Lei2019 Article TheRelationshipBetweenSelf-est
Lei2019 Article TheRelationshipBetweenSelf-est
Lei2019 Article TheRelationshipBetweenSelf-est
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Abstract
This study aims to reveal the relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying by using meta-analysis. We identified 61
articles with 49,406 student participants. The results provide strong evidence regarding the link between self-esteem and
cyberbullying. In addition, the meta-analysis has found that factors such as self-esteem measurements, participants’ culture,
sample size, and participants’ age all moderated this relationship. The betas between self-esteem and cyberbullying is stronger in
studies that used RSES (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale) and weaker in studies that used other measures. The betas coefficient was
larger for participants in Asia than those in the U.S. and Europe. Compared to “N < 200″ and “N > 800″, the betas coefficient was
larger in “200 < N < 800″. As the participants’ age increased, the betas coefficient between self-esteem and cyberbullying was
smaller. Implications of this meta-analysis are discussed.
Introduction
(Patchin and Hinduja 2010a, b; Cassidy et al. 2011; Agatston also calculates whether the link between self-esteem and
et al. 2012). In some extreme cases, cyberbullying can even cyberbullying differs across: (a) measures of self-esteem, (b)
lead to suicide (Friedman 2010; Schenk and Fremouw 2012). measures of cyberbullying, (c) sample size, and (d) the demo-
Therefore, based on these facts, it is critical to further study this graphic profile of the sample (age, gender, region).
phenomenon. Among studies on the influencing factors of
cyberbullying, the relationship between self-esteem and Moderating Variables Influencing the Link
cyberbullying is of particular concern for many researchers. between Self-Esteem and Cyberbullying
Self-esteem mainly measures implicit and explicit self-esteem Geographic Regions Previous studies have suggested that cul-
measures. Buhrmester, Blanton, and Swann (2011) identified tural differences drive greater cyberbullying in Asian students
the Implicit Association Test and Confidence Test as two com- than in European and American students. Among Chinese
mon methods for measuring implicit self-esteem. students, high self-esteem individuals are more impulsive;
Nevertheless, due to the poor reliability and convergent valid- thus, they are more likely to engage in cyberbullying (Wang
ity of implicit self-esteem tests and the limited predictive ef- 2018). However, among students with European or American
fect of implicit self-esteem on individuals’ behaviors (Krizan cultural background, high self-esteem individuals tend to be-
& Suls, 2009; Buhrmester et al., 2011), this study only takes have in a more rational way rather than engaging in pessimis-
explicit self-esteem into consideration. tic behaviors when confronting frustrations (Jing 2006). As a
Explicit self-esteem is mainly measured using scales. The result, European and American students are often less engaged
most comprehensive scale of explicit self-esteem is the in cyberbullying than Asian students, regardless of the levels
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg 1965), of self-esteem among students (Doane et al. 2016; Liu and Li
which measures global self-esteem. RSES enjoys a favorable 2016; Melander 2010; Zhang 2017).
reputation for its high reliability and validity, simplicity and Furthermore, most previous studies found that the
clarity, and ease of measurement and assessment. In addition, link between self-esteem and cyberbullying showed a
Coopersmith (1967) developed the Self-Esteem Inventory stronger negative correlation (Chen 2016) among Asian
(SEI); Marsh (1988) developed the Self-description students than European and American students (Sticca
Questionnaire; Shrauger and Schohn (1995) developed the et al. 2013; Melander 2010). However, some studies
Self-confidence Questionnaire; and Chinese scholars Huang showed that the relationship between self-esteem and
and Yang (1995) developed the Adolescent Self-worth Scale. cyberbullying was weak for both Asian students
Despite the availability of different scales, most studies exam- (Chang et al. 2013; Olenik-Shemesh and Heiman
ining the correlation between self-esteem and cyberbullying 2017; Patchin and Hinduja 2010a, b) and European/
employed RSES. With different theoretical underpinnings, the American students. Hence, how geographic region mod-
scales mentioned above provided different foci and gave rise erates the link between self-esteem and cyberbullying is
to different results. The present study will examine the mod- unknown, so we will test it in this study.
erating effect of self-esteem measures on the link between
self-esteem and cyberbullying. Age The relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying
may differ according to age. According to the group
socialization development theory (Harris, 1995), as ado-
Sample Size lescents develop, they care more about others’ opinions
and gradually realize that bullying is not an acceptable
Sample size may also influence the relationship between self- behavior in society; hence, the link between self-esteem
esteem and aggression. After investigating 2143 teenagers, and cyberbullying could be weakened. However, accord-
Pyżalski (2012) concluded that the correlation between self- ing to the social learning theory (Conger, Neppl, Kim,
esteem and cyberbullying is relatively weak (r = .070). & Scaramella, 2003), as children grow up, they cumu-
However, Chen (2016), whose sample included 309 students, latively learn more from confident individuals and have
found a strong correlation between the two variables (r = more freedom to engage in cyberbullying (Luo et al.
−.534). Furthermore, Didden et al. (2009) found a weak cor- 2010).
relation (r = −.19) between self-esteem and cyberbullying Previous studies have also shown that the link be-
among 114 teenagers. These studies demonstrate the effect tween self-esteem and cyberbullying was the lowest
of sample size on this link. Consequently, given the character- among 10-year-old students (r = −.072; Yang et al.
istics and sensitivity of sample size, we specified three cate- 2013) and the highest among 20-year-old students (r =
gories of sample size in this study, with sample sizes of 200 −.0476; Liu and Li 2016), relative to 12-year-old stu-
and 800 as the critical values for the analysis of moderating dents (r = −.290; Yuan et al. 2018). However, other
effects. studies found a weak relationship between self-esteem
and cyberbullying for the older students (Yang et al.,
2013; You et al. 2016). How age moderates the rela-
Demographic Variables as Moderators tionship between self-esteem and cyberbullying remains
unclear, and thus warrants investigation.
The link between self-esteem and cyberbullying may differ
across demographic variables. Specifically, we examine the Gender Previous studies have shown that gender is a moder-
effect of geographic region, gender or age as moderating ator of the relationship between self-esteem and
variables. cyberbullying. There is a stronger positive correlation for
Curr Psychol
female students (Battaglia 2012; Doane et al. 2016) than for Coding Variables
male students (Li 2016). However, other studies have shown a
weak positive correlation between self-esteem and We coded information from 61 articles in the following
cyberbullying for both male and female students (Brighi ways: (a) effect sizes of each independent sample were
et al. 2012). One goal of this meta-analysis study is to help encoded based on an independent sample, and effect
adjudicate these mixed results. sizes were separately encoded if a study had several
independent samples; (b) if a study reported a correla-
tion between self-esteem and cyberbullying many times,
Research Objectives the mean value was used instead of effect sizes; (c) if
an independent sample provided effect sizes (expressed
In this study, we aim to examine the link between self-esteem as r) for sample characteristics such as gender, the re-
and cyberbullying using meta-analysis. This study has two sults for the two genders were coded separately; (d) if a
objectives: (a) to examine an overall effect size for the link study reported not only a correlation between a total of
between self-esteem and cyberbullying, and (b) to calculate self-esteem and cyberbullying but also a correlation be-
whether the link between self-esteem and cyberbullying is tw een different dimensions of self-esteem and
influenced by a variety of moderating variables. cyberbullying, we only coded the former; (e) if a study
reported a correlation between different indicators of
self-esteem and cyberbullying, we coded these separate-
ly (Table 1).
Method
Data Analysis
Literature Search
Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (CMA Version
To identify studies on self-esteem and cyberbullying, we sys- 2.0) was used to analyze the data. Homogeneity tests
tematically searched for relevant literature published from and mean effect were calculated using a random-
January 2008 to March 2018 in electronic databases, includ- effects model. All mean effect sizes were computed by
ing Google Scholar, ProQuest Dissertations, Taylor & Francis, averaged weighted (inverse variance weights) correlation
Springer, Web of Science, PsycINFO, EBSCO, Elsevier coefficients of independent samples. Moderators were
SDOL, Chongqing VIP Information Co., Ltd. (VIP), decided by the homogeneity test, which revealed vari-
WANFANG DATA, Chinese Selected Doctoral Dissertations ance in effect sizes between different samples’ charac-
and Master’s Theses Full-Text Databases (CDMD), and China teristics. When the homogeneity test was significant
National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Indexed key- (QBet > .05), post hoc contrasts were implemented to test
words primarily included terms reflecting cyberbullying whether the groups were statistically different. This
(cyberbullying, cyber aggression, cyber violent, cyber harass- study used meta-analysis to test whether each moderator
ment, electronic aggression, electronic bullying, electronic vi- accounted for the variation in the effect sizes.
olent, electronic harassment, internet aggression, internet bul-
lying, online aggression, online bullying, internet violence,
and internet harassment) and self-esteem (self-esteem, SES, Results
self-efficacy, self-concept, and self-confidence). All articles
obtained were written either in English or in Chinese. Effect Size and the Homogeneity Test
Only articles that met five inclusion criteria were chosen
for the meta-analysis. We included articles based on the fol- In total, 61 articles were included in this meta-analysis;
lowing criteria: (a) tested the link between self-esteem and for these, 65 effect sizes were calculated. This study
cyberbullying; (b) measured cyberbullying, including cyber involved 49,406 students. The sample sizes of the stud-
aggression, cyber violence, cyber harassment, electronic ag- ies ranged from 91 to 3026. The random-effect model
gression, electronic bullying, electronic violence, electronic showed self-esteem’s negative betas with cyberbullying.
harassment, internet aggression, internet bullying, online ag- Table 2 illustrates that the homogeneity test for 61 in-
gression, online bullying, internet violence, or internet harass- dependent samples showed substantial heterogeneity
ment; (c) measured self-esteem, including self-esteem, SES, among the selected studies (Q = 1240.213; p < .001;
self-efficacy, self-concept, or self-confidence, (d) included an I 2 = 94.840) and likely moderation effects, so a
explicit sample size, and (e) explicitly reported either stan- random-effect model was used (Lei et al. 2018a, b).
dardized regression coefficient (β) or r, t, Χ2, and F value that The random-effect model showed a significant negative
could be transformed intoβ values (see Fig. 1). beta of −.161 (95% CI: −.199 to −.121) between self-
Curr Psychol
esteem and cyberbullying. Moreover, the beta between to examine whether year, age, and gender influenced the
self-esteem and cyberbullying was stable, as shown by link between self-esteem and cyberbullying.
the Z-value of −7.961 and p < .001.
Cyberbullying Measures
Moderator Analysis
As indicated in Table 3, the homogeneity test for a cyber-
We were able to conduct two total homogeneity tests bullying link to self-esteem across cyberbullying measures
across 61 independent samples. The results showed a (CBOS, CBI, SCBI, EBQ, RCBI, and others) was not signif-
significant homogeneity coefficient between self-esteem icant (QBET = 6.869, df = 5, p > .05).
and cyberbullying (QT(64) = 1240.213, p < .001). This in-
dicates that the factors moderating the effects of the
relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying, spe- Self-Esteem Measures
cifically for our hypothesis, were culture, journal type,
sample, year, age, and gender. We used a meta-analysis The homogeneity test for cyberbullying link to self-esteem
of variance to examine whether culture, journal type, was significant across self-esteem measures (RSES and
and sample moderated the relationship between self- others) (QBET = 4.468, df = 1, p < .05). cyberbullying’s link
esteem and cyberbullying and meta-regression analyses to self-esteem was larger in studies that used RSES (r = −.192,
Curr Psychol
a
N = Not reported
b
1 = RSES, 2 = Others
c
1 = RCBI, 2 = CBI, 3 = CBOS, 4 = EBQ, 5 = SCBQ, 6 = Others
Curr Psychol
65 49,406 −0.161 −.199 −.121 1240.213 .00 94.840 .025 .006 .157 −7.961***
95% CI = −.238, −.145) and smaller in studies that used others −.217, −.076). Moreover, compared with the negative
measures (r = −.109, 95% CI = −.170, −.048). correlation between self-esteem and cyberbullying in
the American group, Asian group, and European group,
Geographic Regions the link between self-esteem and cyberbullying was sig-
nificantly positively correlated in the Australian group
As shown in Table 3, the homogeneity tests for (r = .152, 95% CI = −.032, .326), but the homogeneity
cyberbullying links to students’ self-esteem were signifi- test showed that this relationship was unsteady.
cant across cultures (America, Asia, Australia, and
Europe) (Q B E T = 15.599, p < .001). In particular, Sample Size
Table 3 shows that participants from the Asian group
(r = −.218, 95% CI = −.275, −.160) indicated a stronger Sample size significantly moderated the link between self-
correlation between self-esteem and cyberbullying than esteem and cyberbullying (QBET = 16.820, p < .001). The cor-
those in the American group (r = −.134, 95% CI = relation was largest in “200 < N < 800” (r = −.231, 95% CI =
−.208, −.058) and Europe group (r = −.147, 95% CI = −.279, −.183), smaller in “800 < N” (r = −.083, 95% CI =
Table 3 Tests of moderators of the cyber bully’s links with students’ self-esteem
−.141, −.025) and smallest in “N < 200” (r = −.078, 95% CI = sizes of correlations between self-esteem and
−.200, .046). cyberbullying, revealing geography, sample size, age,
and gender as moderators influencing the associations.
Age The results showed that overall, self-esteem was nega-
tively correlated with cyberbullying among students. In
The meta-regression analysis showed that age moderated the other words, a lower level of self-esteem caused stu-
relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying (QModel dents to present a higher rate of cyberbullying as per-
[1, k = 50] = 17.545, p < .001). The results suggest that with petrators. In addition, these results showed that partici-
changes in age, the relationship between self-esteem and pants’ cultures, sample size, and age moderated the re-
cyberbullying lessen. lationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying.
Fig. 2 Funnel plot of effect sizes of the betas between self-esteem and cyberbullying
statistical errors. The above individual studies added on The Moderating Role of Geographic Regions
to provide a well-rounded knowledge of relation be-
tween self-esteem and cyberbullying. The moderation test showed that geographic region moderat-
ed the link between self-esteem and cyberbullying. The neg-
Moderating Effects ative link between self-esteem and cyberbullying was stronger
among Asian students compared to American and European
The moderation test showed that self-esteem measures, partic- students; this may be due to cultural differences. People living
ipants’ geographic regions, the sample size, and participants’ in western cultures tend to understand cyberbullying and reg-
ages moderate the link between self-esteem and ulate it through the use of reasonable institutions, but people
cyberbullying, and we will discuss these in the following from Asian cultures, such as the Chinese, are inclined to blame
subsections. and suppress this phenomenon in strict ways, which might
evoke an increase of violence (Lin 2016). Hence, it is neces-
sary to adapt the interventions directed at students’ self-esteem
The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem Scales to different regions. Future studies can also explore students’
perceptions of cyberbullying across cultures and identify dif-
The link between self-esteem and cyberbullying was signifi- ferent preventive measures to fight cyberbullying.
cant for all self-esteem measurement tools (RSES vs. others),
but there was a significantly stronger link in studies using
RSES (r = −0.185) than other scales (r = −0.101). Thus, com- The Moderating Role of Sample Size
pared to other measures, the question of whether RSES is a
better or worse measure of self-esteem arises. Another possi- Sample size also significantly moderates the relationship be-
ble explanation is that RSES and other scales actually repre- tween self-esteem and cyberbullying. Specifically, a sample
sent different constructs, employing different terms related to size ranging from 200 to 800 has a stronger correlation be-
self-esteem in the literature, such as self-worth, self-concept, tween self-esteem and cyberbullying than “N < 200” and “N >
and self-efficacy. For example, one study included the adopted 800.” This phenomenon may be related to the following three
Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale (Second Edition) to reasons. First, for small samples, a relatively large correlation
measure participants’ self-concept (Hines 2011). Although the coefficient error in the limited districts or groups may reduce
items used to measure self-concept and self-esteem over- the stability of the results (the homogeneity test of −.938 re-
lapped, there are theoretical differences between the two con- vealed that the relationship between self-esteem and
structs. Self-esteem emphasizes the evaluative aspects of cyberbullying among small samples was not stable). In addi-
worth (Butler and Gasson 2005), especially in the domain of tion, the combined effect size may be weaker. Second, for
social roles (Rosenberg 1965), while self-concept refers to an large samples, the correlation coefficient was small, and the
overarching view of self (Butler and Gasson 2005). Therefore, error was small; this increased if RSES was used to measure
future studies can further explore the distinctions between self-esteem. For instance, Garaigordobil (2017) investigated
these constructs and refine the structures of relevant measure- 3026 teenagers and concluded that the link between self-
ment tools. esteem and cyberbullying was weak (r = −.129). Lastly, for
Curr Psychol
samples ranging between 200 and 800, RSES was typically Conclusion
adopted. These results indicate that the relationship between
self-esteem and cyberbullying still requires further investiga- Through a review of 65 studies with 32,688 student partici-
tion in order to control the effects of sample size. pants, meta-analysis results revealed that cyberbullying has a
significant negative correlation with students’ self-esteem.
Furthermore, participants’ region, the sample size of the study,
The Moderating Role of Age and participants’ age moderated the reported correlation. The
strength of the correlation between cyberbullying and self-
Cyberbullying was significantly linked to self-esteem esteem was larger when (a) participants were in the Asian
across different age groups, yet the link between self- group as compared to the American group and European
esteem and cyberbullying weakened as the average age group (in addition, there was a significantly positive link be-
of participants increased. On one hand, these results are tween self-esteem and cyberbullying in the Australian group,
consistent with the theory of socialization (Parsons compared to a negative correlation between self-esteem and
1959). The older the students are more likely to have cyberbullying in the other three groups), (b) the sample size
picked up the social norms in both offline and online was “200 < N < 800″ versus “N < 200″ and “N > 800,” and (c)
contexts. Thus, they probably have a tendency to be- the participants’ age was younger.
have in accordance with social values and control their
own behavior instead of bullying others online. On the Acknowledgements All authors read and approved the manuscript. This
research was supported by the National Social Science Foundation for
other hand, the Internet offers a new platform for social
Education of China (CFA180249).
communication, whose frequent users are mostly from a
younger age group (Anderson and McCabe 2012; Li
Compliance with Ethical Standards
2018). This might strengthen the relationship between
cyberbullying among younger students and their self- Ethical Approval All procedures involving human participants in this
esteem. study were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the
In addition, Erikson’s (1950) stages of psychosocial devel- institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964
Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical
opment can also account for the moderating role of age. The
standards.
average age of participants in all of the studies ranged from 10
to 35 and were mostly 12–18 years old. At the stage of ado- Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual
lescence, students are faced with the crisis of identity devel- participants included in the study.
opment, which may result in anti-social behavior. As students
grow up, this major conflict comes to an end and their identity Conflict of Interest The Author declares that they have no conflicts of
interest.
becomes stable, which weakens the link between self-esteem
and cyberbullying.
Overall, it appears that relevant interventions aimed at en-
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