Matrix

Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of

numbers enclosed by a pair of bracket and is
denoted by a capital letters A, B etc.
1 3 1 
2 3 7
A=  B =  2 1 4
 1 −1 5 
 4 7 6 
Both A and B are examples of matrix.

1
Matrix

 a11 a12  a1n 

In the matrix a a22 a2 n 
A =  21
    = [aij]
 
 am1 am 2 amn 

numbers aij (i =1,2,--- m , j=1,2,---n)are called

elements. First subscript indicates the row;
second subscript indicates the column. The
matrix consists of mn elements
number of rows(m) by number of columns(n) of
a matrix is called order of the matrix and is
written as m × n (read m by n)
2
Matrix
Types of matrices
Square matrix:
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22 a2 n 
When m = n, i.e., A =  21
  

 
 an1 an 2 ann 

A is called a “square matrix of order n x n

elements a11, a22, a33,…, ann called diagonal
elements. The line along which they lie is
called the principal diagonal.
n

 ∑ aii = a11 + a22 + ... + ann is called the trace of A.

i =1 3
Matrix
Types of matrices
Column matrix:
A matrix with only one column is
called Column Matrix , i,e
1
A = 0 
 
8

Matrix A is a column matrix of

Order 3x1
4
Matrix
Types of matrices
Row matrix:
A matrix with only one row is
called row matrix , i,e

A = [1 2 3 4 5]

Matrix A is a row matrix of

Order 1x5
5
Matrix
Types of matrices
Equal matrices

Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to

be equal (A = B) iff each element of A is equal
to the corresponding element of B, i.e., aij = bij
for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
iff pronouns “if and only if”
if A = B, it implies aij = bij for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n;
if aij = bij for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n, it implies A = B.
6
Matrix
Types of matrices
Equal matrices
 1 0 a b 
Example: A=
−4 2  and B=
c d 
   
Given that A = B, find a, b, c and d.

if A = B, then a = 1, b = 0, c = -4 and d = 2.

7
Matrix
Types of matrices
Zero matrix or Null Matrix:

Every element of a matrix is zero, it is called

a zero matrix, i.e.,
0 0  0 
0 0 0 
A= 
  
 
 0 0 0 

8
Matrix
Types of matrices
A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for
i > j is called upper triangular, i.e.,  a11 a12  a1n 
0 a22 a2 n 

   
 
0 0 ann 

A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for

i < j is called lower triangular, i.e.,  a11 0  0 
a a22 0 
 21
   
 
 an1 an 2 ann 
9
Matrix
Types of matrices
Diagonal matrix:
A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for i ≠ j
is called diagonal matrix, i.e.,
 a11 0  0 
0 a22 0 
D=
   
 
0 0 ann 

and is denoted by D = diag[a11 , a22 ,..., ann ]

10
Matrix
Types of matrices
Scalar matrix:
A square diagonal matrix whose diagonal
elements are equal but not unity is called scalar
matrix, i.e.,

11
Matrix
Types of matrices
Identity matrix:
A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for
i ≠ j and aij = 1, for i = j is called identity
matrix or unit matrx and is denoted by I

1 0 0 
Examples of identity matrices: 1 0 and 0 1 0
 
0 1  0 0 1 

Properties: AI = IA = A
12
Matrix
Types of matrices
Transpose matrix:
The matrix obtained by interchanging the
rows and columns of a matrix A is called the
transpose of A (write AT or A/ ).

For a matrix A = [aij], its transpose AT = [bij],

where bij = aji.
1 2 3
Example: A=
4 5 6 
1 4 
 
The transpose of A is AT =  2 5 
 3 6 

13
Matrix
Types of matrices
Transpose matrix:
Properties
(AT)T = A and (λA)T = λ AT
(A + B)T = AT + BT
(A - B)T = AT - BT
(AB)T = BT AT

14
Matrix
Types of matrices
Symmetric matrix:

A square matrix A whose elements aji = aij for

all i and j is called symmetric.

1 2 3 
Example:
= A  2 4 −5 is symmetric.
 3 −5 6 

Properties: AT = A
15
Matrix
Types of matrices
Skew-symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A whose elements aji = - aij for
i ≠ j and aij = 0 for i = j is called skew-symmetric.

0 2 − 1
Example: A = − 2 0 2  is skew-symmetric.
 1 − 2 0 

Properties: AT = - A
16
Matrix
Types of matrices
Conjugate of a matrix:

17
Matrix
Types of matrices

18
Matrix
Types of matrices
Conjugate of a matrix:

19
Matrix
Types of matrices

20
Matrix
Types of matrices
Hermitian matrices:

21
Matrix
Types of matrices
Skew-Hermitian matrices:

22
Matrix
Types of matrices
Sub-matrices of a matrix (square or
rectangular:

23
Matrix
Types of matrices
Principal submatrices of a matrix:

24
Matrix
Types of matrices
Leading submatrices of a matrix:

25
Matrix
Types of matrices
Determinant of a square matrix:

26
Matrix
Determinants
Determinant of order n
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22 a2 n 
Determinant of n ×n matrix A =  21
   
 
 an1 an 2 ann 

is denoted | A | and is representation by

27
Matrix
Determinants

whose order is n

28
Matrix
Determinants
The following properties are true for
determinants of any order.
1. If every element of a row (column) is zero,
1 2
e.g., =1 × 0 − 2 × 0 = 0 , then |A| = 0.
0 0

determinant of a matrix
2. |AT| = |A|
= that of its transpose

3. |AB| = |A||B|
29
Matrix
Types of matrices

Minor of the matrix:

30
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Addition and subtraction of matrices
Two matrices of the same order are said to
be conformable for addition or subtraction.
Two matrices of different orders cannot be
added or subtracted, e.g.,
1 3 1 
2 3 7 2 1 4
1 −1 5   
 
 4 7 6 

are NOT conformable for addition or

subtraction. 31
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Addition and subtraction of matrices
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are m × n matrices,
then A ± B is defined as a matrix C = A ± B,
where C= [cij], cij = aij ± bij for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤
n. 1 2 3   2 3 0
Example: if A = 0 1 4 and B =  −1 2 5
   
Evaluate A + B and A – B.
 1+ 2 2 + 3 3 + 0   3 5 3
=A+ B  =   −1 3 9 
 0 + ( −1) 1 + 2 4 + 5   
 1− 2 2 − 3 3 − 0   −1 −1 3 
=A− B  =   1 −1 −1
 0 − ( −1) 1 − 2 4 − 5   
32
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Scalar multiplication
Let λ be any scalar and A = [aij] is an m × n
matrix. Then λA = [λaij] for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n,
i.e., each element in A is multiplied by λ.
1 2 3 
Example: A= . Evaluate 3A.
 0 1 4 
 3 × 1 3 × 2 3 × 3 3 6 9 
3A =  0 3 12 
 3 × 0 3 × 1 3 × 4   

In particular, λ = −1, i.e., −A = [−aij]. It’s called

the negative of A. Note: Α − A = 0 is a zero matrix
33
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Properties
Matrices A, B and C are conformable,
A + B = B + A (commutative law)
A + (B +C) = (A + B) +C (associative law)
λ(A + B) = λA + λB, where λ is a scalar
(distributive law)

Can you prove them?

34
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Matrix multiplication
Two matrices may be multiplied if the number
of columns in left product must equal the
number of rows in right product. This condition
is called conformable for multiplication
If A = [aij] is a m × p matrix and B = [bij] is a
p × n matrix, then AB is defined as a m × n
matrix C = AB, where C= [cij] with
p
c=
ij ∑a
k =1
b= ai1b1 j + ai 2b2 j + ... + aip bpj
ik kj for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
35
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Matrix multiplication
 a11 a12 a13  b11 b12 b13 
Example: A = a21 a22 a23  , B = b21 b22 b23  , find AB.

 a31 a32 a33  b31 b32 b33 

 a11 a12 a13  b11 b12 b13 

Solution : AB = a21 a22 a23  b
 21 b22 b23 
a31 a31 a33  b31 b31 b33 

 a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33 

= a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32 a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33 
 a11b31 + a12b31 + a33b31 a31b12 + a32b22 + a33b32 a31b13 + a32b23 + a33b33 

36
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Matrix multiplication
 −1 2 
1 2 3 
Example: A=  , B =  2 3 , Evaluate C = AB.
 0 1 4 
 5 0 
Answer: Since order of A is 2 × 3 and order
of B is 3× 2 , i,e conformable for multiplication
AB
 −1 2 
1 2 3    c21 = 0 × (−1) + 1× 2 + 4 × 5 = 22
0 1 4   2 3 
   5 0
 
cont 37
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Matrix multiplication
 c11 = 1 × (−1) + 2 × 2 + 3 × 5 = 18
 −1 2   c = 1× 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 0 = 8
 1 2 3   ⇒  12
0 1 4   2 3  
   5 0 c21 = 0 × (−1) + 1 × 2 + 4 × 5 = 22
   c22 = 0 × 2 + 1 × 3 + 4 × 0 = 3

 −1 2 
1 2 3    18 8
C AB
= =    2 =3  
 0 1 4   5 0  22 3 
  38
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Matrix multiplication
In particular, A is a 1 × m matrix and
B is a m × 1 matrix, i.e.,  b11 
b 
A = [ a11 a12 ... a1m ] B =  21 
  
 
bm1 
then C = AB is a scalar.
m
C
= ∑a
k =1
b= a11b11 + a12b21 + ... + a1mbm1
1k k 1

39
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Matrix multiplication
BUT BA is a m × m matrix!
 b11   b11a11 b11a12  b11a1m 
b  b a b a b a 
BA = 21 

  
[ a11 a12 ... a1m ]  21 11
 
21 12


21 1m 


   
bm1  b a b
 m1 11 m1 12a b a
m1 1m 

So AB ≠ BA in general !

40
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Properties
Matrices A, B and C are conformable,
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(A + B)C = AC + BC
A(BC) = (AB) C
AB ≠ BA in general
AB = 0 NOT necessarily imply A = 0 or B = 0
AB = AC NOT necessarily imply B = C 41
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
However, if two square matrices A and B
such that AB = BA, then A and B are said to
be commute.

If A and B such that AB = -BA, then A and B

are said to be anti-commute.

42
Matrix
Algebra of matrices

43
Matrix
Algebra of matrices

44
Matrix
Orthogonal matrix
A matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT = ATA = I,
i.e., AT = A-1
1/ 3 1/ 6 −1/ 2 
 
Example: prove that
= A 1/ 3 −2 / 6 0  is
 
orthogonal. 1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2 

 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 
 
Since,
= A  1/ 6
T
−2 / 6 1/ 6  . Hence, AAT = ATA = I.
 
 −1/ 2 0 1/ 2 
Can you show the
details?
We’ll see that orthogonal matrix represents a
rotation in fact! 45
Matrix
Algebra of matrices

(AB)-1 = B-1A-1
(AT)T = A and (λA)T = λ AT
(A + B)T = AT + BT
(AB)T = BT AT

46
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Problem: If A is a square matrix , then
show that A + AT is symmetric and A – AT
is skew-symmetric.

Proof: Since A and B are symmetric ,i,e.

A = AT and B =BT . (A + AT )T = AT +(AT) T =
AT +A = A + AT . Hence A+B is symmetric .
Again (A - AT )T = AT -(AT) T = AT –A =
-(A - AT ). Hence A – AT is skew-symmetric.

47
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Problem: If A and B are symmetric (skew-
symmetric ) matrices , then A +B and A – B
are also symmetric.

Proof: Since A and B are symmetric , i,e

A = AT and B =BT . (A + B )T = AT +BT = A +B .
Hence A+B is symmetric . Again (A - B )T =
AT -BT = A -B . Hence A – B is symmetric.

48
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Problem: Every square matrix can be
expressed in one and only one way as the
sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric
matrix.
Solution: For a square matrix A, we have
A + AT is symmetric and A – AT is skew-
symmetric. Obviously (A + AT ) = P is also
symmetric and ( A – AT ) = Q is also
skew-symmetric. (Cont)
49
Matrix
Algebra of matrices

Clearly A = (A + AT ) + ( A – AT ) = P +Q
which is the sum of symmetric and skew-
symmetric.
Now we are show that this representation
is unique

(Cont)
50
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Let A=P+Q and A=R+S be two
representation of A with P , R symmetric
and Q , S skew-symmetric
Now from A=R+S , we have = AT =(R+S) T
= RT +S T = R –S
So, P = (A + AT ) = (R+S+R-S)=R
Q = (A -AT ) = (R+S – R +S)= S
Hence the representation is unique
51
Matrix
Algebra of matrices
Problem: If A and B are symmetric
matrices , then show that AB +BA is
symmetric and AB – BA is skew-symmetric.
Proof: Since A and B are symmetric , i,e
A = AT and B =BT .
(AB + B A)T = (AB)T +(BA)T = BT AT +AT BT
= B A +A B= A B+ B A . Hence AB+BA is
symmetric .
(Cont)
52
Matrix
Algebra of matrices

Again (AB - B A)T = (AB)T -(BA)T = BT AT - AT BT

= B A -A B= - (A B- B A) . Hence AB - BA is
skew-symmetric .

53
Matrix
Determinants
Cofactor of elements

The cofactor of an element aij is obtained

by multiplying the minor of element aij by
(-1)i+j and is denoted by Aij
1 0 1 
Example A = 2 1 2 , cofactor of element a12 = 0
3 1 0

2 2
is 1+ 2
A12 = (−1) =6
3 0 54
 Matrix
Determinants
Cofactor of elements
Properties
3
 A , when i = j
∑
j =1
aij Aij = 
o , when i ≠ j

1 0 1 
Proof: Let A = 2 1 2
3 1 0

(Cont)
55
Matrix
Determinants
•Cofactor of elements
1 2 2 2 2 1
A11 = = −2, A12 = − = 6, A13 = = −1
1 0 3 0 3 1
0 1 1 1 1 0
A21 = − = 1, A22 = = −3, A23 = − = −1
1 0 3 0 3 1
0 1 1 1 1 0
A31 = = −1, A32 = − = 0, A33 = =1
1 2 2 2 2 1

(Cont)
56
Matrix
Determinants
•Cofactor of elements(cont)
1 0 1
A = 2 1 2 = 1(0 − 2) − 0(0 − 6) + 1(2 − 3) = − 3
3 1 0

A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 = 1(−2 ) + 0( 6 ) + (−1) = −3

A = a21 A11 + a22 A12 + a23 A13 = 2(−2 ) + 1( 6 ) + 2(−1) = 0

proof
57
Matrix
Determinants
•Cofactor of elements
Example: Find the cofactor matrix of the
1 0 1 
matrix A = 2 1 2
3 1 0
Solution:
1 2 2 2 2 1
A11 = = −2, A12 = − = 6, A13 = = −1
1 0 3 0 3 1

(Cont)
58
Matrix
Determinants
•Cofactor of elements(cont)
0 1 1 1 1 0
A21 = − = 1, A22 = = −3, A23 = − = −1
1 0 3 0 3 1
0 1 1 1 1 0
A31 = = −1, A32 = − = 0, A33 = =1
1 2 2 2 2 1

59
Matrix
Determinants
 a11 a12 
For any 2x2 matrix A=
 a21 a22 
1  a22 −a12 
Its inverse can be written as −1
A =  −a
A  21 a11 

 −1 0 
Example: Find the inverse of A= 
 1 2 
The determinant of A is -2
 −1 0 
Hence, the inverse of A is −1
A = 
1/ 2 1/ 2 
How to find an inverse for a 3x3 matrix?
60
Determinants of order 3
1 2 3
Consider an example: A =  4 5 6 
7 8 9 

Its determinant can be obtained by:

1 2 3
4 5 1 2 1 2
A = 4 5 6 =3 −6 +9
7 8 7 8 4 5
7 8 9
= 3 ( −3) − 6 ( −6 ) + 9 ( −3) = 0

You are encouraged to find the determinant

by using other rows or columns 61
Matrix
Adjoint of a square matrix

The adjoint of a square matrix A is the

transpose of the matrix formed by the
cofactors of the elements of the
determinant of the matrix A and is denoted
by adjA

62
Matrix
Adjoint of a square matrix

Properties
* A(adjA) = (adjA) A = A I
* adjAB = (adjB ) (adjA)
T T
* (adjA) = adj ( A )

63
Matrix
Inverse matrix
If two non singular (i,e A ≠ 0 ) square
matrices A and B such that AB = BA = I, then
B is called the inverse of and is denoted by
the symbol A-1 and is defined by
−1 adjA
A =
A
Properties
−1 T T −1
* (A ) = (A )
−1 −1 −1
* ( AB) = B A
(Cont)
64
 Matrix
Inverse matrix
Properties
−1
Pr oof : ( AB) ( AB) =I
⇒ B −1 A−1 ( AB) ( AB) −1 = B −1 A−1 I
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ B (( A A) B ) ( AB) = B ( A I )
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ B ( IB) ( AB) = B A
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ ( B B ) ( AB) = B A
⇒ I ( AB) −1 = B −1 A−1 ⇒ ( AB) −1 = B −1 A−1
65
Matrix
Adjoint of a square matrix(cont)
Example: Find the adjoint matrix of the
matrix
1 2 3

A = 2 3 1 
4 3 3
Solution:
3 1 2 1 2 3
A11 = = 6, A12 = − = −2, A13 = = −6
3 3 4 3 4 3
(Cont) 66
Matrix
Adjoint of a square matrix(cont)

0 1 1 1 1 0
A21 = − = 1, A22 = = −3, A23 = − = −1
1 0 3 0 3 1

0 1 1 1 1 0
A31 = = −1, A32 = − = 0, A33 = =1
1 2 2 2 2 1

6 1 − 1
 
∴ adjA = − 2 − 3 0  Ans.
 − 6 − 1 1 
67
Matrix
Inverse matrix
1 2 3 
Find Cofactor matrix of A = 0 4 5 and find A-1
1 0 6 

Answer: Here cofactor are

4 5 0 5 0 4
A11 = 24
= A12 =
− 5
= A13 = = −4
0 6 1 6 1 0

2 3 1 3 1 2
A21 = = −12 A22 = 3
= A23 =
− 2
=
0 6 1 6 1 0

2 3 1 3 1 2
A31 = = −2 A32 =
− = A33 = 4
−5 =
4 5 0 5 0 4
(Cont) 68
Matrix
Inverse matrix
1 2 3 
Hence Cofactor matrix of A = 0 4 5  is then
given by: 1 0 6 

 24 5 −4 
 −12 3 2 
 
 −2 −5 4 
(Cont) 69
Matrix
Inverse matrix
1 2 3 
Inverse matrix of A = 0 4 5  is given by:
1 0 6 

T
 24 5 −4   24 −12 −2 
−1 1   1  
A = − 12 3 2 = 5 3 −5
A  22  
 −2 −5 4   −4 2 4 

 12 11 − 6 11 −1 11 
=  5 22 3 22 −5 22 
 − 2 11 1 11 2 11 

70