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SCHOOL OF COMPUTING
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT 2 Introduction to IoT SCSA1308

 UNIT 2-ELEMENTS OF IOT

Application Sensors & Actuators - Edge Networking (WSN) Gateways - IoT Communication Model
WPAN & LPWA, Overview of IoT supported Hardware platforms such as: Raspberry pi, ARM Cortex
Processors, Arduino and Intel Galileo boards, Wearable Development Boards

2.1.SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

A transducer is any physical device that converts one form of energy into another. So,in the case
of a sensor, the transducer converts some physical phenomenon into an electrical impulse that can then
be interpreted to determine a reading. A microphone is a sensor that takes vibration energy (sound waves),
and converts it to electrical energy in a useful way for other components in the system to correlate back to
the original sound.

Another type of transducer that is encounter in many IoT systems is an actuator. In simple terms, an
actuator operates in the reverse direction of a sensor. It takes an electrical input and turns it into physical
action. For instance, an electric motor, a hydraulic system, and a pneumatic system are all different types
of actuators.
Examples of actuators

Digital micromirror device

Electric motor
Electroactive polymer
Hydraulic cylinder
Piezoelectric actuator
Pneumatic actuator
Screw jack
Servomechanism
Solenoid
Stepper motor

In typical IoT systems, a sensor may collect information and route to a control center where a decision
is made and a corresponding command is sent back to an actuator in response to that sensed input. There
are many different types of sensors. Flow sensors, temperature sensors, voltage sensors, humidity sensors,
and the list goes on. In addition, there are multiple ways to measure the same thing. For instance, airflow
might be measured by using a small propeller like the one that would be used to see on a weather station.
Alternatively, as in a vehicle measuring the air through the engine, airflow is measured by heating a
small element and measuring the rate at which the element is cooling.

We live in a World of Sensors. There are different types of Sensors in our homes, offices, cars etc. working
to make our lives easier by turning on the lights by detecting our presence, adjusting the room temperature,
detect smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee, open garage doors as soon as our car is near the door and
many other tasks.
The example discussed is about here is the Autopilot System in aircrafts. Almost all civilian and military
aircrafts have the feature of Automatic Flight Control system or sometimes called as Autopilot. An
Automatic Flight Control System consists of several sensors for various tasks like speed control, height,

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position, doors, obstacle, fuel and many more. A Computer takes data from all these sensors and processes
them by comparing them with pre-designed values. The computer then provides control signal to different
parts like engines, flaps, rudders etc. that help in a smooth flight.
All the parameters i.e. the Sensors (which give inputs to the Computers), the Computers (thebrains of the
system) and the mechanics (the outputs of the system like engines and motors) are equally important in
building a successful automated system. Sensor as an input device which provides an output (signal) with
respect to a specific physical quantity (input). Sensormeans that it is part of a bigger system which provides
input to a main control system (like aProcessor or a Microcontroller).
S.No Sensor Applications Technology
Industrial machinery, automotive,
1. Inertial sensors human activity MEMS and Gyroscope

Speed Measuring Industrial machinery, automotive,

2. Magnetic, light
Sensor human activity
Industrial machinery, automotive, Capacitive, Inductive,
Proximity sensor
3. human activity Magnetic, Light,
Ultrasound
PassiveIR, Ultrasound
Occupancy sensor Home/office monitoring
4. most common

Temperature/humidity Home/office HVAC control,

5. Solid state, thermocouple
sensor automotive, industrial
Solid state, photocell,
Home/office/industrial lighting
6. Light sensor Photo resistor,
control
photodiode
Coil
Home/office/industrial
Power (current) Hall effect
7. powermonitoring/control
sensor
Technology

Industrial monitoring/control,
Air/fluid pressure
8. automotive, agriculture Capacitive, Resistive
sensor

Industrial monitoring/control,
9. Acoustic sensor Diaphragm condenser
human interface
Industrial monitoring/control, civil Resistive thin films
10. Strain sensor
infrastructure

In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive. Active Sensors are those
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 which require an external excitation signal or a power signal. Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not
require any external power signal and directly generates output response. The other type of classification
is based on the means of detection used in the sensor. Some of the means of detection are Electric,
Biological, Chemical, Radioactive etc.
The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e. the input and the output. Some of the
common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric, Thermoelectric, Electrochemical, Electromagnetic,
Thermo-optic, etc. The final classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital Sensors. Analog Sensors
produce an analog output i.e. a continuous output signal with respect to the quantity being measured.
Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital data. The datain digital
sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature.

Fig 2.1. Examples of Sensors

1. IR LED

It is also called as IR Transmitter. It is used to emit Infrared rays. The range of these frequencies are
greater than the microwave frequencies (i.e. >300GHz to few hundreds of THz). The rays generated by an
infrared LED can be sensed by Photodiode explained below. The pair of IR LED and photodiode is called
IR Sensor.

Fig 2.2. LED sensor

2. Photo Diode (Light Sensor)

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 It is a semiconductor device which is used to detect the light rays and mostly used as IR Receiver. Its
construction is similar to the normal PN junction diode but the working principle differs from it. As it is
known, a PN junction allows small leakage currents when itis reverse biased so, this property is used to
detect the light rays. A photodiode is constructed such that light rays should fall on the PN junction which
makes the leakage current increase based on the intensity of the light that have applied. So, in this way,
a
Fig 2.3.Photo diode

photodiode can be used to sense the light rays and maintain the current through the circuit. Check here the
working of Photodiode with IR sensor.
3. Proximity Sensor

A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of an object. Proximity Sensors
can be implemented using different techniques like Optical (like Infraredor Laser), Ultrasonic, Hall Effect,
Capacitive, etc.

Fig 2.4.Proximity sensor

Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking Sensors), industries
(object alignment), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, etc. Proximity Sensor in Reverse Parking is
implemented in this Project: Reverse Parking Sensor Circuit.

4. LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

As the name itself specifies that the resistor that depends upon the light intensity. It works on the principle
of photoconductivity which means the conduction due to the light. It is generally made up of Cadmium
sulfide. When light falls on the LDR, its resistancedecreases and acts similar to a conductor and when no
light falls on it, its resistance is a . One note
should be surface.

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 Fig 2.5.LDR
With a proper circuitry using a transistor it can be used to detect the availability of light. A voltage divider
biased transistor with R2 (resistor between base and emitter) replaced with an LDR can work as a light
detector.
5. Thermistor (Temperature Sensor)

A thermistor can be used to detect the variation in temperature. It has a negative

temperature coefficient that means when the temperature increases the resistance decreases. So, the
causes more current flow through
it. This change in current flow can be used to determine the amount of change in temperature. An
application for thermistor is, it is used to detect the rise in temperature and control the leakage current in a
transistor circuit which helps in maintaining its stability. Here is one simple application for Thermistor to
control the DC fan automatically.

Fig 2.6.Thermistor

6. Thermocouple (Temperature Sensor)

Another component that can detect the variation in temperature is a thermocouple. In its construction, two
different metals are joined together to form a junction. Its main principle is when the junction of two
different metals are heated or exposed to high temperatures a potential across their terminals varies. So,
the varying potential can be further used to measure the amount of change in temperature.

Fig 2.7.Thermo couple

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7. Strain Gauge (Pressure/Force Sensor)

A strain gauge is used to detect pressure when a load is applied. It works on the principleof resistance,
the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire and is inversely proportional to its cross-
used here to measure the load. On a flexible board, a
wire is arranged in a zig-zag manner as shown in the figure below. So, when the pressure is applied to that
particular board, it bends in a direction causing the change in overall length and cross- sectional area of
the wire. This leads to change in resistance of the wire. The resistance thus obtained is very minute (few
ohms) which can be determined with the help of the Wheatstone bridge. The strain gauge is placed in one
of the four arms in a bridge with the remaining values unchanged. Therefore, when the pressure is applied
to it as the resistance changes the current passing through the bridge varies and pressure can be calculated.
Strain gauges are majorly used to calculate the amount of pressure that an airplane wing can withstand and
it is also used to measure the number of vehicles allowable on a particular road etc.

Fig 2.8.Strain Guage

8. Load Cell (Weight Sensor)
Load cells are similar to strain gauges which measure the physical quantity like force and give the output
in form of electrical signals. When some tension is applied on the load cell it structure varies causing the
change in resistance and finally, its value can be calibrated using a Wheatstone bridge. Here is the project
on how to measure weight using Load cell

Fig 2.9.Load Cell

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 .

9. Potentiometer

A potentiometer is used to detect the position. It generally has various ranges of resistors connected to
different poles of the switch. A potentiometer can be either rotary or linear type.In rotary type, a wiper is
connected to a long shaft which can be rotated. When the shaft has rotated the position of the wiper alters
such that the resultant resistance varies causing the change in the output voltage. Thus the output can be
calibrated to detect the change its position.

Fig 2.10.Potentiometer

10. Encoder
To detect the change in the position an encoder can also be used. It has a circular rotatable disk-like
structure with specific openings in between such that when the IR rays or light rays pass through it only a
few light rays get detected. Further, these rays are encoded into
a digital data (in terms of binary) which represents the specific position.

Fig 2.11.Encoder

11 Hall Sensor

The name itself states that it is the sensor which works on the Hall Effect. It can be definedas when a
magnetic field is brought close to the current carrying conductor (perpendicular to the direction of the
electric field) then a potential difference is developed across the given conductor. Using this property
a Hall sensor is used to detect the magnetic field and gives output in terms of voltage. Care should be taken
that the Hall sensor can detect only one pole of the magnet.

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 Fig 2.12.Hall sensor
The hall sensor is used in few smartphones which are helpful in turning off the screenwhen the flap
cover (which has a magnet in it) is closed onto the screen. Here is one practical application of Hall Effect
sensor in Door Alarm.

12. Flex Sensor

A FLEX sensor is a transducer which changes its resistance when its shape is changed or when it is bent.
A FLEX sensor is 2.2 inches long or of finger length. Simply speaking the sensor terminal resistance
good unless it is read them. The controller
at hand can only read the changes in voltage and nothing less, for this, voltage divider circuit is used,
with that it can be derived the resistance change as a voltage change.

Fig 2.13. Flex sensor

13.Microphone (Sound Sensor)

Microphone can be seen on all the smartphones or mobiles. It can detect the audio signal and convert them
into small voltage (mV) electrical signals. A microphone can be of manytypes like condenser microphone,
crystal microphone, carbon microphone etc. each type of microphone work on the properties like
capacitance, piezoelectric effect, resistance respectively. Let us see the operation of a crystal microphone
which works on the piezoelectric effect. A bimorph crystal is used which under pressure or vibrations
producesproportional alternating voltage. A diaphragm is connected to the crystal through a drive pin such
that when the sound signal hits the diaphragm it moves to and fro, this movement changes the position of
the drive pin which causes vibrations in the crystal thus an alternating voltage is generated with respect to
the applied sound signal. The obtained voltage is fed to an amplifier in order to increase the overall strength
of the signal.

Fig 2.14.Microphone

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14.Ultrasonic sensor

Ultrasonic means nothing but the range of the frequencies. Its range is greater than audible range (>20
speakers and receivers
can sense those ultrasonic waves. This ultrasonic sensor is used to calculate the distance between the
ultrasonic transmitter and the target and also used to measure the velocity of the target.
Ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04 can be used to measure distance in the range of 2cm-400cm with an accuracy
of 3mm. see how this module works. The HCSR04 module generates a sound vibration in ultrasonic
about 10us which will send an 8 cycle sonic burst at the speed
of sound and after striking the object, it will be received by the Echo pin. Depending on the time taken by
sound vibration to get back, it provides the appropriate pulse output. Calculate thedistance of the object
based on the time taken by the ultrasonic wave to return back to the sensor.

Fig 2.15.Utrasonic sensor

There are many applications with the ultrasonic sensor. It is used to avoid obstacles for the automated cars,
moving robots etc. The same principle will be used in the RADAR for detecting the intruder missiles and
airplanes. A mosquito can sense theultrasonic sounds. So, ultrasonic waves can be used as mosquito
repellent.

15.Touch Sensor

In this generation, almost all are using smartphones which have widescreenthat too a screen which can
sense user touch Basically, there are two types of touch sensors
resistive based and a capacitive based touch screens. know about working of these sensors briefly.
The resistive touch screen has a resistive sheet at the base and a conductive sheet under thescreen both of
these are separated by an air gap with a small voltage applied to the sheets. When human press or touch
the screen the conductive sheet touches the resistive sheet at that point causing current flow at that
particular point, the software senses the location and relevant action is performed.

Fig 2.16.Touch sensor

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16.PIR sensor

PIR sensor stands for Passive Infrared sensor. These are used to detect the motion of humans, animals
or things. Infrared rays have a property of reflection. When an infrared ray hits an object, depending upon
the temperature of the target the infrared rayproperties changes, this received signal determines the motion
of the objects or the living beings. Even if the shape of the object alters, the properties of the reflected
infrared rays can differentiate the objects precisely. Here is the complete working or PIR sensor.

Fig 2.17.PIR Sensor

17.Accelerometer (Tilt Sensor)

An accelerometer sensor can sense the tilt or movement of it in a particular direction. It works based on
parts of it are such sensitive that
those will react to a small external change in position. It has a piezoelectric crystal when tilted causes
disturbance in the crystal and generates potential which determines the exact position with respect to
X, Y and Z axis.

.
Fig 2.18.Accelerometer
These are commonly seen in mobiles and laptops in order to avoid breakage of processors leads. When the
device falls the accelerometer detects the falling condition and does respective action based on the
software.

18.Gas sensor
In industrial applications gas sensors plays a major role in detecting the gas leakage. If nosuch device is
installed in such areas it ultimately leads to an unbelievable disaster. These gas sensors are classified into
various types based on the type of gas that to be detected. works. Underneath a
metal sheet there exists a sensing element which is connected to the terminals where a current is applied
to it. When the gas particles hit the sensing element, it leads to a chemical reaction such that the resistance
of the elements varies and current through it also alters which finally can detect the gas.

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 Fig 2.19.Gas Sensor
So finally, it is concluded that sensors are not only used to make the work simple to measure the physical
quantities, making the devices automated but also used to help living beings with disasters.

19. Resistive Sensors

Resistive sensors, such as the potentiometer, have three terminals: power input, grounding terminal, and
variable voltage output. These mechanical devices have varied resistance thatcan be changed through
movable contact with its fixed resistor. Output from the sensor varies depending on whether the movable
contact is near the resistor's supple end or ground end. Thermistors are also variable resistors, although
the resistance of the sensor varies with temperature

Fig 2.20 Resistive Sensors

Voltage generating sensors

Voltage-generating sensors, such as piezo electrics, generate electricity by pressure with types of crystals
like quartz. As the crystal flexes or vibrates, AC voltage is produced. Knock sensors utilize this technology
by sending a signal to an automobile's on-board computer that engine knock is happening. The signal is
generated through crystal vibration within the sensor, which is caused by cylinder block vibration. The
computer, in turn, reduces the ignition timing to stop the engine knock.

Fig 2.21.Voltage Generating Sensors

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21.Switch Sensors

Switch sensors are composed of a set of contacts that open when close to a magnet. A reed switch is a
common example of a switch sensor and is most commonly used as a speed or position sensor. As a speed
sensor, a magnet is attached to the speedometer cable and spinsalong with it. Each time one of the magnet's
poles passes the reed switch, it opens and then closes. How fast the magnet passes allows the sensor to
read the vehicle's speed.

Fig 2.22.Switch Sensors

2.Edge Networking

Embedded systems are already playing a crucial role in the development of the IoT. In broad
strokes, there are four main components of an IoT system:

1. The Thing itself (the device)

2. The Local Network; this can include a gateway, which translates proprietarycommunication protocols to
Internet Protocol
3. The Internet
4. Back-End Services; enterprise data systems, or PCs and mobile devices

Fig 2.23.Embedded Point of View

Internet of Things are separated in two broad categories:

.
1. Industrial IoT, where the local network is based on any one of many different technologies. The
IoT device will typically be connected to an IP network to the global Internet.
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2. Commercial IoT, where local communication is typically either Bluetooth orEthernet (wired or
wireless). The IoT device will typically communicate only with local devices.

So to better understand how to build IoT devices, first need to figure out how theywill communicate with
the rest of the world.

Local Network
requirements and costs. IoT
devices are deployed in so many different ways in clothing, houses, buildings, campuses, factories, and
even in human body that no single networking technology can fitall bills.

umberof connected
sensors and actuators scattered over a wide area, and a wireless technology would be the best fit.

Fig 2.24. Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a collection of distributed sensors that monitor physical or
environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound, and pressure. Data from each sensor passes through
the network node-to-node.
WSN Nodes
WSN nodes are low cost devices, so they can be deployed in high volume. They alsooperate at
low power so that they can run on battery, or even use energy harvesting. A WSNnode is an embedded
system that typically performs a single function (such as measuring temperature or pressure, or turning on
a light or a motor).
Energy harvesting is a new technology that derives energy from external sources (for example, solar
power, thermal energy, wind energy, electromagnetic radiation, kinetic energy, and more). The energy is
captured and stored for use by small, low-power wireless autonomous devices, like the nodes on a WSN.
WSN Edge Nodes

A WSN edge node is a WSN node that includes Internet Protocol connectivity. It acts as a gateway between
the WSN and the IP network. It can also perform local processing, provide local storage, and can have a
user interface.

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 Fig 2.25.WSN Edge

WSN Technologies

The battle over the preferred networking protocol is far from over. There are multiplecandidates.
Wi-Fi
The first obvious networking technology candidate for an IoT device is Wi-Fi, because it is so ubiquitous.
Certainly, Wi-Fi can be a good solution for many applications. Almost every house that has an Internet
connection has a Wi-Fi router. However, Wi-Fi needs a fair amount of power. There are myriad devices
that c operated devices, for example, or sensors positioned in
locations that are difficult to power from the grid.

New application protocols and data formats that enable autonomous operation For example,EnOceanhas
patented an energy-harvesting wireless technology to meet the power
wireless transmitters work in the frequencies of 868 MHz for Europe and 315 MHz for North America.
The transmission range is up to 30meters in buildings and up to 300 meters outdoors.

EnOcean wireless technology uses a combination of energy harvesting and very low power wireless
communications to enable virtually indefinite communications to be maintained without the need for
recharging. The EnOcean technology is used for wireless sensors, controllers and gateways.

One of the key issues with small machines is the need for ensuring that batteries are maintained charged.
In traditional systems, either mains power was required, or batteries needed to be replaced, even if only
infrequently. The use of EnOcean removes the need for power to be directly applied thereby reducing the
cost of the system operation.

IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs)

One of the major IoT enablers is the IEEE 802.15.4 radio standard, released in 2003.Commercial radios
meeting this standard provide the basis for low-power systems. This IEEE standard was extended and
improved in 2006 and 2011 with the 15.4e and 15.4g amendments. Power consumption of commercial RF
devices is now cut in half compared to only a few years ago, and it is expected another 50% reduction with
the next generation of devices.

6LoWPAN
Devices that take advantage of energy-harvesting must perform their tasks in the shortest time possible,
which means that their transmitted messages must be as small as possible. This requirement has
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 implications for protocol design.
3. Internet of Things Communications Models
From an operational perspective, it is useful to think about how IoT devicesconnect and communicate
in terms of their technical communication models. In March 2015, the Internet Architecture Board
(IAB) released a guiding architecturaldocument for networking of smart objects which outlines a
framework of four common communication models used by IoT devices. The discussion below
presents this framework and explains key characteristics of each model in the framework.

Device-to-Device Communications
The device-to-device communication model represents two or more devices that directly connect and
communicate between one another, rather than through an intermediary application server. These
devices communicate over many types of networks, including IP networks or the Internet. Often,
however these devices use protocols like Bluetooth, Z-Wave, or ZigBee to establish direct device-to-
device communications, as shown in Figure 26.

Light

Fig 2.26.Example of device-to-device communication model

These device-to-device networks allow devices that adhere to a particular communication protocol to
communicate and exchange messages to achieve their function. This communication model is commonly
used in applications like home automation systems, which typically use small data packets of information
to communicate between devices with relatively low data rate requirements. Residential IoT devices like
light bulbs, light switches, thermostats, and door locks normally send small amounts of information to
each other (e.g. a door lock status message or turn on light command) in a home automation scenario.
From the point of view, this often means that underlying device-to-device communication2
protocols are not compatible, forcing the user to select a family of devices that employ a common protocol.
For example, the family of devices using the Z-Wave protocol is not natively compatible with the ZigBee
family of devices. While these incompatibilities limit user choice to devices within a particular protocol
family, the user benefits from knowing that products within a particular family tend to communicate well.

Device-to-Cloud Communications
In a device-to-cloud communication model, the IoT device connects directly to an Internet cloud
service like an application service provider to exchange data and control message traffic. This
approach frequently takes advantage of existing communications mechanisms like traditional wired
Ethernet or Wi-Fi connectionsto establish a connection between the device and the IP network, which
ultimately connects to the cloud service. This is shown in Figure 27.

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 TLS Provider
TCP UDP
IP IP

Devicewith

Devicewith Carbon

Temperature

Fig 2.27.Device-to-cloud communication model diagram.

This communication model is employed by some popular consumer IoT devices like the Nest Labs
Learning Thermostat and the Samsung SmartTV. In the case of the Nest Learning Thermostat, the
device transmits data to a cloud database where the data can be used to analyze home energy
consumption.
Further, this cloud connection enables the user to obtain remote access to their thermostat via a

TLS
Stack TCP UDP
IPv6

Device Layer 1 Protocol

with Bluetooth Smart Carbon
W
Monoxide

smartphone or Web interface, and it also supports software updatesto the thermostat. Similarly, with
the Samsung SmartTVtechnology, the television uses an Internet connection to transmit user viewing
information to Samsung for analysis and to enable the interactive voice recognition features of the
TV. In these cases, the device-to-cloud model adds value to the end user by extending thecapabilities
of the device beyond its native features.
However, interoperability challenges can arise when attempting to integrate devicesmade by different
manufacturers. Frequently, the device and cloud service are from the same vendor. If proprietary data
protocols are used between the device and the cloud service, the device owner or user may be tied to
a specific cloud service, limiting or preventing the use of alternative service providers. This is
commonly referred to as vendor lock-in , a term that encompasses other facets of the
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relationship with the provider such as ownership of and access to the data. At the same time, users
can generally have confidence that devices designed for the specific platform can be integrated.

Device-to-Gateway Model
In the device-to-gateway model, or more typically, the device-to-application-layer gateway (ALG)
model, the IoT device connects through an ALG service as aconduit to reach a cloud service.
In simpler terms, this means that there is application software operating on a local gateway device,
which acts as an intermediary between the device and the cloud service and provides security and
other functionality such as data or protocol translation.
Several forms of this model are found in consumer devices. In many cases, the local gateway device
is a Smartphone running an app to communicate with a device and relay data to a cloud service. model
employed with popular consumer items like personal fitness trackers. These devices do not have the
native ability to connect directly to a cloud service, so they frequently rely on Smartphone app
software to serve as an intermediary gateway to connect the fitness device to the cloud.
The other form of this device-to-gateway model is the emergence of hub devices in home
automation applications. These are devices that serve as a local gateway between individual IoT
devices and a cloud service, but they can also bridge the interoperability gap between devices
themselves. For example, the Smart Things hub is a stand-alone gateway device that has Z-Wave and
Zigbee transceivers installed to communicate with both families of devices. It then connects to the
Smart Things cloud service, allowing the user to gain access to the devices using a Smartphone app
and an Internet connection. The evolution of systems using the device-to-gateway communication
model and its larger role in addressing interoperability challenges among IoT devices is still
unfolding.
Back-End Data-Sharing Model
The back-end data-sharing model refers to a communication architecture that enables users to export
and analyze smart object data from a cloud service in combination with data from other sources.
This architecture supports the [user s] desire for granting access to the uploaded sensor data to
third parties. This approach is an extension of the single device-to-cloud communication model,
which can lead to data silos where IoT devices upload data only to a single application service
-end sharing architecture allows the data collected from single IoT device data
streams to be aggregated and analyzed.
For example, a corporate user in charge of an office complex would be interested in consolidating and
analyzing the energy consumption and utilities data produced by all the IoT sensors and Internet-
enabled utility systems on the premises. Often inthe single device-to-cloud model, the data each
IoT sensor or system produces sits in a stand-alone data silo. An effective back-end data sharing
architecture would allow the company to easily access and analyze the data in the cloud produced by
the whole spectrum of devices in the building. Also, this kind of architecturefacilitates data portability
needs. Effective back-end data- sharing architecturesallow users to move their data when they switch
between IoT services, breaking down traditional data silo barriers.
The back-end data-sharing model suggests a federated cloud services approach or cloud applications
programmer interfaces (APIs) are needed to achieve interoperability of smart device data hosted in
the cloud. A graphical representation of this design is shown in Fig 29.

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 Fig 2.29.Back-end data sharing model

Internet of Things Communications Models Summary

The four basic communication models demonstrate the underlying design strategies used to allow
IoT devices to communicate. Aside from some technical considerations, the use of these models is
largely influenced by the open versus proprietary nature of the IoT devices being networked. And in
the case of the device-to-gateway model, its primary feature is its ability to overcome proprietary
device restrictions in connecting IoT devices. This means that device interoperability and open
standards are key considerations in the design and development of internetworked IoT systems.
From a general user perspective, these communication models help illustrate theability of networked
devices to add value to the end user. By enabling the user to achieve better access to an IoT device
and its data, the overall value of the device is amplified. For example, in three of the four
communication models, the devices ultimately connect to data analytic services in a cloud computing
setting. Bycreating data communication conduits to the cloud, users, and service providerscan
more readily employ data aggregation, big data analytics, data visualization, and predictive analytics
technologies to get more value out of IoT data than can be achieved in traditional data-silo
applications. In other words, effective communication architectures are an important driver of value
to the end user by opening possibilities of using information in new ways. It should be noted, however,
these networked benefits come with trade-offs. Careful consideration needs to be paid to the incurred
cost burdens placed on users to connect to cloud resources when

4. Low Power Wide Area Networks: An Overview

Low Power Wide Area (LPWA) networks represent a novel communication paradigm, which will
complement traditional cellular and short range wireless technologies in addressing diverse requirements
of IoT applications. LPWA technologies offer unique sets of features including wide- area connectivity
for low power and low data rate devices, not provided by legacy wireless technologies.
LPWA networks are unique because they make different tradeoffs than the traditional technologies
prevalent in IoT landscape such as short-range wireless networks e.g., Zig- Bee, Bluetooth, Z-Wave,
legacy wireless local area networks (WLANs) e.g., Wi-Fi, and cellular networks e.g. Global Sys- tem for
Mobile Communications (GSM), Long-Term Evolution (LTE) etc. The legacy non-cellular wireless
technologies are not ideal to connect low power devices distributed over large geographical areas. The
range of these technologies is limited to a few hundred meters at best. The devices, therefore, cannot be
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 arbitrarily deployed or moved anywhere, a requirement for many applications for smart city, logistics and
personal health The range of these technologies is extended using a dense deployment of devices and
gateways connected using multihop mesh networking. Large deployments are thus prohibitively
expensive. Legacy WLANs, on the other hand, arecharacterized by shorter coverage areas and higher
power consumption for machine- type communication (MTC).
A wide area coverage is provided by cellular networks, a reason of a wide adoption ofsecond generation
(2G) and third generation (3G) technologies for M2M communication. How- ever, an impending
decommissioning of these technologies[5],as announced by some mobile network operators (MNOs),will
broaden the technology gap in connecting low-power devices. In general, traditional cellular technologies
do not achieve energy efficiency high enough to offer ten years of battery lifetime. The complexity and
cost of cellular devices is high due to their ability to deal with complex waveforms, optimized for voice,
high speed data services, and text. For low-power MTC, there is a clear need to strip complexity to reduce
cost. Efforts in this direction are underway for cellular networks by the Third Generation Partnership
Project

Fig 2.30.Applications of LPWA technologies acrossdifferent sectors

Key Objective Of LPWA Technologies

A. Long range
LPWA technologies are designed for a wide area coverage and an excellent signal propagation to hard-to-
reach indoor places such as basements. The physical layer compromises on high data rate and slows downs
the modulation rate to put more energy in each transmitted bit (or symbol). Due to this reason, the receivers
can decode severely attenuated signals correctly. Typical sensitivity of state of the art LPWA receivers
reaches as low as -130 dBm.

B. Ultra low power operation

Ulra-low power operation is a key requirement to tap into the huge business opportunity provided by
battery-powered IoT/M2M devices. A battery lifetime of 10 years or more with AA or coin cell batteries
is desirable to bring the maintenance cost down.
C. Topology
While mesh topology has been extensively used to extend the coverage of short range wireless networks,
their high deployment cost is a major disadvantage in con- necting large number of geographically
52
 distributed devices. Further, as the traffic is forwarded over multiple hops towards a gateway, some nodes
get more congested than others depend- ing on their location or network traffic patterns. Therefore, they
deplete their batteries quickly, limiting overall network lifetime to only a fewmonths to years .On the
other hand, a very long range of LPWA technologies overcomes these limitations by connecting end
devices directly to base stations, obviating the need for the dense and expensive deployments of relays and
gateways altogether. The resulting topology is a star that is used extensively in cellular networks and brings
huge energy saving advantages. As opposed to the mesh topology, the devices need not to waste precious
energy in busy-listening to other devices that want to relay their traffic through them. An always-on
base
station provides convenient and quick access when required by the end-devices.

D. Duty Cycling: Low power operation is achieved by opportunistically turning off power hungry
components of M2M/IoT devices e.g., data transceiver. Radio duty cycling allows LPWA end devices to
turn off their transceivers, when not required. Onlywhen the data is to be transmitted or received, the
transceiver is turned on.

E. Lightweight Medium Access Control: Most-widely used Medium Access Control (MAC)
rotocols for cellular net- works or short range wireless networks are too complexfor LPWA technologies.
For example, cellular networks synchro- nize the base stations and the user equipment (UE) accurately to
benefit from complex MAC schemes that exploit frequency.

CHALLENGES AND OPEN RESEARCH DIRECTIONS LPWA

On the business side, the proprietary solution providers are in a rush to bring their services to the market
and capture their share across multiple verticals. In this race,it is easy but counter- productive to overlook
important challenges faced by LPWA technologies. The challenges are highlighted and analyzed some
research directions to overcome them and improve performance in long-term.

1. Scaling networks to massive number of devices

LPWA technologies will connect tens of millions of devices transmitting data at an unprecedented scale
over limited and often shared radio resources. This complex resource allocation problem is further
complicated by several other factors. First, thedevice density may vary significantly across different
geographical areas, creatingthe so called hot-spot problem. These hot-spots will put the LPWA base
stations to astress test. Second, cross-technology interference can severely de- grade the performance of
LPWA technologies.
2. Interoperability between different LPWA technologies
Given that market is heading towards an intense competition between different LPWA technologies, it is
safe to assume that several may coexist in future. Interoperability between these heterogeneous
technologies is thus crucial to their long- term profitability. With little to no support for interoperability
between different technologies, a need for standards that glue them together is strong. Interoperability is a
still an open challenge. Test beds and open-source tool chains for LPWA technologies are not yet widely
available to evaluate interoperability mechanisms.
3. Localization
LPWA networks expect to generate significant revenue from logistics, supply chain management, and
personal IoT applications, where location of mobile objects, vehicles, humans, and animals may be of
utmost interest. An accurate localization support is thus an important feature for keeping track of valuables,
kids, elderly, pets, shipments, vehicle fleets, etc. In fact, it is regarded as an important feature to enable
new applications.
4. Link optimizations and adaptability
53
 If a LPWA technology permits, each individual link should be optimized for high link quality and low
energy consumption to maximize overall network capacity. Every LPWA technology allows multiple link
level configurations that introduce tradeoffs between different performance metrics such as data rate, time-
on-air, area coverage, etc. This motivates a need for adaptive techniques that can monitorlink quality and
then read just its parameters for better performance. However for such techniques to work, a feedback
from gateway to end devices is usually required over down link.
5. LPWA test beds and tools
LPWA technologies enable several smart city applications. A few smart city test beds e.g. Smart Santander
have emerged in recent years. Such test beds incorporate sensors equipped with different wireless
technologies such as Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4 based networks and cellular networks. How- ever, there are so
farno open test beds for LPWA networks. Therefore, it is not cost-effective to widely design LPWA
systems and compare their performance at a metropolitan scale. At the time of writing, only a handful of
empirical studies compare two or more LPWA technologies under same conditions. Opinion is that, it is a
significant barrier to entry for potential customers. Providing LPWA technologies as a scientific
instrumentation for general public through citygovernments can act as a confidence building measure.

6. Authentication, Security, and Privacy

Authentication, security, and privacy are some of the most important features of any communication
system. Cellular networks provide proven authentication, security, and privacy mechanisms. Use of
Subscriber Identity Modules (SIM) simplifies identification and authentication of the cellular devices.
LPWA technologies, due to their cost and energy considerations, not only settle for simpler communication
protocols but also depart from SIM based authentication. Techniques and protocols are thus required to
provide equivalent or better authentication support for LPWA technologies. Further to assure that end
devices are not exposed to any security risks over prolonged duration, a support for over- the-air (OTA)
updates is a crucial feature. A lack of adequate support for OTA updates poses a great security risk to most
LPWA technologies.

7. Mobility and Roaming

Roaming of devices between different network operators is a vital feature responsible for the commercial
success of cellular networks. Whilst some LPWA technologies do not have the notion of roaming (work
on a global scale such as SIGFOX), there are others that do not have support for roaming as of the time
of this writing. The major challenge is to provide roaming without compromising the lifetime of the
devices. To this effect, the roaming support should put minimal burden on the battery powered end-
devices. Because the end-devices duty cycle aggressively, it is reasonable to assume that the low power
devices cannot receive downlink traffic at all times. Data exchanges over the uplink should be exploited
more aggressively. Network assignment is to be resolved in backend systems as opposed to the access
network. All the issues related to agility of roaming process and efficient resource management have to
bead dressed.
5. Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
WPANs are used to convey information over short distances among a private, intimate group of
participant devices. Unlike a WLAN, a connection made through a WPAN involves little or no
infrastructure or direct connectivity to the world outside the link. This allows small, power-efficient,
inexpensive solutions to be implemented for a wide range of device.

Applications

Short-range (< 10 m) connectivity for multimedia applications

PDAs, cameras, voice (hands free devices)

54
 High QoS, high data rate (IEEE 802.15.3)
Industrial sensor applications
Low speed, low battery, low cost sensor networks (IEEE 802.15.4)
Common goals
Getting rid of cable connections
Little or no infrastructure
Device interoperability

WPAN Topologies:

Fig 2.31 WPAN TopologiesIEEE 802.15 WPAN Standards:

1. IEEE 802.15.2- Co existence of Bluetooth and 802.11b

2. IEEE 802.15.3- High Rate WPAN
Low power and low cost applications for digital imaging and multimedia applications.
3. IEEE 802.15.4- Low Rate WPAN
Industrial ,Medical and agriculture applications.

Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1

A widely used WPAN technology is known as Bluetooth (version 1.2 or version 2.0).
The IEEE standard specifies the architecture and operation of Bluetooth devices, but only as far as
physical layer and medium access control (MAC) layer operation is concerned (the core system
architecture). Higher protocol layers and applications defined in usage profiles are standardized by the
Bluetooth SIG. Bluetooth is the base for IEEE Std 802.15.1-2002 (rev. 2005).Data rate of 1Mbps (2 or 3
Mbps with enhanced data rate).
Piconets

Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through short-range, ad hoc
networks known as piconets. Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled
devices enter and leave radio proximity. Up to 8 devices in one piconet (1 master and up to 7 slave devices)
Max range is 10 m. The piconet master is a device in a piconet whose clock and device address are used
to define the piconet physical channel characteristics.All other devices in the piconet are called piconet
slaves.All devices have the same timing and frequency hopping sequence. At any given time, data can be
transferred between the master and one slave.
The master switches rapidly from slave to slave in a round-robin fashion. AnyBluetooth device can be
either a master or a slave. Any device may switch the master/slave role at any time.
Scatternet
Any Bluetooth device can be a master of one piconet and a slave of another piconet at the same time
(scatternet). Scatternet is formed by two ormore Piconets. Master of one piconet can participate as a slave
in another connected piconet. No time or frequency synchronization between piconets

55
Bluetooth ProtocolStack Radio Layer

The radio layer specifies details of the air interface, including the usage of the frequency hopping sequence,
modulation scheme, and transmit power. The radio layer FHSS operation and radio parameters
Baseband Layer
The baseband layer specifies the lower level operations at the bit and packet levels. It supports Forward
Error Correction (FEC) operations and Encryption, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) calculations.
Retransmissions using the Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Protocol.

Fig 2.32 Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Link Manager layer
The link manager layer specifies the establishment and release links, authentication, trafficscheduling,
link supervision, and power management tasks. Responsible for all the physical link resources in the
system. Handles the control and negotiation of packet sizes used when transmitting data.Sets up,
terminates, and manages baseband connections between devices.
L2CAP layer
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) layer handles the multiplexing of
higher layer protocols and the segmentation and reassembly (SAR) of large packets The L2CAP layer
provides both connectionless and connection-oriented services

L2CAP performs 4 major functions

Managing the creation and termination of logical links for each connection through channel structures.
Adapting Data, for each connection, between application (APIs) and Bluetooth Baseband formats through
Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR). Performing Multiplexing to support multiple concurrent
connections over a single common radio interface (multiple apps. using link between two devices
simultaneously). L2CAP segments large packets into smaller baseband manageable packets. Smaller
received baseband packets are reassembled coming back up the protocol stack.

RFCOMM
Applications may access L2CAP through different support protocols Service DiscoveryProtocol
(SDP) RFCOMM Telephony Control Protocol Specification (TCS) TCP/IP basedapplications, for
instance information transfer using the Wireless Application Protocol(WAP), can be extended to Bluetooth
devices by using the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) ontop of RFCOMM.
OBEX Protocol
The Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) is a sessionlevel protocol for the exchange of objects This protocol
can be used for example for phonebook, calendar or messaging synchronization, or for file transfer between
connected devices.

TCSBIN Protocol

56
 The telephony control specification - binary (TCS BIN) protocol defines the call-controlsignaling for the
establishment of speech and data calls between Bluetooth devices In addition, it defines mobility
management procedures for handling groups of Bluetooth devices.

Service Discovery Protocol

The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) can be used to access a specific device (such as a digital camera)
and retrieve its capabilities, or to access a specific application (such as a print job) and find devices that
support this application.

6. Smart Wi-Fi module

Smart Wi-Fi is an IoT-enabler tool. The applications it can cater to are only limited by the imagination
of makers. The very basic applications could be for smart homes or smart offices. This module can be used
for data logging, data monitoring and more, and provides very good support for product development. It
also has all features to act as a full-fledged product. Platforms such as ThingSpeak add to the benefits and
provide support for testing and development of an IoT product. Smart Wi-Fi enables making a product
quickly and reliably. With open software resources and hardware data, moving to the final product after
the proof of concept is also easy.

7. IoT platform
The purpose of any IoT device is to connect with other IoT devices and applications (cloud-based
mostly) to relay information using internet transfer protocols.
The gap between the device sensors and data networks is filled by an IoT Platform. Such a platform
connects the data network to the sensor arrangement and provides insights using backend applications to
make sense of plethora of data generated by hundreds of sensors.

While there are hundreds of companies and a few startups venturing into IoT platform development,
players like Amazon and Microsoft are way ahead of others in the competition. Read on to know about top
10 IoT platforms that can be used for the applications.
IoT platform: Amazon Web Services (AWS) IoT

Last year Amazon announced the AWS IoT platform at it s Re:Invent conference.
Main features of AWS IoT platform are:

Registry for recognizing devices

Software Development Kit for devices
Device Shadows
Secure Device Gateway
Rules engine for inbound message evaluation
According to Amazon, their IoT platform will make it a lot easier for developers to connectsensors for
multiple applications ranging from automobiles to turbines to smart home light bulbs.
Taking the scope of AWS IoT to the next level, the vendor has partnered with hardware manufacturers
like Intel, Texas Instruments, Broadcom and Qualcomm to create starter kits compatible with their
platform.

IoT Platform: Microsoft Azure IoT

Microsoft is very much interested in bringing up products for internet of things. For the initiative
the Microsoft Azure cloud services compatible IoT platform, the Azure IoT suite is on the offer.
Features included in this platform are:

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 Raspberry pi
The Raspberry pi is a single computer board with credit card size, that can be
used for many tasks that your computer does, like games, word processing,
spreadsheets and also to play HD video. It was established by the Raspberry pi
foundation from the UK. It has been ready for public consumption since 2012
with the idea of making a low-cost educational microcomputer for students and
children. The main purpose of designing the raspberry pi board is, to encourage
learning, experimentation and innovation for school level students. The raspberry
pi board is a portable and low cost. Maximum of the raspberry pi computers is
used in mobile phones. In the 20th century, the growth of mobile computing
technologies is very high, a huge segment of this being driven by the mobile
industries. The 98% of the mobile phones were using ARM technology.

Raspberry Pi Technology

The raspberry pi comes in two models, they are model A and model B. The main
difference between model A and model B is USB port. Model A board will
consume less power and that does not include an Ethernet port. But, the model B
board includes an Ethernet port and designed in china. The raspberry pi comes
with a set of open source technologies, i.e. communication and multimedia web
technologies. In the year 2014, the foundation of the raspberry pi board launched
the computer module, that packages a model B raspberry pi board into module
for use as a part of embedded systems, to encourage their use.

Raspberry Pi Hardware Specifications

The raspberry pi board comprises a program memory (RAM), processor and

graphics chip, CPU, GPU, Ethernet port, GPIO pins, Xbee socket, UART, power
source connector. And various interfaces for other external devices. It also
requires mass storage, for that we use an SD flash memory card. So that raspberry
pi board will boot from this SD card similarly as a PC boots up into windows
from its hard disk.

Essential hardware specifications of raspberry pi board mainly include SD card

containing Linux OS, US keyboard, monitor, power supply and video cable.
Optional hardware specifications include USB mouse, powered USB hub, case,
internet connection, the Model A or B: USB WiFi adaptor is used and internet
connection to Model B is LAN cable.
 Hardware Specifications of Raspberry pi

Memory

The raspberry pi model Aboard is designed with 256MB of SDRAM and model
B is designed with 51MB.Raspberry pi is a small size PC compare with other
PCs. The normal PCs RAM memory is available in gigabytes. But in raspberry
pi board, the RAM memory is available more than 256MB or 512MB

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The Central processing unit is the brain of the raspberry pi board and that is
responsible for carrying out the instructions of the computer through logical and
mathematical operations. The raspberry pi uses ARM11 series processor, which
has joined the ranks of the Samsung galaxy phone.

GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)

The GPU is a specialized chip in the raspberry pi board and that is designed to
speed up the operation of image calculations. This board designed with a
Broadcom video core IV and it supports OpenGL

Ethernet Port

The Ethernet port of the raspberry pi is the main gateway for communicating with
additional devices. The raspberry pi Ethernet port is used to plug your home
router to access the internet.

GPIO Pins

The general purpose input & output pins are used in the raspberry pi to associate
with the other electronic boards. These pins can accept input & output commands
based on programming raspberry pi. The raspberry pi affords digital GPIO pins.
These pins are used to connect other electronic components. For example, you
can connect it to the temperature sensor to transmit digital data.

XBee Socket

The XBee socket is used in raspberry pi board for the wireless communication
purpose.

Power Source Connector

The power source cable is a small switch, which is placed on side of the shield.
The main purpose of the power source connector is to enable an external power
source.

UART

The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/ Transmitter is a serial input & output

port. That can be used to transfer the serial data in the form of text and it is useful
for converting the debugging code.

Display

The connection options of the raspberry pi board are two types such as HDMI
and Composite.Many LCD and HD TV monitors can be attached using an HDMI
male cable and with a low-cost adaptor. The versions of HDMI are 1.3 and 1.4
are supported and 1.4 version cable is recommended. The O/Ps of the Raspberry
Pi audio and video through HMDI, but does not support HDMI I/p. Older TVs
can be connected using composite video. When using a composite video
connection, audio is available from the 3.5mm jack socket and can be sent to your
TV. To send audio to your TV, you need a cable which adjusts from 3.5mm to
double RCA connectors.

Model A Raspberry Pi Board

The Raspberry Pi board is a Broadcom(BCM2835) SOC(system on chip) board.

It comes equipped with an ARM1176JZF-S core CPU, 256 MB of SDRAM and
700 MHz,. The raspberry pi USB 2.0 ports use only external data connectivity
options. The board draws its power from a micro USB adapter, with min range of
2. Watts (500 MA). The graphics, specialized chip is designed to speed up the
operation of image calculations. This is in built with Broadcom video core IV
cable, that is useful if you want to run a game and video through your raspberry
pi.

Features of Raspberry PI Model A

• The Model A raspberry pi features mainly includes

• 256 MB SDRAM memory
• Single 2.0 USB connector
• Dual Core Video Core IV Multimedia coprocessor
• HDMI (rev 1.3 & 1.4) Composite RCA (PAL and NTSC) Video Out
• 3.5 MM Jack, HDMI, Audio Out
• SD, MMC, SDIO Card slot on board storage
• Linux Operating system
• Broadcom BCM2835 SoC full HD multimedia processor
• 8.6cm*5.4cm*1.5cm dimensions
Model B Raspberry pi Board

The Raspberry Pi is a Broadcom BCM2835 SOC (system on chip board). It

comes equipped with a 700 MHz, 512 MB of SDRAM and ARM1176JZF-S core
CPU. The USB 2.0 port of the raspberry pi boars uses only external data
connectivity options. The Ethernet in the raspberry pi is the main gateway to
interconnect with other devices and the internet in model B. This draws its power
from a micro USB adapter, with a minimum range of 2.5 watts(500 MA). The
graphics, specialized chip is designed to speed up the manipulation of image
calculations. This is in built with Broadcom video core IV cable, that is useful if
you want to run a game and video through your raspberry pi.

Model B Raspberry pi Board

Features of Raspberry PI Model B

• 512 MB SDRAM memory

• Broadcom BCM2835 SoC full high definition multimedia processor
• Dual Core Video Core IV Multimedia coprocessor
• Single 2.0 USB connector
• HDMI (rev 1.3 and 1.4) Composite RCA (PAL & NTSC) Video Out
• 3.5 MM Jack, HDMI Audio Out
• MMC, SD, SDIO Card slot on board storage
• Linux Operating system
• Dimensions are 8.6cm*5.4cm*1.7cm
• On board 10/100 Ethernet RJ45 jack
Applications of Raspberry Pi

The raspberry pi boards are used in many applications like Media streamer,
Arcade machine, Tablet computer, Home automation, Carputer, Internet radio,
Controlling robots, Cosmic Computer, Hunting for meteorites, Coffee and also in
raspberry pi based projects.

Raspberry Pi based Motor Speed Control - EXAMPLES

The main intention of this project is to control the speed of a DC Motor using
Raspberry Pi.

Hardware and software Requirements

DC Motor, Raspberry pi model, TV or PC monitor, Motor Driver IC, LED,

Resistors, Capacitors, Diode, Transformer, Voltage Regulator and PHP
program/wiring pi

Raspberry Pi based Motor Speed Control Block Diagram

This project uses a Raspberry Pi board to control the DC motor speed. The speed
of a DC motor is directly proportional to the voltage applied across its terminals,
When the voltage across the motor terminal is varied, then the speed also gets
varied accordingly. So this is the main principle of this project. A keyboard is
connected to the Raspberry pi board to run the motor at different speeds by
pressing the key.

According to the program, the PWM (pulse width modulation) is caused at the
output, and it can be programmed by using PHP/wiring pi. Depending on the duty
cycle, the average current and voltage change, so the speed of the DC motor will
also change. A motor driver IC is interfaced to the board for receiving PWM
signals and sending desired O/P to the DC motor.

ARM
The ARM microcontroller stands for Advance RISC Machine; it is one of the
extensive and most licensed processor cores in the world. The first ARM
processor was developed in the year 1978 by Cambridge University, and the first
ARM RISC processor was produced by the Acorn Group of Computers in the
year 1985. These processors are specifically used in portable devices like digital
cameras, mobile phones, home networking modules and wireless communication
technologies and other embedded systems due to the benefits, such as low power
consumption, reasonable performance, etc. This article gives an overview of
ARM architecture with each module’s principle of working.

ARM Architecture

The ARM architecture processor is an advanced reduced instruction set

computing [RISC] machine and it’s a 32bit reduced instruction set computer
(RISC) microcontroller. It was introduced by the Acron computer organization in
1987. This ARM is a family of microcontroller developed by makers like ST
Microelectronics,Motorola, and so on. The ARM architecture comes with totally
different versions like ARMv1, ARMv2, etc., and, each one has its own
advantage and disadvantages.
 ARM Architecture

The ARM cortex is a complicated microcontroller within the ARM family that
has ARMv7 design. There are 3 subfamilies within the ARM cortex family :

• ARM Cortex Ax-series

• ARM-Cortex Rx-series
• ARM-Cortex Mx-series

The ARM Architecture

• Arithmetic Logic Unit

• Booth multiplier
• Barrel shifter
• Control unit
• Register file

This article covers the below mentioned components.

The ARM processor conjointly has other components like the Program status
register, which contains the processor flags (Z, S, V and C). The modes bits
conjointly exist within the program standing register, in addition to the interrupt
and quick interrupt disable bits; Some special registers: Some registers
are used like the instruction, memory data read and write registers and memory
address register.
Priority encoder: The encoder is used in the multiple load and store
instruction to point which register within the register file to be loaded or kept .

Multiplexers: several multiplexers are accustomed to the management

operation of the processor buses. Because of the restricted project time, we tend
to implement these components in a very behavioral model. Each component is
described with an entity. Every entity has its own architecture, which can be
optimized for certain necessities depending on its application. This creates the
design easier to construct and maintain.

ARM Block Diagram

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU has two 32-bits inputs. The primary comes from the register file,
whereas the other comes from the shifter. Status registers flags modified by the
ALU outputs. The V-bit output goes to the V flag as well as the Count goes to the
C flag. Whereas the foremost significant bit really represents the
S flag, the ALU output operation is done by NORed to get the Z flag. The
ALU has a 4-bit function bus that permits up to 16 opcode to be implemented.

Booth Multiplier Factor

The multiplier factor has 3 32-bit inputs and the inputs return from the register
file. The multiplier output is barely 32-Least Significant Bits of the merchandise.
The entity representation of the multiplier factor is shown in the above block
diagram. The multiplication starts whenever the beginning 04 input goes active.
Fin of the output goes high when finishing.
Booth Algorithm

Booth algorithm is a noteworthy multiplication algorithmic rule for 2’s

complement numbers. This treats positive and negative numbers uniformly.
Moreover, the runs of 0’s or 1’s within the multiplier factor are skipped over
without any addition or subtraction being performed, thereby creating possible
quicker multiplication. The figure shows the simulation results for the
multiplier test bench. It’s clear that the multiplication finishes only in16 clock
cycle.

Barrel Shifter

The barrel shifter features a 32-bit input to be shifted. This input is coming back
from the register file or it might be immediate data. The shifter has different
control inputs coming back from the instruction register. The Shift field within
the instruction controls the operation of the barrel shifter. This field indicates
the kind of shift to be performed (logical left or right, arithmetic right or
rotate right). The quantity by which the register ought to be shifted is contained
in an immediate field within the instruction or it might be the lower 6 bits of a
register within the register file.

The shift_val input bus is 6-bits, permitting up to 32 bit shift. The shifttype
indicates the needed shift sort of 00, 01, 10, 11 are corresponding to shift left,
shift right, an arithmetic shift right and rotate right, respectively. The barrel shifter
is especially created with multiplexers.

Control Unit

For any microprocessor, control unit is the heart of the whole process and it is
responsible for the system operation,so the control unit design is the most
important part within the whole design. The control unit is sometimes a pure
combinational circuit design. Here, the control unit is implemented by easy state
machine. The processor timing is additionally included within the control unit.
Signals from the control unit are connected to each component within the
processor to supervise its operation.

ARM7 Functional Diagram

The final thing that must be explained is how the ARM will be used and the way
in which the chip appear. The various signals that interface with the processor are
input, output or supervisory signals which will be used to control the ARM
operation.
 ARM Functional Diagram

ARM Microcontroller Register Modes

An ARM micrcontroller is a load store reducing instruction set computer

architecture means the core cannot directly operate with the memory. The data
operations must be done by the registers and the information is stored in the
memory by an address. The ARM cortex-M3 consists of 37 register sets wherein
31 are general purpose registers and 6 are status registers. The ARM uses seven
processing modes to run the user task.

• USER Mode
• FIQ Mode
• IRQ Mode
• SVC Mode
• UNDEFINED Mode
• ABORT Mode
• Monitor Mode
 ARM Microcontroller Register Modes

USER Mode: The user mode is a normal mode, which has the least number of
registers. It doesn’t have SPSR and has limited access to the CPSR.

FIQ and IRQ: The FIQ and IRQ are the two interrupt caused modes of the CPU.
The FIQ is processing interrupt and IRQ is standard interrupt. The FIQ mode has
additional five banked registers to provide more flexibility and high performance
when critical interrupts are handled.

SVC Mode: The Supervisor mode is the software interrupt mode of the processor
to start up or reset.

Undefined Mode: The Undefined mode traps when illegal instructions are
executed. The ARM core consists of 32-bit data bus and faster data flow.

THUMB Mode: In THUMB mode 32-bit data is divided into 16-bits and
increases the processing speed.

THUMB-2 Mode: In THUMB-2 mode the instructions can be either 16-bit or

32-bit and it increases the performance of the ARM cortex –M3 microcontroller.
The ARM cortex-m3 microcontroller uses only THUMB-2 instructions.

Some of the registers are reserved in each mode for the specific use of the core.
The reserved registers are

• Stack Pointer (SP).

• Link Register (LR).
• Program Counter (PC).
• Current Program Status Register (CPSR).
• Saved Program Status Register (SPSR).
The reserved registers are used for specific functions. The SPSR and CPSR
contain the status control bits which are used to store the temporary data. The
SPSR and CPSR register have some properties that are defined operating modes,
Interrupt enable or disable flags and ALU status flag. The ARM core operates in
two states 32-bit state or THUMBS state.

ARM Cortex (STM32) based Solar Street Light - EXAMPLES

Present days, solar technology has been progressing in many applications like
homes, industries, etc. The main goal of this project is to conserve the electrical
energy:here an Arm-Cortex- based solar street light is implemented that works
on solar energy. Generally, solar street lights are used where electricity is not
available.

Hardware Components

• STM32 with ARM cortex board

• White LEDs
• MOSFET
• Battery
• Regulator
• Solar Panel

Software

• Keil compiler
• Embedded C Language

This project utilizes an ARM-Cortex processor of the STM32 family and a battery
for power supply. This project uses a solar panel to charge the battery where
charge controller circuit controls the battery charging. ARM-Cortex processor is
interfaced to a set of LEDs with the help of the MOSFET Switch.

The intensity control of the LED lights is possible by varying the duty cycle from
a DC source. A programmed ARM-Cortex microcontroller unit is engaged to
afford different intensities at different times of night by using the Pulse Width
Modulation technique. The charge controller circuit is used to protect the battery
from the deep discharge and overload conditions.
 Arduino Technology Architecture and Its
Advantages
An Arduino board is a one type of microcontroller based kit. The first Arduino
technology was developed in the year 2005 by David Cuartielles and Massimo
Banzi. The designers thought to provide easy and low cost board for students,
hobbyists and professionals to build devices. Arduino board can be purchased
from the seller or directly we can make at home using various basic components.
The best examples of Arduino for beginners and hobbyists includes motor
detectors and thermostats, and simple robots. In the year 2011, Adafruit
industries expected that over 3lakhs Arduino boards had been produced. But,
7lakhs boards were in user’s hands in the year 2013. Arduino technology is used
in many operating devices like communication or controlling.

Arduino Technology

A typical example of the Arduino board is Arduino Uno.It includes an

ATmega328 microcontroller and it has 28-pins

Arduino Pin Diagram

The pin configuration of the Arduino Uno board is shown in the above.
It consists of 14-digital i/o pins. Wherein 6 pins are used as pulse width
modulation o/ps and 6 analog i/ps, a USB connection, a power jack, a 16MHz
crystal oscillator, a reset button, and an ICSP header. Arduino board can be
powered either from the personal computer through a USB or external source like
a battery or an adaptor. This board can operate with an external supply of 7-12V
by giving voltage reference through the IORef pin or through the pin Vin.

Digital I/Ps
It comprises of 14-digital I/O pins, each pin take up and provides 40mA current.
Some of the pins have special functions like pins 0 & 1, which acts as a transmitter
and receiver respectively. For serial communication, pins-2 & 3 are external
interrupts, 3,5,6,9,11 pins delivers PWM o/p and pin-13 is used to connect LED.

Analog i/ps: It has 6-analog I/O pins, each pin provide a 10 bits resolution.

Aref: This pin gives a reference to the analog i/ps.

Reset: When the pin is low, then it resets the microcontroller.

Arduino Architecture

Basically, the processor of the Arduino board uses the Harvard architecture where
the program code and program data have separate memory. It consists of two
memories such as program memory and data memory. Wherein the data is stored
in data memory and the code is stored in the flash program memory. The
Atmega328 microcontroller has 32kb of flash memory, 2kb of SRAM 1kb of
EPROM and operates with a 16MHz clock speed.

Arduino Architecture

How to program an Arduino?

The main advantage of the Arduino technology is, you can directly load the
programs into the device without the need of a hardware programmer to burn the
program. This is done because of the presence of the 0.5KB of boot loader, that
allows the program to be dumped into the circuit. The Arduino tool window
contains a toolbar with a various buttons like new, open, verify, upload and serial
monitor. And additionally it comprises of a text editor (employed to write the
code), a message space (displays the feedback) like showing the errors, the text
console, that displays the o/p & a series of menus just like the file, tool menu &
edit.

Arduino Program

• Programming into the Arduino board is called as sketches. Each sketch

contains of three parts such as Variables Declaration, Initialization and
Control code. Where, Initialization is written in the setup function and
Control code is written in the loop function.
• The sketch is saved with .ino and any operation like opening a sketch,
verifying and saving can be done using the tool menu.
• The sketch must be stored in the sketchbook directory.
• Select the suitable board from the serial port numbers and tools menu.
• Select the tools menu and click on the upload button, then the boot loader
uploads the code on the microcontroller.

Basic Functions of Arduino Technology

• Digital read pin reads the digital value of the given pin.
• Digital write pin is used to write the digital value of the given pin.
• Pin mode pin is used to set the pin to I/O mode.
• Analog read pin reads and returns the value.
• Analog write pin writes the value of the pin.
• Serial. Begins pin sets the beginning of serial communication by setting
the rate of bit.

Applications of Arduino Technology

Arduino based Home Automation-EXAMPLES

The main goal of this project is to design a home automation system using an
Arduino board with Bluetooth being controlled remotely by any Android OS
based smart phone. This home automation system provides a modern solution
with smart phones.In order to achieve this, a Bluetooth device is attached to the
Arduino board at the receiver side and while on the transmitter side, a GUI
application on the smart phone sends ON/OFF commands to the receiver where
loads are connected. By touching the particular location on the graphical user
interface (GUI), the different loads can be remotely turned ON/OFF via this
technology. When we touch the exact location on the GUI, then the loads can be
turned ON/OFF remotely. The loads works with an Arduino board through
Thyristors and Opto-Isolators using triacs.

Arduino based Home Automation Project

Intel Galileo
Intel Galileo is the first in a line of Arduino-certified development boards based
on Intel x86 architecture and is designed for the maker and education
communities. Intel released two versions of Galileo, referred to as Gen 1 and Gen
2. These development boards are sometimes called "Breakout boards".

Presentation of the Arduino Intel Galileo board

The Arduino Intel Galileo board is a microcontroller board based on the Intel®
Quark SoC X1000, a 32-bit Intel Pentium®-class system on a chip (SoC). It is
the first board based on Intel® architecture designed to be fully pin-compatible
with shields designed for the Arduino Uno R3. Digital pins 0 to 13 (and the
adjacent AREF and GND pins), Analog inputs 0 to 5, the power header, ICSP
header, and the UART port pins (0 and 1), are all in the same locations as on the
Arduino Uno R3. This is also known as the Arduino 1.0 pinout.
The Arduino Intel Galileo board has been designed to support shields that operate
at either 3.3V or 5V. The core operating voltage of Galileo is 3.3V. However, a
jumper on the board enables voltage translation to 5V at the I/O pins. This
provides support for 5V Uno shields and is the default behavior. By switching the
jumper position, the voltage translation can be disabled to provide 3.3V operation
at the I/O pins.

In addition to Arduino hardware and software compatibility, the Galileo board

has several PC industry standard I/O ports and features to expand native usage
and capabilities beyond the Arduino shield ecosystem. A full sized mini-PCI
Express slot, 100Mb Ethernet port, Micro-SD slot, RS-232 serial port, USB Host
port, USB Client port, and 8MByte NOR flash come standard on the board.
Key components of the Arduino Intel Galileo board

In the following schematics you can see the locations of the key components for
the Arduino Intel Galileo board.

• Ethernet Port: 10/100 Ethernet connector

• RS-232 Serial Port: 3-pin 3.5mm jack (not audio)
• RS-232: RS-232 transceiver
• USB 2.0 Client: USB Client connector (Micro-USB Type B)
• USB 2.0 Host: USB 2.0 Host connector (Micro-USB Type AB)
• SPI Flash: 8 MByte Legacy SPI Flash to store the firmware (or bootloader)
and the latest sketch.
• SPI Flash Program Port: 7-pin header for Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
programming
• Shield Interface: Complies with Arduino Uno Revision 3 shield pinout
• ADC: Analog to Digital converter
• Intel® Quark SoC X1000: 400 MHz 32-bit Intel® Pentium processor
• ICSP: 6-pin in-circuit serial programming (ICSP) header
• 256 MB DDR3 RAM: 256 MByte DRAM, enabled by the firmware by
default
• Arduino Interface: Complies with Arduino Uno Revision 3 pinout
• JTAG Debug Port: 10-pin standard JTAG header for debugging
• GPIO Expander: GPIO pulse width modulation provided by a single I2C
I/O expander
 • Micro SD slot: Supports micro SD card up to 32 GBytes (Optional)
• 5V Power: The board is powered via an AC-to-DC adapter
• Voltage Regulator: Generates 3.3 volt supply
• Eth PHY: Ethernet Physical layer transceiver

Physical Characteristics of the Arduino Intel Galileo board

• 10 cm long and 7 cm wide respectively, with the USB connectors, UART

jack, Ethernet connector, and power jack extending beyond the former
dimension
• Four screw holes (4 mm diameter) allow the board to be attached to a
surface or case

Features of the Intel® Galileo Board

• Arduino
• The Intel Galileo Board is the first Arduino board based on Intel
architecture. The headers (what you connect jumper cables to on the board)
are based off the Arduino 1.0 pinout model that's found on the Arduino
Uno R3 boards. This provides the ability to use compatible shields
(modules that you can plug into headers), allowing you to extend the
functionality of the board. Like the Uno, it has 14 digital I/O pins, 6 analog
inputs, a serial port, and an ICSP header for serial programming.
• Quark
• The board features an Intel® Quark SoC X1000 Application Processor,
designed for the Internet of Things. It's smaller and more power efficient
than the Intel Atom® Processor, making it great for small, low-powered
projects.
• Ethernet
• On the top portion of the board, right next to what looks like an audio jack
labeled UART, there is a 100 Mb Ethernet port that allows the Intel Galileo
to connect to wired networks. Once your board is connected to the Internet,
anything is possible.
• Mini-PCIe
• The Intel Galileo is the first Arduino Certified board that provides a mini
PCI Express (mPCIe) slot. This allows you to connect standard mPCIe
modules like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and SIM card adapters for cell phones.

• Real Time Clock (RTC): Synchronize data between modules using the
boards-integrated Real Time Clock. Using the Arduino Time Library, you
can add timekeeping functionality to your program. Wireless projects can
synchronize in real time using the Network Time Protocol (NTP) and
 Global Positioning System (GPS) time data.
To preserve time between system resets, add a coin cell battery to your
Intel Galileo Board.
• micro SD
• Use the optional onboard micro SD card reader that is accessible through
the Secure Digital (SD) Library. Unlike other Arduinos, the Intel Galileo
does not save sketches (programs) between power on/off states of the board
without an SD card. Using a micro SD card, you can store up to 32 GB of
data!
• Linux*
• Using the Linux image for the Intel Galileo, you can access serial ports,
Wi-Fi, and board pins using programming languages like Advanced Linux
Sound Architecture (ALSA), Video4Linux (V4L2), Python, Secure Shell
(SSH), Node.js, and OpenCV. Using these extra features provided by
Linux requires a micro SD card. Take advantage of the Intel Quark
processing power and create something amazing.