is negligibly small from the
corresponding point in the theoretical curve or from a curve made by using least square or
other standard fits, the sensor is said to have conformance which is quantitatively expressed
in % FSO at any given value of the input.
4. Repeatability
A repeatability ( reproducibility) error is caused by the inability of a sensor to
represent the same value under identical conditions. It is expressed as the maximum
difference between output readings as determined by two calibrating cycles. Possible
sources of the repeatability error may be thermal noise, buildup charge, material
plasticity
5. Resolution-
Resolution describes the smallest increments of stimulus which can be sensed. The
magnitude of the input variation which results in the output smallest step is specified
as resolution under specified conditions. The resolution of digital output format
sensors is given by the number of bits in the data word.
6. Sensitivity:
It is the ratio of the incremental output to incremental input, that is

In normalized form, this can be written as

If sensitivity or the output level changes with time, temperature and/or any other
parameters without any change in input level, drift is said to occur in the system
which
often leads to instability.
7. Range-
The range (or span) of a sensor is the difference between the minimum (or most
negative) and maximum inputs that will give a valid output. Range is typically
specified by the manufacturer of the sensor. For example, a common type K
thermocouple has a range of 800oC (from-50oC to 750oC). A ten-turn potentiometer
would have a range of 360odegrees.
8. Span- (Full-Scale Input)
A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor is called a span or an
input full scale (FS). It represents the highest possible input value that can be applied
to the sensor without causing an unacceptably large inaccuracy sensors with a very
broad and nonlinear response characteristic, a dynamic range of the input stimuli is
often expressed in decibels, dB.
log of the ratio of powers

log of the force, current, or voltage:

9. Dead zone –
The dead band is the insensitivity of a sensor in a specific range of input signals
In that range, the output may remain near a certain value (often zero) over an entire
dead-band zone.
10. Hysteresis -
A hysteresis error is a deviation of the sensor’s output at a specified point of the input
signal when it is approached from the opposite directions
Typical causes for hysteresis are friction and structural changes in the materials.

11. Backlash-
If two otherwise perfect gears are not mounted on a center-to-center distance that
exactly matches the sum of the pitch radii, there will be a small clearance, or
backlash, between the teeth. When the input gear reverses direction, a small rotation is
required before this clearance is removed and the output gear begins to move. Gear
backlash is just one of many phenomena that can be characterized as hysteresis
1.4.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors:
Under static conditions, a sensor is fully described by its transfer function, span, calibration,
etc. When an input stimulus varies, a sensor response generally does not follow with perfect
fidelity. The reason is that both the sensor and its coupling with the source of stimulus cannot
always respond instantly. A sensor may be characterized with a time-dependent characteristic,
which is called a dynamic characteristic.
If a sensor does not respond instantly, it may indicate values of stimuli which are somewhat
different from the real; that is, the sensor responds with a dynamic error. A difference
between static and dynamic errors is that the latter is always time dependent.
The warm-up time is the time between applying electric power to the sensor or excitation
signal and the moment when the sensor can operate within its specified accuracy. The
sensor’s dynamic (time-dependent) characteristics can be studied by evaluating a constant-
coefficient linear differential equation. Depending on the sensor design, the differential
equation can be of several orders. A zero-order sensor is characterized by the relationship

The value a is called an offset and b is called static sensitivity. A zero-order sensor responds
instantaneously. In other words, such a sensor does not need any dynamic characteristics.
A first-order differential equation describes a sensor that incorporates one energy storage
component
A second-order differential equation describes a sensor that incorporates two energy storage
components

Example is accelerometer. A second-order response is specific for a sensor that responds with
a periodic signal. Second-order sensor may be characterized by a resonant (natural)
frequency

Damping is the progressive reduction or suppression of the oscillation in the sensor having
higher than a first-order response. A damping factor is a measure of damping,

Frequency response:
The ability of the device to respond to a harmonic (sinusoidal) input. A plot of magnitude
(power, displacement, etc.) as a function of frequency. Indicates the range of the stimulus in
which the device is usable (sensors and actuators). It provides important design parameters.
Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of plots is the Bode diagram of the device)
Important design parameters
– Bandwidth (B-A, in Hz)
– Flat frequency range (D-C in Hz)
– Cutoff frequencies (points A and B in Hz)
– Resonant frequencies
(example.)
• Bandwidth: 16.5kHz-70Hz=16.43 kHz
• Flat frequency range: 10kHz-120Hz=9880 Hz
• Cutoff frequencies: 70 Hz and 16.5 kHz
• Resonance: 12 kHz

Response time: It indicates the time needed for the output to reach steady state for a step
change in input. • Typically the response time will be given as the time needed to reach 90%
of steady state output upon exposure to a unit step change in input. The response time of the
device is due to the inertia of the device (both “mechanical” and “electrical”). Fast response
time is usually desirable. Slow response times tend to average readings.

Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. The classification of errors are as follows:
• Bias errors (systematic errors)
• Precision (Random errors)

Bias errors are present in all measurement made with a given sensor and cannot be detected
(or) removed by statically means.
RESISTIVE SENSORS
PRINCIPLE OF RESISTIVE SENSORS
• A resistive sensor is a electromechanical device that converts a mechanical change such
as displacement into an electrical signal that can be monitored.
• Resistance = (Resistivity * Length)/Area; R = ρ L / A
• The resistance of a material depends on four factors:
o Composition
o Temperature
o Length
o Cross Sectional Area
• Changes in composition and temperature do not change the resistivity of a material in
such a simple way.
• Major types of Resistive sensors
o Potentiometers
o Strain Gauges
o Resistance temperature detector(RTD)
o Thermistors
o Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

POTENTIOMETER
The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using
 a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
 a moving rod (for linear displacement)
 a cable that is kept stretched during operation

POTENTIOMETER: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

 VA = I RA (1)
 But I = VS / (RA + RB) (2)
 VA = VS RA/ (RA=RB) (3)
As we know R = ρ L / A where
 ρ is electrical resistivity,
 L is length of resistor and
 A is area of cross section
 VA=VS LA/(LA+LB) (4)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.

Advantages:
• They are inexpensive.
• They are simple to operate
• They are very useful for measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
• Their electrical efficiency is very high
• It should be understood that while the frequency response of wire wound potentiometers
is limited, the other types of potentiometers are free from this problem.
• In wire wound potentiometers the resolution is limited while in Cermet and metal film
potentiometers, the resolution is infinite.
Disadvantages:
Using a linear potentiometer requires a large force to move their sliding contacts (wipers). The
other problems with sliding contacts are that they can be contaminated, can wear out, become
misaligned and generate noise. So the life of limited
APPLICATIONS
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its commanded position. used on machine-tool controls,
elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls In manufacturing,
these are used in control of injection molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing,
spraying, robotics, etc. used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
STRAIN GAUGE – PRINCIPLE
 If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact
that both length and diameter of conductor change.
 Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this
property is called piezo resistive effect.
 Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.
 The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and in many detectors notably the load
cells, Torque meters, diaphragm type pressure gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometers and
flow meters, they employ strain gauges as secondary sensors
Strain:
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. Strain (e) is defined as the
fractional change in length, as shown in Fig. Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative
(compressive). In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is
often expressed as micro strain (me), which is e *10–6

Strain Gauge
While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common is with a strain gauge, a
device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount of strain in the device. For
example, the piezo resistive strain gauge is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies
nonlinearly with strain. The most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic strain
gauge. A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed
quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF).
Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional
change in length (strain)

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
To have a high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is desirable. A high gauge factor means a
relatively higher change in resistance which can be easily measured with a good degree of
accuracy.
Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a very high gauge factor and a small envelope are
required.
The resistance of the semi-conductors changes with change in applied strain.
Unlike in the case of metallic gauges where the change in resistance is mainly due to change in
dimensions when strained, the semi-conductor strain gauges depend for the action upon
piezoresistlve effect i.e. the Change in the value of the resistance due to change in resistivity
Semiconducting materials such as silicon and germanium are used as resistive materials for
semi-conductor strain gauges. Using semiconducting wafers or filaments which have a thickness
of 0·05 mm and bonding them on a suitable insulating substrates, such as teflon. Gold Leads are
used for making the contacts.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
 Semi conductor strain gauges have a high gauge factor. This allows measurement of very small
strains of the order of 0·01 micro strain.
 Hysteresis characteristics of semi-conductor strain gauges are excellent
 Fatigue life is in excess of IO x !06 operations and the frequency response is up to 10 power 12
Hz.
 Semi-conductor strain gauges can be very small ranging in length from 0.7 to 7 mm.

Disadvantages:
 They are very sensitive to changes in temperature

• Linearity of the semi-conductor strain gauges is poor.

 Semi-conductor strain gauges are more expensive and difficult to attach to the object under
study.
 To measure small changes in resistance, and compensate for the temperature sensitivity, strain
gauges are almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage or current excitation
source.
 Wheatstone bridge, consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is
applied across the bridge

The sensitivity of the bridge to strain can be doubled by making both gauges active, although in
different directions.
 Fig illustrates a bending beam application with one bridge mounted in tension (RG + R) and
the other mounted in compression (RG – R).
 The output voltage is linear and approximately doubles the output of the quarter-bridge circuit

It can be further increase the sensitivity of the circuit by making all four of the arms of the bridge
active strain gauges, and mounting two gauges in tension and two gauges in compression.
 The equations given here for the Wheatstone bridge circuits assume an initially balanced
bridge that generates zero output when no strain is applied

Uses: The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is the fundamental sensing element for
many types of sensors, including pressure sensors, load cells, torque sensors, position sensors, etc

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
 Accurate & Stable
 Reasonably wide temperature range
 More Expensive
 Positive temperature constant
 Requires constant current excitation
 Smaller resistance range
– Self heating is a concern
– Lead wire resistance is a concern
 More complicated signal conditioning
Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device
used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an electrical wire.
 The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the temperature is given as,

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at t C and t0 C temperature

These three metals are having different resistance variations with respective to the temperature
variations. Resistance increases with increases with temperature (+ slope)
R T = R 0(1+ α)(T – T 0 R)

THERMISTOR
Thermistors are temperature sensitive semiconductors that exhibit a large change in resistance
over a relatively small range of temperature. There are two main types of thermistors, positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) and negative temperature coefficient (NTC). The resistance of a
thermistor at room temperature may decrease as much as 5 percent for each I°C rise in
temperature. This high sensitivity to temperature changes make the thermistors extremely useful
for precision temperature measurements, control and compensation. Thermistors are widely used
in such applications especially in the temperature range of -60'C to +15'C. The resistance of
thermistors ranges from 0·5 ohm to 0·75 Meg ohm. Thermistors are composed of sintered
mixture of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are
available in variety of sizes and shapes. The thermistors may be in the form of beads, rods or
discs
Construction and Types

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
 Low cost.
 It produces more accurate output and fast.
 It is suitable for the usage in remote location.
 It can be manufactured in almost any shape and size.
 A high degree of accuracy

 Good stability and repeatability.

 It has the ability to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses.
Disadvantages
 It produces highly non-linear output.
 It has a limited measuring range.
 Self-heating may occur.
 An external power supply is required.
 It is fragile in nature.
 Shielded cables should be used to minimize interference

APPLICATIONS OF THERMISTORS
 Thermistors are used in an automotive applications
 Instrumentation and Communication
 Consumer electronics
 Food handling and processing
 Industrial electronics
 Medical electronics
 Military and aerospace

PTC Thermistor
 Current limiting devices
 Timer in degaussing coil
 Motors
 Self Regulating heaters

NTC Thermistor
 Very low temperature thermometers
 Digital Thermostats
 In-rush protection devices
 Battery pack monitors

PHOTO RESISTIVE SENSOR

A photo resistor is also called a light-dependent resistor (LDR), photoconductor, or photocell
since its resistance changes as incident light intensity changes. Materials used as the
semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide (PbSe), indium antimonide
(InSb) which detect light in the infra-red range with the most commonly used of all photo
resistive light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds). Cds is used because its spectral response
curve closely matches that of the human eye and can be controlled using a simple torch as a light
source. It has a peak sensitivity wavelength (λp) of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral
range.
LDR characteristics & symbol
The resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark resistance) is very high at about 10MΩs
which falls to about 100Ωs when fully illuminated (light resistance).
LDR in a circuit
To increase the dark resistance and to reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a zigzag
pattern across the ceramic substrate. The amount of voltage drop across series resistor, R2 is
determined by the resistive value of the light dependant resistor, R. The current through a series
circuit is common and as the LDR changes its resistive value due to the light intensity, the voltage
present at VOUT will be determined by the voltage divider formula. R of the LDR can vary from
about 100Ω in the sun light, to 10MΩ in darkness with this variation of resistance being
converted into a voltage variation at VOUT as shown in figure

ADVANTAGES &APPLICATIONS
Advantages: Photo resistors are generally low cost, small size, fast response, high sensitivity,
and ease of use.
Applications: They are often used in auto dimming, darkness, or twilight detection for turning
street lights ON & OFF, and for photographic exposure meters.