1

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC BÁCH KHOA HÀ NỘI

VIỆN VẬT LÝ KỸ THUẬT
-----    -----

LAB REPORT PHYSICS II

Instructor: Assoc.Prof. Đặng Đức Dũng

Student name: Đào Xuân Bách

Student ID: 20224356
Class: 736054 – ET-E4
Group: 1

Hà Nội, năm 2023

 FOREWORD
I am delighted to present to you this report on our recent physics experiment focused on
the electricity and heat. Electricity and heat have become an indispensable part of our
daily lives, powering our homes, industries, and the technological marvels that surround
us. Understanding its principles is essential in navigating our modern world.

In this report, you will find a detailed exploration of the behavior of electricity, ranging
from the basic concepts such as resistance and circuits. By conducting an array of
experiments. Moreover, we have conducted a range of experiments to determine the
specific heat ratio of air based on Clement Desorme’s method.

I am confident that this report will not only enhance your knowledge of electricity and
heat but also inspire you to explore its countless applications and potential further. The
findings and insights shared here have the potential to shape the way we harness and
utilize electricity and heat, propelling us toward a more sustainable and efficient future.

In conclusion, I want to especially thank my instructor Đặng Đức Dũng. During the study
process, he guided and taught me a lot not only about the lessons but also about essential
issues for my future. Your enthusiasm and encouragement throughout the experiment
were instrumental in fueling our curiosity and motivation to learn more about these
intricate topics.

Once again, thank you for all that you have done to make this experiment a success. Your
dedication to teaching and inspiring has left a lasting impact on us all, and we are grateful
for your contributions.

Sincerely,
Đào Xuân Bách
 Experiment Report 1
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE, CAPACITENCE,
INDUCTANCE AND RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF
RLC USING OSCILLOSCOPE
I. EXPERIMENT MOTIVATIONS
• Understand a typical circuit
• Learn how to use electrical equipment including oscilloscope and function
generator
• Improving experimental skills.

II. EXPERIMENT RESULTS.

1. Resistance Measurement:
Trial f (Hz) R(Ω)
1 1000 2190
2 1500 2180
3 2000 2170

2. Capacitance Measurement:
Trial f (Hz) R (Ω) 𝐂 (𝐅)
1 1000 110 1.45 × 10−6
2 2000 53 1.50 × 10−6
3 3000 36 1.47 × 10−6

3. Inductance Measurement
Trial f (Hz) R (Ω) 𝐋 (𝐇)
1 5000 1200 3.81 × 10−2
2 10000 2500 3.98 × 10−2
3 15000 3800 4.03 × 10−2

4. Determination of Resonant Frequency:

Trial Series RLC Parallel RLC
1 682 (Hz) 684 (Hz)
2 685 (Hz) 684 (Hz)
3 680 (Hz) 682 (Hz)

III. DATA ANALYSIS:

1. Resistance Measurement:
 1

We have 𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅0
𝑅1 = 2190 (Ω); 𝑅2 = 2180 (Ω); 𝑅3 = 2170 (Ω)
∑3𝑖=1 𝑅𝑖
̅𝑅̅̅𝑥̅ = = 2180 (Ω)
3

√∑3𝑖=1(𝑅𝑥𝑖 − ̅𝑅̅̅𝑥̅)2
Δ𝑅𝑥 ≈ S. D ≈ = 5.77 (Ω)
3
Hence:
𝑅𝑥 = 2180 ± 5.77 (Ω)

2. Capacitance Measurement:
1 1
𝑍𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 𝑅0 hence 𝐶𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅
𝑥 0

𝐶1 = 1.45 × 10−6 (𝐹) ; 𝐶2 = 1.50 × 10−6 (𝐹) ; 𝐶3 = 1.47 × 10−6 (𝐹)

∑3𝑖=1 𝐶𝑥𝑖
̅̅̅
𝐶𝑋 = = 1.47 × 10−6 (𝐹)
3

√∑3𝑖=1(𝐶𝑥𝑖 − ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝑋 )2
Δ𝐶𝑋 ≈ 𝑆. 𝐷 ≈ = 0.01 × 10−6 (𝐹)
3
Hence:
𝐶𝑋 = (1.47 ± 0.01) × 10−6 (𝐹)

3. Inductance Measurement:
0 𝑅
𝑍𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓. 𝐿𝑥 = 𝑅0 hence 𝐿𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑓

We have:
𝐿1 = 3.81 × 10−2 (𝐻)
𝐿2 = 3.98 × 10−2 (𝐻)
𝐿3 = 4.03 × 10−2 (𝐻)
∑3𝑖=1 𝐿𝑥𝑖
̅̅̅
𝐿𝑥 = = 3.94 × 10−2 (𝐻)
3

√∑3𝑖=1(𝐿𝑥𝑖 − ̅̅̅
𝐿𝑥 )2
Δ𝐿𝑥 ≈ 𝑆. 𝐷 ≈ = 0.05 × 10−2 (𝐻)
3
Hence:
 𝐿𝑋 = (3.94 ± 0.05) × 10−2 (𝐻)

4. Determination of Resonant Frequency:

a. Series RLC Circuit
∑3𝑖=1 𝑓𝑥𝑖
𝑓̅𝑥 = = 682.33 (𝐻𝑧)
3
2
√∑3𝑖=1(𝑓𝑋𝑖 − 𝑓̅𝑋 )
Δ𝑓𝑥 ≈ 𝑆. 𝐷 ≈ = 1.21 (𝐻𝑧)
3
Hence:
𝑓𝑋−𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 682.33 ± 1.21 (𝐻𝑧)

b. Parallel RLC Circuit

∑3𝑖=1 𝑓𝑥𝑖
𝑓̅𝑋 = = 683.33 (𝐻𝑧)
3
2
√∑3𝑖=1(𝑓𝑋𝑖 − 𝑓̅𝑋 )
Δ𝑓𝑋 ≈ 𝑆. 𝐷 ≈ = 0.54 (𝐻𝑧)
3
Hence:
𝑓𝑋−𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 683.33 ± 0.54 (𝐻𝑧)

c. Theoretical Result and Conclusion

1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓̅𝑋 = = 661.32 (𝐻𝑧)
2𝜋√3.94 × 10−2 × 1.47 × 10−6

0.01 2 1 0.05 2 1 0.01 2

Δ𝑓𝑋 ≈ 𝑆. 𝐷 ≈ 661.32 × √( ) + (− . ) + (− . ) = 5.2(𝐻𝑧)
3.14 2 3.94 2 1.47

Hence:
𝑓𝑋−𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 661.32 ± 5.2 (𝐻𝑧)

We can see that:

The theoretical result of resonant frequency is approximately equal to the
directly measured results. We can see that the RLC circuit (with properly
 3

small resistance) becomes a good approximation to an ideal LC circuit.

 Experimental Report 2
MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETIC FIELD
INSIDE A SOLENOID WITH FINITE LENGTH

I. EXPERIMENT MOTIVATIONS
• Investigate the magnetic field at a position along the axis of solenoid
• Investigate the relationship between the magnetic field and the current through the solenoid

II. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

1. Investigation of the magnetic field at the position along the axis of solenoid – B(x)

I=0.3 (A)
x (cm) B (mT) x (cm) B (mT) x (cm) B (mT)
0 0.60 10 1.36 20 1.37
1 0.98 11 1.37 21 1.37
2 1.18 12 1.37 22 1.37
3 1.28 13 1.37 23 1.37
4 1.32 14 1.37 24 1.36
5 1.33 15 1.37 25 1.34
6 1.34 16 1.37 26 1.33
7 1.35 17 1.38 27 1.28
8 1.36 18 1.37 28 1.22
9 1.36 19 1.37 29 1.00
30 0.63

2. Measurement of the relationship between the magnetic field and the current through the
solenoid – B(I)
 5

x = 15 (cm)

I (A) B (mT)

0.15 0.73

0.20 0.94

0.25 1.16

0.30 1.38

0.35 1.61

0.40 1.80

0.45 2.03

0.50 2.28

0.55 2.54

0.60 2.75

3. Comparison of experimental and theoretical magnetic field

I = 0.4 (A)
x (cm) B (mT)
0 0.82
15 1.80
30 0.86

III. DATA ANALYSIS

1. Relationship between the magnetic field and the position of the probe inside the solenoid
 Investigation of the magnetic field at the position along
the axis of solenoid
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
B (mT)

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
x (cm)

Error bar: horizontal 2Δx=0.2 (cm) ; vertical 2ΔB=0.02 (mT)

Comment:
The graph shows that the magnetic field inside a solenoid depends on the position of the probe inside.
The magnitude of the magnetic field increases from x=0 to x=8, and then stable until x=25, then decrease
with exact the same pace as it increases. The graph is symmetric around the point x=15 (cm)

2. Relationship between the magnetic field and the applied voltage

Relationship between the magnetic field and the applied

voltage
3.5

2.5

2
B (mT)

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
I (A)

Error bar: vertical 2ΔB=0.02 (mT)

Comment:
 7

The graph shows that the magnitude of the magnetic field and the voltage has a linear relationship. But in
this case, the resistance is unchanged, so the current also has linear relationship with the voltage. So, we
can see that relationship between the magnetic field and the applied current is also linear
3. Comparison of experimental and theoretical magnetic field

We have:
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝐵= . 𝐼. 𝑛0 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾2 )
2
In this case, µr=1

𝑁 750
n0= 𝐿 = 300×10−3 = 2500

𝐼0 = 𝐼√2 = 0.4√2 = 0.566 (A)

𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾1 = √𝑅2
+𝑥 2

𝐿−𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾2 = −
√𝑅 2 +(𝐿−𝑥)2

𝐷 40.3
𝑅= = = 20.2 (𝑚𝑚)
2 2

• x = 0 (cm): 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾1 = 0; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾2 = - 0.998

𝜇0 𝜇 𝑟 1.256×106
𝐵= 𝐼𝑛0 (cos 𝛾1 − cos 𝛾2 ) = × 0.566 × 2500 × (0 + 0.998) = 0.86 (𝑚𝑇)
2 2

• x = 15 (cm): 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾1 = 0.991; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾2 = - 0.991

𝜇0 𝜇 𝑟 1.256×106
𝐵= 𝐼𝑛0 (cos 𝛾1 − cos 𝛾2 ) = × 0.566 × 2500 × (0.991 + 0.991) = 1.76 (𝑚𝑇)
2 2

• x = 30 (cm): 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾1 = 0.998; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾2 = 0

𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 1.256×106
𝐵= 𝐼𝑛0 (cos 𝛾1 − cos 𝛾2 ) = × 0.566 × 2500 × (0.998 − 0) = 0.86 (𝑚𝑇)
2 2

Comparison between theoretical values and experimental values

x (cm) Btheoretical (mT) Bexperimental (mT)

0 0.86 0.82
15 1.76 1.80
30 0.86 0.86
Compare with the obtained result in the experiment:

The result from the experiment is approximately close to the theoretical values. The different due
to the uncertainty of the instruments used.
 1

Experimental Report 3
INDUCTOR AND FREE OSCILLATION IN RLC
CIRCUIT
I. EXPERIMENT MOTIVATIONS
• Understanding the current across an inductor-resistor and RLC circuit
• Calculating the energy of the oscillation RLC circuit.
II. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

1. Resistance and inductance of the coil

VS = 5.00 (V)
I0 = 0.73 (A)
Slope S = 861.75
 3

• The resistance of the coil:

𝑉𝑆 5.00
𝑅𝐿 = = = 6.85 (𝛺)
𝐼𝑂 0.73

• Coil inductance :
𝑉𝑆 5.00
L= = = 7.95 × 10−3 (𝐻)
𝐼𝑂 × 𝑆 0.73 × 861.75

2. Free oscillation of the RLC circuit

a. Frequency
• The voltage in RLC circuit

• The current in RLC circuit

We have:
T = 0.0018 (s)
V = 7.6 (V)
L = 7.95 x 10-3 (H)
C = 10 x 10-6 (F)

• The frequency based on the graph:

1 1
𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = = 555.5 (𝐻𝑧)
𝑇 0.0018

• The frequency based on theoretical calculation:

1 1
𝑓𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 564.5(𝐻𝑧)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 2𝜋√8.4 × 10−3 × 10 × 10−6

• Comparison between the frequency based on the graph and one on theoretical calculation

𝛥𝑓 = 𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑓𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 555.5 − 549.1 = 6.4 (𝐻𝑧)

b. Energy
 5

The total energy in RLC circuit:

1 2 1 2
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑐 + 𝑈𝐿 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐿𝐼
2 2
Comment:

• After stopping the electric power, the energy of the circuit does not decrease rapidly to
zero, it reduces to zero over a short period of time.
• The energy of oscillations of the coil and the capacitor is damped oscillations.
Explain:

• The energy of the circuit loses by the heat of the resistor at rate 𝑖 2 𝑅
• The graph of total energy is steepest at the time that the magnetic energy reaches a local
maximum because in these times, the current through the coil is highest, and the loss of
energy is mainly due to the resistance of the coil (𝛥𝑄 = 𝑖 2 𝑅).
• It means that the energy in the circuit dies out faster for larger R because it transfers more
rapidly into Ohm heating (sometimes called Joule heating).
 Experimental Report 4
VERIFICATION OF FARADAY’S LAW OF
ELETROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
I. EXPERIMENT MOTIVATIONS
• Verify Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
III. EXPERIMENT RESULTS
1. 1200 turn coil

R = 12 (Ω); L = 12 (mH)
Pole Voltage Peak 1 Voltage Peak 2
North -0.381 0.676
South 0.106 -0.141
North-South -0.263 0.468
North-North -0.716 1.313
South-South 0.703 -1.203

Graph

North
 7

South

North-South
North-North

South-South
2. 150 turn coil
 9

R = 0.4 (Ω); L = 1 (mH)

Pole Voltage Peak 1 Voltage Peak 2

North -0.020 0.037

South 0.043 -0.090

North-South 0.023 -0.040

North-North -0.084 0.197

South-South 0.071 -0.183

Graph

North
South

North-South
 11

North-North

South-South

III. COMMENT AND EXPLAINATION

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:
A voltage is induced in a circuit whenever relative motion exists between a conductor and a
magnetic field and that the magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change
of the flux
 ΔΦ Δ(BA)
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = −𝑁 = −𝑁
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
So, we have:

• Comparison between the first voltage peak and second voltage peak:
- The two voltage peak have opposite signs corresponding to the direction of the magnetic field
line’s rate and direction of change. According to Faraday’s Law, the induced electromotive force
acts in the direction that opposes the change in magnetic flux.
- Also, the magnitude of the second voltage peak is greater than that of the first peak. This can be
explained by the motion of the magnet bar. When the magnet is released to fall through the coil,
its motion is free fall. Therefore, the velocity of the bottom pole when it falls through the coil is
larger than that of the top pole. This means the change in magnetic field increases in time, and
according to Faraday’s Law above, this results in the greater magnitude of the second peak.

• The shape of the graph

- Both graphs are approximately symmetric about the point when ΔΦ𝐵 = 0 (rate of change of the
magnetic field flux equals zero). This can be explained by Faraday’s law, which states that the
induced voltage through the wire induces a current that creates a magnetic flux in the direction
opposing the change in flux, and the fact that the magnetic field line going in/out the north and
the south pole of the magnet are exactly the same.

• Comparison between two coil

- The maximum voltage for the coil with more turns is higher than the one with fewer turn,
because the magnitude of voltage is proportional to the number of turns in the coil, as shown in
the equation:
ΔΦ
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = −𝑁
Δ𝑡
 13

Experimental Report 5
INVESTIGATION OF TRANSMISSION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE (MICROWAVE)

I. EXPERIMENT MOTIVATION
• Evaluate both qualitative and quantitative results of transmitting and receiving microwave.
II. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
1. Investigation of straight-line propagation of microwaves
Observation:
● When the receiver is aligned with the rail (the transmitter and receiver are facing each other),
the volt-meter shows the maximum value.
● When the receiver moves far from the rail (in a plane perpendicular to the rail), the value of
volt-meter decreases.
Conclusion:
• Microwave propagates best in straight line.

2. Investigation of penetration of microwaves

Observation:
• When a dry absorption plate (electrical insulator) is put between transmitter and receiver, the
volt-meter slightly decrease
Conclusion:
● Microwave can penetrate through the dry absorption plate.
● Not all of the microwave will penetrate through the dry absorption plate, a part of them will
be absorbed by the absorption plate.

3. Investigation of screening and absorption of microwaves

Observation:
• When a reflection plate (electrical conductor) is put between transmitter and receiver, the
volt-meter shows a value that is very small compared to the value when the absorb plate is
absent. In this case, the volt-meter shows a value approximate 0 (0.01).
Conclusion:
• Most of microwave will not go through the reflection plate.

4. Investigation of reflection of microwaves

Observation:
 Reflector angle Voltage

20o 0.60 V

30o 0.69 V

40o 0.54 V

Incidence angle (30o ) 50o 0.13 V

60o 0.10 V

70o 0.08 V

80o 0.04 V

90o 0.03 V
• When the arrow is the bisector of 2 rails (the reflector angle is equal to the incidence angle),
the volt-meter shows maximum value.
Conclusion:
• Microwave reflects best when perpendicular bisector of the reflection plate is the bisector
of an angle created by the transmitter and receiver.
• When the microwave reflects, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

5. Investigation of refraction of microwaves

Observation:

• When the angle created by 2 rails is 26o , the volt-meter shows the maximum value.
• As turning the receiver to a different angle, the value of volt-meter decreases.
Conclusion:
• Microwave refracts best with angle of 26o

6. Investigation of diffraction of microwaves

Observation:
• When the single slit plane is put in the rail, the value on the voltmeter increases
• When the plate is between the probe and the transmitter, the value on the voltmeter is
approximately 0. When the probe í moved on the horizontal plane, the value slightly
increases
Conclusion:
Microwaves have diffraction properties.

7. Investigation of interference of microwaves

Observation:
• When the probe is moved parallel to the plate, the value on the voltmeter oscillates. Number
of maxima = 3
Conclusion: Microwave has property of interference.

8. Investigation of polarization of microwaves

Observation:
 15

• When the grating is aligned horizontally, the value on the voltmeter is slightly
decreasing
• When the grating is aligned vertically, the value on the voltmeter is approximate zero
• When the grating is aligned at 45 o, the value on the voltmeter is higher than vertical
case, but lower than horizontal case
Conclusion:
• When we put a polarization grating between transmitter and receiver, the microwave
(electromagnetic) will be polarized as shown in fig 1.

Because the vertical wave is electric wave, and the receiver’s signal we receive is Voltage.
Therefore:
• With vertical polarization grating, only the vertical wave can go through. The receiver’s signal
is big.
• With horizontal polarization grating, only the horizontal wave can go through. The receiver’s
signal is very small (approximate to 0).
• With 45o inclined polarization grating, a part of vertical wave and horizontal wave can go
through. The receiver’s signal is smaller than when we use vertical polarization grating and
bigger than when we use horizontal polarization grating.

9. Determining wavelength of standing waves

f x1 (mm) x2 (mm) x = x1 - x2
1 127 109 18
2 125 104 21
3 139 109 20

III. DATA PROCESSING

3
1
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 19.66 (𝑚𝑚)
3
𝑖=1

∑3𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
∆𝑥 ≈ 𝑆. 𝐷 = √ = 1.25 (𝑚𝑚)
3
We have: 𝜆 = 2𝑑

⟹ 𝜆̅ = 2 × 𝑥̅ = 2 × 19.66 = 39.32 (𝑚𝑚)

⟹ Δ𝜆̅ = ∆𝑥 = 39.32 (𝑚𝑚)

 Hence

𝜆 = 𝜆̅ ± ∆𝜆 = 39.32 ± 1.44 (𝑚𝑚)

Frequency of the microwave:

𝑐 3 × 108
𝑓̅ = = = 7.63 × 109 (𝐻𝑧)
𝜆̅ 39.32 × 10−3

∆𝜆 2 ∆𝐶
̅
√
∆𝑓 = 𝑓 ( ) + ( )2 = 0.24 × 109 (𝐻𝑧)
𝜆̅ 𝑐

𝑓 = 𝑓 ̅ ± ∆𝑓 = (7.63 ± 0.24) × 109 (𝐻𝑧)

 17

Experiment Report 6
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT RATIO OF AIR
BASED ON CLEMENT DESORME’S METHOD

I. EXPERIMENTAL MOTIVATION
• To determine the specific heat ratio 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑝/𝐶𝑣 for air.

II. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

𝐻 = 240 𝑚𝑚
Trial 𝐿1 (𝑚𝑚) 𝐿2 (𝑚𝑚) ℎ = 𝐿2 − 𝐿1 (𝑚𝑚)
1 204 257 53
2 203 258 55

3 200 261 61

4 204 260 56
5 203 258 55

6 201 259 58
7 205 260 55

8 202 256 54

9 204 258 55
10 200 257 57

1. Calculate figures for 𝒉:

10
1
ℎ̅ = ∑ ℎ𝑖 = 55.90 (𝑚𝑚)
10
𝑖=1

2. Calculate the uncertain of 𝒉:

 ∑10 ̅ 2
𝑖=1(ℎ𝑖 −ℎ )
∆ℎ = √ = 2.17 (𝑚𝑚)
10

Hence:

ℎ = 55.90 ± 2.17 (𝑚𝑚)

3. Calculation:
𝐻
- The formula: 𝛾 = 𝐻−ℎ

𝐻 240
𝛾̅ = = = 1.30
𝐻 − ℎ 240 − 55.9

∆ℎ 2 2.17 2
√ √
∆𝛾 = 𝛾 ( ) = 1.30 × ( ) ≈ 0.05 (𝑚𝑚)
ℎ 55.9

Hence:

𝛾 = 𝛾̅ ± ∆𝛾 = 1.30 ± 0.05

III. COMPARISON AND CONCLUSION:

𝑖+2
• Theoretically, we can calculate the specific heat ratio of air by using the formula 𝛾 = 𝑖
, where i = 5 which is the Degree of Freedom (DOF) of ideal gas (in this case it is air).
Hence, we get:
𝑖+2 5+2
𝛾= = = 1.40
𝑖 5
• The experiment result is a bit different from the theoretical result due to instrumental
uncertainty, observational uncertainty, and environment uncertainty.