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Week 4

Nutrition GSCI 1045 (George Brown College)

Introduction to Week 4: Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients

Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients

We all probably know at least two things about what happens to the food that goes into our
bodies: how it goes in and how it goes out!
But what happens in between those two extremes? And how do the important nutrients get
absorbed into our bodies. That's what we'll be talking about in this lesson.
We'll begin with a description of the different parts of the digestive system and then we'll
explain the different types of digestion- mechanical and chemical. You'll learn about the
different organs involved in chemical and mechanical digestion and the processes that take
place so that food is digested, and nutrients are absorbed. We'll also learn about
gastrointestinal health and a number of digestive problems.
Things to do this module:
o Read the content and review the video content, and complete the activities included in
the pages of this module.
o Read Chapter 3: Nutrition and the Human Body in the Essentials of Nutrition: A
Functional Approach textbook.
o Complete the Module 4 Practice Test to check your understanding of key concepts.
o Continue to work on your Diet Analysis Assignment due week 9.

Human Digestive System

The Digestive System
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The human digestive system is a group of organs that allows us to convert the food we eat
to simple nutrients and energy to meet the needs of our bodies.
Beginning with the mouth, the digestive system is one continuous tubular structure about
30 ft long (9 meters) ending with the anus.
As food passes through our digestive systems, it undergoes a series of steps until nutrients
and energy are absorbed into the blood. Any remaining undigested food is removed from
the body as feces.
Two other body organs connected to our digestive systems and playing an important role in
digestion are the liver and pancreas. The majority of the absorption of nutrients happens in
the small intestine while the large intestine deals with the absorption of water, salt and
certain vitamins.
The digestive system is also host to a variety of beneficial bacteria called probiotics that aid
the process of digestion. These bacteria are essential to digesting fibre and releasing certain
vitamins from fibrous food. They also protect the lining of gastro-intestinal tract making
them essential to the digestive system.
Chemical vs Mechanical Digestion
The process of digestion can be split into two types: Chemical and Mechanical digestion.
Chemical Digestion:
Chemical digestion is the process that involves the breakdown of food into simpler
compounds through chemical reactions involving enzymes. Chemical digestion starts in the
mouth and continues throughout the digestive system until all the nutrients are absorbed
by the body and the waste is removed as feces. Enzymes secreted by the salivary glands,
stomach, pancreas, and small intestine are all part of chemical digestion.
Mechanical Digestion:
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food making it easier for the body to
digest. Chewing (mastication), the churning of food in the stomach as well as peristalsis (a
series of wave-like muscle contractions that moves food in the digestive tract) are all
examples of mechanical digestion.
The mechanical breakdown of food is accentuated by muscular contractions of the stomach
and small intestine that mash, mix, and propel food down the alimentary canal.
Look at the image posted to follow the path of food throughout the body and read how
mechanical and chemical digestion works to digest food.
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Digestive System Process

The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities, or
functions:
o ingestion
o mechanical digestion
o chemical digestion
o movements
o absorption
o and elimination.

The Stomach
The stomach's main function is the digestion of protein. As soon as food enters the stomach,
the churning action of the stomach muscles physically breaks down the food and the
stomach lining releases enzymes that begin breaking down proteins. The stomach lining
also secretes hydrochloric acid, creating ideal conditions for the protein-digesting enzymes
to work. The hydrochloric acid kills bacteria and protects the body from harmful microbes
which can enter the body in food.
The Small Intestine
Digested molecules of food, water and minerals from the diet are absorbed from the cavity
of the upper small intestine. The absorbed materials cross the mucosa into the blood and
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are carried off in the bloodstream to other parts of the body for storage or further chemical
change.
This process varies with different types of nutrients. Digested molecules of food, water and
minerals from the diet are absorbed from the cavity of the upper small intestine. The
absorbed materials cross the mucosa into the blood and are carried off in the bloodstream
to other parts of the body for storage or further chemical change.
(Source Image and text CMSP/UIG for educational use)

Moving the Food through Peristalsis

Peristalsis

As you have seen in the digestion animation, food moves through the digestive system
through the process of peristalsis, the rhythmic wave-like motion produced by the
contraction of the muscles in the digestive system.
The Gastrointestinal Tract (GI tract) is made of two layers of muscles. The outer layer of
muscle is longitudinal, and the inner layer is circular. As these two layers contract
alternatively, they produce a wave-like contraction that pushes the food forward. Peristalsis
starts in the esophagus and continues throughout the GI tract. A lack of peristalsis in the GI
tract can cause constipation.
Peristalsis is an autonomic process, meaning that it requires no conscious thought. It is also
seen in other tubular organs in the body, for example, in moving bile from the gall bladder
to the small intestine or moving urine from the kidneys.
(Source: Image-CMSP/UIG for education use)
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The Role of the Pancreas

The Pancreas: Endocrine and Exocrine Functions

The pancreas has two important functions in digestion: Endocrine and Exocrine

Endocrine Functions
The endocrine system of the body is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones.
These hormones regulate various body functions. In the pancreas, the endocrine function
relates to the regulation of sugar in the body.
The pancreas produces two balancing hormones that help in the regulation of sugar- Insulin
and Glucagon. While both insulin and glucagon regulate the blood sugar (glucose) levels in
the body, they do it in opposite ways.
Insulin
When sugar enters the bloodstream, the pancreas produces the hormone Insulin. Insulin
lowers blood sugar levels by allowing the sugar from the blood to enter body cells.
Glucagon
When the sugar level in the blood drops and the body is in need of more energy, the
pancreas produces the hormone glucagon. Glucagon’s effect is the opposite of insulin's.
While insulin lowers blood sugar levels, glucagon raises blood sugar levels.
Glucagon signals the liver to release sugar that is stored in the form of glycogen. Glycogen is
broken down to simple sugars that are released into the blood stream which are then
utilized by the body cells.
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Exocrine Functions
The exocrine function of the pancreas is related to the release of digestive enzymes in the
small intestine. When food enters the small intestine from the stomach, the pancreas is
stimulated to release pancreatic juice into the small intestine. Pancreatic juice is an alkaline
mixture of enzymes that aids the digestion of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Because the
stomach is a very acidic environment, the pancreatic juice is alkaline to neutralize the acidity
from the stomach.
The three main enzymes released by the pancreas to digest foods are Protease, Amylase,
and Lipase.

The Liver
The Role of the Liver in Digestion

Digestion Of Fats:
The liver plays an important function in the digestion of fats in the body. This reddish brown
organ towards the right side of the body, is protected by the rib cage and has two large
segments called the right and left lobes.
The gall bladder is a pouch-like organ that is connected to the liver. Specialized cells in the
liver produce bile which is then stored in the gallbladder. Bile is a greenish-brown substance
that is made from cholesterol by the liver.
When food enters the small intestine, the gall bladder contracts and releases the bile into
the small intestine. Bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats. The bile, being a
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sticky substance, surrounds the large fat molecules preventing them from sticking together
and forming large clumps. The digestive enzymes are able to breakdown the fat molecules
into smaller particles. The process of breaking down fat molecules is called the emulsifying
action of bile.
In the absence of bile, the digestion of fats would not be possible.

Absorption of Nutrients
Absorption of Nutrients: Small Intestine and Villi
Although the digestion of nutrients begins in the mouth, the majority of the absorption of
nutrients happens in the small intestine. This is due to the specialized inner layer of the
small intestine that is adapted for efficient absorption.
The more the nutrients come in contact with the surface of the inner layer, the more easily
and efficiently they are absorbed into the blood. The inner layer inside the small intestine is
not smooth but composed of finger-like projections called villi. These finger-like projections
are in turn covered by a second layer of finger-like projections called microvilli. This doubles
the surface area of the small intestine maximizing the absorption of nutrients. The microvilli
trap nutrients so the villi cells can absorb them.
As the digested food comes in contact with the villi, the proteins and carbohydrates pass
directly into the blood. The fats are not absorbed into blood but rather to the lymph which
is carried away by the lymphatic system.
The food that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Image Source: CMSP/Universal Images Group
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Digestion Timeline
It takes the human body about 24 hours to completely digest food once it has been eaten. A
healthy person should have one bowel movement in 24 hours.
Refer to the stages below to see how long each part of the digestive process takes:
Digestion in the Mouth (Less Than A Minute)
The process of digestion begins in the mouth where chewing contributes to the mechanical
breakdown of food. Chemical digestion also takes place in the mouth. Upon chewing, saliva
is released into the mouth which contains the digestive enzymes salivary amylase and
lingual lipase.
Salivary amylase begins the breakdown of starch (carbohydrate) in the mouth while
lingual lipase breaks down lipids.

Digestion in the Stomach (1-2 hours)

As the food reaches the stomach, the churning and contraction of the stomach muscles
further breaks down the food. This is accompanied by the release of stomach acid and
enzymes. The stomach is a highly acidic environment with HCL (hydrochloric acid) being
released by the stomach lining. The acidic environment protects the body from any harmful
bacteria and pathogens that might cause illness. However, the lining of the stomach itself is
protected from being damaged by the acidity as it is covered by a layer of protective
mucous. The gastric juice produced by the stomach contains the enzymes that further
breakdown proteins, fats and lipids to simpler molecules.
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These gastric enzymes are:

P- Pepsin -- Breaks down protein
A- Amylase – Breaks down Carbohydrates
L- Lipase--- Breaks down Fats.
Chyme is the semifluid mass of partly digested food that is expelled by the stomach into the
duodenum and moves through the intestines during digestion.
Digestion in the Small Intestine (7-8 hours)
Food leaving the stomach is in the form of a highly acidic liquid. As it enters the small
intestine, both the Liver and the Pancreas are stimulated to release bile and pancreatic
juice into the small intestine. Pancreatic juice is alkaline, so it neutralizes the acidity of the
stomach acid. As this happens, the last stage of digestion begins. As the digested food
passes through the small intestine, the majority of the nutrients are absorbed from food.

Digestion in the Large intestine (12-14 hours)

As food moves through the digestive tract it spends the most time in the large intestine
because of the need to partially digest fiber and absorb water. As the food enters the large
intestine, the primary function of the large intestine is to reabsorb water, salts and certain
vitamins. The large intestine is also where gut bacteria digest the insoluble fibre in food to
release nutrients. As the food passes through the large intestine what remains is the
undigested portions of food that are stored in the rectum and removed as feces.
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Digestive System Overview

Gut Bacteria and Mind Health

Is what goes on in your stomach connected to how you feel emotionally? Are the microbes
in your belly making you anxious, happy or depressed?
Well, these are things that neuroscientists are now looking into. Specifically, they are
investigating whether intestinal microbes may influence brain development and behavior.
Studies done with animals done in sterile environments have shown that gut microbes
influence behavior and can alter brain chemistry. But how does that apply to humans?
The information related to humans is not as advanced, but researchers have shown links
between gastrointestinal pathology and conditions like anxiety, depression,
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autism, schizophrenia and degenerative brain disorders. They caution though that these are
links. Causality is not proven. A study from McMaster University noted that depression and
anxiety seemed to be risk factors for those with Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS). They are
looking into whether inflammation or microbes could trigger psychiatric symptoms.
The supplement industry has taken these links and studies to sell probiotic products with
claims that not only do they aid digestion but also emotional well-being. And the
Pharmaceutical companies have taken a keen interest and are funding more research.
(Source: Nature International Journal of Science 16, October 2015)
See the image below showing areas of study:

o Read more about the Gut Brain connection in these articles:

Gut Bacteria Might Guide The Workings Of Our Minds
http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2013/11/18/244526773/gut-bacteria-might-
guide-the-workings-of-our-minds
o The Tantalizing Links Between Gut Microbes and the Brain
http://www.nature.com/news/the-tantalizing-links-between-gut-microbes-and-the-
brain-1.18557
o Bowel bacteria may impact mood for Crohn's sufferers
Researchers study link between mood, mental health and gut bacteria
http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/bowel-bacteria-crohns-1.3452155

Gastrointestinal Health & Digestive Problems

Ideal gastrointestinal health is dependent on the health of your GI tract, the organ system
responsible for turning the food you eat into nutrients which your body uses for energy
growth and to keep your cells working well.
Your GI tract also known as your digestive tract is a long twisting tube from your mouth to
your anus. Your digestive health is directly impacted by the food you eat and the lifestyle
you live.
Drinking plenty of water and consuming plenty of fruits and vegetables, fiber
and prebiotic fiber is essential for a healthy digestive system and for properly working GI
tract.
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In addition, mild to moderate intensity exercises can help to improve the efficiency
of digestion and elimination. but very high intensity rigorous exercise may have it adverse
effect health Problems that occur in your GI tract can be classified as digestive problems.

Common Digestive Problems

Constipation: difficulty in emptying the bowels, usually associated with hardened feces.
Lactose Intolerance: inability to digest lactose (sugar found in milk and dairy products)
because of insufficient levels of lactase a digestive enzyme
Celiac Disease: a hypersensitivity to gluten, a digestive and autoimmune disorder. Eating
gluten triggers an immune response and over time causes inflammation and damage to the
lining of the small intestine.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): a chronic disorder that affects the large intestine (colon).
Causes cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, gas, diarrhea and constipation.
Acid Reflux/ Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): condition where acid from stomach
rises up into the esophagus

Ulcers: Most common cause is by an infection with H. pylori

Peptic Ulcer or Stomach Ulcer: open sores that develop on the inside lining of either the
esophagus, stomach or the upper portion of the small intestine. Most common cause is by
an infection with H. pylori but can be from overuse of aspirin or other over-the-counter
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
Gastric Ulcer: open sores that occur in the stomach
Duodenal Ulcer: open sores that occur in the upper small intestine, the duodenum
Gallstones: hardened deposits in the gallbladder or bile ducts. The deposits are formed
from bile pigments, cholesterol, and calcium salts. Can cause severe pain and blockage of
the bile duct.