MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Unit 1 – Notes-1
FLUID PROPERTIES AND
FLUID STATICS
Dr S. Sudhagara Rajan B.E (AERO), M.E (AERO), PhD .,
Assistant Professor
Aeronautical Department, DSCE
Unit 1
FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLUID STATICS:

Fluids, Properties of fluids, Newton’s law of viscosity, Types of fluids.

Fluid statics – Hydrostatic law, Pascal’s law. Measurement of pressure –
Piezometer, Simple and differential manometers.
Introduction
• Fluid – Both gas and liquid comes under this category
• Fluid Vs solid
• Fluid can fill any shape of container
• Fluid cannot resist any (even a small) shear stress
and result in the corresponding motion
• Hence, at the rest the fluid has a zero shear stress,

Fluid
- Liquid and gas
- Liquid - Gas
- A liquid, being composed of relatively close- - Gas molecules are widely spaced with negligible
packed molecules with strong cohesive forces cohesive forces, a gas is free to expand until it
tends to retain its volume and will form a free encounters confining walls and gas has no definite
surface in a gravitational field if unconfined from volume, (it will keep spreading)
above. - Compressible in nature , Density is highly variable
- (~)Incompressible in nature. Density in liquids is in gases and increases nearly proportionally to the
nearly constant. pressure level
 Intermolecular bonds
• Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
• Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
• Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules
move about each other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random in the gas phase.
Fluid Mechanics
• A branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids
(liquid or gas) at rest as well as in motion
• Deals with statics, kinematics and dynamics of the fluids
• Statics – study on the fluid at rest
• Kinematics – Study of the fluid in motion with out considering
the pressure forces
• Dynamics- Study of the fluids in motion considering the pressure
forces is called dynamics
Brief history

• Ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and

Chinese made observations and practical use of fluid
phenomena. For example, Archimedes (circa 287-212
BCE) formulated principles related to buoyancy and the
famous Archimedes' principle

• Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, developed the

principle of conservation of energy in fluid flow, known
as Bernoulli's principle. His work laid the foundation
for hydrodynamics and the understanding of fluid
pressure and flow dynamics.
Daniel Bernoulli(1700-1782)
• British engineer Osborne Reynolds conducted
experiments on fluid flow, leading to the discovery of
the phenomena of laminar and turbulent flow.

• Other than this many discoverers have contributed fluid Osborne Reynold (1842-1912)
mechanics with extremely useful concepts
Real life application
• Aerospace engineering – Designing the aircraft with
aerodynamic efficiency
• Civil Engineering - Design and analysis of water supply
and drainage systems
• Automobile engineering - design and optimize the
performance of vehicle (fuel system, hydraulics in the
suspension and break, cooling system, aerodynamics)
• Biomedical engineering – to understand and analysis
blood flow, respiratory system to design the medical
devices (i.e.stents), drug delivery system (i.e. inhalers)
• Environmental engineering – to model and predict the
movement of the pollutants in the air and water
• Other than this Fluid mechanics have a widespread
application in the oil and gas industry, sports

“Almost everything on this planet either is a fluid or moves within or near a Fluid”
-Frank M. White, Fluid Mechanics book
Consider a surface immersed in a fluid (in constant motion). The surface can be a
real, solid surface such as the wall of a duct or the surface of a body
Pressure (P)
• Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to the time rate
of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on (or crossing) that
surface
• Pressure is a point property and it will vary point to point
𝑑𝐹
P= lim (𝑑𝐴 → 0)
𝑑𝐴
• When a fluid is in motion, the actual pressure exerted by the fluid in the direction
normal to the flow is known as the static pressure.
• Total pressure is that pressure which a fluid will experience if its motion is brought
to rest. It is also called impact pressure
• The total and static pressures are used for computing the flow velocity
• Unit : N/m2 or Pascal
• At standard sea-level condition, the atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa, which
corresponds to 760 mm of mercury column height
Temperature (T)
• The temperature T of a gas is directly proportional to the average kinetic
energy of the molecules of the fluid.
• In any form of matter the molecules are in motion relative to each other
• The distance of free movement of a molecule of a gas is the distance it can
travel before colliding with another molecule or the walls of the container.
• The mean value of this distance for all molecules in a gas is called the
molecular mean free path length.
• By virtue of this motion the molecules possess kinetic energy, and this energy
is sensed as the temperature of the solid, liquid, or gas
• Temperature is a point property
• Temperature has units kelvin (K) or degree Celsius (◦C), in SI units.
• At standard sea-level conditions the atmospheric temperature is 288.15 K.
Flow velocity
Unlike solid, Flow velocity of the fluid
is not straight forward and common to
all part
• The velocity of a flowing gas at any
fixed point B in space is the velocity
of an infinitesimally small fluid
element as it sweeps through B.
• The flow velocity V has both
magnitude and direction; hence, it is
a vector quantity.
Density
The density of a fluid, denoted by ρ (Greek work rho) it is mass per unit volume
Unit : kg/m3
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
ρ=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Or The total number of molecules in a unit volume is a measure of the density
Density is highly variable in gases and increases nearly proportionally to the
pressure level.
Density in liquids is nearly constant; the density of water (about 1000 kg/m3)
• In liquid, if the pressure is increased by a factor of 220 leads to a 1% increase in the density
• Hence, ideally / or in general liquid can be termed as ‘incompressible’
• Density is essentially a point function and fluid properties can be thought of as
varying continually in space. fluid is called a continuum
• In general, liquids are three times denser than the gas at atmospheric pressure
• At 200C and 1 atm
Mercury: ρ= 13,580 kg/m3 Hydrogen: ρ= 0.0838 kg/m3 ; Density of Air 1.225 kg/m3
Challenges in defining density of real fluid
𝑑𝑚
ρ= lim 𝑑𝑣 → 0
𝑑𝑣
• There are practical difficulties in applying the above
definition of density to real fluids composed of
discrete molecules
• Because under the limiting condition the
infinitesimally small volume dv may or may not
contain any molecules
• Or the number of molecules occupying a given
volume continually changes
The effect discussed becomes unimportant if
the unit volume is large compared with, say,
the cube of the molecular spacing
when the number of molecules within the
volume will remain nearly constant in spite of calculated density versus
An elemental volume
the enormous interchange of particles across in a fluid region of size of the elemental
the boundaries. variable continuum volume.
density
however, if , the chosen unit volume is too
large, there could be a noticeable variation in Hence, The density ρ of a fluid is best defined as
the bulk aggregation of the particles. δ𝑚
ρ= lim ∗
In the fig the “density” as calculated from δ𝑣 →δ𝑣 δ𝑣
molecular mass δm within a given volume δV ∗
The limiting volume δ𝑣 is about 10-9 mm3 for all liquids and
is plotted versus the size of the unit volume. for gases at atmospheric pressure.
For example, 109 mm3 of air at standard conditions contains
approximately 3 X 107 molecules, which is sufficient to define a
nearly constant density
Density and temperature
• The density decreases from ~20 C to ~80 C and
further upon increasing the temperature
• As heat is added to the liquid water, there is greater
kinetic energy of the molecules and there are also
more vibrations of the water molecules
• Together these mean that each H2O unit in liquid
water takes up more space as the temperature
increases.
• So in the above portion, (right hand side in graph)
Temperature Increase -> density decrease
• However, if we decrease further from 4 C, the density
drops
• Or in the lower part, (Left hand side in the graph)
Temperature Increase, density increase
• Liquid water and solid water have the same network
of bonds. However, liquid water at 25 deg is so
rapidly breaking bonds between H2O units and
reforming them that extra water molecules get
trapped inside the water lattice
Additional content : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UukRgqzk-KE
Specific Weight or weight density
• The specific weight of the fluid denoted by the ‘w’
It is a ratio of the weight of the fluid to its volume
(W=m.g (F=m.a))
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ×𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
Specific weight (w) = = ρ.g
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Unit is N/m3
• Since the standard gravity is 9.807 m/s2
• the specific weights of air and water at 20°C and 1 atm are
approximately
wair = (1.205 kg/m3)(9.807 m/s2) = 11.8 N/m3
wwater = (1000 kg/m3)(9.807 m/s2) = 9790 N/m3
Specific Gravity
• It is defined as the ratio of the weight density of the fluid to the weight density of the
standard fluid
(For liquid : standard fluid is water (9810 N/m3), and for gas the standard fluid is air
(11.8 N/m3))
Specific gravity is also called as relative density
It is a dimension less quantity denoted by S
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
S(for liquids)= or
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
or
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = S X Weight density of water
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
S(for gases)= or
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Or
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = S X Weight density of air
 Specific volume
• It is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or
volume per unit mass of a fluid.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 1

Specific volume = = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

1
= (m3/kg)
ρ

It is commonly applied to gas

Numerical -1.1
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a
liquid which weighs 7N ?
Given
Volume => 1 liter = 1000 cm3 or 1/ 1000 m3
Weight / force => 7 N

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 : Weight / volume

= 7000 N/m3
Specific weight
Density (ρ) :
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
(specific weight ( w)=ρg)
= 713.5 kg /m3
Density of the liquid
Specific Gravity =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 0.7135
 Numerical 1.2
Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one liter of petrol.
Its specific gravity (S)=0.7

Solved in Class
Viscosity
• Viscosity of defined as the property of a fluid which offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of the fluid.
Or The property which characterizes the resistance that a fluid offers to
applied shear force is termed viscosity
• when the two layer of a fluid is distance ‘dy’ apart and move one
over another at difference velocities, say u and u+du
• Top and bottom layer causes a shear stress upon each other
• This shear stress(τ) is proportional or function of y (distance from
the surface)
𝑑𝑢
τ α
𝑑𝑦
Or
𝑑𝑢
τ =μ
𝑑𝑦
Viscosity 𝑑𝑢
is often 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑦
regarded as 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
the stickiness
of a fluid μ – Constant of proportionality and also
know as co-efficient of dynamic viscosity
Unit of Viscosity τ =μ
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦

𝜏
μ= 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
μ= 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
μ= 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
× 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑁/𝑚2
μ= 𝑚 1
×
𝑠 𝑚

Unit (μ) = 𝑁/𝑚2 .s or Pa .s (Pa-Pascal)

Poise (Non SI Unit)= 0.1 Pa.s
“Poise is named after J. L. M. Poiseuille, a French physician who performed pioneering
experiments in 1840 on wa- ter flow in pipes.”
Velocity gradient & shear strain rate relation.,

shear strain rate = Velocity gradient

𝛾 𝑑𝑢
𝛾= =
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑦

(Derivation solved in class)

Newton’s law of Viscosity
• The shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate
of shear strain

τ = μ.𝛾 = μ 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦

μ – Constant of proportionality and also know as co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or

Absolute co-efficient of Viscosity

𝑑𝑢
= Velocity gradient
𝑑𝑦

• Fluids which obey the above reaction is a called Newtonian fluids and the
fluids which do not obey the above equation is called Non- Newtonian fluid
Kinematic Viscosity
• It is defined as the ratio of the dynamic viscosity and density of the fluid. It
is denoted by υ (‘nu’)
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 μ
υ= =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ρ

(Derivation of the unit solved in the class)

Unit of the kinematic viscosity – m2/sec or cm2/s

Stoke is the non – SI unit, 1 Stoke = 10-4 m2/sec
Viscosity & temperature
• In liquid
• Viscosity decreases with the increase in temperature
• Cohesive force and molecular momentum transfer contributes the Viscous force in
the liquid.
• Among which Cohesive force predominates,
• Hence, upon increase in temperature, cohesive force will decrease subsequently
the viscosity decrease
• In order, define a viscosity at any temperature following equation with constants
were given below
1
𝜇 = 𝜇0
1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2
𝜇= Viscosity of liquid at (t°C)
𝜇0 = Viscosity of liquid at (0°C) (for water 1.79 X 10-3),
α and ꞵ are constant (for water. α=0.03368 and ꞵ = 0.000221)
 Viscosity and temperature
• In gas
Unlike liquid, in the gas, viscosity is
predominantly influenced by the collision
of the gas molecules

The collision of gas molecules will increase

if we provide molecules with more/ higher
kinetic energy through increasing the
temperature

Hence, for gases, viscosity will increase

with increase in temperature
Types of fluid
1.Ideal fluid
A fluid which is incompressible and have no viscosity/ imaginary
fluid
2. Real fluid
A fluid which possess viscosity / it exist in actual practice
3. Newtonian fluid
A real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the
rate of the shear strain (or velocity gradient)
4. Non-Newtonian fluid
A real fluid in which the shear stress is not directly proportional to
the rate of the shear strain (or velocity gradient)
5. Ideal Plastic fluid (or Bingham Plastic)
A fluid in which the shear stress is more than a yield value and the
shear stress is proportional to the shear strain rate
Ex. Tooth paste
Non- Newtonian fluids
Dilatant fluids/ shear thickening (b)
The dilatant fluid characterized by a greater than
linear increase of the shear stress which corresponds
to an increase in viscosity with shear rate. Example:
oobleck (mixture of corn starch and water)

Psedo plastic fluids/ shear thinning (a)

Pseudo-plastic fluids are also referred to as shear-
thinning fluids. The viscosity of these fluids will
decrease with increasing shear rate. (Ex. Ketchup)
“It gets thinner the harder you push”

(C) – Newtonian fluid

Additional : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KB43fM_ozKQ
Other types
Compressible fluid
A fluid, in which the density of fluid changes
while the change in external pressure or force, is
known as compressible fluid.
In compressible fluid
A fluid, in which the density of the fluid does not
change which changes to an external force or
pressure, is known as an incompressible fluid.
Numerical 1.3
2
If the velocity distribution over a plate is given byu= 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 in which
3
u is the velocity in meter/sec at a distance of y above the plate determine
the shear stress at y= 0 and y =0.15. take the dynamic viscosity of the
fluid as 8.63 poises
Solved in Class
Numerical 1.4
A Plate 0.025 mm distance from the fixed plate, moves at 60 m/s and
requires a force of 2 N per unit area i.e. (2N/m2) to maintain this speed.
Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates.

Solved in Class
Numerical 1.5
Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg / m3. The
shear stress at a point in oil is 0.2452 N/ m 2 and velocity gradient at
that point is 0.2 s

Solved in Class
Numerical 1.6
If the velocity profile of a fluid is parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from the
plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. calculate the velocity gradient and shear
stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the
fluid is 8.5 poise

Solved in Class
Thermodynamic properties
• Both Gas and Liquid belongs to the fluid category
• As gas is a compressible fluid, we can achieve variations in density
by changing the pressure and temperature
• The relation between pressure, specific volume and temperature of a
gas is given by equation of state
𝑃 1
P V = RT or = RT (V= )
𝜌 𝜌
P = pressure; V = Specific volume (= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
); R= gas constant ; T
Absolute temperature in K; 𝜌 = Density
Other forms : PV = mRT or PV=nRT ( V- volume; m- mass ; n –
number of mole in volume of gas)
Isothermal process
If the change in density happens at
constant temperature, then the
process is called isothermal and
relationship between P and density ρ
𝑃
=constant or PV = Constant or
𝜌
P1V1= P2V2
refers to processes that do not
change the temperature of the fluid
being processed.
Example: Boiling of water
Adiabatic process
It is derived from a greek work “Adiabatos”.
It means perfectly insulated / impassable.
If the change in density occurs with no heat
exchange to and from the gas the process is
called adiabatic
If no heat is generated with in the gas due to
friction, the relationship between pressure
density is given by
𝑃
=constant
𝜌𝑘
Where k is the specific heat ratio of the gas
at constant pressure and constant volume
(1.4 for air)
Viscosity – “A Thermodynamic property”
• The viscosity of newtonian fluids is a
true thermodynamic property and varies
with temperature and pressure.
• At a given state (p, T) there is a vast
range of values among the common
fluids.
• Generally speaking, the viscosity of a Viscosity and Kinematic Viscosity (v) of Eight Fluids at 1 atm and 20°C
fluid increases only weakly with
pressure.
• i.e. increasing p from 1 to 50 atm will
increase μ of air only 10 percent
• Temperature has a strong effect μ. μ
increase with T for gases and decrease
with T for liquids.
Numerical 1.7
A gas weighs 16 N/m2 at 25 C and at an absolute pressure 0.25
N/mm2. Determine the gas constant and density of the gas

Solved in class
Numerical 1.8
A cylinder of 0.6m3 in volume contains air at 50 C and 0.3 N/mm2
absolute pressure. The air is compressed to 0.3 m3.
Find
(i) Pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process
(ii) Pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic (Take K = 1.4)

Solved in class
 Surface tension
• The tensile force acting in the surface
of a liquid that is in contact with the gas
or on the surface between the two
immiscible liquids such that the contact • Molecule A have resultant force zero,
surfaces behaves like a membrane • Molecule B have a resultant force forcing them
under tension downwards
• Molecule C, exactly on the surface, have a
• The magnitude of this force per unit resultant force forcing them downwards
• Hence, all the molecules on the free surface
length of the free surface = surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface
energy per unit area of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension
of the surface of the liquid
• It is donated by a Greek letter sigma (σ) • act as though it is an elastic membrane under
– N/m tension.
 Surface tension in droplet
• Consider a spherical droplet of liquid of radius
r, the entire surface of the droplet the tensile
force due to surface tension will be acting
• It will have tensile force due to surface
tension acting around the cross sectioned
surface / edges
=σ x πd
• The pressure force is acting on the cross
sectioned surface
𝜋 2
= 𝑑 .𝑃
4
• Now we need to equate them
𝜋
𝑑 2 . 𝑃= σ x πd
4
4𝜎
P=
𝑑
Surface tension of the Hallow bubble
• A hallow bubble / soap bubble in air has two surfaces in
contact with air- inner and outer side of the wall
• Thus two surfaces are subjected to the surface tension in such
case we have
𝜋
𝑑2 . 𝑃= 2(σ x πd)
4

8𝜎
P=
𝑑
Surface tension of the jet
• Consider the length of the jet of diameter d
and L
P = pressure intensity inside the liquid jet
Force due to pressure = p x area of the semi jet
= p xL x D
Force due to the surface tension
= σx 2L
σx 2L = = p xL x D
σx 2L
p=
LxD
Numerical 1.9
The surface tension of the water in contact with air at 20 C is 0.0725
N/m . The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2
greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the
droplet

Solved in Class
Capillarity
A Phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in
a small tube relative to the adjacent general level
of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the
liquid.
The rise of the liquid surface is known as capillary
rise while the fall is known as capillary depression
It is expressed in terms of the mm / cm of liquid.
Value depends on the
• Specific weight of the liquid
• Diameter of the tube
• Surface tension of the liquid
 Expression of the capillary rise
Consider a glass tube of small diameter d opened at both end and inserted in
liquied (water)
The liquid will rise in the glass tube above the level of the liquid Adhesive force > cohesive force
Let, h- height of the liquid raised in the tube
Here the weight of the liquid in the height h of tube is balanced by the surface d
tension / force at the surface of the liquid in the tube ( around the contact )
σ- surface tension at the surface (acting upwards)
θ- angle of contact between the liquid and glass tube
The weight if the liquid at height h (w= m.g = (ρxV)Xg)
= ( area of the tube ) x h x ρ x g
𝜋
= 𝑑 2 . ℎ. ρ.g
4
Vertical component of the surface tensile force
= σxπdx cosθ
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝜎 θ = zero for most of
By equating the above two equation we get h= = the clear liquids
𝜌.𝑔.𝑑 𝜌.𝑔.𝑑
 Expression of the capillary Fall
• If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of the mercury will
fall in the glass tube compared to the general level (surrounded by)Adhesive force < cohesive force
h- depression in the tube
Two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube
1.Surface tension – acting in the downward direction = σ x πd x cosθ
2. Hydrostatic force acting upwards (= intensity of pressure at the depth
h x area )
𝜋 2
= 𝑑 .P
4
𝜋 2
= 𝑑 . ρ.g.h.
4
Equating the two equation we get
𝜋 2
σ x πd x cosθ= ρ.g.h. 𝑑
4
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
h=
𝜌.𝑔.𝑑

θ = 128° for most of the clear liquids

Compressibility
Bulk modulus
It is a rate of compressive stress vs volumetric strain

Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in the figure

Let V – volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder
P- pressure of the gas when volume is V
Let the pressure increased to P+dP, the volume of the gas will
decrease to V-dV
Increase in pressure – dp
Decrease in volume will be – dV
𝑑𝑉
Volumetric strain = - (-ve indicates decrease in volume)
𝑉
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Bulk modulus =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑃 1 1 𝑑𝑉
= 𝑑𝑉 = − 𝑑𝑉
. 𝑉 = K ; Compressibility =
𝐾
=− .
𝑉 𝑑𝑃
− 𝑉
 Pressure
Consider the small area of the dA in the mass of liquid
If the fluid is stationary, then the force exerted by the
surrounding fluid on the area dA will be always
perpendicular to the surface of the dA. dA
If dF is the force exerted on the dA by the surrounding
fluid,
𝑑𝐹
Ratio of can be taken as intensity of pressure or just dF
𝑑𝐴
the pressure
𝑑𝐹
P=
𝑑𝐴
If the force is uniformly distributed over the entire area
𝐹
P= or F=P X A
𝐴
Unit of pressure is N/m2 (SI Units)
(1 Pascal = N/m2)
Hydrostatic Law
The pressure at any point in liquid at rest is obtained by the
hydrostatic law
The rate of increase in pressure in the vertically downward
direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that
point

Consider a small fluid element ABCD

Let ΔA is the cross sectional area of the element
ΔZ is the height of the element
p = Pressure on face of the AB
Z= Distance of the fluid element from free surface
The force acting on the elements are
1. Pressure force on AB = P x ΔA
𝜕𝑝
2. Pressure force action in the CD = 𝑃 + . ΔZ x ΔA
𝜕𝑧
3. Weight of the fluid = Density x g x volume = ρ. g. ΔZ . ΔA
4. Pressure force on surfaces BC and AD are equal and
opposite. For the equilibrium
To be equilibrium (vertical direction)
𝜕𝑝
P x ΔA - 𝑃 + . ΔZ x ΔA +ρ. g. ΔZ . ΔA = 0
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝
P ΔA- P x ΔA - . ΔZ. ΔA +ρ. g. ΔZ . ΔA = 0
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝
− . ΔZ. ΔA +ρ. g. ΔZ . ΔA = 0
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝
. ΔZ. ΔA = ρ. g. ΔZ . ΔA
𝜕𝑧
𝝏𝒑
= ρ. g = w
𝝏𝒛
w = Specific weight / weight density
The above is called Hydrostatic law (rate of the change of the pressure
in the vertical direction is equal to the specific weight fo the fluid at that point )
𝝏𝒑= ρ. g . 𝝏𝒛
By integrating
P = ρ. g . 𝒛
Where P is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z
is the point from the free surface
𝑷
𝒛= (Pressure head)
ρ. g
Pascal’s Law
B Pz.ds.1
It is first stated by Blaise Pascal, a French scientist
It states that the pressure or intensity of the pressure at a θ
point in the static fluid is equal in all direction Px.dy.1 θ
θ
(Px=Py=Pz)
(Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in
pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal A C
increase at every other point in the container.)
Consider a fluid element of a very small direction(i.e. Py.dx.1
wedge shaped dx,dy,ds and width/depth is 1)
Px,Py and Pz are the pressure acting at the AB, AC and BC
plane respectively
The triangle has an angle of θ
Now, the forces acting on the elements are
1. Pressure force normal to the surface
2. Weight of the element in the vertical direction
Pascal’s Law B Pz.ds.1
The forces on the faces are
On AB θ
= Px X area of the AB Px.dy.1 θ
θ
= Px.dy.1
Similary @
AC= Py.dx.1
BC = Pz.ds.1 A C
Weight of the element = (mass of the element) X g
Py.dx.1
= (volume x ρ) x g
𝐴𝐵 ×𝐴𝐶
= .1 ×ρ×𝑔
2
ρ = density of the fluid
In the triangle ABC
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
Cosθ = 𝐵𝐶 ; AB or dy = BC or ds cosθ and Sinθ = 𝐵𝐶 ; AC or dx= BC sin θ or ds sin θ
We need take the horizontal forces (in x direction), resolve the force
on AC / inclined phase in the horizontal direction
Px.dy.1 – (Pz. Cos θ) ds.1 = 0
B
We know that ds cos θ = dy Pz.ds.1

Px.dy – Pz. dy = 0 θ
Px.dy.1 θ
Px = Pz θ
Similarly, if we resolve in the vertical direction / y direction, we get
𝐴𝐵 ×𝐴𝐶
Py.dx.1 – (Pz. Sin θ) ds.1 – .1 × ρ × 𝑔 (𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)= 0
2
A C
𝑑𝑦 ×𝑑𝑥
Py.dx.1 – (Pz. Sin θ) ds.1 – .1 × ρ × 𝑔= 0
2
Py.dx.1
We have considered a small element hence weight is negligible
and ds sin θ= dx so the equation become
Py.dx – Pz. dx = 0
Py = Pz
Finally we arrived at
Px= Py =Pz
Numerical 1.10
A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm
diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied
at the plunger is 500N

Solved in Class