CHAPTER THREE
Mechanical Properties
Lecture II
INTRODUCTION
• The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the
relationship between deformation to an applied load
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or force.
• ability of it to resist mechanical forces or loads.
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Important mechanical properties are strength, hardness,
ductility, and stiffness.
The mechanical properties of materials are ascertained
by performing carefully designed laboratory
experiments.
Factors to be considered include the nature of the
applied load and its duration, as well as the
environmental conditions.
• Mechanical behavior is one of the most
important criterions while designing, fabricating
and selecting of materials for the particular 2
applications.
LOADING
The application of a force to an object is known as loading.
There are five fundamental loading conditions;
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tension, compression, bending, shear, and torsion.
1. Tension
is the type of loading in which the two sections of material on either side
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of a plane tend to be pulled apart or elongated.
2. Compression
is the reverse of Tension, and involves pressing the material together.
3. bending
involves applying a load in a manner that causes a material to curve and
results in compressing the material on one side and stretching it on the
other side.
4. Shear
involves applying a load parallel to a plane which caused the material on
one side of the plane to want to slide across the material on the other side
of the plane.
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5. Torsion
is the application of a force that causes twisting in a material.
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CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
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Mechanical behavior may be ascertained by a simple
stress–strain test.
Three principal ways in which a load may be applied:
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namely, tension, compression, and shear.
In engineering practice many loads are torsional rather
than pure shear.
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TENSION TESTS
A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a
gradually increasing tensile load that is applied Uni-
axially along the long axis of a specimen.
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A standard tensile specimen is shown in Figure. Normally, the
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cross section is circular, but rectangular specimens are also
used.
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A stress–strain test specimen is permanently deformed and
usually fractured (destructive).
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The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the
specimen at a constant rate, and to continuously and
simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load and
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the resulting elongations.
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To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is
calculated per unit area.
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Engineering stress: σ = F / Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to specimen cross-section;
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A0 is cross-sectional area (perpendicular to the force)
before application of the load.
Engineering strain: ε = Δl / lo (× 100 %)
Δl is change in length,
lo is the original length.
Stress
and strain are positive for tensile loads,
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negative for compressive loads
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TENSILE TEST RESULT
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Figure : Load-extension curve for a low-carbon steel.
From A to B the extension is proportional to the
applied load. Also, if the load is removed the specimen
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returns to its original length. – elastic properties.
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B is called “limit of proportionality”
If the force is increased beyond B sudden extension
takes place with no increase in force. This is known as
the " yield point" C.
The yield stress is the stress at the yield point; that is,
the load at B divided by the original cross-section area
of the specimen.
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From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load,
and if the load is removed little or no spring back will occur. -
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plastic properties.
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The point D is referred to as the 'ultimate tensile strength‘.
From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching under
reduced load conditions. – Necking.
The specimen finally work hardens to such an extent that it
breaks at E.
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COMPRESSION TESTS
A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile
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test, except that the force is compressive and the specimen
contracts along the direction of the stress.
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Because of the presence of submicroscopic cracks, brittle materials
are often weak in tension.
Brittle materials are predominantly used in compression, where
their strengths are much higher.
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Comparison of the compressive and tensile strengths of gray
cast iron and concrete, both of which are brittle materials.
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SHEAR AND TORSIONAL TESTS
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• Torsion is a variation of pure shear, wherein a
structural member is twisted 15
Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about the
longitudinal axis of one end of the member relative to the
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other end.
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Examples of torsion are found for machine axles and drive
shafts, and also for twist drills.
Torsional tests are normally performed on cylindrical solid
shafts or tubes.
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ELASTIC DEFORMATION
For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively
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low levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other
through the relationship
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This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of
proportionality E is the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s
modulus.
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• The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the
smaller the elastic strain that results from the
application of a given stress. 18
materials like, gray cast iron, concrete, and many polymers for
which this elastic portion of the stress–strain curve is not linear.
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To determine the modulus of elasticity for such kind of
materials either tangent or secant modulus is normally used.
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Tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the stress–
strain curve at some specified level of stress.
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While secant modulus represents the slope of a
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secant drawn from the origin to some given point of
the s– curve.
Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials are
about the same as for metals; for polymers they are lower.
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Figure: Plot of modulus of elasticity versus temperature for
tungsten, steel, and aluminum.
So far we have assumed that elastic deformation is
time independent.
However, in reality elastic deformation takes time
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continues after initial loading, and after load
release.
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This time dependent elastic behavior is known as
Anelasticity.
For metals the anelastic component is normally
small and is often neglected.
However, for some polymeric materials its
magnitude is significant and it is termed Visco-
elastic behavior. 22
Poisson’s ratio
Theratio of lateral and axial strains is called the
Poisson's ratio υ.
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Signin the above equations shows that lateral 23
strain is in opposite sense to longitudinal strain
If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the z direction
as in the figure above ), and the material is isotropic,
For many metals and other alloys, values of Poisson’s
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ratio range between 0.25 and 0.35.
Shear modulus
For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are
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related to each other and to Poisson’s ratio
according to
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