Computer Applications

Ribin Jones S.B

Principal Scientist
IT Lab, CSIR-NIIST
Thiruvananthapuram

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Unit 1: Computers – History, Generation, Hardware, Software, application software, Operating
Systems, Networking, Viruses
Unit 2: Internet – History and Evolution, Search Engines (Case Study – Google), Client-Server
architecture, Security and Firewalls.
Unit 3: Databases, Modern Technologies – Embedded Systems, Industry 4.0, Internet of Things.
Unit 4: Cloud Computing, Data mining, Big data, AI
Unit 5: Bioinformatics
Misc: Electronic Laboratory Notebook, Statistical Analysis, Data tabulation and figure presentation

Other faculties

Dr. Elizabeth Jacob – ETD, CSIR-NIIST

Dr. Rajeev Sukumaran – APTD, CSIR-NIIST
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INTRODUCTION

 Computers - Integral part of our lives.

 Derived from the word compute.
 Lives are directly or indirectly affected by the computers.
 Lives dependent on the storage, flow and processing of data
- Possible only with computers
 Computer - Electronic machine which

accepts data from the user,

processes the data by performing calculations and operations on it,
and generates the desired output results

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Characteristics of Computer

 Speed - The computer can process data very fast.

 Accuracy - Computer provides a high degree of accuracy.

 Diligence - No tiring for computers

 Storage Capability - Large volumes of data and information can be stored and retrieved whenever required.

 Versatility - Perform different types of tasks

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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

 Calculating Machines
ABACUS - first mechanical calculating device for counting of large numbers.
The horizontal bars have 10 beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc.

 Napier’s Bones (1617) Mechanical device built for the purpose

of multiplication by an English mathematician John Napier.

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 Slide Rule
Developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter 16th century.
Operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Used extensively till late 1970s.

 Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine (1642)

Developed by Blaise Pascal.
The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

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 Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine (1673)
German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built.
Mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.

 Punch Card System (1801)

Developed by Jacquard.
Recognized the presence of hole in the punched card as binary one and the absence as binary zero.
Os and 1s - basis of modern digital computer.

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 Babbage’s Analytical Engine (1823)
English man Charles Babbage built
Mechanical machine to do complex mathematical calculations.
Charles Babbage - father of computer because of his research into machines that could calculate.

 Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine (1890’s)

Invented by Herman Hollerith.
Machine could read the information from a punched card and process it electronically.

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GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

 Large sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but much more powerful machine.

 Each generation resulted in better, cheaper and smaller computers - more powerful, faster and efficient
than their predecessors.

 Five generations of computer in terms of—

1. technology used (hardware and software)
2. computing characteristics (speed)
3. physical appearance
4. applications.

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First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes
 Hardware Technology

Vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

Input to the computer was through punched cards.
The output was displayed as printouts.
 Software Technology
Machine language.
Machine language uses 0s and 1s for coding of the instructions.
Could solve one problem at a time.
 Computing Characteristics - computation time was in milliseconds.

 Physical Appearance - enormous in size and required a large room for installation.

 Application - scientific applications

 Ex - UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC),
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).
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Advantage
 They were the fastest computing device of their time.

Disadvantages
 Very Expensive
 Unreliable - contained thousands of valves (vacuum tubes)
 Memory was practically NIL.
 Consumed great amount of electricity, generated a lot of heat
 Prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant maintenance.
 Very enormous - taking up entire rooms

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Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
 Hardware Technology

Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes.

Used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage.
Input was still through punched cards and the output using printouts.
 Software Technology
Assembly language used
ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for coding of the instructions.
Early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during this period.
 Computing Characteristics - Computation time was in microseconds.

 Physical Appearance - Transistors smaller in size, thus size of the computer was also reduced.

 Application - business and scientific jobs

 Ex - PDP (Programmed Data Processor)-8, IBM 1401 and CDC (Control Data Corporation) 1604.

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Advantages
 Smaller in size compared to first generation computers
 Less heat generated
 More reliable
 Better portability
 Wider commercial use

Disadvantages
 Air Conditioning required
 Frequent maintenance
 Commercial production was difficult and costly

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Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits
 Hardware Technology

Used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.

Multiple transistors are placed on a silicon chip.

Keyboard and monitor were used instead of punched cards and printouts
 Software Technology

Keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the operating system (OS/360) .
High-level languages were used extensively for programming
 Computing Characteristics - Computation time was in nanoseconds.

 Physical Appearance- Computers were quite small compared to the second generation computers.

 Application - Computers became accessible to mass audience.

 Ex - IBM 370, PDP 11.

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Advantages
 Smaller in size compared to previous generation computers
 Lower heat generated than second generation computers
 Reduced computational time
 Maintenance cost is low
 Easily portable
 Less power requirement
 Commercial production was easier and cheaper

Disadvantages
 Air-conditioning required
 Highly sophisticated technology required for manufacture of IC chips

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Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors
 Hardware Technology

Used Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology.

Thousands of transistors integrated on a small silicon chip.

 Software Technology

Operating systems like the MS-DOS and MS Windows developed during this time.

This generation of computers supported Graphical User Interface (GUI).

 Computing Characteristics - Computation time is in picoseconds.

 Physical Appearance - Smaller than the computers of the previous generation.

 Application - Widely available for commercial purposes. PC’s became available to the home user.

 Ex - In 1981, IBM introduced the first computer for home use.

In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.

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Advantages
 Smallest in size
 Heat generated is negligible
 Air conditioning is not mandatory
 Hardware failure is negligible
 Easily portable
 Cheapest among the generations

Disadvantage
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of LSI chips.

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Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence

 Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) - try to simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning.
 Still in development based on speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.
 Devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self organising.
 Use Ultra Large Scale Integrated (ULSI) chips that are able to store millions of components on a single
chip.
 Uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed in parallel, instead of serial
execution.

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Advantages
 More reliable and works faster than other computers
 Easily portable
 Available in different sizes, features and prices

Disadvantage
 If computers have their own brain, they can harm the humanity.

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Computer Hardware
 3 main components —
1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit,
2. Memory Unit.
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Input/Output Unit
 User interacts with the computer via the I/O unit.
 Input unit accepts data from the user
 Output unit provides the processed data to the user
 The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user,
into a form that is understandable by the computer.
 Output unit provides the output in a form that is
understandable by the user. 24
Memory Unit
1. Main memory or primary memory:
 Stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily, during the processing of data.
 Ex: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, Registers etc.

2. Secondary memory:
 The data, programs and the output - stored permanently in the storage unit of the computer.
 Ex: Magnetic disks, optical disks and magnetic tapes

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Central Processing Unit
 Brain of computer
 Controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer.
 Handles all instructions it receives from hardware and software
 Responsible for processing of I/O operations.
 Consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
 ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.
 CU controls the overall operations of the computer - checks the sequence of execution of instructions etc.
 Machine Cycle

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Computer Software

 Software - set of programs that instructs the computer about the tasks to be
performed.
 Software tells the computer how the tasks are to be performed; hardware carries
out these tasks.

Types of Software:
 1. System Software
 2. Application Software.

System Software
 Act as an interface between user, application software and computer hardware
and
a) Controls a computer’s internal functioning
b) Controls computer hardware
Ex: Operating System, Device drivers - device driver software interacts with the
hardware device to perform the specified request. 27
Application Software

 Software used for accomplishing a specific task is the application software.

 It may be a single program or a set of programs.
 A set of programs that are written for a specific purpose and provide the required functionality
- Software package
 Application software is written for different kinds of applications —

Graphics (eg. Adobe Photoshop)

Word processors (eg: MS Word)
Media players (eg: VLC player, Media player)
Database applications (eg: MS Access)
Browsing (eg: Chrome) etc.

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Operating Systems
 OS intermediates between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.
 Controls and coordinates the use of hardware among different application software and the users.
 Can be considered to be a resource manager of all resources
 Eg: Windows, Linux, Macintosh, Android etc.

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Key functions of OS:
 Processor management -
Management of multiple processes (program/job in execution)
Allocation of required resources
Which process gets the processor when and for how much time
 Memory management –
Management of main memory so that maximum memory is occupied or utilised
 File Management –
Creation, updation, deletion and protection of files and data.
 Device management –
Management of I/O devices
 Security
 Monitoring activities
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NETWORKING
 Group of computers/devices linked to each other that enables them to communicate with each other and
share their resources, data, and applications.
 Involves designing, construction and use of a network
 Management, maintenance and operation of the network infrastructure, software and policies.
 Networking devices are used to connect - wired or wireless

Uses:
1. Resource Sharing

2. Communication
3. For Back-up and Support

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Components of Data Communication

 Communication is an act of sending or receiving data.

 Exchange of data between two or more networked or connected devices.
 Data can be any text, image, audio, video, and multimedia files.
1. Sender: A computer or any such device which is capable of sending data over a network.
2. Receiver: A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of receiving data from the network.
3. Message: Data or information that needs to be exchanged between the sender and the receiver.
4. Communication media: Path through which the message travels between source and destination.
5. Protocols: Set of rules that need to be followed
by the communicating parties in order to have
successful and reliable data communication.
Ex: HTTP, FTP, HTTPS etc.

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Internet Protocol (IP)

 Set of rules that dictate how data is sent to an intended recipient via the local network, across subnets or even
the Internet.
 Every individual device has its own assigned IP address (32-bit number) — Numerical label, similar to
address for your house or apartment.
 Private IP address and Public IP address
 IP v4 – 32 bit addressing. Possible only 232—or 4,294,967,296 devices
 IP v6 – 128 bit addressing
 Data is given a label (header) which contains the sender and receiver information.

 The Internet Protocol is the Delivery

Service of the Internet

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NAT (Network Address Translation)
 It enables private IP networks that use unregistered IP addresses to connect to the Internet.
 NAT can be configured to advertise only one address for the entire network to the outside world
 NAT offers the dual functions of security and address conservation

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DNS (Domain Name System)
 Naming system for computers, services, or other
resources connected to the Internet
 Works much like a phone book by managing the mapping
between names and numbers (IP address).

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) :
 Connection-oriented protocol used for reliable transfer of data
 Before transferring, the IP breaks data down into packets
 There are three phases in which TCP transmits the data between the sender and receiver which is as
follows:
1. Connection Establishment
Using 3 way handshaking mechanism

2. Data transfer
Breaks data to packets, header is added and then
forwarded to recipient.

3. Connection termination –
Here the transmission of data gets terminated by sending a FIN
packet to the receiver.
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP) :
 Before transferring, the IP breaks data down into datagrams.
 Unreliable and connectionless protocol.
 It is much faster, simpler, and efficient than TCP.
 Doesn’t check errors due to which Bandwidth is saved.
 Widely used in real-time services like videogame, voice, or video communication

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 TCP Vs UDP

Feature TCP UDP

Requires an established connection Connectionless protocol with no
to transmit data (connection should requirements for opening,
Connection status
be closed once transmission is maintaining, or terminating a
complete) connection
Data sequencing Able to sequence Unable to sequence
Can guarantee delivery of data to Cannot guarantee delivery of data
Guaranteed delivery
the destination router to the destination
Retransmission of lost packets is
Retransmission of data No retransmission of lost packets
possible
Extensive error checking and Basic error checking mechanism
Error checking
acknowledgment of data using checksums
Speed Slower than UDP Faster than TCP
Broadcasting Does not support Broadcasting Does support Broadcasting
Used by HTTPS, HTTP, SMTP, Video conferencing, streaming,
Usage
POP, FTP, etc DNS, VoIP, etc
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Network Devices
 Components which are used to connect computers or other electronic devices
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Hubs
 Switches
 Wireless Access Points
 Routers
 Firewall

1. NIC
 Device that connects a computer with a network
 Translates computer data into electrical signals and sends through the network;
 Allows users to connect either by using cables or wirelessly
 Engraved with a 12-digit unique MAC/Physical/hardware address
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2. Hub
 Hubs are used to connect multiple PCs to a single network.
 Broadcasts data to all ports

3. Switch
 Intelligent device most commonly used to connect computers
 Switch transfers data only to that port which is connected to the destination device
 More reliable and faster

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4. Routers
 Device used to connect multiple networks
 Interprets data from one network protocol to another

5. Firewall
 Network security device that
monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic
and decides whether to allow or block specific
traffic based on a defined set of security rules.

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Types of Computer Networks

 Differentiated based on the following characteristics:

Size of the network
Transmission Technology
Functions

 Wired and Wireless

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1. Local Area Network (LAN)
 Connects computers in a small area like a room, building, office or a campus.
 Usually connected using Ethernet cables
 Wireless LAN (WLAN) - A LAN based on Wi-Fi technology
 Privately owned networks to exchange information and share resources.
 Some of the transmission protocols used in LAN are Ethernet, Token bus, and FDDI ring.
 Star, Bus, and Ring are some of the
common LAN networking topologies.

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2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Computer network spread over a city
 The computers in a MAN are connected using coaxial cables or fiber optic cables
 MAN is either owned by a network provider who sells service to users, rather than a single organization as in
LAN
 Ring topology is mainly used

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3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Network that connects computers over long distances like cities, countries, continents, or worldwide
 WAN uses telephone lines, satellite link, and radio link to connect.
 It is slower and less reliable than LAN
 Eg: Internet

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Network Topologies

 Manner in which links and nodes are arranged

 Enables IT admins to understand how the overall network infrastructure is organized.
 By knowing and visualizing the dependency of each device, it's easy to identify what device or
application might be causing a bottleneck in the performance of other devices.

1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

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1. Bus Topology
 Simplest kind of topology
 When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the receiver accepts, others reject it
 Bus acts as the backbone of the network
Advantages
 Simple to use and install
 If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
 Less cabling is required.
 Cost-efficient to implement.
Disadvantages
 Efficiency is less when nodes are more (strength of signal decreases)
 If the bus fails, the network will fail.
 Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to all nodes
 Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of communication.
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2. Ring Topology
 Each computer connected to exactly two other computers to form the ring.
 Data passed from one device to the next device and so on until the data reaches the destination using tokens
and hence called Token Ring Topology also.
Advantages
 Easy Installation
 Less Cabling Required.
 Reduces chances of data collision (unidirectional).
 Easy to troubleshoot (the faulty node does not pass the token).
Disadvantages
 If a node fails, the whole network will fail.
 Slow data transmission speed (each message has to go through the ring path).
 Difficult to reconfigure (we have to break the ring).

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3. Star Topology
 All the nodes are connected to a centralized hub/switch
 Any node requesting for service or providing service, first contact the hub for communication.
Advantages
 Centralized control.
 Less Expensive.
 Easy to troubleshoot
 Easy to scale
 If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
 Easy to reconfigure and upgrade(configured using a central device).
Disadvantages
 If the central device fails, the network will fail.
 The number of devices in the network is limited
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4. Mesh Topology
 Nodes are interconnected with each other.
 Usually used in WAN
 It can be full mesh or partial mesh
Advantages
 Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.
 No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
 If a node fails, other alternatives are present in the network.
 Very fast communication.
 Maintains privacy and security
Disadvantages
 Very high cabling required.
 Costly
 Complex
 Installation and maintenance are very difficult.
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5. Tree Topology
 Extension of Star topology
 All nodes directly or indirectly connected to the main hub/switch.
 There is a main hub/switch and all the other sub-hubs are connected to each other in this topology.
 Whole network is divided into segments
Advantages
 A Large number of nodes can be connected directly or indirectly.
 Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them fails
 Large distance network coverage.
 Least or no data loss.
Disadvantages
 Cabling and hardware cost is high.
 Complex to implement.
 A large network using tree topology is hard to manage.
 If the main hub/switch fails, the network will fail.
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6. Hybrid Topology
 Combination of two or more topologies.
 All the good features of each topology can be used to make an efficient hybrid topology.
Advantages
 It can handle a large volume of nodes.
 It provides flexibility to modify the network according to our needs.
 Very Reliable
Disadvantages
 Complex design.
 Expensive to implement.

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Modes in Communication network – defines direction of flow of information
1. Simplex Mode
 Unidirectional communication
 Entire channel capacity used by sender
 Ex: Keyboard, Monitor
2. Half-duplex Mode
 Both stations can transmit and receive data, but one at a time
 Entire channel capacity used
 Ex: Walkie-talkie
3. Full duplex Mode
 Bi-directional, simultaneous communication
 Channel is shared
 Ex: Telephone network

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Port Numbers
 A number used to identify a process for which data is used
 Ranges from 0 to 65,535
 Use of ports helps computers understand what to do with the data they receive.
 3 types
 Well known ports numbers (Numbers 0 to 1023)
 Registered ports (Numbers 1024 to 4951)
 Dynamic or Private Ports (Numbers 49152 to 65535)

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Network Model:

 Describes design, architecture and components used to accomplish communication between different
systems.
 2 types:

1. OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference Model

2. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Reference Model

OSI
 Conceptual framework to describe the various networking functions
 Developed by ISO in 1984
 Consists of 7 layers

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 Each layer has its own set of functions which aids in
successful transfer of data

 Physical Layer –
Responsible for converting the binary bits into signals
and transmitting over local media

 Data Link Layer –

Hop to hop delivery. Responsible for moving frames
from one hop to another.

Switch

 Network Layer –
End to end delivery. Responsible for the transmission
of data segments from one computer to another
located in different networks

Router

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 Transport Layer –
Service to service delivery. Responsible for the delivery of a message. It controls the reliability of
communication through flow control, error control etc. It has two protocols namely TCP and UDP.

 Session Layer –
Responsible for setting up and managing connections. Its functions include Authentication, Authorization,
and Session Restoration.

 Presentation Layer –
Responsible for Data Compression, and Encryption/Decryption of the data

 Application Layer –
Consists of application layer protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP etc.) that allows network applications to work
correctly in the network

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TCP/IP Reference Model :

 Explains how data is exchanged (broken down, addresses,

transmitted, routed and received) over internet
 TCP – How messages should be broken down and re-assembled
 IP – How to address and route packets so that it reaches correctly
 Four layers
 Datalink Layer − Concerned with the physical transmission of
data in the same network.
 Networking Layer − Defines the protocols for logical
transmission of data over the network. (Internetworking)
 Transport Layer − Responsible for end-to-end delivery of data.
 Application Layer − Interacts with application program – File
transfer, E-mail, Remote login etc.
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Malware (MALicious software)
 Software developed with an intention to damage hardware
devices, steal data, or cause any other trouble to the user.

 Financial damages worth billions of dollars worldwide.

 Various form of Malware - Viruses, Worms, Ransomware,

Trojans, Spyware, Adware

VIRUS (Vital Information Resource Under Siege)

 Software code created to self-replicate and perform malicious

activities and hamper resources of a computer or sensitive
information.

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 Virus programs have the following properties:
It can attach itself to other healthy programs.
It can replicate itself and thus can spread across a network.
It is difficult to trace a virus after it has spread across a network.

 How virus harms the computer?

Corrupt or delete data or files on the computer,
Change the functionality of software applications,
Use e-mail program to spread itself to other computers,
Erase everything on the hard disk, or,
Degrade performance of the system by utilizing resources

 Examples: CryptoLocker, ILOVEYOU, MyDoom, Sasser and Netsky, Slammer, Stuxnet, etc.
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Virus Worm Trojan

The main objective of virus to modify the The main objective of worms to eat the The main objective of Trojan to steal the
information. system resources. information.

Virus replicates itself. Worms also replicates itself. But Trojan does not replicate itself.

Like worms, Trojan can also be

Virus can’t be controlled remotely. Worms can be controlled remotely.
controlled remotely.

Spreading rate of worms are faster than Spreading rate of Trojan is slow in
Spreading rate of viruses are moderate.
virus and Trojan horse. comparison of both virus and worms.

Worms are executed via weaknesses in Trojan executes through a program and
Viruses are executed via executable files.
system. interprets as utility software.

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How does a computer get malware/virus?
 On downloading files from the internet
 On opening an e-mail attachment
 On copying files or programs from any other computer

Symptoms of a computer malware/virus?

 The computer runs slower than usual and shows abnormal behaviour
 Computer crashes and restarts itself every few minutes
 Applications on the computer wont work correctly
 Disks or drives are inaccessible
 You see unusual error messages
 frequent pop-up windows prompting you to visit some website and/or download some software;
 An antivirus software can’t be installed
 New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put 62
How to prevent computer viruses?
 Keep you laptop/computer up to date
 Install a good anti virus and keep it updated
 Keep Windows firewall ON always
 Use trusted and updated browsers. Always Enable pop-up blocks
 Never use pirated on unlicensed software. Instead go for Free and Open Source Software (FOSS).
 Avoid suspicious websites/files
 Always scan e-mail attachments
 Avoid clicking on links or downloading attachments from unsolicited emails.
 Don’t use Open Wi-Fi
 Use strong passwords and never share it to others
 Change your password frequently
 Scan and use external storage devices

“Treat your password like your toothbrush. Don't let anybody else use it, and get a new one every six months.”
— Clifford Stoll
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SECURITY
 Being alone is the most ideal situation for an individual in terms of security.
 Not an ideal solution where world is fully connected
 Connectedness lead to various network threats and its prevention.
 Network security, System security, Information security, Application security etc.
 Network security - Any activity designed to protect the usability and integrity of a network and data
 It includes both hardware and software technologies
How achieve security?

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 Use strong authentication methods
 Upgrade software and firmware with latest security patches
 Physically secure equipment and ports
 Establish cyber security rules for employees and make them aware of the important role they
play in security
 Protect devices against viruses, spyware, and other malicious code
 Protect and secure external network access using Firewall

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C-I-A Triad
- Model followed for development of security policies
- Basic principles of security

Confidentiality:
 The degree of confidentiality determines the secrecy of the information.
 Confidentiality is compromised if an unauthorized person is able to access a message.
Integrity:
 Integrity gives the assurance that the information received is exact and accurate.
 If the content of the message is changed after the sender sends it but before reaching the intended receiver,
then it is said that the integrity of the message is lost.
Availability:
 Resources should be available to authorized party at all times.
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FIREWALL
 First line of defence in network security
 A network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and decides whether to
allow or block specific traffic based on a defined set of security rules.
 Barrier between secured and controlled internal networks that can be trusted and untrusted outside
networks, such as the Internet.

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Types of Firewall

 Network Firewall:
Firewall placed between two or more networks and monitors the network traffic between
different networks.
Hardware firewall

 Host-based Firewall:
Firewall placed on a computer and monitors the network traffic to and from that computer
Software firewall

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DATABASES
 Data - Different types of information formatted in a particular manner
 Examples:
Signals generated by sensors
Transactions data generated through banking, ticketing, shopping, etc.
Images, graphics, animations, audio, video
Types of Data:
 Structured Data - Organised and can be recorded in a well defined format

 Unstructured Data - Data which are not in the traditional row and column structure

File system
 Traditional method of data storage
 Way of arranging the files in a storage medium like hard disk.
Limitations of File system:
 Difficulty in Access Data duplication
 Security and Integrity issues Controlled data sharing Data inconsistency
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 Limitations faced in file system can be overcome by storing the
data in a database
 Database - Organized collection (as tables – in rows and columns)
of structured information, or data.
 A DBMS (Database Management System) or database system is a
software that can be used to create and manage databases.
 DBMS lets users to create a database, store, manage,
update/modify and retrieve data from that database by users or
application programs.
 MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Microsoft Access,
MongoDB.
 DBMS serves as an interface between the database and end users
 Example applications: Banking, Online shopping, Organisation
Resource Management etc.

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Components of a DBMS

Hardware is the physical device on which the database system

resides.
Software In a database system software lies between the stored data
and the users of data.
Ex: MySQL, Postgre SQL, MS Access etc.
Data – Information
Procedures refers to the instructions used in a database management
system
Data Access Language used to access the data to and from the
database, to enter new data, update existing data, or retrieve required
data from databases.

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Users in a DBMS - people who interact with the database system.

 3 categories of users: a)Application Programmers, (b) End Users, and (c) Data Administrators.

 Application programmers develop application programs that manipulate the database.

 Data administrator is the manager responsible for establishing policies for the maintenance and
handling of data once it is stored.

 End users are the people who interact with the database system to get information from the
database

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Terminologies in DBMS

 Database Schema - design of a database. It is the skeleton of a db.

 Data Constraint - Restrictions or limitations on the type of data that can be inserted in one or more columns of a
table.

 Meta-data or Data Dictionary - Db schema along with various constraints. Data about the data.

 Database Instance - State or snapshot of the database at any given time

 Query - Request to a database for obtaining information in a desired way.

 Data Manipulation - Modification of db – Insertion, Deletion, Updation, Merging.

 Database engine - Software used to create db and handle various queries (MySQL, Postgre SQL, MS Access
etc.)
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CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

Architecture of a computer network

in which many clients (remote processors/PC’s)
request and receive service from a centralized server

 Clients - Computers with moderate configuration that requests resources and services made available by a
server.
 Server - A high end computing device that has high end configuration in terms of memory, hard disk,
processing capability etc. that provides functionality for clients.

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 Servers wait for requests to arrive from clients and then respond to them.
 Clients are often workstations or personal computers, while servers are located elsewhere on the network,
usually on more powerful machines.
 Many clients can access the server’s information simultaneously
 Ex: Web servers, Mail servers, File servers etc.

Advantages
 Centralization – All information in a single place helps administrators
 Security – Centralized access control, username/password, Easy recovery
 Scalability – More clients and servers can be added
 Management – Easy management of data
 Accessibility – Accessible around the globe
Disadvantages
 When the server is down, the client loses its connection and will not access the data.
 High technical skill required for the management of the system

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Client-Server Architecture types

1-Tier Architecture
 All the required components for a software application or technology
on a single server or platform
 Client, Server, and Database all reside on the same machine.

2-Tier Architecture
 The client interface is stored on the client system,
whereas the database and application is stored in the server.
 Server and the client are directly connected,
 This architecture type delivers the resources at a very fast rate.
 Easy to design and offers maximum user satisfaction with the best
performance. 76
3-Tier Architecture

 Requires a middle layer

 When the client sends the request to the server, it does not reach the server directly; instead, it
passes through the middle layer.
 The Application layer resides between the user and the database server, which is responsible for
communicating the user’s request to the DBMS system and send the response from the DBMS
to the user.

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CLOUD COMPUTING

 Computer-based services delivered over the Internet or the cloud, and

accessible to the user from anywhere using any device.
 On-demand availability of computer system resources, especially
data storage and computing power.
 Services comprise software, hardware (servers), databases, storage, etc.
 Cloud Service Providers (CSP) usually charge on a pay per use basis

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Virtualization
 Cloud works on virtualization technology

 Virtualization is the creation of a virtual -- rather than actual -- version of something, such as an operating
system (OS), a server, a storage device or networking device etc.
 Hypervisor - software makes virtualization possible.

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Advantages:
 Cost saving (Almost zero upfront infrastructure investment)
 Reliability (Disaster recovery and business continuity)
 Manageability (Simplified IT Management)
 Accessibility (Easy access to our data)
 Rapid elasticity/Flexibility (Auto scaling based on requirement)
 Pay per use model (Requires to pay only for service usage)
 High QoS (Quality of Service) guarantees etc.
Disadvantages:
 Possible downtime
 Security issues
 Customer support
 Limited Control etc.

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Cloud Computing Service Models

 Three standard models to categorise different computing

services delivered through cloud

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

 Provide computing infrastructure such as servers, virtual
machines (VM), storage and backup facility, network
components, operating systems or any other hardware or
software.
 Ex: Rackspace, Amazon Web Services etc.

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2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

 Provides a deployment environment for developers

 Lessens the complexity and cost of buying and managing
the underlying hardware and software.
 Ex: Windows Azure, Google App Engine etc.

3. Software as a Service (SaaS)

 Software stored on external servers, accessed from your
devices
 Provides on-demand access to application software,
usually requiring a licensing or subscription by the user.
 User not concerned about installation or configuration of
the software application
 Ex: Google Doc, Microsoft Office 365, Drop Box, etc.,
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83
Types of Cloud computing
 Based on the way a cloud platform is implemented/deployed

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Private Cloud

Advantages:
 Organization specific
 High degree of security and level of control
 Ability to choose your resources (ie. specialized hardware)
Disadvantages:
 Lack of elasticity and capacity to scale (compared to other models)
 Higher cost
 Requires a significant amount of engineering effort

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Public Cloud

Advantages:
 Scalability/Flexibility/Bursting
 Cost effective
 Ease of use
Disadvantages:
 Shared resources
 Operated by third party
 Unreliability
 Less secure

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Community Cloud

Advantages
 Easy Data Sharing and Collaboration
 Cheaper than Private cloud
Disadvantages
 Limited Storage and Bandwidth
 Security issue
 Complex – require high technical skill

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Hybrid Cloud

Advantages:
 Cost effective
 Scalability/Flexibility
 Balance of convenience and security
Disadvantages:
 Maintenance
 Same disadvantages as the public cloud

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Laboratory Notebook and E-Notes

 Laboratory notebook is a primary record of research

 Documentation of hypotheses, experiments, procedures and initial analysis or interpretation of
experiments.
 A lab notebook is often maintained to be a legal document and may be used in a court of law
as evidence.
 ELN (Electonic Laboratory Notebook) - Computer program designed to replace laboratory
notebooks

 NIIST ELN
https://eln.niist.res.in/web/

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Why ELN?

 Digital Archival of lab results  Workflow management

 More organized/legible data  Ability to export or share in multiple formats

 Consolidated, centralized data management.

 Searchable
 Sharable
 Data security, confidentiality, aunthenticy,
integrity
 Able to link to different pages/entries
 Audit trail
 Permanent archive
 Project tracking made easy

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Statistical Analysis

 Science of collecting, exploring and presenting large amounts of data to discover underlying
patterns and trends

Why Statistics?
 Statistics enable us to summarise our results in meaningful and convenient form.
 Enable us to draw general conclusions
 Enables us to predict, what is likely to happen.

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Data Tabulation
 Systematic & logical presentation of numeric data in rows and columns to facilitate comparison
and statistical analysis

Why Tabulation?
 To carry out investigation
 To do comparison
 To locate omissions and errors in data
 To simplify data
 To save space
 For future reference

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Graphical representation of Data
 Easiest way to depict a given set of data.
 Data which has been shown in the tabular form, may be displayed in pictorial form by using a
graph.
1. Bar diagram/bar graph
 Pictorial representation of data (generally grouped), in the form of vertical or horizontal
rectangular bars, where the length of bars are proportional to the measure of data.
Types of bar graph
 Vertical Bar Graph
 Horizontal Bar Graph

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Properties of Bar Graph
 All the bars should have a common base.
 Each column in the bar graph should have equal width.
 The height of the bar should correspond to the data value.
 The distance between each bar should be the same.
Advantages:
 Bar graph summarises the large set of data in simple visual form.
 It clarifies the trend of data better than the table.
 It helps in estimating the key values at a glance.
Disadvantages:
 Sometimes, the bar graph fails to reveal the patterns, cause, effects, etc.
 It can be easily manipulated to yield fake information.

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2. Frequency Polygon
 Graphical form of representation of data used to depict the shape of the data and to depict trends.
 Compare sets of data or to display a cumulative frequency distribution

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3. Venn Diagram (set diagram or a logic diagram)
 Diagrams that are used to represent the sets, relation between the sets and operation performed on
them, in a pictorial way.
 Uses circles (overlapping, intersecting and non-intersecting), to denote the relationship
between sets.

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4. Heat maps
 Graphical representation of data where values are depicted by colour.

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HISTORY OF COMPUTER  Memory Unit - Main/Primary  Types of computer networks -  Advantages and Disadvantages
memory, Secondary memory LAN, WAN, MAN
 Calculating machines  Virtualization
 CPU - ALU and CU  Network topologies – Bus, Star,
 Napier’s Bones Tree etc.  Cloud computing service models
 Machine cycle
 Slide Rule  Modes in communication network –  Types of cloud computing - Private,
COMPUTER SOFTWARE simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex Public, Community, Hybrid
 Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction
m/c  System software  Port Numbers  Laboratory Notebook and E-
notes
 Leibniz’s Multiplication and  Application software  Network Model - OSI, TCP/IP
Dividing m/c  Statistical Analysis
OPERATING SYSTEM Malware - Virus, Worm, Trojan
 Punch Card System Data tabulation and graphical
 Key functions Security representation of data
 Babbage’s Analytical Engine
NETWORKING How achieve security  Bar diagram
 Hollerith’s Punched Card
Tabulating m/c  Uses  CIA Triad  Frequency Polygon

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS  Components of data communication Firewall - Types  Venn Diagram

 First Generation  NAT DATABASE  Heatmap

 Second Generation  DNS  Components of a Database

 Third Generation  IP  Terminologies

 Fourth Generation  TCP Client-Server Architecture

 Fifth Generation  UDP  Advantages and Disadvantages

COMPUTER HARDWARE  TCP vs UDP  Types

 Network devices – Switch, Router, CLOUD COMPUTING
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 Input/Output Unit
Firewall etc.
Any Questions ???

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