Reinforced Concrete British Standard

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN (BCO 301)
Instructor
Name: TEM L.
Email: [email protected]
Time and Location:

Classes: ……………………….
Hall: SONAC STREET
Total work load: 60 hours
Required Textbook:
Taking Lecture Notes:

BCO 301 lectures are based on lecture notes developed by the instructor and are
substantially different from the required textbook. These notes are will be made available
to you on hard copies.
Attendance Policy:
I highly encouraged you to attend all classes and not even miss one. To encourage you to
attend classes, some of questions in quizzes and the final exam will be the same as those
solved in the class. Class attendance will also count for 10% of the total mark of the
course.
Feedback Policy:
In BC0 301, I am committed to provide you with the best teaching experience. To achieve
this goal, I need your feedback to monitor my performance and your learning
pace. In this regard, I welcome your constructive suggestions for improving the quality of
the class
Laptop and Cellphone Policy:

While laptops and cellphones are indispensable parts of our daily lives, they can be
disruptive and distracting during a mathematically involved and theoretically challenging
learning session. Therefore, laptops are not allowed in our class environment unless
otherwise stated. Also, please have your cellphones silent and in your pockets during the
entire lecture.
Pre-Requisites: Structural Analysis
Course Objectives
The objectives of the course are to
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PREPARED BY: TEM LOUIS BENG (PLET C.E)
 Identify the basic components of any structural system and the standard loading for the RC
structure
 Identify and tell the various codal provisions given in BS 8110
 Describe the salient feature of limit state method, compare with other methods and the concepts
of limit state of collapse and limit state of serviceability
 Evaluate the behavior of RC member under flexure, shear and compression, torsion and bond.
UNIT –I
Introduction- Structure - Components of structure - Different types of structures - Equilibrium
and compatibility– Safety and Stability - Loads – Different types of Loads – Dead Load, Live
Load, Earthquake Load and Wind Load– Forces – What is meant by Design? Planning of
structural elements- Concepts of RCC Design – Different methods of Design- Working Stress
Method and Limit State Method – Load combinations as per Limit state method - Materials -
Characteristic Values – Partial safety factors – Behavior and Properties of Concrete and Steel-
Stress Block Parameters as per BS. Limit state Analysis and design of sections in Flexure –
Behavior of RC section under flexure - Rectangular, T and L-sections, singly reinforced and
doubly reinforced Beams – Detailing of reinforcement
UNIT – II
Design for Shear, Bond and Torsion - Mechanism of shear and bond failure - Design of shear
using limit state concept – Design for Bond –Anchorage and Development length of bars -
Design of sections for torsion - Detailing of reinforcement
UNIT – III
Design of Two-way slabs with different end conditions, one-way slab, and continuous slab
Using BS Coefficients - Design of dog-legged staircase – Limit state design for serviceability for
deflection, cracking and codal provisions.
UNIT – IV
Design of compression members - Short Column - Columns with axial loads, uni-axial and bi-
axial bending – Use of design charts- Long column – Design of long columns - BS Code
provisions.
UNIT – V
Design of foundation - Different types of footings – Design of wall footing – Design of flat
isolated square, rectangular, circular footings and combined footings for two columns.
Course Outcomes
After the completion of the course studentS should be able to
 Compare and Design the singly reinforced, doubly reinforced and flanged sections.
 Design the axially loaded, uniaxial and biaxial bending columns.
 Classify the footings and Design the isolated square, rectangular and circular footings
 Distinguish and Design the one-way and two-way slabs.
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UNIT I
1- INTRODUCTION TO R.C DESIGN

1.1. Reinforced Concrete Structures
Concrete is arguably the most important building material, playing a part in all building
structures. Its virtue is its versatility, i.e. its ability to be moulded to take up the shapes required
for the various structural forms. It is also very durable and fire resistant when specification and
construction procedures are correct. Concrete can be used for all standard buildings both single-
storey and multi-storey and for containment and retaining structures and bridges. Some of the
common building structures are shown in Fig. 1.1 and are as follows:
1) The single-storey portal supported on isolated footings.

2) The medium-rise framed structure which may be braced by shear walls or unbraced. The
building may be supported on isolated footings, strip foundations or a raft.
3) The tall multi-storey frame and core structure where the core and rigid frames together
resist wind loads. The building is usually supported on a raft which in turn may bear
directly on the ground or be carried on piles or caissons. These buildings usually include
a basement.
Complete designs for types 1 and 2 are given. The analysis and design for type 3 is discussed.
The design of all building elements and isolated foundations is described.
Fig. 1.1 (a) Single storey portal;

(b) medium-rise reinforced concrete framed
building;
(c) reinforced
concrete frame and core structure.
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1.2. Structural elements and Frames
The complete building structure can be broken down into the following elements:
Beams: horizontal members carrying lateral loads
Slab: horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads
Columns: vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally subjected to axial
load and moment
Walls: vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane loads
Bases and foundations: pads or strips supported directly on the ground that spread the
loads from columns or walls so that they can be supported by the ground without
excessive settlement. Alternatively the bases may be supported on piles.
To learn about concrete design, it is necessary to start by carrying out the design of
separate elements. However, it is important to recognize the function of the element in the
complete structure and that the complete structure or part of it needs to be analysed to obtain
actions for design. The elements listed above are illustrated in Fig. 1.2 which shows typical cast-
in-situ concrete building construction.
A cast-in-situ framed reinforced concrete building and the rigid frames and elements into
which it is idealized for analysis and design are shown in Fig. 1.3. The design with regard to this
building will cover
1. One-way continuous slabs
2. Transverse and longitudinal rigid frames
3. Foundations
Various types of floors are considered, two of which are shown in Fig. 1.4. A one-way
floor slab supported on primary reinforced concrete frames and secondary continuous flanged
beam is shown in Fig. 1.4(a). In Fig. 1.4(b) only primary reinforced concrete frames are
constructed and the slab spans two ways. Structural design for isolated pad, strip, Combine Base
and retaining walls (Fig. 1.5) will be covered in the course of the work.
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Fig. 1.2 (a) Part elevation of reinforced concrete building; (b) section AA, T-beam;
(c) section BB; (d) continuous slab; (e) wall; (f) column base.
Fig. 1.3 (a) Plan of roof and floor; (b) section CC, T-beam; (c) section DD, column; (d) side elevation,
longitudinal frame; (e) section AA, transverse frame; (f) continuous one-way slab.
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Fig. 1.4 (a) One-way floor slab; (b) two-way floor slab.
Fig. 1.5 (a) Isolated base; (b) wall footing;

(c) combined base; (d) retaining wall.
(d)
1.3. Structural Design
The first function in design is the planning carried out by the architect to determine the
arrangement and layout of the building to meet the client's requirements. The structural engineer
then determines the best structural system or forms to bring the architect's concept into being.
Construction in different materials and with different arrangements and systems may require
investigation to determine the most economical answer. Architect and engineer should work
together at this conceptual design stage.
Once the building form and structural arrangement have been finalized, the design
problem consists of the following:
1. Idealization of the structure into load bearing frames and elements for analysis and
design
2. Estimation of loads
3. Analysis to determine the maximum moments, thrusts and shears for design
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4. Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements for slabs, beams, columns and walls
using the results from 3
5. Production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar schedules.
1.4. Design Standards

In Europe, design is generally to limit state theory in accordance with the following Eurocodes:
BS EN 1990:2002 Eurocode – Basis of structural design
BS EN 1992-1-1:2004: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part-1: General rules and
rules for buildings.
BS EN 1992-1-2:2004: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part-1-2: General rules-
Structural fire design
The design of sections for strength is according to plastic theory based on behaviour at ultimate
loads. Elastic analysis of sections is also covered because this is used in calculations for
deflections and crack width.
The loading on structures conforms to:
BS EN 1991-1-1: 2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Part-1-1: General actions-Densities,
self-weight, imposed loads on buildings
BS EN 1991-1-3: 2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. General actions. Snow loads
BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005 + A1:2010 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. General actions. Wind
actions
The codes set out the design loads, load combinations and partial factors of safety,
material strengths, design procedures and sound construction practice. A thorough knowledge of
the codes is one of the essential requirements of a designer. Thus, it is important that copies of
these codes are obtained and read.
1.5. Properties of Reinforced Concrete.

Reinforced concrete is a composite material of steel bars embedded in a hardened
concrete matrix; concrete, assisted by the steel, carries the compressive forces, while steel resists
tensile forces. Concrete itself is a composite material. The dry mix consists of cement and coarse
and fine aggregates. Water is added and reacts with the cement which hardens and binds the
aggregates into the concrete matrix; the concrete matrix sticks or bonds onto the reinforcing
bars.
The properties of the constituents used in making concrete, mix design and the principal
properties of concrete are discussed briefly. Knowledge of the properties and an understanding
of the behaviour of concrete are important factors in the design process. The types and
characteristics of reinforcing steels are noted.
1.5.1. Concrete materials

A. Cement
The raw materials from which cement is made are lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide.
These constituents are crushed and blended in the correct proportions and burnt in a rotary kiln.
The resulting product is called clinker. The cooled clinker can be mixed with gypsum and
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various additional constituents and ground to a fine powder in order to produce different types of
cements. The main chemical compounds in cement are calcium silicates and aluminates.
When water is added to cement and the constituents are mixed to form cement paste,
chemical reactions occur and the mix becomes stiffer with time and sets. The addition of gypsum
mentioned above retards and controls the setting time. This ensures that the concrete does not set
too quickly before it can be placed in its final position or too slowly so as to hold up
construction.
Strength class
There are three classes of strength with the designations N, R and L respectively signifying
normal, ordinary, high and low early strength as shown in Table 1.1. The strength class of
cement classifies its compressive strength at 28 days.
Compressive strength, MPa Initial
Strength
Early strength Standard strength setting time
class
2 day 7day 28day Minutes
32.5 N - ≥ 16.0 ≥ 32.5 ≤ 52.5
≥ 75
32.5 R ≥ 10.0 - ≥ 32.5 ≤52.5
42.5 N ≥ 10.0 - ≥ 42.5 ≤62.5
≥ 60
42.5 R ≥ 20.0 - ≥ 42.5 ≤62.5
52.5 N ≥ 20.0 - ≥ 52.5 -
≥ 45
52.5 R ≥ 30.0 - ≥ 52.5 -
Table 1.1: Strength class
Standard Designation of Cements
CEM cement designation includes the following information:
i. Cement type (CEM I-CEM V)
ii. Strength class (32.5-52.5)
iii. Indication of early strength
iv. Additional designation SR for sulfate resisting cement
v. Additional designation LH for low heat cement
Examples:
1. CEM II/A-S 42.5 N
This indicates Portland composite cement (indicated by CEM II), with high proportion of clinker
(indicated by letter A) and the second constituent is slag (indicated by letter S) and the strength
class is 42.5 MPa (indicating that the characteristic strength at 28 days is a minimum of 42.5
MPa) and it gains normal early strength (indicated by letter N).
2. CEM III/B 32.5 N
This indicates blast furnace cement (indicated by CEM III); with medium proportion of clinker
(indicated by letter B) and the strength class is 32.5 MPa (indicating that the characteristic
strength at 28 days is a minimum of 32.5 MPa) and it gains normal early strength (indicated by
letter N).
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B. Aggregate
The bulk of concrete is aggregate in the form of sand and gravel which is bound together
by cement. Aggregate is classed into the following two sizes:
1. Coarse aggregate: gravel or crushed rock 5 mm or larger in size
2. Fine aggregate: sand less than 5 mm in size
Natural aggregates are classified according to the rock type, e.g. basalt, granite, flint,
limestone. Aggregates should be chemically inert, clean, hard and durable. Organic impurities
can affect the hydration of cement and the bond between the cement and the aggregate. Some
aggregates containing silica may react with alkali in the cement causing the some of the larger
aggregates to expand which may lead to concrete disintegration. This is the alkali–silica
reaction. Presence of chlorides in aggregates, for example salt in marine sands, will cause
corrosion of steel reinforcement. Excessive amounts of sulphate will also cause concrete to
disintegrate.
To obtain a dense strong concrete with minimum use of cement, the cement paste should
fill the voids in the fine aggregate while the fine aggregate and cement paste fill the voids in the
coarse aggregate. Coarse and fine aggregates are graded by sieve analysis in which the
percentage by weight passing a set of standard sieve sizes is determined.
1.5.2. Concrete properties
The main strength and deformational properties of concrete are discussed below.
1.5.2.1. Stress-Strain Relationship in compression
Fig. 1.6 shows the stress−strain relationship for concrete in compression. The
characteristic compressive strength of cylinder f ck is defined as the strength below which not
more than 5% of the results fall. The mean compressive strength f cm is related to fck as fcm = fck +
8 MPa.
For the design of cross sections, two simplified stress−strain relationships are proposed
in Eurocode 2. The stress−strain relationship shown in Fig. 1.7 is a combination of a parabola
and a straight line. The second simplified representation shown in Fig. 1.8 is bilinear. The
mathematical equation for the parabola−rectangle is given by
Table 1.2 shows the several strength and strain properties of concrete. It also shows
relationship between characteristic cylinder strength fck and cube strength fcu. An approximate
relationship between cylinder strength fck and cube strength fck, cube is
fck ≈ 0.8 fck, cube
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Fig. 1.6 Stress−strain curve for concrete in compression.
Fig. 1.7 Parabola−rectangle stress−strain relationship for concrete in compression.
1.5.2.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strength is the most important property of concrete. The characteristic strength
that is the concrete grade is measured by the 28-day cylinder/cube strength. Standard cylinders
150 mm diameter and 300 mm high or cubes of 150 or 100 mm for aggregate not exceeding 25
mm in size are crushed to determine the strength.
Fig. 1.8 Bilinear stress−strain relationship for concrete in compression.
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1.5.2.3. Tensile strength
The tensile strength of concrete is about a tenth of the compressive strength. It is

determined by loading a concrete cylinder across a diameter as shown in Fig. 1.9..
. Fig. 1.9 Split cylinder test

The mean characteristic tensile strength f ctm is related to mean cylinder compressive
strength fcm as follows
The 5% and 95% fractiles of the characteristic tensile strength of concrete are respectively
fctk, 0.05 = 0.7 fctm and fctk, 0.95 = 1.3 fctm.
1.5.2.4. Modulus of Elasticity
The short-term stress−strain curve for concrete in compression is shown in Fig. 1.6. The
slope of the initial straight portion is the initial tangent modulus. At any point, the slope of the
line joining the point to the origin is the secant modulus. The value of the secant modulus
depends on the stress and rate of application of the load.
The dynamic modulus is determined by subjecting a beam specimen to longitudinal
vibration. The value obtained is unaffected by creep and is approximately equal to the initial
tangent modulus.
BS EN 1002-1-1:2004 Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures gives the following
expression for the short term secant modulus of elasticity (see Fig. 1.6) between zero stress and
0.4 fcm for concretes made with quartzite aggregates as
where fcm = fck +8 MPa, fck = characteristic cylinder strength.

Because of the fact that the elastic modulus is greatly dependent on the stiffness of the
aggregates, for limestone and sandstone aggregates the value from the equation should be
reduced by 10% and 30% respectively. For basalt aggregates the value should be increased by
20%.
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The tangent modulus Ec = 1.05 Ecm
1.5.2.5. Creep
Creep in concrete is the gradual increase in strain with time in a member subjected to
prolonged stress. The creep strain is much larger than the elastic strain on loading. If the
specimen is unloaded there is an immediate elastic recovery and a slower recovery in the strain
due to creep. Both amounts of recovery are much less than the original strains under load.
The main factors affecting creep strain are the concrete mix and strength, the type of
aggregate, curing, ambient relative humidity, the magnitude and duration of sustained loading
and the age of concrete at which load is first applied. Eurocode 2 specifies that provided the
concrete is not subjected to a stress greater than 45% of the compressive strength at the time of
loading, long term creep strain εcc (∞, t0) is calculated from the creep coefficient ϕ(∞, t0) by the
equation,
where Ec is the tangent modulus of elasticity of the concrete at the age of loading, t 0. The
creep coefficient ϕ(∞, t0) depends on the effective section thickness, the age of loading and the
relative ambient humidity. The creep coefficient is used in deflection calculations.
1.5.2.6. Shrinkage
The total shrinkage strain is composed of two parts, the drying shrinkage strain and the
autogenous shrinkage strain. Drying shrinkage strain is the contraction that occurs in concrete
when it dries and hardens. Drying shrinkage develops slowly due to migration of water and is
irreversible but alternate wetting and drying causes expansion and contraction of concrete. The
autogenous shrinkage strain develops during the hardening of concrete and develops quite fast
during the early days after casting of concrete.
The aggregate type and content are the most important factors influencing shrinkage. The
larger the size of the aggregate is, the lower is the shrinkage and the higher is the aggregate
content; the lower the workability and water-to-cement ratio are, the lower is the shrinkage.
Aggregates that change volume on wetting and drying, such as sandstone or basalt, produce
concrete which experiences a large shrinkage strain, while concrete made with non-shrinking
aggregates such as granite or gravel experience lower shrinkage strain. A decrease in the
ambient relative humidity also increases shrinkage.
Eurocode 2 gives necessary data for calculating the drying shrinkage. Values of
shrinkage strain are used in deflection calculations.
1.6. Reinforcement
Reinforcing bars are produced as hot rolled or cold worked high yield steel bars. They have
characteristic yield strength fyk of 400 to 600 MPa. Steel fabric is made from cold drawn steel
wires welded to form a mesh. High yield bars are produced as deformed bars with transverse ribs
to improve bond with concrete.
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The stress–strain curves for reinforcing bars are shown in Fig. 1.10. Hot rolled bars have a
definite yield point. A defined proof stress at a strain of 0.2% is recorded for the cold worked
bars. The value of Young's modulus Es for steel is 200 GPa. The maximum breaking stress is k
times the characteristic stress fyk. The design stress fyd = fyk/γs, where γs = 1.15.
Fig. 1.10(a) Stress−strain curve

for hot rolled steel reinforcing
bars.
Fig. 1.10(b) Stress–strain curve

for cold worked steel reinforcing
bars.
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Fig. 1.11 Design stress−strain
curve for steel.
The idealized design stress−strain curve for all reinforcing bars is shown in Fig. 1.10. In the first
case the maximum design stress is greater than f yd but the maximum strain is limited to ε ud taken
as equal to 0.9 εuk. An even more simplified option is to limit the maximum stress to f yd with no
limit on the maximum strain. For simplicity, the second option is preferred in all common design
situations. The material safety factor for steel is taken as γ s = 1.15. The behaviour in tension and
compression is taken to be the same. Annex C in Eurocode 2 gives the properties of reinforcing
bars shown in Table 1.2.
Table 2.3 Properties of reinforcing bars
As an example assuming:
fyk = 500 MPa, k = 1.2, γs = 1.15, fyd = fyk/ γs = 435 MPa, εuk = 2.5 × 10−2,
εud = 0.9εuk = 2.25 × 10−2, Es = 200 GPa, fyd/Es = 2.17 × 10−2
The maximum stress allowable at a strain of εud is given by
This shows that there is only a 5% increase in the maximum allowable stress.
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2 - LIMIT STATE DESIGN AND
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
2.1. Structural Design and Limit States
2.1.1. Aims and Methods of Design
The Eurocode BS EN 1990:2002 + A1:2005 Eurocode. Basis of structural design states

that a structure shall be designed and executed in such a way that it will, during its intended life
(design life for building structures is generally taken as 50 years and for monumental structures
like bridges as 100 years), with appropriate degrees of reliability and in an economical way
sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during execution and use and be durable. In
particular
a. A structure shall be designed to have adequate structural resistance, serviceability, and
durability.
b. In the case of fire, the structural resistance shall be adequate for the required period of
time.
c. A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way that it will not be damaged by
events such as explosion, impact and the consequences of human errors to an extent
disproportionate to the original cause.
d. The structure shall be designed such that deterioration over its design working life does
not impair the performance of the structure below that intended, having due regard to its
environment and the anticipated level of maintenance.
It is recognized that no structure can be made one hundred percent safe and that it is only
possible to reduce the probability of failure to an acceptably low level. The method
recommended in the code is limit state design in conjunction with partial factor method. The
loads (actions) will be according to the following standards:
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 BS EN 1991-1-1:2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures part 1-1: General actions-
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads on buildings
 BS EN 1991-1-3:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. General actions. Snow loads
 BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 + A1:2010 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. General actions.
Wind actions
It is recognized that calculations alone are not sufficient to produce a safe, serviceable
and durable structure. The basic requirements should be met by:
 Choice of suitable materials

 Appropriate design and detailing
 Specifying control procedures for design, production, execution and appropriate use.
2.1.2. Criteria for Safe Design: Limit States.
One criterion for a safe design is that the structure should not become unfit for use, i.e., it
should not reach a limit state during its design life. This is achieved, in particular, by designing
the structure to ensure that it does not reach two important limit states.
1. Ultimate limit state (ULS): This limit state is concerned with the safety of the people and
of the structure. This requires that the whole structure or its elements should not collapse,
overturn or buckle when subjected to the design loads.
2. Serviceability limit states (SLS): This limit state is concerned with
 Comfort of the occupants: For example the structure should not suffer from excessive
vibration or have large cracks or deflection so as to alarm the user of the building.
 Appearance of the structure. The structure should not become unfit for use due to
excessive deflection or cracking.
For reinforced concrete structures, the normal practice is to design for the ultimate limit state,
check for serviceability and take all necessary precautions to ensure durability.
2.1.3. Ultimate Limit State
The structure must be designed to carry the most severe combination of loads to which it
is subjected. Each and every section of the elements must be capable of resisting the axial and
shear forces, bending and twisting moments derived from the analysis. Overall stability of a
structure is provided by shear walls, lift shafts, staircases and rigid frame action or a
combination of these means. The structure should transmit all loads, dead, imposed, snow and
wind, safely to the foundations.
The design is made for ultimate loads and design strengths of materials with partial
safety factors applied to loads and material strengths. This permits uncertainties in the estimation
of loads and in the performance of materials to be assessed separately.
2.1.4. Serviceability Limit State
In checking for the serviceability limit states, account is to be taken of temperature,
creep, shrinkage, sway and settlement and possibly other effects.
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The main serviceability limit states are as follows.
(a) Deflection
The deformation of the structure should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance.
Deflections of beams may be calculated, but may tend to be complicated because of cracking,
creep and shrinkage effects. In normal cases span-to-effective depth ratios can be used to check
compliance with requirements.
(b) Cracking
Cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by correct detailing. Crack widths may
be calculated, but may tend to be complicated and in normal cases cracking can be controlled by
adhering to detailing rules with regard to bar spacing in zones where the concrete is in tension.
(c)Vibration
The structure should not under the action of wind loads or movement of the people
vibrate so much as to make people uncomfortable or in worst cases even to alarm people.
In analysing a section for the serviceability limit states the behaviour is assessed
assuming a linear elastic relationship for steel and concrete stresses. Allowance is made for the
stiffening effect of concrete in the tension zone and for creep and shrinkage.
2.2. Actions, Characteristics and Design Values of Actions
Actions (loads) can be classified as
 Permanent actions (G): These are fixed values such as the self-weight of the structure
and the weight of finishes, ceilings, services and partitions.
 Variable actions (Q): These are imposed loads due to people, furniture, and equipment
etc. on floors, wind actions on the whole structure including roofs and snow loads on
roofs.
 Accidental actions (A): These are loads due to crashing of vehicles against the building,
bomb blasts and other forces.
The characteristic value of an action (load) is its main representative value defined by a nominal
value which is normally expected to have a 95% probability of not being exceeded.
The characteristic loads used in design are as follows:
1. The characteristic permanent action Gk is given by a single value as its value does not
vary significantly during the lifetime of the structure.
2. The characteristic variable action Qk is represented as follows.
 Combination value ψ0 Qk is used for irreversible ultimate limit states.
 Frequent value ψ1 Qk is used for reversible limit states.
 Quasi-permanent value ψ2 Qk is used for calculating long term effects such as deflection
due to creep and other aspects related to the appearance of the structure.
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Note that combination factor ψ is a device for reducing the design value of variable loads when
they act in combination. Table 3.1 gives the ψ values for different imposed loads.
Table 2.1 Recommended values of ψ factors for imposed load on buildings
Imposed load on buildings

Category Description Ψ1 Ψ2 Ψ3
A Domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
B Office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
C Congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
D Shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
E Storage areas 1.0 0.9 08
F Traffic area, 0.7 0.7 0.6
Vehicle weight ≤ 30 kN
G Traffic area, 0.7 0.5 0.3
30 kN < Vehicle weight ≤ 160 kN
H Roofs 0 0 0
Snow loads for sites at an altitude > 1000 m 0.7 0.5 0.2
Snow loads for sites at an altitude ≤ 1000 m 0.5 0.2 0
Wind loads on buildings 0.6 0.2 0
The design value of an action is a product of the representative value and a load factor γ F,
i. Thus for permanent actions, design value is γ F,i Gk. For variable actions, design value is γ F,i ψi
Qk, where i = 0, 1, or 2 depending on whether it is a combination value, a frequent value or a
quasi-permanent value. The value of γ F,i can be different for different Q k and different from that
for Gk. The partial safety factor γF,i takes account of
a. Possible increases in load
b. Inaccurate assessment of the effects of loads
c. Unforeseen stress distributions in members
d. Importance of the limit state being considered
Note: Uniformly distributed load will be represented by small letters. If for example
concentrated permanent and imposed loads are Gk and Qk respectively, their uniformly
distributed values will be denoted by gk and qk respectively.
3. The characteristic wind action Wk depends on the location, shape and dimensions of
the buildings. Wind loads are estimated using BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005 + A1:2010
Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. General actions. Wind actions.
4. The characteristic earth loads En are to be obtained in accordance with BS EN 1997-
1:2004 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design —Part 1: General rules.
2.2.1. Load Combinations
In practice many different loads act together and this fact has to be considered in
calculating the load for which the structure has to be designed. Eurocode 1 gives the following
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load combinations depending on whether the overall equilibrium of the structure considered as a
rigid body is being considered (EQU) or design of a structural element (STR) needs to be carried
out.
2.2.2. Load Combination EQU
(6.10)
The load factors to be used are:
 γG, j = 1.10 (unfavourable), 0.90 (favourable)

 Qk, 1 is the leading variable action
 γQ, 1 = 1.50 (unfavourable), 1.00 (favourable)
 Qk, i are accompanying variable actions
 γQ, i = 1.50 (unfavourable), 1.00 (favourable)
In the equation (6.10) “+” implies “to be combined with”.
2.2.3. Load Combination STR

The code gives the following alternative equations for design of structural elements. The
equation numbers in the code are (6.10), (6.10a) and (6.10b). These equation numbers will be
used in the rest of this book to make it convenient to refer to the code clauses.
In the above the symbols denote as follows

Σ = combined effect of
“+” = to be combined with
ξ = reduction factor for unfavourable permanent actions G
The load factors to be used are:
γG,j = 1.40 (unfavourable), 1.00 (favourable)
Qk, 1 = leading variable action
γQ, 1 = 1.60 (unfavourable), 1.00 (favourable)
Qk ,i = accompanying variable actions
γQ, i = 1.60 (unfavourable), 1.00 (favourable)
ξ = 0.85
2.3. Structural Analysis
The primary purpose of structural analysis in building structures is to establish the

distribution of internal forces and moments over the whole or part of a structure and to identify
Page | 19
the critical design conditions at all sections. The geometry is commonly idealized by considering
the structure to be made up of linear elements and plane two-dimensional elements.
The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being considered. The
following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear elastic analysis with limited redistribution,
and plastic analysis. Linear elastic analysis may be carried out assuming cross sections are
uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties); using linear stress-strain relationships, and assuming
mean values of elastic modulus.
For the ultimate limit state only, the moments derived from elastic analysis may be
redistributed (up to a maximum of 30%) provided that the resulting distribution of moments
remains in equilibrium with the applied loads and subject to certain limits and design criteria
(e.g. limitations of depth to neutral axis).
Regardless of the method of analysis used, the following principles apply:
Where a beam or slab is monolithic with its supports, the critical design hogging
moment may be taken as that at the face of the support, but should not be taken as
less than 0.65 times the full fixed end moment.
Where a beam or slab is continuous over a support that may be considered not to
provide rotational restraint, the moment calculated at the centre line of the
support may be reduced by (FEd,sup t/8), where FEd,sup is the support reaction and t
is the breadth of the support.
For the design of columns, the elastic moments from the frame action should be
used without any redistribution.
Bending moment and shear force co-efficients for beams are given in Table 2.3; these are
suitable where spans are of similar length and the other notes to the table are observed.
Table 2.3 Bending moment and shear co-efficients for beam
Moment Shear
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q)
Near middle of end span 0.090 Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support – 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)a
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql
At interior supports – 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q)
Key
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included.
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ Gk.
3 Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span.
4 l is the effective length, G is the
2.3.1. Minimum concrete cover
The nominal cover can be assessed as follows:
cnom = cmin + Δcdev
Where cmin should be set to satisfy the requirements below:
 safe transmission of bond forces
 durability
Page | 20
 fire resistance
and Δcdev is an allowance which should be made in the design for deviations from the minimum
cover. It should be taken as 10 mm, unless fabrication (i.e. construction) is subjected to a quality
assurance system, in which case it is permitted to reduce Δcdev to 5 mm.
The various exposure classes from BS 8500 are given in Table 2.4. Selected
recommendations are given in Table 2.5 for the concrete strength, minimum cement ratio,
minimum concrete cover and maximum cement content for various elements in a structure based
on the exposure of that element.
The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than the bar diameter, or
equivalent bar diameter for bundled bars, unless the aggregate size is over 32 mm.
Table 2.4 Exposure classes
Figure 2.1
Sections through structural
members, showing
nominal axis distance, a
Table 2.5 Recommended limiting values for composition and properties of concrete and
minimum cover to steel for durability
Page | 21
This column gives minimum cover to steel to ensure durability of reinforced concrete structures. Figures
in parentheses refer to prestressed concrete structures. The values given are valid for a design life of 50
years
2.3.2. Design for fire resistance

Eurocode 2 Part 1–2: Structural fire design 14, gives several methods for determining the
fire resistance of concrete elements; further guidance can be obtained from specialist literature.
Design for fire resistance may still be carried out by referring to tables to determine the
minimum cover and dimensions for various elements, as set out below.
Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal axis
distance, a (fig 2.1). This is the distance from the centre of the main reinforcing bar to the
surface of the member. It is a nominal (not minimum) dimension. The designer should ensure
that
a ≥ cnom + ϕlink +ϕbar /2.
There are three standard fire exposure conditions that may be satisfied:
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation
I Insulation
Page | 22
Tables 2.6 and 2.7 gives the minimum dimensions for columns and slabs to meet the above
conditions.
Table 2.6 Minimum

column dimensions and
axis distances for columns
with rectangular or circular
section
Table 2.7 Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs
Page | 23
Fire protection of reinforced concrete members is largely achieved by specifying limits for
1. nominal thickness of cover to the reinforcement;
2. minimum dimensions of members.
Table 2.8 gives the actual values of the nominal depths of concrete covers to all reinforcement
for specified periods of fire resistance and member types. The covers in the table may need to be
increased because of durability considerations. The minimum dimensions of members for fire
resistance are shown in Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.2 Minimum dimensions of reinforced concrete members for fire resistance
Table 2.8 Nominal cover to all reinforcement to meet specified periods of fire resistance
Page | 24
3 - DESIGN OF RC BEAMS
3.1. Types of beam sections.
The three common types of reinforced concrete beam section are:

a. Rectangular sections with tension steel only (this generally occurs when designing a
given width of slab as a beam)
b. Rectangular sections with tension and compression steel
c. Flanged sections of either T or L shape with tension steel and rarely with or without
compression steel
Beam sections are shown in Fig. 3.1. It will be established later that all beams of structural
importance must have steel at top and at bottom to carry links to resist shear.
Fig. 3.1 (a) Rectangular beam and slab, tension steel only; (b) rectangular beam, tension and
compression steel; (c) flanged beams.
3.2. Reinforcement and bar Spacing

Before beginning section design, reinforcement data and code requirements with regard to
minimum and maximum areas of bars in beams and bar spacing are set out. This is to enable
practical sections to be designed.
3.2.1. Reinforcement data
In accordance with BS8110, bars may be placed singly or in pairs or in bundles of three or four
bars in contact. For design purposes the pair or bundle is treated as a single bar of equivalent
area. Bars are available with diameters of 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40 mm a
For convenience in design, areas of groups of bars are given in Table 3.1. In the Standard
Method of Detailing Reinforced Concrete bar types are specified by letters:
R mild steel bars
T high yield bars
Bars are designated on drawings as, for example, 4T25, i.e. four 25 mm diameter bars of grade
500. This system will be used to specify bars in figures.
3.2.2. Minimum and maximum areas of reinforcement in beams.
Page | 25
The minimum areas of reinforcement in a beam section to control cracking as well as resist
tension or compression due to bending in different types of beam section are shown in table. 3.2.
The maximum area of both tension and compression reinforcement in beams should not exceed
4% of the gross cross-sectional area of the concrete
Table 3.1 Areas of groups of bars Diameter (mm)
Table 3.2 minimum percentages of reinforcement.

percentage Min. fy 250N/mm2 Percentage fy 460N/mm2
Tension Reinforcement
Rectangular beam 100As/Ac 0.24 0.13
Flanged beam – web in tension
bw/b < 0.4 100As/bwh 0.32 0.18
bw/b ≥ 0.4 100As/bwh 0.24 0.13
Compression Reinforcement
Rectangular beam 100Asc/As 0.20 0.20
Flanged beam
Flange in compression 100Asc/bwhf 0.20 0.20
Ac = total area of concrete
As = minimum area of reinforcement
Asc = area of steel in compression
b, by, h, hf – beam dimensions
1. The horizontal distance between bars should not be less than hagg+ 5 mm;
2. Where there are two or more rows
(a) the gap between corresponding bars in each row should be vertically in line and
(b) the vertical distance between bars should not be less than 2hagg/3 where hagg is the maximum
size of coarse aggregate. if the bar size exceeds hagg+5 mm the spacing should not be less than
the bar size.
Page | 26
Fig. 3.3 (a) Flanged beam; (b) minimum spacing.
3.3. Behavior of beams in bending
All beams may fail due to excessive bending or shear. In addition, excessive deflection of beams
must be avoided otherwise the efficiency or appearance of the structure may become impaired.
Bending and shear are ultimate states while deflection is a serviceability state. Generally,
structural design of concrete beams primarily involves consideration of the following aspects
which are discussed next:
1. bending
2. shear
3. deflection.
Having found the maximum moments at ultimate limit state we now have to determine the areas
of reinforcement which will provide resistance moments at least as large as the design moments.
The analysis of a cross-section to determine its moment of resistance at ultimate limit state is
based on the following assumptions.
(a) CONCRETE
1. The strain distribution in the concrete in compression is derived from the assumption that
plane sections remain plane.
2. The stress distribution in the concrete in compression may be derived from the stress-
strain relation with γm = 1.5.
3. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
(b) REINFORCEMENT
4. The strain in the reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, are derived from the
assumption that plane sections remain plane.
5. The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curve with γ m = 1.15.
As was pointed out earlier the maximum design stress is the same for compression as for
tension, which is 400N/mm2 for grade 460 reinforcement.
(c) GENERAL
Page | 27
6. Where the section is designed to resist only flexure, the lever arm should not be assumed
to be greater than 0.95 times the effective depth. This is intended principally for beams
and slabs where the tension reinforcement is in the bottom. The concrete in the top of a
beam or slab is not as well compacted as that in the bottom. To ensure a designer does
not rely on a few millimeters of this concrete a minimum depth is given of approximately
0.1d, but stated in terms of the lever arm.
These are the basic assumptions and in the actual design to find the amount of reinforcement
required we can use: (a) design charts; (b) design formulae; or (c) strain compatibility.
3.3.1. Design formulae
These formulas are based on simplified rectangular stress block for concrete. These formulas can
also be used for flanged sections where the neutral axis comes within the flange. The equations
are now presented in a format for calculating areas of reinforcement required, both for tension
and compression. Unfortunately, they do not give and equation whereby, knowing the area of
reinforcement and section size, the moment of resistance of the section can be calculated. This
will be given later in this section.
For the reinforcement, it is assumed that the maximum design stress of 0.87f y has been reached
in tension and compression. The code uses the non-dimensional expression M/bd2fcu and refers
to this as K, with an upper limit for singly reinforced sections referred to as K’.
3.3.1.1. Singly reinforced rectangular sections
Consider the case of a simply supported, singly reinforced, rectangular beam subject to a
uniformly distributed load ω as shown in fig. 3.8 and 3.9
Fig. 3.8
Page | 28
Fig. 3.9 Stress and strain distributions at section A-A: (a) section; (b) strains; (c) triangular
(low strain); (d) rectangular parabolic (large strain); (e) equivalent rectangular.
The load causes the beam to deflect downwards, putting the top portion of the beam into
compression and the bottom portion into tension. At some distance x below the compression
face, the section is neither in compression nor tension and therefore the strain at this level is
zero. This axis is normally referred to as the neutral axis.
Assuming that plane sections remain plane, the strain distribution will be triangular (Fig. 3.9b).
The stress distribution in the concrete above the neutral axis is initially triangular (Fig. 3.9c), for
low values of strain, because stress and strain are directly proportional. The stress in the concrete
below the neutral axis is zero, however, since it is assumed that the concrete is cracked, being
unable to resist any tensile stress. All the tensile stresses in the member are assumed to be
resisted by the steel reinforcement and this is reflected in a peak in the tensile stress at the level
of the reinforcement.
As the intensity of loading on the beam increases, the mid-span moment increases and the
distribution of stresses changes from that shown in Fig. 3.9c to 3.9d. The stress in the
reinforcement increases linearly with strain up to the yield point. Thereafter it remains at a
constant value. However, as the strain in the concrete increases, the stress distribution is
assumed to follow the parabolic form of the stress–strain relationship for concrete under
compression.
The actual stress distribution at a given section and the mode of failure of the beam will depend
upon whether the section is (1) under-reinforced or (2) over-reinforced. If the section is over-
reinforced the steel does not yield and the failure mechanism will be crushing of the concrete
due to its compressive capacity being exceeded. Steel is expensive and, therefore, over-
reinforcing will lead to uneconomical design. Furthermore, with this type of failure there may be
no external warning signs; just sudden, catastrophic collapse.
If the section is under-reinforced, the steel yields and failure will again occur due to crushing of
the concrete. However, the beam will show considerable deflection which will be accompanied
by severe cracking and spalling from the tension face thus providing ample warning signs of
failure. Moreover, this form of design is more economical since a greater proportion of the steel
strength is utilized. Therefore, it is normal practice to design sections which are under-reinforced
rather than over-reinforced.
In an under-reinforced section, since the reinforcement will have yielded, the tensile force in the
steel (Fst) at the ultimate limit state can be readily calculated using the following:
f y As
Fst design stress ×area ¿ (3.1)
γ ms
Where:
fy = yield stress
As = area of reinforcement
γms = factor of safety for reinforcement (= 1.15)
i. Ultimate moment of resistance, Mu
Page | 29
Consider the singly reinforced beam shown in Fig. 3.10. The loading on the beam gives rise to
an ultimate design moment (M) at mid-span. The resulting curvature of the beam produces a
compression force in the concrete (Fcc) and a tensile force in the reinforcement (Fst). Since there
is no resultant axial force on the beam, the force in the concrete must equal the force in the
reinforcement:
F cc =F st (3.2)
These two forces are separated by a distance z, the moment of which forms a couple (Mu) which
opposes the design moment. For structural stability Mu ≥ M where
M u=F st z=F cc Z (3.3)
From the stress block shown in Fig. 3.10(c)
Fcc = stress × area
0.67 f cu
0.9 xb(3.4)
γ mc
And
Z=d−0.9 x /2(3.5)
Fig. 3.10 Ultimate moment of resistance for singly reinforced section.

In order to ensure that the section is under-reinforced, BS 8110 limits the depth of the neutral
axis (x) to a maximum of 0.5d, where d is the effective depth (Fig. 3.10(b)). Hence
x ≤ 0.5 d (3.6)
By combining equations 3.3–3.6 and putting γmc = 1.5 it can be shown that the ultimate moment
of resistance is given by:
2
M u=0.156 f cu b d (3.7)
Note that Mu depends only on the properties of the concrete and not the steel reinforcement.
Provided that the design moment does not exceed Mu (i.e. M ≤ Mu), a beam whose section is
singly reinforced will be sufficient to resist the design moment. The following section derives
the equation necessary to calculate the area of reinforcement needed for such a case.
ii. Area of tension reinforcement, As.
f y As
M u=F st × z= z
γ ms
Page | 30
Rearranging and putting γms = 1.15 gives
M
A s= (3.8)
0.87 f y z
Solution of this equation requires an expression for z which can either be obtained graphically
(Fig. 3.11) or by calculation as discussed below.
iii. Lever arm, z. At the limiting condition Mu = M, equation 3.3 becomes
0.67 f cu
M =F cc Z= 0.9 bxz (¿ equation 3.4)
γ mc
¿ 0.4 f cu bxz ( putting γ mc =1.5)
( d−z)
¿ 0.4 f cu bz 2 (¿ equation 3.5)
0.9
8
¿ f cu bz ( d−z )
9
Dividing both sides by fcubd2 gives
M 8
= (z /d)¿)
f cu bd 9
2
M
Substituting K= f bd 2 and putting zo = z/d gives
cu
2
0=z 0−z 0 +9 K /8
This is a quadratic equation and can be solved to give

z 0=z /d=0.5+ √ (0.25−K /0.9)
z=d [ 0.5+ √ (0.25−K /0.9) ](3.9)

Once z has been determined, the area of tension reinforcement, As, can be calculated. It is noted
that z should not exceed 0.95d in order to give a reasonable concrete area in compression.
Moreover it should be remembered that equation 3.8 can only
be used to determine As provided that M ≤ Mu or K ≤ K′
Where
M ' Mu
K= 2
∧K = 2
f cu bd f cu bd
To summarize, design for bending requires the calculation of the maximum design moment (M)
and corresponding ultimate moment of resistance of the section (Mu). Provided M ≤ Mu or K ≤ K
′, only tension reinforcement is needed and the area of steel can be calculated using equation 3.8
via equation 3.9. Where M > Mu the designer has the option to either increase the section sizes
(i.e. M ≤ Mu) or design as a doubly reinforced section. The latter option is discussed more fully
subsequently.
Table 3.10 Cross-sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2)
Page | 31
3.3.1.2. Design charts
An alternative method of determining the area of tensile steel required in singly reinforced
rectangular beams is by using the design charts. These charts are based on the rectangular–
parabolic stress distribution for concrete shown in Fig. 3.9 (d) rather than the simplified
rectangular distribution and should therefore provide a more economical estimate of the required
area of steel reinforcement.
The design procedure involves the following steps:
1. Check M ≤ Mu.
2. Select appropriate chart from Part 3 of BS 8110 based on the grade of tensile reinforcement.
3. Calculate M/bd2.
4. Plot M/bd2 ratio on chart and read off corresponding 100As/bd value using curve appropriate
to grade of concrete selected for design.
5. Calculate As
Fig. 3.11 Design chart for singly reinforced beam (based on chart No. 2, BS 8110: Part 3).
Page | 32
3.3.1.3. Design for shear.
Another way in which failure of a beam may arise is due to its shear capacity being exceeded.
Shear failure may arise in several ways, but the two principal failure mechanisms are shown in
Fig. 3.21. With reference to Fig. 3.21(a), as the loading
increases, an inclined crack rapidly develops between the edge of the support and the load point,
resulting in splitting of the beam into two pieces. This is normally termed diagonal tension
failure and can be prevented by providing shear reinforcement.
Fig. 3.12 Types of shear failure: (a) diagonal tension; (b) diagonal compression.
The second failure mode, termed diagonal compression failure (Fig. 3.12(b)), occurs under the
action of large shear forces acting near the support, resulting in crushing of the concrete. This
type
of failure is avoided by limiting the maximum shear stress to 5 N/mm2 or 0.8 √ fcu , whichever
is the lesser.
The design shear stress, υ, at any cross-section can be calculated from:
V
υ= (3.10)
bd
where
V design shear force due to ultimate loads
b breadth of section
d effective depth of section
In order to determine whether shear reinforcement is required, it is necessary to calculate the
shear resistance, or using BS 8110 terminology the design concrete shear stress, at critical
sections along the beam. The design concrete shear stress, υ c, is found to be composed of three
major components, namely:
1. concrete in the compression zone;
2. aggregate interlock across the crack zone;
3. dowel action of the tension reinforcement.
The design concrete shear stress can be determined using Table 3.11. The values are in terms
of the percentage area of longitudinal tension reinforcement (100As/bd) and effective depth of
the section (d). The table assumes that cube strength of concrete is 25 Nmm −2. For other values
of cube strength up to a maximum of 40 Nmm −2, the design shear stresses can be determined by
multiplying the values in the table by the factor ( fcu/25)1/3
Generally, where the design shear stress exceeds the design concrete shear stress, shear
reinforcement will be needed. This is normally done by providing
Page | 33
1. vertical shear reinforcement commonly referred to as ‘links’
2. a combination of vertical and inclined (or bent-up) bars as shown below.
The former is the most widely used method and will therefore be the only one discussed here.
The following section derives the design equations for calculating the area and spacing of links.
Table 3.11 Values of design concrete shear stress, υc (N/mm2) for fcu = 25 N/mm2 concrete
(i) Shear resistance of links. Consider a reinforced concrete beam with links uniformly spaced
at a distance sv, under the action of a shear force V. The resulting failure plane is assumed to be
inclined approximately 45° to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 3.13.
The number of links intersecting the potential crack is equal to d/sv and it follows therefore that
the shear resistance of these links, Vlink, is given by
Vlink = number of links × total cross-sectional area of links (Fig. 3.14) × design stress
= (d/sv) × Asv × 0.87fyv
Fig. 3.13 Shear resistance of links.
Fig. 3.14 Asv for varying shear reinforcement arrangements.

The shear resistance of concrete, Vconc, can be calculated from
Page | 34
Vconc = υcbd (using equation 3.14)
The design shear force due to ultimate loads, V, must be less than the sum of the shear resistance
of the concrete (Vconc) plus the shear resistance of the links (Vlink), otherwise failure of the beam
may arise. Hence
V ≤ Vconc + Vlink ≤ υcbd + (d/sv)Asv0.87fyv
Dividing both sides by bd gives
V/bd ≤ υc + (1/bsv)Asv0.87fyv
From equation 3.10
υ ≤ υc + (1/bsv)Asv0.87fyv
A sv b (v −v c )
rearranging gives = (3.11)
Sv 0.87 f yv
Where (υ − υc) is less than 0.4 N/mm2 then links should be provided according to
A sv 0.4 b
= (3.12)
S v 0.87 f yv
Equations 3.11 and 3.12 provide a basis for calculating the minimum area and spacing of links.
The details are discussed next.
(ii) Form, area and spacing of links. Shear reinforcement should be provided in beams
according to the criteria given in Table 3.12. Thus where the design shear stress is less than half
the design concrete shear stress (i.e. υ < 0.5υ c), no shear reinforcement will be necessary
although, in practice, it is normal to provide nominal links in all beams of structural importance.
Where 0.5υc < υ < (υc + 0.4) nominal links based on equation 3.12 should be provided. Where υ
> υc + 0.4, design links based on equation 3.11 should be provided.
BS 8110 further recommends that the spacing of links in the direction of the span should not
exceed 0.75d. This will ensure that at least one link crosses the potential crack.
Table 3.12 Form and area of links in beams
Example 2. Design for shear of an RC beam.

Design the shear reinforcement for the beam in example 1 using high yield steel (fy = 500
Nmm−2)
Example 3. Design for shear of an RC beam.
Page | 35
Design the shear reinforcement of a beam with the following characteristics: d = 500mm, b =
250mm, fcu = 30Mpa, fy = 500Mpa, As = 2000mm2, shear force (V) = 300KN
Table 3.13 Values of Asv/sv
3.3.1.4. Deflection.
In addition to checking that failure of the member does not arise due to the ultimate limit states
of bending and shear, the designer must ensure that the deflections under working loads do not
adversely affect either the efficiency or appearance of the structure. BS 8110 describes the
following criteria for ensuring the proper performance of rectangular beams:
1. Final deflection should not exceed span/250.
2. Deflection after construction of finishes and partitions should not exceed span/500 or 20 mm,
whichever is the lesser, for spans up to 10 m.
However, it is rather difficult to make accurate predictions of the deflections that may arise in
concrete members principally because the member may be cracked under working loads and the
degree of restraint at the supports is uncertain. Therefore, BS 8110 uses an approximate method
based on permissible ratios of the span/effective depth. Before discussing this method in detail it
is worth clarifying what is meant by the effective span of a beam.
(i) Effective span. All calculations relating to beam design should be based on the effective span
of the beam. For a simply supported beam this should be taken as the lesser of
(1) the distance between centres of bearings, A, or
(2) the clear distance between supports, D, plus the effective depth, d, of the beam (Fig. 3.15).
For a continuous beam the effective span should normally be taken as the distance between the
centres of supports.
(ii) Span/effective depth ratio. Generally, the deflection criteria in (1) and (2) above will be
satisfied provided that the span/effective depth ratio of the beam does not exceed the appropriate
limiting values given in Table 3.14. The reader is referred to the Handbook to BS 8110 which
outlines the basis of this approach.
The span/effective depth ratio given in the table apply to spans up to 10 m long. Where the span
exceeds 10 m, these ratios should be multiplied by 10/span (except for cantilevers). The basic
ratios may be further modified by factors taken from Tables 3.14 and 3.15, depending upon the
amount of compression and tension reinforcement respectively. Deflection is usually critical in
the design of slabs rather than beams and, therefore, modifications factors will be discussed
more fully in the context of slab design.
Page | 36
Fig. 3.14 Effective span of simply supported
beam.
Table 3.15 Modification factors for

Table 3.14 Basic span/effective depth ratio
compression reinforcement for rectangular or flanged beams
Table 3.16 Modification factors for tension reinforcement
3.3.1.5. Member sizing

The dual concepts of span/effective depth ratio and maximum design concrete shear stress can
be used not only to assess the performance of members with respect to deflection and shear but
also for preliminary sizing of members. Table 3.17 gives modified span/effective depth ratios for
estimating the effective depth of a concrete beam provided that its span is known. The width of
the beam can then be determined by limiting the maximum design concrete shear stress to
around (say) 1.2 Nmm−2.
Table 3.17 Span/effective depth ratios for initial design
Page | 37
Example 4: A simply supported beam has an effective span of 8 m and supports characteristic
dead (gk) and live (qk) loads of 20 kNm−1 and 15 kNm−1 respectively. Determine suitable
dimensions for the effective depth and width of the beam.
3.3.1.6. Reinforcement details
The previous sections have covered much of the theory required to design singly reinforced
concrete beams. However, there are a number of code provisions with regard to:
1. maximum and minimum reinforcement areas
2. spacing of reinforcement
3. curtailment and anchorage of reinforcement
4. lapping of reinforcement.
These need to be taken into account since they may affect the final design.
1. Reinforcement areas
There is a need to control cracking of the concrete because of durability and aesthetics. This is
usually achieved by providing minimum areas of reinforcement in the member. However, too
large an area of reinforcement should also be avoided since it will hinder proper placing and
adequate compaction of the concrete around the reinforcement.
For rectangular beams with overall dimensions’ b and h, the area of tension reinforcement, As,
should lie within the following limits:
0.24%bh ≤ As ≤ 4%bh when fy = 250 Nmm−2
0.13%bh ≤ As ≤ 4%bh when fy = 500 Nmm−2
2. Spacing of reinforcement
BS 8110 specifies minimum and maximum distances between tension reinforcement. The actual
limits vary, depending upon the grade of reinforcement. The minimum distance is based on the
need to achieve good compaction of the concrete around the reinforcement. The limits on the
maximum distance between bars arise from the need to ensure that the maximum crack width
does not exceed 0.3 mm in order to prevent corrosion of embedded bars.
For singly reinforced simply supported beams the clear horizontal distance between tension bars,
sb, should lie within the following limits:
hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 280 mm when fy = 250 Nmm−2
hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 155 mm when fy = 500 Nmm−2
where hagg is the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
3. Curtailment and anchorage of bars
The design process for simply supported beams, in particular the calculations relating to the
design moment and area of bending reinforcement, is concentrated at mid-span. However, the
bending moment decreases either side of the mid-span and it follows, therefore, that it should
Page | 38
be possible to reduce the corresponding area of bending reinforcement by curtailing bars. For the
beam shown in Fig. 3.15, theoretically 50 per cent of the main steel can be curtailed at points A
and B. However, in order to develop the design stress in the reinforcement (i.e. 0.87fy at mid-
span), these bars must be anchored into the concrete. Except at end supports, this is normally
achieved by extending the bars beyond the point at which they are theoretically no longer
required, by a distance equal to the greater of
(i) the effective depth of the member and
(ii) 12 times the bar size.
Where a bar is stopped off in the tension zone, e.g. beam shown in Fig. 3.15, this distance
should be increased to the full anchorage bond length in accordance with the values given in
Table 3.18. However, simplified rules for the curtailment of bars are shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 3.16 for simply supported and continuous beams.
The code also gives rules for the anchorage of bars at supports. Thus, at a simply supported end
each tension bar will be properly anchored provided the bar extends a length equal to one of the
following:
(a) 12 times the bar size beyond the centre line of the support, or
(b) 12 times the bar size plus d/2 from the face of the support (Fig. 3.17).
Sometimes it is not possible to use straight bars due to limitations of space and, in this case,
anchorage must be provided by using hooks or bends in the reinforcement. The anchorage
values of hooks and bends are shown in Fig. 3.18. Where hooks or bends are provided, BS 8110
states that they should not begin before the centre of the support for rule (a) or before d/2 from
the face of the support for rule (b).
Page | 39
Fig. 3.15
Fig. 3.16 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in

beams: (a) simply supported ends; (b) continuous beam.
Fig. 3.17 Anchorage requirements at simple

supports.
4. Laps in reinforcement
It is not possible nor, indeed, practicable to construct the reinforcement cage for an individual
element or structure without joining some of the bars. This is normally achieved by lapping bars
(Fig. 3.19). Bars which have been joined in this way must act as a single length of bar. This
means that the lap length should be sufficiently long in order that stresses in one bar can be
transferred to the other. The minimum lap length should not be less than 15 times the bar
diameter or 300 mm. For tension laps it should normally be equal to the tension anchorage
length, but will often need to be increased. The anchorage length (L) is calculated
using
L = LA × Φ (3.13)
where
Φ is the diameter of the (smaller) bar
LA is obtained from Table 3.18 and depends upon the stress type, grade of concrete and
reinforcement type.
For compression laps the lap length should be at least 1.25 times the compression anchorage
length.
Page | 40
Fig. 3.19 Lap lengths.
Fig. 3.18 Anchorage lengths for hooks and

bends (a) anchorage length for 90° bend = 4r
but not greater than 12φ; (b) anchorage length
for hook = 8r but not greater than 24φ
Table 3.18 Anchorage lengths as

multiples of bar size
3.3.1.7. Doubly reinforced RC beam design

If the design moment is greater than the ultimate moment of resistance, i.e. M > Mu, or K > K′
where K = M/fcubd2 and K′ = Mu/fcubd2 the concrete will have insufficient strength in compression
to generate this moment and maintain an under reinforced mode of failure.
The required compressive strength can be achieved by increasing the proportions of the beam,
particularly its overall depth. However, this may not always be possible due to limitations on the
headroom in the structure, and in such cases it will be necessary to provide reinforcement in the
compression face. The compression reinforcement will be designed to resist the moment in
excess of Mu. This will ensure that the compressive stress in the concrete does not exceed the
permissible value and ensure an under-reinforced failure mode.
Page | 41
Beams which contain tension and compression reinforcement are termed doubly reinforced.
They are generally designed in the same way as singly reinforced beams except in respect of the
calculations needed to determine the areas of tension and compression reinforcement. This
aspect is discussed below.
A) Compression and tension reinforcement
The area of compression steel (As′) is calculated from
' M −M u
A s= '
(3.14)
0.87 f y (d−d )
where d ′ is the depth of the compression steel from the compression face (Fig. 3.19).
The area of tension reinforcement is calculated from
❑ Mu '
As = + A s (3.15)
0.87 f y z
where z=d ¿and K ′ = 0.156.
Equations 3.14 and 3.15 can be derived using the stress block shown in Fig. 3.19. This is
basically the same stress block used in the analysis of a singly reinforced section except for the
additional compression force (Fsc) in the steel.
In the derivation of equations 3.14 and 3.15 it is assumed that the compression steel has yielded
(i.e. design stress = 0.87fy) and this condition will be met only if
' '
d d d −z
≤0.37∨ ≤ 0.19 where x =
x d 0.45
If d′/x > 0.37, the compression steel will not have yielded and, therefore, the compressive stress
will be less than 0.87fy.
Fig. 3.19 Section with compression reinforcement

B) Design charts.
Rather than solving equations 3.14 and 3.15 it is possible to determine the area of tension and
compression reinforcement simply by using the design charts for doubly reinforced beams. Such
charts are available for design involving the use of concrete grades 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 and
d′/d ratios of 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2. The design procedure involves the following steps:
1. Check Mu < M.
2. Calculate d′/d.
3. Select appropriate chart from Part 3 of BS 8110 based on grade of concrete and d′/d ratio.
4. Calculate M/bd2.
Page | 42
5. Plot M/bd2 ratio on chart and read off corresponding 100As′/bd and 100As/bd values (Fig. 3.35)
6. Calculate A′s and As.
Fig. 3.20 Design chart for doubly reinforced beams (based on chart 7, BS 8110: Part 3).
3.3.1.8. Continuous, L and T beams
In most real situations, the beams in buildings are seldom single span but continuous over the
supports, e.g. beams 1, 2, 3 and 4 in Fig. 3.21(a). The design process for such beams is similar to
that outlined above for single span beams. However, the main difference arises from the fact that
with continuous beams the designer will need to consider the various loading arrangements in
order to determine the design moments and shear forces in the beam. The analysis to calculate
the bending moments and shear forces can be carried out by moment distribution or, provided
the conditions in clause 3.4.3 of BS 8110 are satisfied, by using the coefficients given in Table
3.5 of BS 8110, reproduced as Table 3.19. Once this has been done, the beam can be sized and
the area of bending reinforcement calculated. At the internal supports, the bending moment is
reversed and it should be remembered that the tensile reinforcement will occur in the top half of
the beam and compression reinforcement in the bottom half of the beam.
Generally, beams and slabs are cast monolithically, that is, they are structurally tied. At mid-
span, it is more economical in such cases to design the beam as an L or T section by including
the adjacent areas of the slab (Fig. 3.21(b)).
Table 3.19 Design ultimate moments and shear forces for continuous beams (Table 3.5, BS 8110
Page | 43
The actual width of slab that acts together with the beam is normally termed the effective flange.
the effective flange width should be taken as the lesser of
(a) the actual flange width and
(b) the web width plus l z /5 (for T-beams) or l z /10 (for L-beams),
where l z is the distance between points of zero moments which for a continuous beam may be
taken as 0.7 times the distance between the centres of supports.
The depth of the neutral axis in relation to the depth of flange will influence the design process
and must therefore be determined. The depth of the neutral axis, x, can be calculated using
equation 3.5 derived above
d−z
x=
0.45
Where the neutral axis lies within the flange, which will normally be the case in practice, the
beam can be designed as being singly reinforced taking the breadth of the beam, b, equal to the
effective flange width. At the supports of a continuous member, e.g. at columns B2, B3, C2 and
C3, due to the moment reversal, b should be taken as the actual width of the beam.
Page | 44
Fig. 3.21 Floor slab: (a) plan (b) cross-section.
3.3.1.8.1. Analysis of continuous beams

Continuous beams (and continuous slabs that span in one direction) are not statically determinate
and more advanced analytical techniques must be used to obtain the bending moments and shear
forces in the member. A straightforward method of calculating the moments at the supports of
continuous members and hence the bending moments and shear forces in the span is by moment
distribution. Essentially the moment-distribution method involves the following steps:
1. Calculate the fixed end moments (FEM) in each span using the formulae given in Table
3.20 and elsewhere. Note that clockwise moments are conventionally positive and
anticlockwise moments are negative.
2. Determine the stiffness factor for each span. The stiffness factor is the moment required
to produce unit rotation at the end of the member. A uniform member (i.e. constant EI) of
length L that is pinned at one end and fixed at the other (Fig. 3.22(a)) has a stiffness
factor of 4EI/L. If the member is pinned at both ends its stiffness factor reduces to
(3/4)4EI/L (Fig. 3.22(b)).
3. Evaluate distribution factors for each member meeting at a joint. The factors indicate
what proportion of the moment applied to a joint is distributed to each member attached
to it in order to maintain continuity of slope. Distribution factors are simply ratios of the
stiffnesses of individual members and the sum of the stiffnesses of all the members
meeting at a joint. As such, the distribution factors at any joint should sum to unity.
4. Release each joint in turn and distribute the out-of-balance moments between the
members
meeting at the joint in proportion to their distribution factors. The out-of-balance moment
is equal in magnitude but opposite in sense to the sum of the moments in the members
meeting at a joint.
5. Determine the moment developed at the far end of each member via the carry-over
factor. If the far end of the member is fixed, the carry over factor is half and a moment of
one-half of the applied moment will develop at the fixed end. If the far end is pinned, the
carry over factor is zero and no moment is developed at the far end.
6. Repeat steps (4) and (5) until all the out of balance moments are negligible.
7. Determine the end moments for each span by summing the moments at each joint.
Once the end moments have been determined, it is a simple matter to calculate the bending
moments and shear forces in individual spans using statics.
Fig. 3.22 Stiffness factors for

uniform beams: (a) pinned fixed
beam = 4EI/L; (b) pinned-pinned
beam = 3EI/L.
Page | 45
Table 3.20 Fixed end moments for uniform
beams
UNIT III
4.0 DESIGN OF RC SLABS

RC slabs are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings and as the decks of bridges. The floor
system of a structure can take many forms such as in situ solid slabs, ribbed slabs or precast
units. Slabs may span in one direction or in two directions and they may be supported on
monolithic concrete beams, steel beams, walls or directly by the structure’s columns.
Continuous slabs should in principle be designed to withstand the most unfavorable
arrangements of loads, in the same manner as beams. Because there are greater opportunities for
redistribution of loads in slabs, analysis may however be simplified by the use of a single load
case, provided that certain conditions are met as prescribed in section 4.1 below. Bending
moment coefficients based on this simplified method are provided for slabs which span in one
direction with approximately equal spans, and also for flat slabs.
The moments in slabs spanning in two directions can also be determined using coefficients
tabulated in the code of practice. Slabs which are not rectangular in plan or which support an
irregular loading arrangement may be analyzed by techniques such as the yield line method or
the Hilleborg strip method, as described in section 4.10
Concrete slabs have primarily as flexural members and the design is similar to that for beams,
although in general it is somewhat simpler because:
(1) The breath of the slab is already fixed and a unit breadth of 1m is used in the calculations
(2) The shear stresses are usually low in a slab except when there ae heavy concentrated
loads
(3) And compression reinforcement is seldom required.
4.1. Simplified Analysis
BS 8110 permits the use of a simplified load arrangement for all slabs of maximum ultimate
design load throughout all spans or panels provided that the following conditions are met:
a) In a one-way slab, the are of each bay ≮ 30 m2 (see figure 4.1
b) Live load qk ≯ 1.25 Dead load g k
a) Live load qk ≯ 5 KN /m2 excluding partitions
Page | 46
fig. 4.1 slab definition
If analysis is based on this single load case, all support moments (except at a cantilever) should
be reduced by 20% and span moments increased accordingly. No further redistribution is then
permitted, but special attention must be given to cases where a cantilever is adjacent to a span
which is less than three times that of the cantilever. In this situation the condition where the
cantilever is fully loaded and the span unloaded must be examined to determine possible
hogging moments in the span.
Tabulated BM and Szf coefficients for use with approximately equal spans and when these
conditions are satisfied are given in section 4.5.2 for one-way spanning slabs and in section 4.7
for flat slabs.
4.2. Shear in slabs

The shear stress at a section in a solid slab is given by
V
v=
bd
Where V is the shear force due to the ultimate load, d is the effective depth of the slab and b is
the width of section considered. Calculations are usually base on a strip of slab 1m wide
The code requires that for a solid slab
(i) v ≯ the lesser of 0.8 √ f cu or 5N/mm2
(ii) v ≯ v c for a slab thickness less than 200mm.
(iii) if v ¿ v c, shear reinforcement must be provided in slabs more than 200mm thick
If shear reinforcement is required, then nominal steel, as for beams, should be provided when v
< (vc + 0.40) and “designed” reinforcement provided for higher values of v. since shear stresses
in slabs due to distributed loads are generally small, shear reinforcement will seldom be required
for such loads. Localized “punching” actions due to heavy concentrated loads may, however,
cause more critical conditions as shown in the following sections. Practical difficulties
concerned with bending and fixing of shear reinforcement lead to the recommendation that it
should not be used in slabs which are less than 200mm deep.
4.2.1. Punching shear – Analysis
A concentrated load (N) on a slab causes shearing stresses on a section around the load; this
effect is referred to as punching shear. The initial critical section for shear is shown in figures
4.2 and the shearing stress is given by
N N
v= =
Perimeterof the section ×d ( 2 a+2 b+12 d ) d
Page | 47
Where a and b are the plan dimensions of the concentrated load. No shear reinforcement is
required if the punching shear stress, v < vc. The value of vc in table 3.11 depends on the
percentage of reinforcement 10As/bd which should be calculated as an average of the area of
tensile reinforcement in the two directions and should include all the reinforcement crossing the
critical section and extending a further distance equal to at least d or 12 bar diameters on either
side.
Checks must also be undertaken to ensure that the stress v calculated for the perimeter at the face
of the loaded area is less than the smaller of 0.8 √ f cu or 5N/mm2
Example 4.1. Punching shear: A slab 175mm thick, d = 145mm, is constructed with grade 30
concrete and is reinforced with 12mm bars at 150mm centres one way and 10mm bars at 200
mm centres in the other direction, determine the maximum load that can e carried on an area ,
300x400mm without exceeding the ultimate shear stress.
Fig. 4.2 Punching shear

4.2.2. Punching shear – Reinforcement Design
If reinforcement is required for the initial critical section shown in figure 4.2, this steel should be
located within the failure zone lying between the face of the loaded area and the perimeter
checked. The amount of reinforcement required is given by
( v−v c ) ud
∑ A SV sinα ≥ 0.87 f yv
Where: α = angle between shear reinforcement and the plane of the slab
u = length of the outer perimeter of the zone
and (v – vc) should not be taken as less than 0.4N/mm2
The reinforcement should be distributed evenly around the zone on at least two perimeters not
greater than 1.5d apart as illustrated in example 4.2. It will then be necessary to check a second
perimeter taken a distance 0.75d further away from the face of the load than the initial critical
section, as shown in figure 4.3. The failure zone associated with this perimeter is 1.5d wide and
shear reinforcement within the zone which has been provided to reinforce previous zones may be
included when designing reinforcement for the zone. This design procedure continues by
checking successive zones until a perimeter is obtained which does not require reinforcing.
Page | 48
Figure 4.3 Punching shear reinforcement
Zones
Similar procedures must be applied to the

regions of flat slabs which are close to supporting columns, but allowances must be made for the
effects of moment transfer from the columns as described in section 4.7.
Example 4.2 Design of Punching Shear Reinforcement: A 260mm thick slab of grade 30
concrete is reinforced by 12 mm High yield bars at 200 mm centres in each direction. The slab is
subject to a mild environment and must be able to support a localized concentrated load of 650
kN over a square area of 300 mm side. Determine the shear reinforcement required for fyv = 250
N/mm2.
4.3. Span-Effective Depth Ratios
Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the ceiling, floor finishes and other
architectural details. To avoid this, limits are set on the span-depth ratios. These limits are
exactly the same as those for beams described in sections above. As a slab is usually a slender
member the restrictions on the span-depth ratio become more important and this can often
control the depth of slab required. In terms of the span-effective depth ratio the depth of the slab
is given by
span
min . effective depth=
basic ratio ×modification factors
The modification factor is based on the area of tension steel in the shorter span when a slab is
singly reinforced at mid-span but if a slab has both top and bottom steel at mid-span the
modification factors for the areas of tension and compression steel, as given in tables 3.15 and
3.16 are used. For convenience, the factors for tension steel have been plotted in the form of a
graph in figure 4.4.
It can be seen from the figure that a lower service stress gives a higher modification factor and
hence a smaller depth of slab would be required. The service stress may be reduced by providing
an area of tension reinforcement greater than that required to resist the design moment, or
alternatively mild steel reinforcement with its lower service stress may be used.
The span-depth ratios may be checked using the service stress appropriate to the characteristic
stress of the reinforcement, as given in table 3.16. Thus a service stress of 288 N/mm 2 would be
used when fy is 460 N/mm2. However, if a more accurate assessment of the limiting span-depth
ratio is required the service stress fs can be calculated from
5 A s req 1
f s= f y ×
8 A s pro β b
Where Asreq is the area of reinforcement required at mid-span
Page | 49
Asprov is the area of reinforcement provided at mid-span
β bthe ratio of the mid-span moments after and before any redistribution
The second part of example 4.3 illustrates the calculations to determine the service stress, and
how the provision of extra reinforcement reduces the depth of slab required
4.4. Reinforcement Details
To resist cracking of the concrete, codes of practice specify details such as the minimum area of
reinforcement required in a section and limits to the maximum and minimum spacing of bars.
Some of these rules are as follows:
(a) Minimum Areas of Reinforcement
0.13 bh
min . area= for high yield steel
100
0.24 bh
Or ¿ for mild steel
100
(b) Maximum Spacing of the Bars
These requirements are similar to beams except that for thin slabs, or if the tensile steel
percentage is small, spacing’s may be increased to a maximum of 3d.
(c) Reinforcement in the Flange of a T- or L-beam
When the slab forms the flange of a T or L-beam the area of reinforcement in the flange and at
right angles to the beam should not be less than 0.15% of the longitudinal cross-section of the
flange.
(d) Curtailment and Anchorage of Reinforcement
The general rules for curtailment of bars in a flexural member were discussed in earlier sections.
Simplified rules for curtailment in different types of slabs are illustrated in the subsequent
sections of this chapter. At a simply supported end the bars should be anchored as specified in
figure 4.5
fig. 4.4. modification factors for

span-effective depth ration
Page | 50
Greater of bs/3 or 30mm
If v < 0.5vc
Fig. 4.5 Anchorage at simple support

for a slab
4.5. Solid Slabs Spanning in one Direction

The slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of 1 m breadth. The main steel is in
the direction of the span and secondary or distribution steel is required in the transverse
direction. The main steel should form the outer layer of reinforcement to give it the maximum
lever arm.
The calculations for bending reinforcement follow a similar procedure to that used in beam
design. The area of tension reinforcement is then given by
MU
A s=
0.87 f y z
For solid slabs spanning one way the simplified rules for curtailing bars as shown in figure 4.6
may be used provided the loads are substantially uniformly distributed. With a continuous slab it
is also necessary that the spans are approximately equal and the Simplified single load case
analysis has been used.
4.5.1. Single-span solid Slab
The effective span of the slab is taken as the lesser of:
(a) the centre-to-centre distance of the bearings, or
(b) the clear distance between supports plus the effective depth of the slab. The basic span-
effective depth ratio for this type of slab is 20:1
Simply Supported
Continuous Slab
Page | 51
Figure 4.6 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in slab spanning in one direction
fig. 4.7
Example 8.3 Design of a Simply Supported Slab: The slab shown in figure 4.7 is to be designed
to carry a live load of 3.0 kN/m2, plus floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1.0 kN/m2. The
characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm2 and fy = 500 N/mm2. Basic span-effective
depth ratio = 20
4.5.2. Continuous Solid Slab Spanning
For a continuous slab, bottom reinforcement is required within the span and top reinforcement
over the supports. The effective span is the distance between the centre lines of supports and the
basic span-effective depth ratio is 26: 1.
If the conditions of section 8.1 are met for the single load case analysis, bending moment and
shear force coefficients as shown in table 8.1 may be used.
Table 4.1 Ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients in one-way spanning slabs
Note: F is the total design ultimate load on the span, and L is the effective span.
Example 4.4 Design of a continuous Solid Slab
The four span slab shown in figure 4.8 supports a live load of 3.0kN/m 2, plus floor finishes and a
ceiling load of 1.0kN/m2. The characteristic material strengths are fcu=30N/mm2 and fy=460N/mm2.
Page | 52
Plan
Elevation
Figure 4.8 Continuous slab
4.6. Solid Slabs Spanning in Two Directions

When a slab is supported on all four of its sides it effectively spans in both directions. and it is
sometimes more economical to design the slab on this basis. The amount of bending in each
direction will depend on the ratio of the two spans and the conditions of restraint at each support.
If the slab is square and the restraints are similar along the four sides then the load will span
equally in both directions. If the slab is rectangular then more than one-half of the load will be
carried in the stiffer, shorter direction and less in the longer direction. If one span is much longer
than the other, a large proportion of the load will be carried in the short direction and the slab
may as well be designed as spanning in only one direction.
Figure 4.10 Loads carried by supporting beams

Moments in each direction of span are generally calculated using coefficients which are
tabulated in the codes of practice. Areas of reinforcement to resist the moments are determined
independently for each direction of span. The slab is reinforced with bars in both directions
parallel to the spans with the steel for the shorter span placed furthest from the neutral axis to
give it the greater effective depth.
Page | 53
The span-effective depth ratios are based on the shorter span and the percentage reinforcement '
in that direction.
With a uniformly distributed load the loads on the supporting beams may
generally be apportioned as shown in figure 4.10.
4.6.1. Simply Supported Slab Spanning in Two Directions
A slab simply supported on its four sides will deflect about both axes under load and the corners
will tend to lift and curl up from the supports, causing torsional moments. When no provision
has been made to prevent this lifting or to resist the torsion then the moment coefficients of table
4.2 may be used and the maximum moments are given by
2
M sx =α sx n l x ∈direction of span l x
And
2
M sy =α sy n l y ∈direction of span l y
Where M sx and M sy are the moments at mid-span on strips of unit width with spans l x and l y
respectively, and
n = (1.4gk + 1.6qk), that is the total ultimate load per unit area
ly = the length of the longer side
Ix = the length of the shorter side
and αsx and αsy are the moment coefficients from table B.2.
The area of reinforcement in directions lx and ly respectively are
M sx
A sx= per metre width
0.87 f y z
M sy
And A sy= per metre width
0.87 f y z
The slab should be reinforced uniformly across the full width, in each direction.
The effective depth d used in calculating Asy should be less than that for Asx because of the
different depths of the two layers of reinforcement.
At least 40 per cent of the mid-span reinforcement should extend to the supports and the
remaining 60 per cent should extend to within 0.1lx or 0.1ly of the appropriate support.
Table 4.2 Bending-moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions at right angles,
simply supported on four sides
Example 4.5 Design the Reinforcement for a Simply Supported Slab 220 mm Thick and
Spanning in Two Directions
The effective span in each direction is 4.5m and 6.3m and the slab supports a live load of 10kN/
m2 • The characteristic material strengths are fcu= 30 N/mm2 and f'y =- 460 N/mm2
4.6.2. Restrained slab spanning in two directions
Page | 54
When the slabs have fixity at the supports and reinforcement is added to resist torsion and to
prevent the corners of the slab from lifting then the maximum moments per unit width are given
by
2
M sx =β sx n l x ∈direction of span l x
2
And M sy =β sy n l y ∈direction of span l y
where β sx and β sy are the moment coefficients given in table 3.15 of BS 8110 for the specified end
conditions, and n= (l.4gk + 1.6qk), the total ultimate load per unit area.
The slab is divided into middle and edge strips as shown in figure 4.12 and reinforcement is
required in the middle strips to resist M sx and M sy . The arrangement this reinforcement should
take is i11ustrated in figure 4,6. In the edge strips only nominal reinforcement is necessary, such
that 100As/bh = 0. 13 for high yield steel or 0.24 for mild steel.
(a) for span lx

(b) For span ly
Figure 4.12 Division of slab into middle and edge strips
In addition, torsion reinforcement is provided at discontinuous corners and it should
(I) consist of top and bottom mats, each having bars in both directions of span
(II) extend from the edges a minimum distance lx/5
(III) at a corner where the slab is discontinuous in both directions have an area of steel in
each of the four layers equal to three-quarters of the area required for the maximum
mid-span moment.
(IV) at a corner where the slab is discontinuous in one direction only have an area of
torsion reinforcement only half of that specified in rule 3.
Torsion reinforcement is not, however, necessary at any corner where the slab is continuous in
both directions.
Where ly/lx > 2, the slabs should be designed as spanning in one direction only.
Shear force coefficients are also given in BS 8110 for cases where torsion corner reinforcement
is provided, and these are based on a simplified distribution of load to supporting beams which
may be used in preference to the distribution shown in figure 4.10.
Example 4.6 Moments in a Continuous Two-way Slab
The panel considered is an edge panel, as shown in figure 8.13 and the uniformly distributed
load, n=(1.4gk + 1.6 qk) = 10 kN/m2.
I he moment coefficients are taken from case 3 of table 3. 15 of BS 8 110.
Table 4.3. Bending moment coefficients for simply supported two-way rectangular slabs
Page | 55
4.7. Flat Slab Floors
A flat slab floor is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete columns without the
use of intermediary beams. The slab may be of constant thickness throughout or in the area of
the column it may be thickened as a drop panel. The column may also be of constant section or it
may be flared to form a column head or capital. These various forms of construction are
illustrated in figure 4.14.
The drop panels are effective in reducing the shearing stresses where the column is liable to
punch through the slab, and they also provide all increased moment of resistance where the
negative moments are greatest. They are generally used with live loads in excess of 7 kN/m 2 or
there about
Figure 4. 14 Drop panel,
Gild column heads
The flat slab floor has many

advantages over the beam and slab floor. The simplified formwork and the reduced storey
heights make it more economical. Windows can extend up to the underside of the slab, and there
are no beams to obstruct the light and the circulation of air. The absence of sharp corners gives
greater fire resistance as there is less danger of the concrete spalling and exposing the
reinforcement. Deflection requirements will generally govern slab thicknesses
which should not be less than 125 mm.
Width of half column strip= l/4
with no drops or = half drop
width when drops are used
Figure 4.15. Flat slabs divided

into strips
Page | 56
The analysis of a flat slab structure may be carried out by dividing the structure into a series of
equivalent frames. The moments in these frames may be determined by
(a) a method of frame analysis such as moment distribution, or the stiffness method on a
computer
(b) a simplified method using the moment and shear coefficients of table 4.4 subject to the
following requirements:
(i) the lateral stability is not dependent on the slab-column connections
(ii) the conditions for using the single load case described in section 4.1 are satisfied
(iii) there are at least three rows of panels of approximately equal span in the direction being
considered.
Table 4.4 Simplified moment and shear coefficients for flat slabs
*Check column moment transfer capacity (see BS 8110).

In this calculation L is the effective span and F is the total ultimate load on the slab strip between
columns. The effective span is the distance between column centre lines - 2hc/3
where hc is the effective diameter of the column or column heads.
Interior panels of the flat slab should be divided as shown in figure 4. 15 into column and middle
strips. Drop panels should be ignored if Their smaller dimension is less than the 1/3 of the
smaller panel dimension lx. If a panel is not square, strip widths in both directions are based on
lx.
Moments determined from a structural analysis or the coefficients of table 4.4 are distributed
between the strips as shown in table 4.5.
Reinforcement designed to resist these slab moments may be detailed according to the simplified
rules for slabs, and satisfying normal spacing limits. This should be spread across the respective
strip, but steel to resist negative moments in column strips should have two-thirds of the area
located in the central 1/2 strip width. If the column strip is narrower because of drops, the
moments resisted by the column and middle strips should be adjusted proportionally as
illustrated in example 4.7.
Table 8.4 Division of moments between strips
Column moments can be calculated using the coefficients from table 4.4, but reference should
also be made to as 8110 regarding the moment transfer capacity at the outer columns. The
moments calculated should be divided between the column lengths above and below the floor in
proportion to their stiffness’s. Particular care is needed over the transfer of moments to edge
Page | 57
columns. This is to ensure that there is adequate moment capacity within the slab adjacent to the
column since moments will only be able to be transferred to the edge column by a strip slab
considerably narrower than the normal internal panel column strip width.
the reinforcement for a flat slab should generally be arranged according to the rules illustrated in
figure 4.6.
An important feature in the design of the slabs are the calculations for punching, Shear at the
head of the columns and at the change in depth of the slab, if drop panels are used. The design
for shear should take the procedure described in the previous section on punching shear except
that BS 8110 requires that the design shear force be increased above the calculated value by 15
percent for
internal columns and up to 40 percent for edge columns to allow for the effects of moment
transfer.
Example 4.7. Design of a Flat Slab
The columns are at 6.5m c/c in each direction and the slab supports a live load of 5KN/m 2. The
characteristic material strengths are fcu – 30N/mm2 and fy=250N/mm2 for mild steel
reinforcement
It is decided to use a floor slab as shown in figure 4.16 with 200mm overall depth of slab, and
drop panels 2.5m square by 1900mm deep. The column heads are to be made 1.4m diameter
Figure 8.16
UNIT IV
5.0 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The columns in a structure carry the loads from the beams and slabs down to the foundations,
and therefore they are primarily compression members, although they may also have to resist
bending forces due to the continuity of the structure.
Design of columns is governed by th0e ultimate limit state deflections and cracking during
service conditions are not usually a problem, but nevertheless correct detailing of the
reinforcement and adequate cover are important.
Many of the principles used in this chapter for the design of a column can also be applied in a
similar manner to other types of members which also resist an axial load plus a bending moment.
5.0. Effective Height
The effective height (be) of a column in a given plane is obtained by multiplying the clear height
Page | 58
between lateral restraints (lo) by a coefficient (β) which is a function of the fixity at the column
ends and is obtained from table 5.0
Table 5.0 Values of β for braced columns
le = βlo
End condition 1 signifies that the column end is fully restrained. End condition 2 signifies that
the column end is partially restrained and end condition 3 signifies that the column end is
nominally restrained. In practice it is possible to infer the degree of restraint at the column ends
simply by reference to the diagrams shown in Fig. 5.0
Fig. 5.0 Column end restraint conditions.
5.1. Loading and Moments

The loading arrangements and the analysis of a structural frame have been described with
examples in chapters above. 1n the analysis it was necessary to classify the column into one of
the following types
(1) a braced column-where the lateral loads are resisted by walls or some other form of bracing.
and
(2) an unbraced column-where the lateral loads are resisted by the bending action of the columns
With a braced column the axial forces and moments are caused by the dead and imposed load
only, whereas with an unbraced column the loading arrangements which include the effects of
the lateral loads must also be considered.
For a braced column the critical arrangement of the ultimate load is usually that which causes the
largest moment in the column, together with a large axial load. As an example. figure 5,1 shows
a building frame with the critical loading arrangement for the design of its centre column at the
first-floor level and also the left-hand column at all floor levels. When the moments in columns
Page | 59
are large and particularly with unbraced columns, it may also be necessary to check the case of
maximum moment combined with the minimum axial load.
The axial forces due to the vertical loading may be calculated as though the beams and slabs are
simply supported. In some structures it is unlikely that all the floors of a building will carry the
full imposed load at the same instant, therefore, a reduction is usually allowed in the total
imposed load when designing columns and foundations in buildings which are two or more
storeys high, as shown by table 5.1
Table 5.1 Reduction of total imposed
floor loads on columns/ walls and
foundations
Figure 5.1 A critical loading arrangement
5.2. Short and Slender Columns

A column is classified as short if both lex/h and ley/b are:
less than 15 for a braced column
less than 10 for an unbraced column
the effective lengths lex and ley are relative to the XX and YY axis, h is the overall depth of the
section in the plane of bending about the XX axis, that is h is the dimension perpendicular to the
XX axis. The effective lengths are specified as
l e =β l o
lo is the clear distance between the column end restraints
and β is a coefficient which depends on the degree of end restraints as specified in table 5.2.
The application of these coefficients is illustrated for the braced column shown in figure 5.2.
Page | 60
Table 9.2
End conditions. The four end conditions are as follows:

1. Condition 1: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams on either side
which are atleast as deep as the overall dimension or the column in the plane considered.
where the column is connected to a foundation structure, this should be of a form
specifically designed to carry moment.
2. Condition 2. The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs on
either side which are shallower than the overall dimension of the column in the plane
considered
3. Condition 3. The end of the column is connected to members Which, while not
specifically designed to provide restraint to rotation of the column will, nevertheless,
provide some nominal restraint.
4. Condition 4. The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral movements and
rotation (for example, the free ed of a cantilever column in an unbraced structure).
Page | 61
Figure 5.2 Braced column slenderness ratios
Short columns usually fail by crushing but a slender column is liable to fail by buckling. The end
moments on a slender column cause it to deflect sideways and thus bring into play an additional
moment Neadd as illustrated in figure 5.3. The moment Neadd causes a further lateral deflection
and if the axial load (N) exceeds a critical value this deflection, and the additional moment
become self-propagating until the column buckles. Euler derived the critical load for a pin-ended
strut as
2
π EI
N crit = 2
l
The crushing load Nuz of a truly axially loaded column may be taken as
Nuz = 0.45fcuAc + 0.87Ascfy
where Ac is the area of the concrete and A sc is the area of the
longitudinal steel.
Values of Ncrit/Nuz and l/h have been calculated and plotted in figure
5.4 for a typical column cross-section,
Page | 62
Figure 5.3 Slender column with lateral deflection
figure 5.4 Column failure

modes
The ratio of Ncrit/Nuz in the figure determines the type of failure of the column. With l/h less than,
say, 15 the load will probably cause crushing, Nuz is much less than Ncrit. the load that causes
buckling - and therefore a buckling failure will not occur. This is not true with higher values of
l/h and so a buckling failure is possible, depending on such factors as the initial curvature of the
column and the actual eccentricity of the load. When l/h is greater than 32 then Ncrit is less than
Nuz and in this case a buckling failure will occur for the column considered.
5.3. Reinforcement Details
The rules governing the minimum and maximum amounts of reinforcement in a load bearing
column are as follows.
Longitudinal Steel
(1) A minimum of four bars is required in a rectangular column and six bars in a circular
column.
Page | 63
100 A s
(2) ≮ 0.4
A col
100 A s
(3) ≯ 6.0∈a vertical cast column
A col
Or
100 A s
≯ 8.0∈a horizontal cast column
A col
But at laps
100 A s
≯ 10.0 for bothtypes of columns
A col
where As is the total area of longitudinal steel and Acol is the cross sectional area of the column.
Links
1. Minimum size = 1/4 x size of the largest compression bar but not less than 6 mm.
2. Maximum spacing: 12 x size of the smallest compression bar.
3. The links should be arranged so that every corner bar and alternate bar or group in an
outer layer of longitudinal steel is supported by a link passing round the bar and having
an included angle not greater than 1350.
4. All other bars or groups not restrained by a link should be within 150 mm of a restrained
bar.
5. In circular columns a circular link passing around a circular arrangement of longitudinal
bars is adequate.
Figure 5.5 shows possible arrangements of reinforcing bars at the junction of two columns and a
floor. In figure 5.5a the reinforcement in the lower column is cranked so that it will fit within the
smaller column above. The crank in the reinforcement should, if possible, commence above the
soffit of the beam so that the moment of resistance of the column is not reduced. For the same
reason, the bars in the upper column should be the ones cranked when both columns are of the
same size as in figure 5.5b. Links should be provided at the points where the bars are cranked in
order to resist buckling due to horizontal components of force in the inclined lengths of bar.
Separate dowel bars as in figure 5.5c may also be used to provide continuity between the two
lengths of column. The column-beam junction should be detailed so that there is adequate space
for both the column steel and the beam steel. Careful attention to detail on this point will greatly
assist the fixing of the steel during construction.
5.4 Design of Short Columns
Short columns are divided into three categories according to the degree of eccentricity of the
loading as described in the following sections.
5.4.1 Short Braced Axially Loaded Columns
This type of column can occur in precast concrete construction when there is no continuity
between the members. Also it can be considered to occur when the columns support a
symmetrical and very rigid structure.
When the load is perfectly axial the ultimate axial resistance is
N=O.45fcuAc +O.87fyAse
Page | 64
where Ac is the net area of the concrete and Asc is the area of the longitudinal reinforcement.
Perfect conditions never exist and to allow for a small eccentricity the ultimate load should be
calculated from
N=O.40fcuAc +O.75fyAse
For a rectangular column and to allow for the area of concrete displaced by the longitudinal
reinforcement this equation may be modified to
N= 0.4fcubh +Asc(0.75fy - 0.4fcu)
Figure 5.5 Details of splices in column reinforcement

Example 5.1 Axially Loaded Column
Design the longitudinal reinforcement for a 300 mm square column which supports an axial load
of 1700 kN at the ultimate limit state. The characteristic material strengths are f y = 500 N/mm2
for the reinforcement and fcu = 30 N/mm2 for the concrete.
5.4.2 Short Braced Columns Supporting an Approximately Symmetrical/ Arrangement
of Beams
The moments on these columns will be small and due primarily to unsymmetrical arrangements
of the live load. Provided the beam spans do-not differ by more than 15 percent of the longer,
and the loading on the beams is uniformly distributed, the column may be designed to support
the axial load only. The ultimate load that can be supported should then be taken as
N= 0.35fcuAc + 0.67fyAsc
To take account of the area of concrete displaced by the reinforcement the equation for a
rectangular section may be written as
N = 0.35fcubh + (0.67fy - 0.35fcu)Asc
Page | 65
5.4.3 Short Columns Resisting Moments and Axial Forces
The area of longitudinal steel for these columns is determined by:
(1) using design charts or constructing M-N interaction diagrams
(2) a solution of the basic design equations, or
(3) an approximate method.
Design charts are usually used for columns having a rectangular or circular cross-section
symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement, but interaction diagrams can be constructed for any
arrangement of cross-section as illustrated in examples The basic equations or the approximate
method can be used when an unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement is required, or when
the cross-section is non-rectangular as described in section 5.5.
Whichever design method is used, a column should not be designed for a moment less than N x
emin , where emin has the lesser value of h/20 or 20mm. This is to allow for tolerances in
construction. The dimension h is the overall size of the column cross-section in the plane of
bending.
i. Design Charts and interaction Diagrams

The design of a section subjected to bending plus axial load should be in accordance with the
principles described in sections above, which deals with the analysis of the cross-section. The
basic equations derived for a rectangular section as shown in figure 5.6 with a rectangular stress
block are
N = Fcc + Fsc + Fs
= 0.45fcubs + fsc A's + fsAs
M =F cc ( h2 − 2s )+ F ( h2 −d )−F (d − h2 )
sc
'
s
s = the depth of the stress block = 0.9x

'
A s = the area of longitudinal reinforcement in the more highly compressed face
As = the area of reinforcement in the other face
fs = the stress in reinforcement A's
Figure 5.6 Column section
Page | 66
Figure 5.7 Column design chart
fs = the stress in reinforcement As, negative when tensile
These equations are not suitable for direct solution and the design of a column with symmetrical
reinforcement in each face is best carried out using design charts similar to those published in
Part 3 of as 8 110. An example of one of these charts is shown in figure 5.7.
Example 9.2 Column Design Using Design Charts
Figure 5.8 shows a frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for which the centre columns
along line PQ are to be designed in this example. The frames at 4m centres, are braced against
lateral forces , and support the following floor loads:
Dead load gk = 10KN/m2
Live load qk = 15KN/m2
Plan and section through the frame

Figure 5.8: Columns in an industrial structure
Page | 67
(a) Critical loading arrangement for centre columns
at 1st floor
(b) Substitute frame and load Fixed end moments

Figure 9.9
ii. Design Equations
The symmetrical arrangement of the reinforcement with A's= A s is justifiable for the columns of
a building where the axial loads are the dominant forces and where any moments due to the wind
can be acting in either direction, But some members are required to resist axial forces combined
with large bending moments so that it is not economical to have equal areas of steel in both
faces, and in these cases the usual design charts cannot be applied. A rigorous design for a
rectangular section as shown in figure 5.11 involves the following iterative procedure.
1. Select a depth of neutral axis, x
2. Determine the steel strains ε sc and ε s from the strain distribution.
3. Determine the steel stresses fsc and fs from the equations relating to the stress-strain curve
for the reinforcing bars
4. Taking moments about the centroid of As
Figure 5.11 Column with an unsymmetrical

arrangement of reinforcement
Page | 68
where s = 0.9x
This equation can be solved to give a value for A's
5. As is then determined from the equilibrium of the axial forces, that is
N = 0.45fcubs + fsc A's + fsAs
6. Further values of x may be selected and steps 1 to 5 repeated until a minimum value for
'
A s+ A s is obtained.
The term fsc in the equations may be modified to (fsc - 0.45fcu) to allow for the area of concrete
displaced by the reinforcement A'sStress fs, has a negative sign whenever it is tensile.
Example 5.3 Column Section with on Unsymmetrical Arrangement reinforcement

The column section shown in figure 5.12 resists an axial load of 1100kN and a moment of 230
kNm at the ultimate limit state. Determine the areas of reinforcement required if the
characteristic material strengths are fy = 500N/mm2 and fcu = 30 N/mm2
Figure 5.12 Unsymmetrical column design example
Figure 5.13 Design chart for unsymmetrical column example

Page | 69
iii. Simplified Design Method
As an alternative to the previous rigorous method of design an approximate method may be used
when the eccentricity of loading, e is not less than (h/2 - d2)
The moment M and the axial force N are replaced by an increased moment Ma where
M a=M + N ( h2 −d )
2
plus a compressive force N acting through the tensile steel As as shown in figure 5.14. Hence the
design of the reinforcement is carried out in two parts.
1. The member is designed as a doubly reinforced section to resist Ma acting by itself. The
equations for calculating the areas of reinforcement to resist Ma are given as
2. The area of As calculated in the first part is reduced by the amount N/0.87fy
This preliminary design method is probably most useful for non-rectangular column sections as
shown in example 5.6, but the procedure is first demonstrated with a rectangular cross-section in
the following example.
Figure 5.14 Simplified design method

Example 5.4 Column Design by the Simplified Method
Calculate the area of steel required in the 300x400 column of figure 5.12. N=1100kn,
M=230KNm, fcu = 30N/mm2 and fy = 500n/mm2
5.4.4. Biaxial Bending of Short Columns
For most columns. biaxial bending will not govern the design. The loading patterns necessary to
cause biaxial bending in a building's internal and edge columns will not usually cause large
moments in both directions. Corner columns may have to resist Significant bending about both
axes, but the axial loads are usually small and a design similar to the adjacent edge columns is
generally adequate.
Page | 70
A design for biaxial bending based on a rigorous analysis of the cross-section and the strain and
stress distributions would be according to the fundamental principles of unit 3, otherwise a
Simplified method as described in BS 8110 may be used.
This method specifies that a column subjected to an ultimate load N and moments Mx and My
about the xx and yy axes respectively may be designed for single axis bending but with an
increased moment and subject to the following conditions:
Mx M y
a). if '
≥ ' then increased single axis design moment is
h b
'
' h
M x =M x + β ' × M y
b
Mx M y
b) if '
< ' then increased single axis design moment is
h b
'
' b
M y =M y + β ' × M x
h
The dimensions h' and b' are defined in figure 5.15 and the coefficient β is specified in table 5.4.
Figure 5.15 Section with biaxial bending
Table 5.4 Values of coefficient β for biaxial bending
Example 9.5 Design of a Column for Biaxial Bending

The column section shown in figure 5.16 is to be designed to resist an ultimate axial load of
1200 kN plus moments of M xx = 75 kNm and Myy = 80 kN m. The characteristic material
strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm2 and fy = 500 N/mm2
Figure 9.16 Biaxial bending example
Page | 71
5.5. Design of Slender Columns
As specified in section 5.2. a column is classified as slender if the slenderness ratio about either
axis is
> 15 for a braced column or
> 10 fo r an unbrace d column
There is a general restriction on the maximum slenderness of
lo ≯ 60b’
and for an unbraced column
'2
b
l 0 ≯ 100 '
h
where lo is the clear distance between end restraints and b' and h' are respectively the smaller and
larger dimensions of the column section
A slender column must be designed for an additional moment caused by its curvature at ultimate
conditions. The expression, given in BS 8110 for the additional moments were derived by
studying the moments' curvature behaviour for a member subject to bending plus axial load. The
equations for calculating the design moments are only applicable to columns of a rectangular or
circular section and with symmetrical reinforcement.
A slender column should be designed for an ultimate axial load (N) plus an increased moment
given by
Mt = Mi + Madd
= Mi + Nau
where Mi is the initial moment in the column
Madd is the moment caused by the deflection of the column
au is the deflection of the column.
The deflection of a rectangular or circular column is given by
au = βaKh
The coefficient βa is calculated from the equation
()
2
1 le
β a=
2000 b'
with b' being generally the smaller dimension of the column section except when biaxial bending
is considered.
The coefficient K is a reduction factor to allow for the fact that the deflection must be less when
there is a large proportion of the column section in compression. The value for K is given by the
equation
where Nuz is the ultimate axial load such that
Page | 72
Nuz = 0.45fcuAc + 0.87fyAsc
Nbal is the axial load at balanced failure and may be taken as
Nbal = 0.25fcuAc
In order to calculate K , the area Asc of the columns reinforcement must be known and hence a
trial and error approach is necessary, taking an initial conservative value of K = 1.0. Values of K
are also marked on the column design charts as shown in figure 5.7
5.5.1. Braced Slender Column
Typical bending moment diagrams for a braced column are shown in fig. 5.19. the maximum
additional moment Madd occurs near the mid-height of the column and at this location the initial
moment is taken as
Mi = 0.4M1 + 0.6M2 ≥ 0.4M2
Figure 5.19 Braced slender column design moments

where Ml is the smaller initial end moment due to the design ultimate loads and M2 is the
corresponding larger initial end moment.
For the usual case with double curvature of a braced column, Ml should be taken as negative and
M2 as positive. From figure 5.19, the final design moment
should never be taken as less than
All the equations above can be used to calculate the additional moment and combined with the
appropriate initial moment to design a slender column with single axis bending about either axis,
provided that the ratio of the lengths of the sides is always less than 3 and the slenderness ratio
le/h for a column bent about its major axis does not exceed 20. Where these conditions do not
apply and the column is bent about its major axis, the effect of biaxial bending should be
considered with zero initial moment about the minor axis and additional moments about both
axes.
Example 5.7 Design of a Slender Column
Page | 73
A braced column of 300 x 450 cross-section resists at the ultimate limit state an axial load of
1700kN and end moments of 70kNm and 10kNm causing double curvature about the minor axis
XX as shown in figure 5.20. The column's effective heights are lex = 6.75m and ley = 8.0 m and
the characteristic material strengths fcu =30 N/mm2 and fy =500 N/mm2.
Page | 74

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REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN (BCO 301)

Time and Location:

Taking Lecture Notes:

Laptop and Cellphone Policy:

1- INTRODUCTION TO R.C DESIGN

1) The single-storey portal supported on isolated footings.

Fig. 1.1 (a) Single storey portal;

Fig. 1.5 (a) Isolated base; (b) wall footing;

1.3. Structural Design

1.4. Design Standards

1.5. Properties of Reinforced Concrete.

1.5.1. Concrete materials

1.5.2. Concrete properties

1.5.2.1. Stress-Strain Relationship in compression

Fig. 1.7 Parabola−rectangle stress−strain relationship for concrete in compression.

1.5.2.2. Compressive strength

Fig. 1.8 Bilinear stress−strain relationship for concrete in compression.

The tensile strength of concrete is about a tenth of the compressive strength. It is

. Fig. 1.9 Split cylinder test

1.5.2.4. Modulus of Elasticity

where fcm = fck +8 MPa, fck = characteristic cylinder strength.

Fig. 1.10(a) Stress−strain curve

Fig. 1.10(b) Stress–strain curve

The Eurocode BS EN 1990:2002 + A1:2005 Eurocode. Basis of structural design states

 Choice of suitable materials

2.1.2. Criteria for Safe Design: Limit States.

2.2. Actions, Characteristics and Design Values of Actions

Actions (loads) can be classified as

Imposed load on buildings

2.2.1. Load Combinations

2.2.2. Load Combination EQU

The load factors to be used are:

 γG, j = 1.10 (unfavourable), 0.90 (favourable)

2.2.3. Load Combination STR

In the above the symbols denote as follows

2.3. Structural Analysis

The primary purpose of structural analysis in building structures is to establish the

Table 2.4 Exposure classes

2.3.2. Design for fire resistance

Table 2.6 Minimum

3.1. Types of beam sections.

The three common types of reinforced concrete beam section are:

3.2. Reinforcement and bar Spacing

Table 3.2 minimum percentages of reinforcement.

Fig. 3.10 Ultimate moment of resistance for singly reinforced section.

This is a quadratic equation and can be solved to give

z=d [ 0.5+ √ (0.25−K /0.9) ](3.9)

Fig. 3.13 Shear resistance of links.

Fig. 3.14 Asv for varying shear reinforcement arrangements.

Example 2. Design for shear of an RC beam.

Table 3.13 Values of Asv/sv

Table 3.15 Modification factors for

Table 3.16 Modification factors for tension reinforcement

3.3.1.5. Member sizing

Fig. 3.16 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in

Fig. 3.17 Anchorage requirements at simple

Fig. 3.18 Anchorage lengths for hooks and

Table 3.18 Anchorage lengths as