Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 3 Theories of Covalent Bonding

11th Chemistry | Chapter 3 | Federal Board | KPK Board | Page 1
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1ST YEAR CHEMISTRY NOTES
REDUCED SYLLABUS 2021
BOARD CHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF COVALENT BONDING
THE VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY
Introduction
 This theory was suggested by Sidgwick and Powell

 In 1940
 According to this theory, the shapes or geometry of a molecule or ion
depends on the number of shared pairs as well as the lone pairs of electrons
around the central atom of the molecule or ion.
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 Gillespie and Nyholm in 1957 proposed that the arrangement of atoms in a

molecule is mainly determined by the repulsive interactions among all
electron pairs in the valence shell of central atom.
Postulates of VESPR Theory
The postulates of VSEPR theory are as follows
1) Arrangement of Electrons
The electron pairs present around the central polyvalent atom are arranged in
space as far apart as possible so that, there is minimum repulsion between them.
2) Space of Electron Pairs
A non-bonding pair or lone pair of electron occupies more space on the surface of
an atom than a bonding pair.
3) Geometry of Molecules
Both the lone pairs as well as bond pairs determine the geometry of the molecules
4) Magnitude of Repulsion
The magnitude of repulsion between the electron pairs in a given molecule

decreases in the following order.
Lone pair - Lone pair > Lone pair - Bond pair > Bond pair - Bond pair
A Lone pair causes deviation from ideal bond angles, which in turn change regular
geometry

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5) Behavior of Multiple Bonds
The two electron pairs of a double and three electron pairs of a triple bond contain
a higher electron charge density. Therefore, they occupy more space than one
electron pair of a single bond. However they behave like a single electron pair in
determining the geometry of the molecules.
Central Atom
 Appears one time in formula

 e.g. Mg in MgCl2, Al in AlH3, C in CH4
 Lone pairs determined in central atom
How to Find Lone Pairs?
Free Electrons = Total valence electrons – Electrons used in bonding

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Examples
Lone Pairs
Example Central Atom Surrounding Atom
(T.Es – B.Es)
C O 0
Group IV A Group VI A 4–4=0
CO2 4 valence e > 1 O needs 2 e
> 2 O need 4 e
O H 2
Group VI A Group I A 6–2=4e
H2 O
6 valence e 1 H needs 1 e 4 e =2 lone pairs
2 H need 2 e
Si Cl 1
Group IV A Group VII A 4–2=2
SiCl2
4 valence e 1 Cl needs 1 e 2 e = 1 lone pair
2 Cl need 2 e
S O 0
Group VI Group VI 6–6=0
SO3
6 valence e 1 O needs 2 e
3 O need 6 e
N H 1
Group V A Group I A 5 -3 = 2 e
NH3
5 valence e 1 H needs 1 e 2 e = 1 lone pair
3 H needs 3 e

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Applications of VSEPR Theory
AB2 WITH AND WITHOUT LONE PAIR
1) AB2 without Lone Pair
i) With Single Bond
 A molecule having two bond pairs of electrons but no lone pair around a
central atom always has a linear geometry
 Such an arrangement of atoms keeps the two pairs as far as possible
 The bond angle will be 180°
ii) With Multiple Bond
 Multiple bonds act like single bond in determining the shape of molecule
 e.g. CO2

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2) AB2 with Lone Pair
i) AB2 E1
 Examples are PbCI2 and SnCI2 molecules

 There are three electron pairs around the central atoms, one lone pair and
two bond pairs.
 According to VSEPR concept the lone pair (non-bonding) of electron occupies
more room and exerts a greater repulsion on the bond pairs resulting in the
shortening of Cl-Pb-CI angle.
 Thus, the shape of PbCI2 molecule is distorted and becomes angular or V-
shape with
 Cl-Pb-CI bond angle less than 120°
ii) AB2 E2
 Example: H2O, H2S etc.

 In this case, presence of two lone pairs, introduces three types of repulsions
i.e. lone pair-lone pair, lone pair-bond pair and bond pair - bond pair
 VSEPR theory, successfully justifies the experimental results by arguing the
participation of lone pair in addition to bond pairs in determining overall
geometry of water molecule.
 Two of the corners of a tetrahedron are occupied by each of the two lone
pairs and remaining by bond pairs.

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 Due to spatial arrangement of lone pairs and their repulsion among

themselves and with the bond pairs, the bond angle is further reduced to
104.5° and geometry becomes V shaped
AB3 WITH AND WITHOUT LONE PAIR
1) AB3 type with no lone pair
i) With Single Bond
 Example is BCl3
 A molecule having three bond pairs of electrons but no lone pairs around a
central atom always has a planar triangular geometry,
 Such an arrangement of atoms keeps the three pairs of electrons as far apart
as possible.
 The bond angle will be 120°
ii) With Multiple Bond
 Examples is SO3
 In SO3 all the three regions are occupied by S---O bonds
 There is no lone pair hence the structure will be perfectly triangular having
120°

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ii) AB3 type with lone pair (AB3 E1)
 Example: NH3 is a typical example. Other examples: PH3, AsH3, SbH3

 A molecule having three bond pairs and a lone pair around the central atom
has triangular pyramidal geometry instead of tetrahedral.
 Due to repulsions between lone pair and bond pairs, the bond angles are
reduced to 107.5° instead of 109.5°
AB4 TYPE
 Examples: CH4 (Methane), CCI4 , SiF4 , SnCI4 etc

 A molecule having four bond pairs of electrons but no lone pairs around a
central atom always has regular tetrahedral geometry,
 Such an arrangement of atoms keeps the four pairs of electrons as far apart
as possible.
 The bond angle will be 109.5°. The atoms are at the four corners of a regular
tetrahedron.

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AB5 TYPE
 A trigonal bipyramid arrangement- represents a structure in which five

electron pairs can have minimum repulsion.
 In PCl5 there are five electron pairs in the valence shell of phosphorus atom.
 All of them are bonding pairs and thus PCl5 molecule adopts trigonal
bipyramidal structure.
AB6 TYPE
 Molecules, in which the central atom has six electron pairs, adopt octahedral
geometry
 The examples of such molecules are SF6, SeF6,TeF6

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THE VALENCE BOND THEORY (VBT)

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Introduction
 This theory was proposed by Heitler and London (1927) and later on
developed by Pauling.
 This concept is based on wave - mechanical treatment of molecules
and has been successful in explaining the bond energies, bond
lengths and shapes of covalent molecules
Postulates of VBT
i) Bond Formation
 A bond between two atoms is formed by the overlap of half -filled

atomic orbitals of two atoms.
 The two overlapping atomic orbitals retain their identity
 The term overlap means that the two orbitals share same common
region in space

ii) Electron Spin
 The two overlapping orbitals must have electrons of opposite spin

iii) Symmetry of Orbitals
 In order to form a bond, the overlapping orbitals must have the

same symmetry with respect to the bond axis
 A line joining the nuclei of two bonded atoms is called bond axis

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iv) Number of Bonds

The number of bonds formed by an atom is equal to the number of
unpaired electrons present in the valence shell of the atom
v) Bond Strength
 In overlapping of orbitals energy is released.

 The greater the overlap between the orbitals, the greater is the
energy released and the stronger will be the bond formed
vi) Single and Multiple Bonds
 If only two orbitals overlap, a single bond is formed.

 If additional orbitals of atoms overlap then multiple bonds are
formed
vii) Types of Bonds
 Two types of bonds are formed

 Head-on overlapping forms sigma bond

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 Parallel or sideways overlapping forms pi bond
SIGMA AND PI BOND FORMATION

Types of overlapping and nature of covalent bonds
There are two main types of covalent bonds which are obtained by
overlapping. These are
 Sigma bond ( )
 Pi Bond ( )
Sigma bond ( )
Definition

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Any first bond formed between two partially filled atomic orbitals by
head on overlap is called sigma bond
Explanation
 In a sigma bond, the region of highest electron density is

symmetrically distributed around the bond axis.
 The probability of finding the electron is maximum in the region

between the two nuclei.
 The first bond formed between any two atoms is the sigma bond.
 All single covalent bonds are sigma bonds ( ) and the electrons
occupying a bond are called electrons
 Following sigma bonds are formed;
a) S-S Overlapping
b) S-Px | S-Py | S-Pz

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c) Px-Px Overlapping
Pi Bond
Definition
A bond formed between two already bonded atoms by the sidewise
overlap of their two half-filled p-atomic orbitals whose axes are parallel is
called a Pi ( bond
Explanation
i) Pi Bond Formation

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 In the formation of pi bond, the two overlapping p-orbitals must be

coplanar and their axes must be parallel
 It is formed by side wise or lateral overlap between two p-orbitals
which have their lobes perpendicular to the molecular axis
ii) Electron Density
 The electron density in this bond is unsymmetrical around the bond

axis
 The probability of finding the electron is maximum in the region
above and below the line joining the two nuclei.
iii) Overlapping Extent
 The overlap of p-orbitals in pi bond formation is not as good as in

sigma bond. That’s why sigma bond is always stronger than a pi
bond
iv) Parallel Orbitals
 Py-Py and Pz-Pz make pi bonds
Key Points
 In case of pi bond formation which is over a covalent bond, the

electron density is greatest above and below the line joining the two
nuclei and this is also called nodal plane

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 Only pure, parallel, co-planar, half-filled p-orbitals on adjacent

atoms can form a pi bond
 Only one bond in any multiple bonds can be a sigma bond, the
remaining bonds are pi bonds
 In case of hybridization, the overlapping of any hybrid-orbitals
always produces a sigma bond
Differences between Sigma and Pi Bonds
Factor Sigma Bond Pi Bond
Definition Bond which is formed by Bond which is formed by
head on overlapping sideways overlapping
Symbol
Number Only one One or two
Extent of Greater extent Lesser extent
Overlapping
Strength Stronger Weaker
Density Maximum at bond axes of Maximum above and below
bonded nuclei of bond axes
Types of s-s, s-p, p-p and Parallel p-p orbitals and
overlapping hybridized orbitals unhybridized orbitals
Applications of Valence bond Theory

Single Bond Formation
a) Formation of H2 molecule
 Each H atom has the electron configuration 1 .

 As two hydrogen atoms approach each other, their half-filled 1
orbitals overlap, giving H-H bond.

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 The overlap of orbitals provides a means for sharing electrons,

thereby allowing each 1 to complete its valence shell.
 The electron density is concentrated in the region along the line
joining the two nuclei.
 The bond formed is a sigma (a) bond
b) Formation of CI2 molecule
 Electronic configuration of chlorine is;
 Each Chlorine atom has one half-filled 3pz orbitals.

 On the basis of VBT, sigma bond is formed between two Cl atoms by
head on overlap of half-filled 3pz atomic orbital of each chlorine
atom

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c) Formation of HF molecule
 The electronic configurations of F and H atoms are
 In the formation of HF molecule, the half-filled 1s orbital of H atom

overlaps with the half-filled 2pz orbital of F to form a bond
Multiple bond formation

a) Formation of O2 molecule
 Oxygen molecule, O2 is obtained by the combination of two oxygen

atoms.
 Electronic configuration of an oxygen atom is
 Each oxygen atom has two half-filled 2p orbitals in the valence shell.

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 On the basis of VBT two covalent bonds can be formed between two
O atoms.
 One bond is formed by the end-to-end overlap of half-filled 2px
orbitals on each oxygen atom. This gives a bond.
 The second bond is formed by the side-to-side overlap of half-filled
2py orbitals on each oxygen atom. This gives n bond.
 Thus a double bond is formed between two oxygen atoms
b) Formation of N2 molecule
 Nitrogen molecule, N2 is formed by the combination of two N atoms.

 The electronic configuration of N atom is
 Each N atom has three half-filled p orbitals.


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 On the basis of VBT, three covalent bonds can be formed between

two nitrogen atoms.
 When the two nitrogen atoms approach each other, their 2px
orbitals undergo end-to-end overlap, giving a bond.
 The end-to-end overlapping brings the two nitrogen atoms so close
together that their parallel 2p orbitals undergo side-to-side overlap
to produce two pi bonds
 Thus a triple bond is formed between two nitrogen atoms; one is
bond while the other two are bonds
 There are five distinct regions of electron charge density in the
nitrogen molecule
i) The a electrons between the nuclei forming a bond
ii) The electrons above and below the electrons forming a
bond
iii) The electrons in front of and behind the electrons forming
another bond

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
Definition
a process of mixing atomic orbitals of different energy and shape to form set of new orbitals of
the same energy and same shape is called hybridization and the orbitals so obtained are called
“hybrid orbitals”.
Explanation
Simple valence bond theory does not explain the covalent bond formation
of certain elements. So Pauling and Slater made modification in this theory in the form of
“hybridization concept”.
• Mixing orbitals have slight difference in energy and different shapes e.g. hybridization
between 2s and 2px orbitals
• Hybridized orbitals have same energies and same shapes
• In this process, the electron belonging to the ground state structure are promoted to the
excited state. It increases number of unpaired electrons e.g.
• In case of Carbon, one electron of 2s is excited to 2pz. It increases unpaired electrons
from 2 to 4.
In case of nitrogen
• Number of hybrid orbitals is equal to number of mixing orbitals

• Hybrid orbitals make sigma bond / single covalent bond
• Lone pair of electrons remains in hybrid orbital
• No. of hybrid orbitals = No. of single covalent bonds + No. of lone pairs
• Main types are; s𝑝3 , s𝑝2 and s𝑝
• Hybrid orbitals have two lobes, one shorter and one longer
Factor 𝒔𝒑𝟑 -hybridization 𝒔𝒑𝟐 -hybridization 𝒔𝒑-hybridization
Mixing Orbitals one ‘s’ orbital and one ‘s’ orbital and two one ‘s’ orbital and
three ‘p’ orbitals ‘p’ orbitals one ‘p’ orbitals
Hybrid Orbitals Four s𝑝3 hybrid orbitals Three s𝑝2 hybrid orbitals Two s𝑝hybrid orbitals
are formed are formed are formed
Arrangement Four s𝑝3 hybridized Three s𝑝2 hybridized Two s𝑝 hybridized
orbitals arrange in orbitals arrange in orbitals arrange in
tetrahedral trigonal arrangement tetrahedral
arrangement arrangement
Unhybrid P- No unhybri p-orbitals One unhybrid p-orbital Two unhybrid orbital
orbitals
Pi bond No pi bond is formed One pi bond is formed Two pi bonds are
formed
s & p characters s = 25 % , p = 75 % s = 33.33 % , p = 66.66 % s = 50 % , p =50 %
Examples Alkanes (CH4), NH3 , Alkenes (C2H4), BCl3, AlF3 Alkenes (C2H2), BeCl2
H2O , etc.
Structure of Methane (CH4)
• In CH4, C is the central atom. Carbon belongs to group IVA so it has 4 valence electrons
• One C-atom makes 4 sigma /single covalent bonds with four H-atoms. Therefore there is no
lone pair in central carbon atom
• 4 hybrid orbitals are required, s𝑝3 hybridization provides 4 hybrid orbitals
• It means C-atom has s𝑝3 hybridization
• Tetrahedral methane molecule is formed by the overlap of s𝑝3 hybrid orbitals of carbon
with 1s orbitals of four hydrogen atoms
• The C-H bonds which result from s𝑝3 − 𝑠 overlaps
• Each H-C-H bond angle is 109.5°
Structure of Ammonia, NH3
• In NH3, N is the central atom, it belongs to group VA so it has 5 valence electrons

• Three valence electrons of N-atom are used to make 3 sigma /single covalent bonds with
three H-atoms. Remaining two valence electrons act as one lone pair
• 4 hybrid orbitals are required ( 1 lone pair + 3 sigma/ single bonds)
• s𝑝3 hybridization provides 4 hybrid orbitals. It means N-atom has s𝑝3 hybridization
• One of the hybrid orbitals is completely filled by a lone pair of electrons and the
remaining three orbitals are half filled. The half filled sp3 hybridized orbitals of nitrogen
overlap with three 1s-orbitals of hydrogen atoms.
• This results in a pyramidal molecule in which three hydrogen atoms form the base and
the lone pair of electrons the apex
Structure of Ammonia, H2O
• In H2O, O is the central atom, it belongs to group VIA so it has 6 valence electrons
• Two valence electrons of O-atom are used to make 2 sigma /single covalent bonds with
two H-atoms. Remaining four valence electrons act as two lone pair
• 4 hybrid orbitals are required ( 2 lone pairs + 2 sigma/ single bonds)
• s𝑝3 hybridization provides 4 hybrid orbitals. It means O-atom has s𝑝3 hybridization
• Two hybrid orbitals are completely filled by two lone pairs of electrons and the remaining
two orbitals are half filled. The half filled sp3 hybridized orbitals of oxygen overlap with
two 1s-orbitals of hydrogen atoms.
• The result is a V-shaped molecule. The experimentally determined value of
H-O-H bond angle in H2O molecule is 104.5°
Structure of Boron trifluoride, BF3
• In BF3, B is the central atom, it belongs to group IIIA so it has 3 valence electrons
• Three valence electrons of B-atom are used to make 3 sigma /single covalent bonds with
three F-atoms. Therefore there is no lone pair.
• s𝑝2 hybridization provides 3 hybrid orbitals. It means B-atom has s𝑝2 hybridization
• Three half filled sp2 hybridized orbitals of boron overlap with three 2pz-orbitals of fluorine
atoms.
• The result is a triangular planar molecule. The experimentally determined value of
F-B-F bond angle in BF3 molecule is 120°
Structure of CH2 = CH2
• In CH2 = CH2,C-atom is the central atom. Each carbon atom forms 3 sigma and 1 pi bonds
• Therefore 3 hybrid orbitals are required in each carbon atom.

• sp2 hybridization provides 3 orbitals, it means both C-atoms in In CH2 = CH2 are sp2
hybridized. One ‘s’ and two ‘p’ mix and form 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals.
• One p-orbital (2py) is left un hybridized in both C-atoms which form pi bond by parallel
overlapping.
Structure of BeCI2 (Beryllium Chloride)
• In BeCl2, Be is the central atom, it belongs to group IIA so it has 2 valence electrons
• Two valence electrons of Be-atom are used to make 2 sigma /single covalent bonds with
two Cl-atoms. Therefore there is no lone pair.
• s𝑝 hybridization provides 2 hybrid orbitals. It means Be-atom has s𝑝 hybridization
• Two half filled sp hybridized orbitals of Be overlap with two 2pz-orbitals of Cl atoms.
• The result is a linear molecule. The experimentally determined value of
Cl-Be-Cl bond angle in BeCl2 molecule is 180°
Structure of CH ≡ CH
• In CH ≡ CH ,C-atom is the central atom. Each carbon atom forms 2 sigma and 2 pi bonds
• Therefore 2 hybrid orbitals are required in each carbon atom.

• sp hybridization provides 2 orbitals, it means both C-atoms in In CH ≡ CH are sp hybridized.
One ‘s’ and one ‘p’ mix and form 2 sphybrid orbitals.
• Two p-orbitals (2py , 2pz ) are left unhybridized in both C-atoms which form two pi bonds
by parallel overlapping.
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MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY

Postulates and Basic Concepts
Outline
Introduction
The method of molecular orbital theory was developed in 1927-1928 by Hurid and
Mullikan and in 1929 by Lennard-Jones
Postulates
1) Molecular Orbitals (MOs)
a) Formation of MOs
 Combination of atomic orbitals form new orbitals called molecular orbitals

which are characteristics of the whole molecule.

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b) Space of MOs
 The molecular orbital surrounds two or more nuclei of the bonded atoms.
 The bonding molecular orbital is symmetrical about the axis joining the nuclei
of the bonded atoms (molecular axis)
c) Energy and Types of MOs
 Two atomic orbitals after combining form two molecular orbital which differ
in energy.
 One of them, having lower energy, is called bonding molecular orbital (BMO)
while the other having high energy is called anti-bonding molecular orbital
(ABMO) .
2) Filling of Electrons
 The filling of electrons into the molecular orbitals takes place according to
 Aufbau principle
 Pauli’s exclusion principle
 Hund’s Rule
 The two electrons from each atom fill the low energy orbital while the high
energy orbital may have electrons or remain empty
3) Overlapping
There are two types of overlapping in molecular orbital theory
 Head on approach (linear overlapping) or linear combination

 Sideways approach (parallel overlapping)
a) Head on approach (linear overlapping)
 Linear overlapping forms sigma bond

 Head on approach can take place between s-s, s-p and p-p atomic orbitals.
 When two s atomic orbital overlap, they form two molecular orbitals.

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 Molecular orbital having low energy than atomic orbital is called .

Molecular orbital which has high energy then atomic orbital is called
b) Sideways approach or parallel overlapping
 Sideways overlapping forms pi bond

 When the axes of two-p orbitals (i.e py or pz orbitals) are parallel to each
other, they interact to form molecular orbitals.
 The bonding molecular orbital or has zero electron density
on the nuclear axis (called the nodal plane). The electron density is uniformly
distributed above and below the nodal plane.
 On the other hand, or anti-bonding molecular orbital has
the least electron density in the inter-nuclear region

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 2 set of p-orbitals make 6 molecular orbitals

 and
 and
 and
4) Degenerate Orbitals
 Orbitals that have same energy are called degenerate orbitals

 Degenerate orbitals may be
 Atomic orbitals e.g. and are degenerate orbitals
 Bonding Molecular orbitals e.g. and are degenerate
orbitals
 Anti-bonding Molecular orbitals e.g. and
5) Bond Order

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 The number of bonds formed between two atoms after the atomic orbitals
overlap is called the bond order
 It is taken as half of the difference between the number of bonding electrons
and anti-bonding electrons
Bond order =
 e.g. The number of bonds formed in hydrogen molecule may be calculated as

follows
No. of electrons in the bonding orbitals = 2
No. of electrons in the anti-bonding orbitals = 0
B.O =
 It is a common practice that only MOs formed from valence orbital are
considered in bond order calculations
 It should be noted that a bond between two atoms can be formed only,
when the number of electrons in the bonding orbital must be greater than
the number of electrons in the anti-bonding molecular orbitals
6) Relative Energies of the Molecular Orbitals
The relative energies of the molecular orbitals formed from 2s and 2p atomic
orbitals are determined by spectroscopic measurements
a) Diatomic molecules O2 , F2 and above
The molecular orbitals of diatomic molecules such as O2, F2 and their positive and
negative ions can be shown in the following increasing order of energy
1s 2s 2px 2py = 2pz

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b) Diatomic molecules H2 to N2
The diatomic molecule such as H2, He2, B2, C2, and N2 (lighter molecules) show
slightly different energy order
1s 2s 2py = 2pz 2px
Reason
In lighter molecules ( H2 to N2) the energy difference of 2s and 2p atomic orbitals is

small therefore they undergo hybridization. As a result;
 do not retain pure s-character, similarly and do not

retain pure p-character
 All the four MOs acquire sp-character
 Their energies change in such a way that MOs become more
stable and are lowered in energy MOs as and become less stable
and are raised in energy
 is raised to such an extent that it becomes higher in energy than

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7) Magnetic Properties
 Molecules that have all paired electrons are diamagnetic e.g. N2

 Molecules that have unpaired electrons are paramagnetic e.g. O2

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11th Chemistry | Chapter 3 | Federal Board | KPK Board | Page 1

1ST YEAR CHEMISTRY NOTES

REDUCED SYLLABUS 2021

BOARD CHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF COVALENT BONDING

THE VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY

 This theory was suggested by Sidgwick and Powell

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 Gillespie and Nyholm in 1957 proposed that the arrangement of atoms in a

Postulates of VESPR Theory

The postulates of VSEPR theory are as follows

2) Space of Electron Pairs

The magnitude of repulsion between the electron pairs in a given molecule

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5) Behavior of Multiple Bonds

 Appears one time in formula

How to Find Lone Pairs?

Free Electrons = Total valence electrons – Electrons used in bonding

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Applications of VSEPR Theory

AB2 WITH AND WITHOUT LONE PAIR

1) AB2 without Lone Pair

i) With Single Bond

ii) With Multiple Bond

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2) AB2 with Lone Pair

 Examples are PbCI2 and SnCI2 molecules

 Example: H2O, H2S etc.

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 Due to spatial arrangement of lone pairs and their repulsion among

AB3 WITH AND WITHOUT LONE PAIR

1) AB3 type with no lone pair

i) With Single Bond

ii) With Multiple Bond

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ii) AB3 type with lone pair (AB3 E1)

 Example: NH3 is a typical example. Other examples: PH3, AsH3, SbH3

 Examples: CH4 (Methane), CCI4 , SiF4 , SnCI4 etc

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 A trigonal bipyramid arrangement- represents a structure in which five

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THE VALENCE BOND THEORY (VBT)

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 A bond between two atoms is formed by the overlap of half -filled

 The two overlapping orbitals must have electrons of opposite spin

 In order to form a bond, the overlapping orbitals must have the

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iv) Number of Bonds

 In overlapping of orbitals energy is released.

 If only two orbitals overlap, a single bond is formed.