General Topics for the Exam

1. Global problems of youth.

2. Current global climate challenges. Ecological situation in
Ukraine.
3. The realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms in
Ukraine.
4. The participation of Ukraine in UNO, UNESCO and OSCE.
5. Mass media.
6. Global hotbeds of tension.
7. Russia-Ukraine war.
8. Contribution of Ukraine into world global heritage.
9. Ukraine and Great Britain.
10. Ukraine and the USA.

ТЕМИ

1. Global problems of youth. +

2. Contribution of Ukraine into world global heritage. +

3. Current global climate challenges. Ecological situation in Ukraine.

4. The realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms in

Ukraine.

5. Ukraine and the USA.

6. Ukraine and Great Britain.

a. BREXIT https://www.theguardian.com/politics/series/brexit-means

7. UNO ,UNESCO, OSCE and Ukraine The participation

8. Mass media.
9. Global hotbeds of tension.
10. Russia-Ukraine war.
The Russia-Ukraine war has been an enduring and complex conflict that has attracted
significant global attention due to its geopolitical implications.
The Russia-Ukraine war emerged in 2014 following Russia's annexation of Crimea,
which was met with widespread international condemnation. Subsequently, pro-
Russian separatist movements emerged in eastern Ukraine, leading to a violent
conflict between Ukrainian government forces and these separatist factions, with
Russia providing varying degrees of support.
The war has been characterized by sporadic clashes, intense fighting, and territorial
shifts. Both sides have engaged in offensive and defensive operations, resulting in a
high number of casualties and significant displacement of civilians. The conflict has
witnessed the use of conventional weaponry, including artillery, tanks, and infantry, as
well as allegations of irregular warfare tactics.
The war has had severe humanitarian consequences, with widespread human rights
abuses reported by international organizations. Civilians have been subjected to
indiscriminate shelling, arbitrary detentions, and displacement, exacerbating the
humanitarian crisis in the affected regions. Efforts to address these humanitarian
concerns have been hindered by the volatile security situation and limited access for
aid organizations.
Diplomatic initiatives aimed at resolving the conflict have been ongoing, with various
ceasefire agreements brokered by international actors. However, these agreements
have been repeatedly violated, leading to a cycle of renewed hostilities. The conflict
has also strained relations between Russia and Western countries, resulting in
economic sanctions, political tensions, and an overall deterioration in diplomatic
relations.
The international community, including the European Union and the United States,
has expressed support for Ukraine's territorial integrity and condemned Russia's
actions. Economic sanctions targeting Russia's economy have been implemented to
exert pressure and encourage a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Additionally,
international organizations have provided humanitarian aid and support to affected
populations.
In conclusion, the Russia-Ukraine war is a complex and protracted conflict that has
had significant regional and global implications. It has involved intense fighting,
human rights abuses, and geopolitical tensions. Diplomatic efforts to resolve the
conflict continue, but the situation remains fragile, with periodic escalations of
violence. The war's impact on civilians and the humanitarian crisis necessitate
sustained attention and international cooperation to mitigate the suffering and work
towards a lasting resolution.

11.The EU and Ukraine. + road

 12. Globalization.

13. Global struggle against terrorism.

14. NATO

1. Global problems of youth.

Young people face discrimination and obstacles to the enjoyment of their rights
by virtue of their age limiting their potential.
The human rights of youth therefore refer to the full enjoyment of fundamental
rights and freedoms by young people. Promoting these rights entails addressing the
specific challenges and barriers faced.
Human rights are otherwise the rights everyone is entitled to regardless of who
you are or where you are born and live. That means they are universal in nature. In
addition to this, hrs are ineligible, independent and interrelated in general human
rights can be classified as:
a) civil r. - pertain to rights belonging to a person by reason of citizenship,
b) political r. - enable the people to participate in running and influencing
the administration of the government
c) economic r. - pertain to access to resources that are essential for the
creation, legal appropriation and market exchange of goods and services.
d) social r. - relate to living together or enjoying life in communities,
e) cultural r. - ensure the well-being(welfare) of the individual and foster
the preservation, enrichment and dynamic evolution of culture.
Pursuant to HR Council Resolution 35/14, the Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights published a report on youth and human rights:
● youth under-represented in political institutions
● Young people worldwide are three times more likely than adults to be
unemployed, or they often face precarious working conditions and thus lack
quality jobs and access to social protection
● In some countries, parental notification is required for young people to access
sexual and reproductive health services. Therefore adolescents’ ability to take
measures to prevent unwanted pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections is
hindered
 ● Some states do not recognise or fully implement the rights to conscientious
objection to military service
● Youth in vulnerable situations face additional challenges due to their specific
situation. (eg. young migrants including asylum seekers and refugees, young
people in conflict with the law and youth with disabilities)

Age is one characteristic that often intersects with, adds to and multiplies
discrimination based on other grounds, thus preventing many young people from
enjoying equal opportunities and substantive equality.

How to cope with issues of youth? What can member states do?
The Human Rights Council shall consider measures that would most
effectively advance the rights of young people at the international level, with options
including:
1. Mainstreaming the human rights of youth through existing mechanisms,
policies and programmes;
2. Creating a special procedure mandate under the auspices of the Council;
3. Considering the possibility of an international instrument;
4. Introducing a mechanism that would ensure permanent, structured youth
participation in the Council's work, such as an annual youth forum as an
ongoing component of the Council.

Member States can also take measures at the national level to ensure the
protection and realization of young people's rights, while involving youth
organizations or youth-led structures in the development, implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of policies, programmes or strategies affecting young people's rights,
and in decision-making more broadly. Measures may include, for example: (Member
States are encouraged to)

1) enact legislation, prohibiting discrimination on the grounds of age in all areas

of life
2) provide straightforward, accessible mechanisms for reporting discrimination
and seeking redress.
3) by enacting and amending legislation to align the minimum voting age and
minimum age of candidacy to run for office
4) ensure access to sexual and reproductive health services without parental
consent
5) refrain from prosecuting young people, providing a non-punitive and non-
discriminatory alternative service for conscientious objectors

Conflicts usually appear between parents and their teenage offsprings.

1. Misunderstanding
Such fact as misunderstanding between youth and their parents is vastly expanded as a
definition of generation gap. People born in different time periods under different conditions,
have their own views based on the circumstances they have been through. The patterns of life
have been changing continuously according to time. Everyone wants to live and behave in his
own way and no one wants to compromise with his or her values and views.

2. Physical abuse
Physical abuse is when an abuser uses physical force against another person in a way that
injures the person or puts them at risk of being injured. Physical abuse ranges from physical
restraint to murder. Some examples are:
● Grabbing,.
● Holding,
● Assaulting with a weapon, such as a knife or gun.
● Stopping a person from having what they need for their health, such as medication,
medical care or hygienic assistance.

3. Sexual abuse
Sexual abuse is often linked to physical abuse. Any sexual contact without consent, such as
rape, forced sex with others

4. Psychological or emotional abuse

Psychological or emotional abuse can be verbal or nonverbal, and the actions or behavior are
less obvious than with physical abuse. Physical abuse may seem worse, but verbal or
nonverbal abuse can be very emotionally damaging.

Youth participation
Young people play an active and significant role in civic engagement. For instance, youth are integral
to their local communities: they affect its culture bringing new ideas and they have extensive social
connections. Communities become stronger and more resilient when youth participate.The potential
of civically engaged young people can be used as a powerful force for change. When young people, as
an inexhaustible source of energy, participate in civic life, they can bring valuable perspectives to a
wide range of issues, such as education, healthcare, the environment, housing, etc. Besides, young
people are increasing their impact through social media. For example, using TikTok or Instagram,
they spread different ideas and raise awareness of russian cruel violations.In addition, young people
are also involved in volunteering and providing aid to the Ukrainian army. It’s supposed that civic
engagement, as a driving force for community development, enables youth to implement their
ambitions and contribute to the society’s development, positive social outcomes and human well-
being in general.
2. Contribution of Ukraine into world global heritage.
Each nation, creating its own national culture, thereby contributes to the world
culture, through which it communicates with the surrounding nature and other
peoples. As a result of such communication, mutual cultural enrichment occurs. And
as a result, different cultures develop, become more complex, and become much more
diverse.
Ukraine has given the world pearls of philosophical, religious, literary and
artistic creativity, which put our people on a par with other developed and cultural
nations of the world.
Ukrainian universities are included in the list of the best universities in the
world. The QS World University Rankings has been compiled for over 15 years. He is
considered one of the most respected in the world. The highest positions are always
occupied by two universities, Kharkiv National University Karazin and Kyiv National
University. Shevchenko, which is by far the best and most prestigious educational
institution in Ukraine.
Ukraine has significant economic, scientific and technical potential.
Fundamental sciences, materials science, aviation, space-rocket and military
equipment, some areas of the latest information technologies are successfully
developing.
Ukraine was also seen as masterpieces of geniuses or natural phenomena that
are included in the UNESCO list in order to preserve them for posterity. There are 7
such objects in Ukraine.
There are several objects in Kyiv: St. Sophia Cathedral and adjacent monastic
buildings, Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra.
● Hagia Sophia was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1990. The
historical ensemble has been created and improved over the millennia. Kyiv
princes Yaroslav the Wise and Volodymyr II Monomakh were crowned in the
walls of St. Sophia Cathedral.
● The Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was marked by the fact that Nestor the Chronicler
wrote "The Tale of Bygone Years" there. The monastery became a stronghold
of Christianity in the 11th century in Kievan Rus.
● The value of the Savior Church on Berestovo is the frescoes made in the 11th,
12th and 17th centuries. The oldest paintings were considered lost until 1970.
Paradoxically, they have survived better than those made later.
● The ensemble of the historic center of Lviv has been a UNESCO World
Heritage Site since 1998. The combination of artistic and architectural
traditions of Eastern Europe, Italy and Germany has led to its inclusion in the
 cohort of the most valuable monuments. The center is the oldest part of the
city. The first settlement appeared here in the 12th century.
Another heritage is the Carpathian beech forests and ancient beech forests,
which were added to the list in 2006. They unite our country with Slovakia. This is
where you can see what the forests looked like a thousand years ago. It is forbidden to
conduct economic activities in the forests, which allowed to preserve the originality of
nature.
The residence of the Metropolitans of Bukovina and Dalmatia is an
architectural ensemble in Chernivtsi, built under the supervision of Czech architect
Josef Hlávka in the 19th century. It was the centre of the Bukovyna Orthodox
Metropolis in the times of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The wooden churches of the Carpathian region are remarkable for both Poland
and Ukraine. 16 churches of Ukraine and Poland combined Hutsul, Boyko, Lemko
and Galician types of architecture. The first in the list of Ukrainian churches is the
Church of St. George, which was built in the 15th century.

Ukraine's contributions to the world's global heritage are diverse and remarkable. Its
historical sites, such as Kyiv and Lviv, showcase architectural brilliance and cultural
richness. Cultural traditions like Pysanky, Vyshyvanka, and Hopak have captivated
audiences worldwide. Literary luminaries like Taras Shevchenko have left a lasting
impact on world literature. Ukraine's natural wonders, including the Carpathian
Mountains, offer breathtaking beauty and ecological significance. Finally, the
indomitable Cossack traditions embody Ukraine's spirit of independence and
resilience. Together, these contributions form a vibrant tapestry in the world's global
heritage, reflecting Ukraine's cultural, historical, and natural treasures.

Ukraine boasts a multifaceted heritage encompassing cultural, historical, and

natural treasures that have made substantial contributions to the world's global
heritage. From its awe-inspiring historical sites to its vibrant cultural traditions, from
its literary legacies to its breathtaking natural wonders, and from its indelible Cossack
traditions, Ukraine's imprint on the global heritage tapestry is undeniable.
First and foremost, Ukraine's historical sites, having received UNESCO
recognition as world heritage sites, serve as poignant reminders of the country's
architectural prowess and historical significance. Noteworthy among these are several
objects in Kyiv: St. Sophia Cathedral and adjacent monastic buildings, Kyiv-Pechersk
Lavra.
Delving further into Ukraine's contributions, its rich cultural traditions form
an integral part of the global heritage mosaic. Rooted in folklore, music, dance, and
crafts, Ukrainian cultural expressions have left an indelible mark on the global stage.
The intricate artistry of Pysanky, intricately decorated Ukrainian Easter eggs, serves
as a testament to the meticulous craftsmanship and centuries-old traditions passed
down through generations. Likewise, the vibrant colors and intricate patterns adorning
Vyshyvanka, traditional Ukrainian embroidered clothing, evoke a sense of national
pride and cultural identity. In the realm of dance, the exuberant leaps and spins of the
Hopak, a lively Ukrainian folk dance, captivate audiences worldwide, offering a
glimpse into the country's rich cultural tapestry.
Ukraine's literary legacy is yet another facet of its contribution to global
heritage. The literary luminaries born and nurtured within its borders have left an
indelible mark on world literature. Taras Shevchenko, widely regarded as the father of
modern Ukrainian literature, crafted verses that spoke of national identity, freedom,
and social justice, resonating with readers far beyond Ukraine's borders. The works of
other Ukrainian literary giants, including Ivan Franko and Lesya Ukrainka, continue
to inspire and provoke thought, leaving an enduring legacy within the realm of
literature.
Beyond its cultural and historical contributions, Ukraine's natural wonders
provide a testament to the country's environmental diversity and ecological
significance. Nestled within the Carpathian Mountains, Ukraine's pristine forests,
majestic peaks, and rich biodiversity have earned global recognition as a natural
treasure. This breathtaking landscape captivates the imagination and beckons
adventure seekers and nature enthusiasts to explore its hidden corners, offering a
glimpse into the splendor of the natural world.
Last but certainly not least, Ukraine's Cossack traditions have profoundly
influenced its historical narrative and cultural identity. The intrepid Cossacks,
celebrated for their bravery, martial skills, and democratic self-governance, have
shaped Ukraine's history and instilled a sense of pride in its people. Their legacy of
independence, community spirit, and military prowess has transcended time, serving
as a testament to Ukraine's enduring spirit and resilience.
In conclusion, Ukraine's multifaceted contributions to the world's global
heritage are a testament to its rich cultural, historical, and natural treasures. Through
its architectural marvels, vibrant cultural traditions, literary legacies, breathtaking
natural wonders, and indomitable Cossack traditions, Ukraine has woven an intricate
tapestry that enriches the global heritage narrative. Ukraine's legacy serves as a
reminder of the diverse beauty and enduring significance of human achievements
throughout the ages.

To put everything in a nutshell, Ukraine's multifaceted contributions to the

world's global heritage are a testament to its rich cultural, historical, and natural
treasures. Through a wide range of actions, UNESCO has been instrumental in
preserving and promoting these sites, providing technical expertise, financial aid, and
educational initiatives. By safeguarding Ukraine's cultural heritage, UNESCO has not
only contributed to the country's identity but also reinforced the importance of the
heritage preservation worldwide.

3. Current global climate challenges. Ecological situation in

Ukraine.

The war has caused widespread and severe damage to the environment
and inflicted both immediate and longer-term consequences on the human
health, ecosystems and the Ukrainian economy and beyond. However, these
indirect consequences often cause more deaths in the long run than the war
itself, and it is the climatic and environmental effects of any conflict the impact
receiving less media coverage.

● The government is developing a Post-war Recovery and Development Plan

that aligns with green economy and low-emission development principles.
● In the short term, Ukraine should focus on eliminating and reducing the
immediate risks that the war poses to human health and the environment.
● In the longer term, post-war “green” reconstruction should not be seen as a
desirable but optional “extra”, but as an economic necessity for a fundamental
transformation of Ukraine towards a green and net-zero economy.
We are currently consuming more resources than ever, exceeding the planet's capacity for generation.
In the meantime, waste and pollution grows, and the gap between the rich and the poor is widening.

4. The realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms

in Ukraine.
Ukraine has enacted a number of positive reforms since the protest-driven
ouster of President Viktor Yanukovych in 2014. However, corruption remains
endemic, and initiatives to combat it are only partially implemente

The armed conflict in eastern Ukraine continues to take a high toll on civilians,
from threatening their physical safety to limiting access to food, medicines, adequate
housing, and schools. Russia-backed terrorists abduct people who come to visit their
relatives who stay in the territory which is not controlled by the Ukrainian
government. These Ukrainian citizens are in custody for absolutely nonsense
prosecutions. They are kept in terrible, unsanitary conditions and prisoners often don`t
have necessary sustenance and beverage, also they are often beaten to serious traumas.
The most notable example is a concentration camp located in ex-artplace “Isolation”
in occupied Donetsk

Ukraine is a party of the following international treaties:

· International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

· Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women (CEDAW)
· Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
· Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishmen
· Convention relating to the Status of Refugees
There are some fundamental rights, which are being realized successfully in Ukraine.

First of them is the right to fair trial, which also mentioned in the UDHR

Ukraine has long suffered from corrupt and politicized courts, and recent reform
initiatives aimed at addressing the issue have stalled or fallen short of expectations.
Although due process guarantees exist, in practice individuals with financial resources
and political influence can escape prosecution for wrongdoing. According to statistics
from the World Prison Brief published in April 2020, about 37 percent of prisoners
are in pretrial detention

The government has made little progress in meeting domestic and international
demands to investigate and prosecute crimes committed during the last months of the
Yanukovych administration in late 2013 and early 2014, which included the shooting
of protesters. Also, according to civil society organizations involved in the reform, 44
of 193 judges appointed to the new Supreme Court have a tainted reputation.

The next is a right to Media freedom and freedom of information

The constitution guarantees freedoms of speech and expression, and libel is not a
criminal offense. The media landscape features considerable pluralism and open
criticism of the government and investigation of powerful figures. However, business
magnates own and influence many outlets, using them as tools to advance their
agendas Journalists continued to face threats of violence and intimidation in 2020, and
Ukraine’s courts and law enforcement agents often fail to protect their rights.
Freedom of belief

The constitution and a 1991 law define religious rights in Ukraine, and these are
generally respected. However, smaller religious groups continue to report some
discrimination. Vandalism of Jewish structures and cemeteries continues.
Acknowledging one’s atheism may result in discrimination. However, existing
tensions between the new Orthodox Church of Ukraine and the Ukrainian branch of
the Russian Orthodox Church have decreased in recent years.

Besides that, Ukraine, as the democracy State, tries to ensure equal suffrage to all the
citizens and to promote the development and observance of other political rights.

Political pluralism

With the exception of a ban on the Communist Party, there are no formal barriers to
the creation and operation of political parties. New political parties organize
frequently.A law that came into force in 2016 provides parliamentary parties with
state funding, but the provision effectively favors established parties over newcomers.
Party financing in Ukraine remains opaque, despite robust laws to regulate it.
Ukraine’s oligarchs exert significant influence over politics through their financial
support for various political parties, and lobby for the appointment of loyalists to key
institutional positions

Electoral Process

The president is directly elected for a maximum of two five-year terms. The 450
members of the unicameral Supreme Council, or Verkhovna Rada, have been elected
to five-year terms through a mixed system in which half of the members are chosen by
closed-list proportional representation and the other half in single-member districts.
The elections were deemed generally competitive and credible, despite some
problems. An Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) election
monitoring mission cited some irregularities, including “widespread vote-buying,
misuse of incumbency, and the practice of exploiting all possible legislative
loopholes” that contributed to inequalities among competitors
5. Ukraine and the USA.
The first diplomatic relations between the United States and Ukraine were established
in 1991 almost immediately after the collapse of the USSR.
The United States strongly supports Ukraine and gives asylum to thousands of
Ukrainians. The relations between Ukraine and the U.S. have the status of strategic
partnership.

Since the beginning of the full-scale Russian aggression, Ukraine and the U.S.
have reached the level of a truly meaningful alliance.
Throughout the course of this conflict, the United States of America has played a
crucial role in supporting Ukraine, providing assistance and demonstrating solidarity
with the Ukrainian government.
The USA's involvement in the Russian-Ukrainian war has primarily focused on
diplomatic, economic, and military support. Diplomatically, the United States has
consistently condemned Russia's aggression towards Ukraine, urging for a peaceful
resolution and respect for Ukraine's territorial integrity. High-level officials from both
countries have engaged in diplomatic negotiations, seeking to de-escalate the conflict
and find a viable solution.
Economically, the United States has implemented various sanctions on Russia,
targeting key sectors of its economy and individuals involved in the conflict. These
economic measures are designed to exert pressure on Russia, highlighting the
international community's disapproval of its actions and reinforcing support for
Ukraine.
In terms of military assistance, the United States has been a significant contributor to
Ukraine's defense capabilities. The USA has provided Ukraine with military aid,
including weaponry, equipment, and training, to enhance its ability to defend itself
against Russian aggression. This support has aimed to bolster Ukraine's defense
capabilities, promote stability, and deter further Russian incursions.
Additionally, the United States has actively engaged in multilateral efforts to address
the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. This includes collaborating with international partners,
such as NATO and the European Union, to coordinate responses, share intelligence,
and ensure a unified stance against Russian aggression.
The USA's support for Ukraine in the Russian-Ukrainian war reflects its commitment
to international norms, democratic principles, and regional stability. By standing
firmly with Ukraine, the United States aims to deter further acts of aggression,
safeguard the sovereignty of nations, and promote the peaceful resolution of
conflicts.
In conclusion, the United States has been actively supporting Ukraine in the
Russian-Ukrainian war through diplomatic, economic, and military means. This
support underscores the USA's commitment to upholding international norms and
defending the sovereignty of nations in the face of Russian aggression. The
partnership between Ukraine and the United States serves as an important example of
international cooperation and solidarity in maintaining regional stability.

6. Ukraine and Great Britain.

The beginning of the relations between Ukraine and Uk

Throughout this ongoing conflict, the United Kingdom (UK) has played a vital role in providing
support to Ukraine, offering diplomatic, military, and humanitarian assistance as a testament to their
commitment to upholding international norms and regional stability.

Diplomatically, the UK has consistently condemned Russia's actions and expressed support for
Ukraine's territorial integrity. The UK government has actively engaged in diplomatic negotiations
and multilateral forums, working with international partners to find a peaceful resolution to the
conflict and hold Russia accountable for its aggression. High-level officials from the UK have
maintained regular contact with their Ukrainian counterparts, demonstrating solidarity and offering
guidance on diplomatic strategies.

In terms of military support, the UK has provided valuable assistance to Ukraine. This aid includes
the provision of training programs for Ukrainian armed forces, technical expertise, and military
equipment. The UK has also engaged in intelligence sharing with Ukrainian counterparts to enhance
situational awareness and promote effective defense strategies. Such military cooperation aims to
strengthen Ukraine's defense capabilities and deter further Russian incursions.

Humanitarian assistance has been another key aspect of the UK's support for Ukraine. The UK has
actively contributed to international efforts in providing aid to those affected by the conflict, including
displaced persons and vulnerable populations. Humanitarian aid from the UK has encompassed
various areas such as medical supplies, food, shelter, and psychosocial support, with the objective of
alleviating the suffering caused by the war.

The UK's support for Ukraine in the Russian-Ukrainian war reflects its commitment to international
law, democratic values, and the preservation of regional stability. By standing in solidarity with
Ukraine, the UK aims to counter Russian aggression, protect the principles of sovereignty and self-
determination, and promote the peaceful resolution of conflicts.

In conclusion, the UK's involvement in the Russian-Ukrainian war underscores its dedication to
supporting Ukraine diplomatically, militarily, and in providing humanitarian aid. Through these
efforts, the UK aims to help Ukraine defend its sovereignty, enhance its military capabilities, and
mitigate the human suffering caused by the conflict. The partnership between Ukraine and the UK
serves as a testament to international cooperation and solidarity in the face of regional challenges.
britain’s economy boomed
be able to lean on the UK's strong welfare system.
financial crisis hit
bring in austerity measures

Political Structure
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, meaning that the country is governed by a
king or queen who takes advice from the parliament. The UK is also a unitary parliamentary
democracy, with the government being controlled by a parliament that is elected by the
people. The highest positions in the government are filled by the members of the directly
elected parliament. The head of state in the UK serves as a symbolic figurehead with limited
powers, while the actual political power is held by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.

The UK Parliament is composed of two houses - the House of Commons and the House of
Lords. The House of Commons is made up of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected
by the people in general elections that take place every five years or when called by the Prime
Minister. The House of Lords is made up of appointed members, including life peers,
hereditary peers, and bishops of the Church of England. The UK has a multi-party system,
with the Conservative Party and the Labour Party being the two major political parties.

Devolution has granted varying degrees of self-government to Scotland, Wales, and Northern
Ireland, with each having their own Parliament or Assembly. England does not have its own
separate Parliament but is instead governed by the UK Parliament. The political structure of
the UK is complex and diverse, with multiple levels of government and a rich history of
democracy and political institutions.

The UK monarchy is limited to functions such as bestowing honors and appointing the prime
minister in a non-partisan manner. The sovereign is also able to comment on draft laws that
directly affect the monarchy and is Head of the British Armed Forces. The Government of the
United Kingdom is known as His Majesty's Government, and the monarchy is considered a
unique soft power and diplomatic asset.

There are many political parties in the UK, with the Conservative Party and the Labour Party
being the two major parties. The Liberal Democrats fall between the Conservatives and
Labour, and the Scottish National Party is left-wing and more liberal than England. The UK
political system is diverse and complex, with multiple levels of government and a rich history
of democracy and political institutions

Brexit
Brexit was the term given to the process of the United Kingdom (UK) leaving the European
Union (EU) after a referendum was held on June 23, 2016, in which 52% of voters were in
favor of leaving. The UK officially left the EU on January 31, 2020, and entered a transition
process that ended on December 31, 2020. The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement
was agreed to on December 24, 2020 (and signed on December 30). The Trade and
Cooperation Agreement has three main pillars: trade, cooperation, and governance that took
effect on January 1, 2021. The agreement does not cover foreign policy and defense. Free
movement between the UK and the EU has ended, and the UK is no longer part of the
customs union and single market with the EU. Instead, it has a trade agreement that allows
zero tariffs and zero quotas on goods traded that comply with the appropriate rules of origin.
The UK is expected to suffer some economic effects of Brexit, such as a reduction in
economic growth.

BREXIT
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NgVhRVrANhA

the withdrawal agreement

accusing Britain of 'cherry-picking' the benefits of EU membership without any
of the responsibilities.

Reasons
1. the UK — as one of the wealthier countries in the Union — was
contributing too much money to the EU budget. membership fees
2. burdensome regulations
Furthermore, the leave campaign successfully linked this concern to the idea of 'taking back
control' from the EU. This idea resonated with nationalist sentiments amongst older voters
and those concerned about excessive EU regulations and environmental standards, and
believed that that EU laws and regulations were a threat to British Sovereignty. The leave
campaign also took advantage of the fact that the UK was a net contributor to the EU budget
and claimed that by leaving the EU, the UK could afford to spend an extra £350 million on
the NHS, with Boris Johnson telling The Guardian
We grossly underestimated the sum over which we would be able to take back control7

3. immigration
Immigration was a significant concern for many Britons, due to a considerable rise in
migration from EU countries since the early 1990s - from an average of 61,000 per year to
268,000 in 2014.1 As Cameron had failed to satisfy anti-immigration voices in his own party
and beyond, the 'Leave' campaigns, led by Conservative London Mayor Boris Johnson and
Nigel Farage, exploited this concern by predicting an enormous influx of immigrants if
Britain stayed in the EU.
the European refugee crisis in the summer of 2015. Millions of people - mostly Syrians -
arrived in Greece and Italy to seek asylum.
Leave voters particularly felt that immigration was a key issue and that they did feel it was
having a negative impact on this country. Not just in economic terms but in social terms,
political terms, cultural terms. We would hear in focus groups, for instance, that some Leave
voters would say it doesn't feel like a Christian country in Britain any more.
So all of those frustrations about immigration plus social and economic changes, and
Euroscepticism set the stage for Brexit.

But what triggered the actual referendum?

That was politics. In 2013, a general election was coming up. The UK's Prime Minister
David Cameron worried about losing votes to the increasingly popular and Eurosceptic UK
Independence Party.
So Cameron promised the British people that if his Conservative Party won he would hold
a referendum on EU membership. David Cameron never thought that he would actually
have to give that referendum. And I don't think he thought he'd win an outright majority at
the next general election.
But he did.
So, he had to keep his pledge. Cameron then campaigned to stay in the EU and thought he
would win again. But another political gamble gone bad for David Cameron.

4. Another factor that pushed Britain toward the exit was terrorism
A string of attacks, some carried out by immigrants, had hit Europe, including the devastating November 2015 violence in Paris that
killed or injured nearly 500 people.
Compared to the four other European countries with more than 40 million residents, the UK has the highest population density.

The Remain campaign had initially been confident as it had the support of
the government and was endorsed by the Bank of England and the security
establishment. They focused mainly on the security and economic benefits of
remaining in the EU and warned of costly economic damages if the UK left the
single market. Their campaign was labelled 'project fear' by their opposition,
who accused them of using scare tactics to convince people to vote remain. The
association of the remain campaign with imminent economic doom, fear
mongering and their initial over-confidence, as well as the countervailing
charismatic image of politicians like Nigel Farage and Boris Johnson, may have
also encouraged higher turnout amongst leave-inclined voters.
The main issue was the Irish 'backstop', which aimed to avoid a hard
border between Ireland and Northern Ireland by implementing a legally-binding
customs plan with the EU which would come into force if the UK and EU failed
to reach a comprehensive deal by December 2020.

the dissolution of the UK itself if Scotland breaks away.

Brexit - Key takeaways

● The UK voted to leave the European Union on 23 June 23 2016.
 ● The Leave campaign focused on issues such as immigration, sovereignty
and 'taking back control'.
● The Remain Campaign focused mainly on the negative economic effects
of Brexit.
● The process of delivering Brexit played out under three Prime Ministers,
David Cameron, Theresa May and Boris Johnson.
● Theresa May resigned after failing to pass her government's withdrawal
deal through Parliament, after two extension periods, mainly due to the
Northern Irish 'backstop'.
● Boris Johnson finalised the Brexit deal after securing a new agreement
regarding the Irish border, and an early parliamentary election which
gave him a mandate to pass the withdrawal agreement through Parliament
● The UK withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, after the European
Union Act of that year was ratified by the European and UK parliaments.

Questions
● When did Brexit happen?
The UK voted to leave the Union on June 23, 2016, and officially left the EU on
January 31, 2020.
● What is Brexit?
Refers to the United Kingdom’s departure from the European Union (EU),
following a referendum in June 2016.
A portmanteau of the words ‘British' and 'exit’ which refers to the United
Kingdom’s departure from the European Union (EU), following a referendum
in June 2016.
● What is the reason behind the uk Brexit?
The main reasons for Brexit included worries surrounding immigration, national
Sovereignty and the amount of money the UK was contributing to the EU.
● What is the advantages and disadvantages of Brexit?
After Brexit, UK citizens no longer have the freedom of movement across EU
nations, and the UK no longer has access to the EU single market. However, the
UK now has full Sovereignty and does not have to adhere to any EU laws.
● What is Article 50?
A legal mechanism outlined in the Lisbon Treaty (2009) signed by EU
members, to be used when a member of the EU wishes to leave. It outlines the
steps which must be completed to withdraw from the bloc.
The consequences of Brexit
In general terms, the UK’s economy has faced adverse effects after exiting the EU,
while the EU’s economy has had some mild effects. Brexit demolished all the agreements
between the UK and the EU regarding security, trade, governance, and free movement of
people and goods.
There ought to be long-term repercussions of Brexit not only on the economies of the
UK and the EU but also on the global economy.
Consequences of Brexit - Key takeaways
● The economy of the UK declined as a combined result of the Covid-19 pandemic and
Brexit.
● The UK and the EU have signed a Trade and cooperation agreement (TCA) that
provides free trade, mutual market access, and other support mechanisms.
● The London stock market became more volatile after Brexit. A huge portion of
derivatives moved to Amsterdam and New York stock exchanges.
● The UK faced a shortage of workforce in the service, transport, and hospitality sectors
immediately after Brexit.
● The EU has to find ways to fill the financial gap in the economy after Brexit.
● Both the EU and the UK have signed new trading agreements with other countries
like the US, China, and Australia.

- What are the economic consequences of Brexit?

In the last years (2018–20), the economy of the UK did not perform well. This is due to the
combined effect of Brexit and the Covid-19 pandemic.
After coming to power, Boris Johnson’s party executed Brexit formalities and signed a Trade
and Corporation agreement (TCA) with the EU.
The EU is still the biggest trading partner of the UK and will be so in the future.

- How has Brexit affected the UK automobile industry?

The EU is the major importer of cars from the UK. After Brexit, UK car safety certifications
are not valid in the EU. Hence, UK car manufacturers have to follow other regulations to sell
cars in the EU.
Honda has shut down their plant in Swindon while other companies have implemented
employment cuts.
On the other hand, the import of Tesla electric cars from the US has increased by 16%.
Overall, the automobile sector in the UK has suffered due to a decrease in trade between the
UK and the EU.

- What are the effects of Brexit on the global economy?

The immediate effect of Brexit was the decreased price of the Sterling pound. As the pound
fell, investing in foreign markets like the US and China became expensive for UK investors.
Regarding the international trade, the UK has now signed new trade agreements with non-EU
countries like Australia, China, and the US. This has strengthened the country’s international
relationships and UK consumers can now enjoy the produce of the non–EU countries at a
lower price.
 - What are the impacts of Brexit on Northern Ireland?
During the Brexit negotiations, the transport of goods and people between the Republic of
Ireland and Northern Ireland was an important point of concern. Due to the history of these
countries and the Good Friday Agreement, they can’t have a border.
However, as per the current arrangements, goods do not have to go through customs or pay
tariffs while crossing these borders.

- What are the consequences of Brexit for the EU economy?

The EU economy initially benefitted from Brexit as many financial institutions moved to the
EU.
However, the UK was one of the major contributors to the EU’s budget. Between 2014 and
2018, on average, the UK contributed £7.8 billion per anum. After Brexit, the EU’s budget is
short by 5%.
Regarding trade, both the UK and the EU are looking for other trade partners.

Did Brexit help Britain help Ukraine?

https://www.politico.eu/article/brexit-britain-help-ukraine/

Brexit: What are the key points of the deal?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mFCKLBsmF_w
Trade
There will be no extra charges on goods (tariffs) or limits on the amount that can be traded
(quotas) between the UK and the EU from 1 January.
However, there will be extra checks at borders, such as safety checks and customs
declarations, so businesses that rely on transporting goods to and from the EU will need to be
ready.
For services, including finance - which is very important to the UK economy - the situation is
still slightly unclear. Services will lose their automatic right of access but the UK said the
agreement "locks in market access across substantially all sectors".
There will no longer be automatic recognition of professional qualifications such as doctors,
nurses and architects.
Travel
UK nationals will need a visa for stays of longer than 90 days in the EU in a 180-day period,
and there will be extra border checks for UK travellers.
EU pet passports will no longer be valid.
British travellers will still be able to access emergency health care in the European Union.
European Health Insurance Cards, (EHIC) cards will remain valid until they expire.
According to the UK government, they will then have to be replaced by a "UK Global Health
Insurance Card".
The UK and the EU will co-operate on "fair and transparent rates for international mobile
roaming" but there is nothing stopping British travellers being charged for using their phone
in the EU and vice versa.
Fishing
The UK becomes an independent coastal state and can decide on access to its waters and
fishing grounds.
But EU boats will be able to fish in UK waters for some years to come at least.
Twenty-five percent of the value of their current catch will now become available for UK
fishing boats, but there will be a transition period of five-and-a-half years where that is
phased in.
After the transition period the UK and EU will regularly negotiate on access to each other's
waters.
European Court of Justice
The UK will no longer be bound by judgments made by the European Court of Justice, Prime
Minister Boris Johnson said.
Security
The UK will no longer have automatic access to key databases, but should be able to gain
access upon request.
The UK will not be a member of Europol - the EU's law enforcement agency - but it will
have a presence at its headquarters. This will be similar to the arrangement the US currently
has.
Study
The UK will no longer participate in the Erasmus exchange programme - an EU scheme that
helps students study in other countries, and in its place will be a new scheme named after the
mathematician Alan Turing.
Students at universities in Northern Ireland will continue to participate in Erasmus, as part of
an arrangement with the Irish government.
7. UNO ,UNESCO, OSCE and Ukraine.
UNO
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization founded in 1945 with the aim
of promoting international cooperation and resolving conflicts between nations. The UN currently has
193 member states, and its main activities include maintaining international peace and security,
promoting human rights, and providing humanitarian assistance.

The UN is composed of six main organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the
International Court of Justice, the Secretariat, the Economic and Social Council, and the Trusteeship
Council (which is currently inactive). The General Assembly is the main deliberative body of the UN
and is responsible for setting the agenda for the organization's work. The Security Council is
responsible for maintaining international peace and security, and it can authorize military action and
impose economic sanctions on countries that threaten international peace and security.

UNO MISSIONS
The United Nations (UN) has conducted various missions throughout its history to promote peace,
protect human rights, and provide humanitarian aid in countries facing conflict or natural disasters.
Some of the notable UN missions include:

1. United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO): Established in 1948,

UNTSO's mission is to supervise the cease-fire between Israel and its Arab neighbors.

2. United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP): Established in 1964,

UNFICYP's mission is to prevent a recurrence of fighting between the Greek Cypriot and
Turkish Cypriot communities and maintain law and order in the buffer zone.

3. United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC): Established in 1992,

UNTAC's mission was to ensure the implementation of the Paris Peace Accords and to
conduct free and fair elections in Cambodia.
 4. United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH): Established in 1995,
UNMIBH's mission was to assist the Bosnian authorities in building a sustainable police
force and promote the rule of law in the country.

5. United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL): Established in 1999, UNAMSIL's

mission was to monitor the implementation of the Lomé Peace Agreement and to assist in
the disarmament and demobilization of combatants in Sierra Leone.

6. United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH): Established in 2004,

MINUSTAH's mission was to help restore a secure and stable environment, promote the
rule of law and human rights, and facilitate political dialogue in Haiti.

7. United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI): Established in 2007, UNAMI's
mission is to help the Iraqi government promote political dialogue and national
reconciliation, as well as to support the country's reconstruction and development.

UNO IN UKRAINE
One of the most significant UN missions in Ukraine is the United Nations Monitoring Mission in
Ukraine (UNMMU), which was established in March 2014 in response to the crisis in eastern
Ukraine. The mission is tasked with monitoring the ceasefire between Ukrainian government forces
and Russian-backed separatists in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions. The UNMMU also monitors the
withdrawal of heavy weapons from the conflict zone, helps facilitate dialogue between the parties to
the conflict, and supports local ceasefire monitoring mechanisms.

In addition to the UNMMU, other UN agencies and organisations are involved in activities in
Ukraine. For example, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) works to promote
sustainable development and economic growth in Ukraine, whilethe United Nations Children's
Fund (UNICEF) supports programs to improve the lives of children in the country. The United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) also provides humanitarian assistance to
internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Ukraine who have been affected by the conflict in the east.

UNESCO
UNESCO MISSIONS

The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized
agency of the UN founded in 1945 with the aim of promoting international cooperation in education,
science, culture, and communication. UNESCO works to improve access to education, preserve
cultural heritage sites, promote freedom of expression and the press, and support scientific research
and collaboration.

UNESCO has a variety of specialized programs and initiatives, including promoting literacy and
teacher training, preserving world heritage sites, promoting freedom of the press and media
development, and supporting scientific research and cooperation. UNESCO also provides a forum for
the exchange of ideas and best practices among member states.

UNESCO IN UKRAINE

UNESCO's activities in Ukraine have focused on promoting education, cultural preservation, and
freedom of expression. UNESCO has supported the preservation of historic landmarks in Ukraine,
including the ancient city of Kyiv and the Lviv Historic Centre, which are both UNESCO World
Heritage Sites. UNESCO has also worked to promote media development and freedom of expression
in Ukraine through initiatives such as the Media and Information Literacy (MIL) program.
 1. Preserving cultural heritage: UNESCO is working with Ukrainian authorities to safeguard
and promote the country's rich cultural heritage. This includes preserving historic sites,
protecting cultural artifacts, and promoting traditional crafts and practices.

2. Improving access to education: UNESCO is working to improve access to education for

children and adults in Ukraine. This includes supporting teacher training programs,
promoting non-formal education, and advocating for policies that promote equal access to
education for all.

3. Promoting freedom of expression: UNESCO is working to promote freedom of

expression and press freedom in Ukraine. This includes supporting independent media,
promoting media literacy, and advocating for policies that protect journalists and their
work.

4. Encouraging scientific research: UNESCO is supporting scientific research and

innovation in Ukraine, with a particular focus on areas such as sustainable development,
climate change, and renewable energy.

OSCE
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is an intergovernmental
organization founded in 1975 with the aim of promoting security and stability in Europe. The
OSCE has 57 member states, and its main activities include conflict prevention and
resolution, arms control and disarmament, and promoting human rights and democracy.

The OSCE has a variety of specialized agencies and bodies, including the Office for
Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, the High Commissioner on National Minorities,
and the OSCE Secretariat. The OSCE works to prevent conflicts and promote stability in
Europe through activities such as election monitoring, arms control and disarmament, and
promoting human rights and democracy.

OSCE MISSIONS

1. Monitoring and reporting: OSCE has a Special Monitoring Mission (SMM) in Ukraine,
which was established in 2014 to monitor and report on the situation in Ukraine. The
SMM monitors the ceasefire, human rights situation, and the implementation of the
Minsk agreements.

2. Electoral observation: OSCE deploys observation missions to monitor the conduct of

elections in participating states, including Ukraine. The OSCE Election Observation
Mission (EOM) assesses the legal framework for elections, the conduct of campaigns, the
media environment, and the voting and counting process.

3. Conflict resolution: OSCE supports conflict resolution efforts in Ukraine, including

facilitating dialogue and negotiations between parties to the conflict in eastern Ukraine.
OSCE also supports confidence-building measures and monitors the situation along the
contact line.

4. Human rights: OSCE promotes respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms in
Ukraine, including by supporting the work of civil society organizations and promoting
tolerance and non-discrimination.

5. Arms control and confidence-building measures: OSCE supports arms control and
confidence-building measures in Ukraine, including by monitoring the withdrawal of
 heavy weapons from the contact line and supporting the implementation of the
Framework Decision on Disengagement.

OSCE IN UKRAINE

The OSCE has been heavily involved in Ukraine, particularly in the ongoing conflict in the country's
eastern regions. The OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine was established in 2014 to
monitor the security situation and report on ceasefire violations in the conflict zone. The OSCE has
also been involved in efforts to resolve the conflict through the Trilateral Contact Group, which
includes representatives from Ukraine, Russia, and the OSCE.

In Ukraine, the OSCE has played a critical role in monitoring and facilitating the implementation of
the Minsk agreements, which aim to resolve the conflict in eastern Ukraine. The OSCE Special
Monitoring Mission to Ukraine (SMM) is the largest and most visible OSCE mission in the region.
The SMM works to monitor the ceasefire, facilitate dialogue between the parties to the conflict, and
report on developments in the region to help reduce tensions and promote a peaceful resolution to the
conflict.

11. The EU and Ukraine.

Any country that satisfies the conditions for membership can apply.
These conditions are known as the ‘Copenhagen criteria’ and include a stable
democracy and the rule of law, a functioning market economy and the
acceptance of all EU legislation, including of the euro.
they can demonstrate they will be able to play their part fully as members,
namely by:

● complying with all the EU's standards and rules

● having the consent of the EU institutions and EU member states
● having the consent of their citizens – as expressed through approval in
their national parliaments or by referendum.
The first step is for the country to meet the key criteria for accession.
These were mainly defined at the European Council in Copenhagen in 1993 and
are hence referred to as 'Copenhagen criteria'. Countries wishing to join need to
have:

● stable institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights

and respect for and protection of minorities;
● a functioning market economy and the capacity to cope with competition
and market forces in the EU;
● the ability to take on and implement effectively the obligations of
membership, including adherence to the aims of political, economic and
monetary union.

Candidate countries
These countries are in the process of 'transposing' (or integrating) EU legislation
into national law:

● Albania
● Moldova
● Montenegro
● North Macedonia
● Serbia
● Türkiye
● Ukraine
Potential candidates
Potential candidate countries do not yet fulfil the requirements for EU
membership:

● Bosnia and Herzegovina

● Georgia
● Kosovo*
9. Globalization.
10. Global struggle against terrorism.
tackle -
detect, prevent, combat, and respond to terrorist threats -
to combat terrorism -
counter-terrorism -
to constrain terrorist groups’ ability to operate globally -

The Security Council passed Resolutions 1368 and 1373, establishing the
three pillars of the current global counter-terrorism system.
The first pillar is based on Resolution 1368’s principle that states have a
right to self-defense when attacked or threatened by terrorism groups or state
supporters of terrorism.
The second pillar is the establishment of a universal counter-terrorism
legal framework. According to Resolution 1373, the Security Council obligates
all states to criminalize terrorism, to ratify the 12 international conventions, and
to modify their counter-terrorism laws in accordance with international best
practices. In other words, the Security Council has required all states to build
their capacity to fight terrorism at the domestic level in order to constrain
terrorist groups’ ability to operate globally. In addition, the Security Council has
argued that if all states adapt their legal infrastructure in accordance with
international law and emerging best practices, it would improve interstate
cooperation on counter-terrorism efforts.
 The final pillar is Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC), established
following the Security Council’s adoption of Resolution 1373, and the
Counter-Terrorism Executive Directorate (CTED), a specialized staff
created in 2004 by the Security Council to assist the CTC’s efforts.

The CTC and CTED are subsidiary bodies of the Security Council. The
CTC and CTED work with other intergovernmental bodies to evaluate the
international community’s global struggle against terrorism and to act as a
“switchboard” pairing states that need technical or financial assistance with
donor states or intergovernmental organizations.6 Consequently, the Security
Council, by design, established a decentralized, state-centered system, where
the UN plays a necessary supportive role and the states are the primary actors in
the global struggle against terrorism.
the Security Council plays an important supportive role, encouraging
states to cooperate in the global struggle against terrorism, but not necessarily
directing the fight. The United States and the other permanent representative of
the Security Council, as explained below, are the ones responsible for directing
the global counter-terrorism efforts.

Given the General Assembly’s failure to create an alternative strategy that

meets the diverse interests of its members, the Security Council’s approach
seems to be the only realistic way of countering terrorist organizations. While
the latter’s strategy is guided by its permanent representatives’ interests, this
does not mean that its efforts are “little more than window dressing”.54 The
permanent representatives have a stake in this system’s ability to undermine
terrorist groups. In many ways, al Qaeda’s attacks of 11 September
demonstrated that these permanent representatives could not unilaterally address
the challenges posed by al Qaeda and its affiliates. Thus, they created a system
that protected their autonomy, but established a network-like system that would
pressure states to join the global struggle against terrorism. While this global
counter terrorism system is characterized by its decentralization and its state-
centeredness, this does not mean that it has failed or that the CTC and the
CTED are not key players. These two bodies are an important reason the system
has been able to globalize the struggle against terrorism. Indeed, the Security
Council accomplished in a couple of years what the General Assembly tried to
achieve in the last 40 years – establish a normative framework that
delegitimizes terrorist acts. This is no to say that we should not continue to
assess and to critique the Security Council’s counter-terrorism efforts or to think
of new ways to combat terrorism, but doing so must appreciate the UN’s
historical reactions to terrorism since its founding and to take into consideration
the factors that gave life to the current global counter-terrorism system.

Which Government Entities Fight Against Terrorism?

There are five primary US government agencies that work to combat terrorism.
They include: the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the US State
Department, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the National
Counterterrorism Center (NCTC), and the US Department of Treasury.

So how is the government responding to the threat of ISIL? In September, 2014

President Obama announced the formation of the Global Coalition to Counter
ISIL, which includes 65 partner countries committed to:
● Providing military support to partners
● Impeding the flow of foreign fighters
● Stopping ISIL's financing and funding
● Addressing humanitarian crises in the region
● Exposing ISIL's true nature

The global struggle against terrorism is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires a
comprehensive approach involving various stakeholders, coordinated international efforts,
and a combination of strategies. Here is a detailed and reasonable answer addressing the key
aspects of the global struggle against terrorism:
1. Multilateral Cooperation: Effectively combating terrorism necessitates strong
multilateral cooperation among nations. Governments must collaborate to share
intelligence, coordinate counterterrorism operations, and exchange best practices.
International organizations such as the United Nations (UN), Interpol, and
regional bodies like the European Union (EU) and African Union (AU) play
crucial roles in facilitating collaboration and fostering a united front against
terrorism.
2. Addressing Root Causes: It is essential to address the underlying factors that
contribute to the rise of terrorism. Socioeconomic inequalities, political
grievances, marginalization, and lack of access to education and opportunities can
create fertile ground for extremist ideologies to take root. Governments should
work towards inclusive governance, socio-economic development, and respect for
human rights to counter these grievances and prevent radicalization.
3. Counterterrorism Legislation: Nations should enact and enforce comprehensive
counterterrorism legislation that balances security needs with the protection of
civil liberties and human rights. These laws should provide a legal framework to
investigate, prosecute, and punish individuals involved in terrorist activities while
ensuring due process and safeguards against abuse.
4. Intelligence Sharing: Timely and accurate intelligence is crucial for preemptive
actions against terrorist plots. Intelligence agencies must collaborate and share
information to identify and disrupt terrorist networks, track foreign fighters, and
prevent cross-border movement of funds and weapons. Strengthening intelligence
sharing mechanisms and establishing secure channels of communication is vital
for effective counterterrorism efforts.
5. Disrupting Financing Networks: Cutting off funding sources is a critical
component of countering terrorism. Governments should implement measures to
track and disrupt illicit financial networks, money laundering operations, and
sources of terrorist funding. Enhanced financial regulations, international
cooperation, and targeted sanctions can help weaken the economic infrastructure
that supports terrorist organizations.
6. Strengthening Border Security: Securing borders is vital to prevent the movement
of terrorists and the smuggling of weapons and illicit goods. Advanced screening
technologies, intelligence-driven risk assessments, and international cooperation
on border management can help identify and apprehend individuals involved in
terrorist activities and disrupt their supply chains.
7. Enhancing Cybersecurity: In the digital age, terrorists exploit the internet for
recruitment, communication, and planning. Governments should invest in robust
cybersecurity measures to counter online radicalization, dismantle extremist
websites and social media accounts, and enhance digital intelligence capabilities
to identify and track online activities of terrorist organizations.
8. Engaging Communities: Building trust and cooperation with local communities is
crucial for countering terrorism. Governments should work closely with
community leaders, civil society organizations, and religious institutions to
promote dialogue, resilience, and de-radicalization initiatives. Community
engagement helps identify early warning signs, prevent radicalization, and
rehabilitate individuals involved in extremist activities.
9. Strengthening International Legal Frameworks: International law provides a
framework for addressing terrorism. Nations should work together to ratify and
enforce international conventions and protocols, such as the UN Convention
against Transnational Organized Crime, the International Convention for the
Suppression of Financing of Terrorism, and the Rome Statute of the International
Criminal Court. Strengthening legal frameworks ensures that terrorists are held
accountable for their actions.
10. Countering Violent Extremist Ideologies: Alongside security measures, countering
violent extremist ideologies is essential for long-term success. Governments, civil
society organizations, and religious leaders should collaborate to promote
tolerance, interfaith dialogue, and the values of pluralism and inclusivity.
 Investing in education, media literacy, and promoting alternative narratives can
help undermine extremist ideologies and prevent radicalization.

The global struggle against terrorism represents a multifaceted and intricate battle
that demands comprehensive strategies and unwavering international cooperation.
This pernicious threat, akin to a hydra with many heads, requires concerted efforts to
address its underlying causes, dismantle its networks, and counter its ideological
allure. Employing advanced vocabulary, idioms, and phrasal verbs, let us delve into a
comprehensive analysis of this pressing issue.

Terrorism, a venomous scourge plaguing nations across the globe, necessitates a

nuanced approach combining intelligence gathering, law enforcement collaboration,
and diplomatic initiatives. It is paramount to employ sophisticated counterterrorism
measures that are predicated on astute risk assessments and precise targeting of
extremist elements. By fortifying intelligence networks and enhancing information-
sharing mechanisms, security agencies can effectively disrupt terrorist activities and
thwart their nefarious designs.

Furthermore, combating terrorism mandates the cultivation of resilient communities

capable of withstanding the influence of radical ideologies. Initiating grassroots
efforts that foster inclusivity, empower marginalized groups, and promote social
cohesion is essential in creating an environment that resists the allure of extremist
narratives. By fostering an atmosphere of tolerance, education, and dialogue, we can
weaken the appeal of terrorism to disaffected individuals susceptible to
radicalization.

In addition to preventative measures, it is indispensable to address the root causes

that breed terrorism. Socioeconomic disparities, political grievances, and ideological
indoctrination act as breeding grounds for extremism. Hence, it is imperative for
governments and international organizations to tackle poverty, promote good
governance, and ensure equitable distribution of resources. By addressing these
underlying issues, we can alleviate the conditions that terrorists exploit to recruit and
radicalize vulnerable individuals.

To effectively combat the global menace of terrorism, cooperation among nations is

indispensable. Nations must forge robust alliances, share intelligence, and
coordinate their efforts to dismantle terrorist networks. By pooling resources,
expertise, and technologies, governments can enhance their capacity to investigate,
apprehend, and prosecute individuals involved in terrorism. The international
community must remain steadfast in its commitment to eradicating this threat,
standing united against those who seek to destabilize global peace and security.

Nevertheless, it is crucial to strike a balance between counterterrorism measures

and the preservation of civil liberties. Governments should prioritize human rights,
respecting the principles of due process, and avoiding indiscriminate use of force.
Safeguarding individual freedoms and democratic values is not only ethically
imperative but also instrumental in undercutting the narrative of oppression and
persecution that terrorists exploit to recruit sympathizers.

In conclusion, the global struggle against terrorism necessitates a comprehensive

and nuanced approach that addresses both the symptoms and root causes of this
multifaceted problem. Through intelligence sharing, preventative measures,
socioeconomic development, and international cooperation, we can work towards
dismantling terrorist networks, countering radical ideologies, and fostering resilient
societies. By combining advanced strategies with a commitment to human rights
and civil liberties, we can strive for a safer and more peaceful world, free from the
shadows cast by terrorism.

Defence Against Terrorism Programme of

Work
The Defence Against Terrorism Programme of Work (DAT POW) was
developed by the Conference of National Armaments Directors (CNAD)
and approved by NATO Leaders at the Istanbul Summit in 2004. Its
initial focus was primarily centred on technological solutions to mitigate
the effects of terrorist attacks, but the programme has since widened its
scope to support comprehensive capability development. It now includes
exercises, trials, development of prototypes and concepts, doctrine,
policy, equipment, training and lessons learned, and interoperability
demonstrations. The key aim of the DAT POW is to prevent non-
conventional attacks, such as attacks with IEDs and UAS, and mitigate
other challenges, such as attacks on critical infrastructure.

The DAT POW is based on the principle of common funding, whereby

member countries pool resources within a NATO framework. Under the
DAT POW, individual NATO countries, with support and contributions
from other member countries and NATO bodies, lead projects to develop
advanced technologies or counter-measures that meet the most urgent
security needs in the face of terrorism and other asymmetric threats.

Most projects under the programme focus on finding solutions that can
be fielded in the short term and that respond to the military needs of the
Alliance – although the DAT POW also bridges the gap between long-
term military requirements and urgent operational needs. The
programme uses new or adapted technologies or methods to detect,
disrupt and defeat asymmetric threats, covering a wide range of areas,
including countering unmanned aircraft systems (C-UAS), biometrics,
technical exploitation and countering improvised explosive devices (C-
IED). The DAT POW is also an integral contributor to NATO activities in
the field of emerging and disruptive technologies, such as data and
autonomous vehicles exploitation.

Protection of harbours and ports

The safe and uninterrupted functioning of harbours and ports is critical to

the global economy and it is essential for maritime assets to be made as
secure as possible. The DAT POW has supported several projects to
develop technologies that enhance maritime protection. These have
included sensor nets, electro-optical detectors, rapid-reaction
capabilities, underwater magnetic barriers and unmanned underwater
vehicles. In 2018 and 2020, under the leadership of France, the DAT
POW supported "Cut Away", a multinational harbour exploration and
clearance exercise. Additionally, under the lead of the NATO Centre for
Maritime Research and Experimentation (CMRE) located in La Spezia,
Italy, the DAT POW is assessing the use of underwater autonomous
systems to detect maritime IEDs and of virtual reality for situational
awareness.

Countering chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear threats

NATO places a high priority on preventing the proliferation of weapons of

mass destruction (WMD) and their delivery systems to state and non-
state actors, including terrorists. Ideally, terrorists will be prevented from
acquiring and using such weapons, but should prevention fail, NATO is
committed to defending against chemical, biological, radiological and
nuclear (CBRN) hazards that may pose a threat to the safety and
security of Allied forces, territory and populations, and to supporting
recovery efforts.

The NATO Combined Joint CBRN Defence Task Force is designed to

respond to and manage the consequences of the use of CBRN agents.
The NATO-certified Centre of Excellence (COE) on Joint CBRN Defence
in the Czech Republic further enhances NATO’s capabilities. The DAT
POW has also supported the Joint CBRN Defence COE in establishing
and enhancing the NATO CBRN Reachback Capability, ensuring that
CBRN expertise is available to the NATO Command Structure and Allied
forces in theatres of operations.

The DAT POW also covers projects on the detection, identification and
monitoring of CBRN substances, CBRN information management,
physical protection, hazard management and CBRN medical counter-
measures. Furthermore, the DAT POW facilitates training and exercises,
including those conducted with live agents.
Explosive ordnance disposal and consequence management

Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) technicians are experts in the safe

detection, removal and destruction of dangerous weapons like
landmines and other explosive remnants of war. The DAT POW helps
improve NATO's EOD capabilities by training teams how to manage the
consequences of an explosion. The programme also supports EOD
demonstrations and trials, led by the NATO EOD Centre of Excellence in
Trencin, Slovakia. With DAT POW support, the demining community has
also tested integrated exoskeletons that technicians can wear to protect
themselves while undertaking this dangerous work. The strong
community of interest includes experts from partner countries, such as
the Irish Defence Forces' Ordnance School.

Countering improvised explosive devices (C-IED)

NATO must remain prepared to counter improvised explosive devices

(IEDs) in any land or maritime operation involving asymmetrical threats,
in which force protection will remain a paramount priority. Several NATO
bodies are leading the Alliance’s efforts on countering IEDs, including
the Counter Improvised Explosive Devices (C-IED) Centre of Excellence
in Madrid, Spain. Various technologies to defeat IEDs have been
explored, in particular stand-off detection. The DAT POW supports the
annual Northern Challenge exercise, led by Iceland, which tests counter-
IED and IED disposal abilities. The biennial Thor's Hammer electronic
counter-measures trial series and the radio-controlled IED database are
two innovative approaches regularly supported by the DAT POW, which
are now also being leveraged to assist with countering unmanned
aircraft systems.

Countering unmanned aircraft systems (C-UAS)

Terrorists have sought to use and manipulate various technologies in

their operations, including easily available off-the-shelf technology.
Drones, in particular, have been identified as a threat. Therefore, in
February 2019, NATO Defence Ministers agreed a practical framework
to counter unmanned aircraft systems. A new programme of work to help
coordinate approaches and identify additional steps to address this
threat was agreed in 2021 and is currently being implemented.

The DAT POW supports comprehensive capability development in the

field of C-UAS through tests, evaluation, exercises, concept
development and technical standardization. In 2021, the DAT POW
supported an innovation challenge for the development of artificial
intelligence / machine learning techniques to track, classify and identify
drones as they fly within a defined area. At the 2022 NATO Summit in
Madrid, a technology display for Heads of State and Government
covered some of the latest challenges related to C-UAS and exploitation
capabilities.

Through the DAT POW, NATO is also consulting with stakeholders from
industry, the military and academia to explore how new technologies can
be leveraged in the fight against terrorism.

Biometrics, battlefield evidence and technical exploitation

NATO is also addressing the use of information obtained on missions

and operations. In 2018, Allies agreed a biometric data policy, consistent
with applicable national and international law and subject to national
requirements and restrictions. The policy enables biometric data
collection to support NATO operations, based upon a mandate from the
North Atlantic Council – NATO’s top political decision-making body.
Furthermore, NATO's Strategic Commands have recognised that
developing and improving this capability is a military requirement. The
policy is particularly relevant to force protection and the threat posed by
foreign terrorist fighters. United Nations Security Council Resolution
2396 highlights the acute and growing threat posed by foreign terrorist
fighters and “urges Member States to expeditiously exchange
information, through bilateral or multilateral mechanisms and in
accordance with domestic and international law, concerning the identity
of Foreign Terrorist Fighters”. A prototype of the NATO Automated
Biometric Information System (NABIS) was deployed for testing and
operational experimentation by NATO’s Kosovo Force (KFOR) in 2020.
Building on this, military requirements are under development to deploy
NABIS in KFOR in the long term.

In October 2020, the NATO Battlefield Evidence Policy was approved. It

aims to facilitate the sharing of information obtained on NATO missions
and operations for law enforcement purposes. While the primary
purpose of deployed military is to fulfil their operational objectives, troops
often collect information or material on the battlefield, some of which
may also be useful to support legal proceedings, including the
prosecution of returning foreign terrorist fighters. In this regard, the policy
also supports Allies in fulfilling their obligations under United Nations
Security Council Resolution 2396 in holding foreign fighters accountable.
Cooperation with other international organisations, including the United
Nations, INTERPOL and the European Union, is an important aspect of
NATO’s work on battlefield evidence to ensure complementarity and
added value. Since July 2021, NATO also has a Battlefield Evidence
Programme of Work in place to guide the implementation of the Policy.
Moreover, the NATO Stability Policing Centre of Excellence is providing
a series of hands-on battlefield evidence training courses to law
enforcement and military from partner countries in the region to the
south of the Alliance.

Also in October 2020, a Practical Framework for Technical Exploitation

was agreed. Technical exploitation collects material that has been in the
possession of terrorists and other adversaries – such as weapons,
computers and cell phones – and uses scientific tools and analysis to
support the identification of actors, their capabilities and intentions. It
enables NATO forces to derive important information and intelligence
from material and materiel collected on the battlefield to support military
objectives, protect our forces or support law enforcement outcomes such
as battlefield evidence. In June 2022, the first NATO Martial Vision
Technical Exploitation Experiment took place in Burgos, Spain to test
and assess relevant technical exploitation doctrine.

Operations and missions

As part of the Alliance’s 360-degree approach to deterrence and
defence, NATO’s counter-terrorism efforts extend through a variety of
operations and missions, both within NATO territory and beyond the
Alliance’s borders.

Since 2017, NATO has been a member of the Global Coalition to Defeat
ISIS. As a member of the Coalition, NATO has been playing a key role in
the fight against international terrorism, including through its former
operational engagement in Afghanistan, through intelligence-sharing and
through its work with partners with a view to projecting stability in the
Euro-Atlantic area and beyond. At the 2016 NATO Summit in Warsaw,
Allied Leaders agreed to provide direct support to the Global Coalition
through the provision of NATO AWACS surveillance aircraft. The first
patrols of NATO AWACS aircraft, operating from Konya Airfield in
Türkiye, started in October 2016.

In February 2018, following a request by the Iraqi government and the

Global Coalition, the Alliance decided to launch NATO Mission Iraq, a
non-combat advisory and capacity-building mission. Its aim is to
strengthen Iraqi security forces and institutions so that they are better
able to prevent the return of Daesh/ISIS, to fight terrorism and to
stabilise the country. In February 2021, upon request from Iraq, Allied
Defence Ministers agreed to expand the scope of NATO Mission Iraq.
NATO operates in full respect of Iraq’s sovereignty and territorial
integrity, and coordinates and consults closely with other international
partners like the Global Coalition, the United Nations and the European
Union.

NATO also takes part in counter-terrorism in the high seas. NATO’s

operation Sea Guardian is a flexible maritime security operation that is
able to perform the full range of maritime security tasks, including
countering terrorism at sea if required. Currently, Sea Guardian operates
in the Mediterranean Sea. It succeeded Operation Active Endeavour,
which was launched in 2001 under Article 5 of NATO’s founding treaty
as part of NATO’s immediate response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks to
deter, detect and, if necessary, disrupt the threat of terrorism in the
Mediterranean Sea. Active Endeavour was terminated in October 2016.

Many other operations have had relevance to international counter-

terrorism efforts. For example, the International Security Assistance
Force (ISAF) - the NATO-led operation in Afghanistan, which began in
2003 and came to an end in 2014 - helped the government to expand its
authority and implement security to prevent the country from once again
becoming a safe haven for international terrorism. Following the end of
ISAF, NATO launched the non-combat Resolute Support Mission (RSM)
to train, advise and assist the Afghan security forces. In April 2021, the
Allies decided to start the withdrawal of RSM forces by 1 May 2021 and
the mission was terminated in early September 2021.

Crisis management
NATO’s long-standing work on civil preparedness, critical infrastructure
protection and crisis management provides a resource that may serve
both Allies and partners upon request. This field can relate directly to
counter-terrorism, building resilience and ensuring appropriate planning
and preparation for response to and recovery from terrorist acts.

Protecting populations and critical

infrastructure
National authorities are primarily responsible for protecting their
populations and critical infrastructure against the consequences of
terrorist attacks, chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN)
incidents and natural disasters. NATO can assist countries by
developing non-binding advice and minimum standards and acting as a
forum to exchange best practices and lessons learned to improve
preparedness and national resilience. NATO has developed guidelines
for enhancing civil-military cooperation in response to a CBRN incident
and organises international courses for trainers of first responders to
CBRN incidents. NATO guidance can also advise national authorities on
warning the general public and alerting emergency responders. NATO
can call on an extensive network of civil experts, from government and
industry, to help respond to requests for assistance. Its Euro-Atlantic
Disaster Response Coordination Centre (EADRCC) coordinates
responses to national requests for assistance following natural and
human-made disasters including terrorist acts involving CBRN
substances.

11. The role of mass media.

NATO
NATO is an active and leading contributor to peace and security on the
international stage. It promotes democratic values and is committed to the
peaceful resolution of disputes. However, if diplomatic efforts fail, it has the
military capacity to undertake crisis management operations alone or in
cooperation with other countries and international organisations.International
Security

Assistance Force (ISAF) was established under the request of the Afghan
authorities and a UN mandate in 2001. ISAF was led by NATO from August
2003 to December 2014 and was succeeded on 1 January 2015 by the Resolute
Support Mission (RSM), which was terminated early September 2021.
ISAF's mission was to develop new Afghan security forces and enable Afghan
authorities to provide effective security across the country in order to create an
environment conducive to the functioning of democratic institutions and the
establishment of the rule of law, with the aim to prevent Afghanistan from once
again becoming a safe haven for terrorists. Besides, ISAF contributed to
reconstruction and development in Afghanistan.
ISAF was one of the largest international crisis management operations ever,
bringing together contributions from up to 51 different countries. By end 2014,
the process of transitioning full security responsibility from ISAF troops to the
Afghan army and police forces was completed and the ISAF mission came to a
close.
Having first entered Kosovo in June 1999 to end widespread violence and halt the
humanitarian disaster that was unfolding, Kosovo Force troops continue to maintain a strong
presence throughout the territory.

Air policing
Since Russia's illegal annexation of Crimea in 2014 and its brutal attack on
Ukraine, on 24 February 2022, NATO has been taking extra reassurance
measures for its Allies. Among these is the boosting of NATO's air policing
missions.
Air policing missions are collective peacetime missions that enable NATO to
detect, track and identify all violations and infringements of its airspace and to
take appropriate action
This air policing capability is one of three NATO standing forces on active duty
that contribute to the Alliance's collective defence efforts on a permanent basis.

Operation Active Endeavour

Operation Active Endeavour (OAE) was initiated in the immediate aftermath of
the 9/11 terrorist attacks to deter, defend, disrupt and protect against terrorist
activity in the Mediterranean. It helped to secure one of the busiest trade routes
in the world and was among eight initiatives launched by the Alliance in 2001,
in solidarity with the United States. It was an Article 5 operation, i.e., a
collective defence operation that, initially only involved NATO member
countries until it started accepting non-NATO countries' participation in 2004.
2010 was a turning point for OAE, when it shifted from a platform-based to a
network-based operation, using a combination of on-call units and surge
operations instead of deployed forces. In addition to tracking and controlling
suspect vessels, it helped to build a picture of maritime activity in the
Mediterranean by conducting routine information approaches to various vessels.
Active Endeavour was succeeded by Operation Sea Guardian in November
2016.
Grammar