10.

1 Growth and Cell Reproduction

Growth is a characteristic of all living things. You started out as a single cell. That cell division - the process of one
cell quickly divided into two cells. Two cells became four and four became eight. cell dividing into two daughter
Eventually, you grew into an organism made of billions of cells. As you continue to cells.
grow, your cells will divide to make more and more cells. Also, your cells divide to
replace cells that have died, or to repair damaged tissues. Each new cell contains an
exact copy of the DNA that’s found in all of your body cells. How do cells divide to
make exact copies of themselves?

What is cell division?

Cells reproduce Most of the cells in your body reproduce by dividing into two cells
by dividing called daughter cells. Each daughter cell contains an exact copy of
the DNA found in the original (parent) cell (Figure 10.1). The
process of one cell dividing into two daughter cells is called cell
division. Most cells reproduce by cell division.

The process of one cell dividing into two

daughter cells is called cell division. Each
Figure 10.1: Most of the cells in your
daughter cell contains an exact copy of the body reproduce by dividing into two
DNA found in the parent cell. daughter cells.

Cell division in As you learned earlier, prokaryotic cells like bacteria do not have a
prokaryotic cells nucleus. Their DNA is found bunched up in the cytoplasm.
Because of this, their cell division is simpler than the division Most organisms grow by
producing more cells. Why
of eukaryotic cells. Bacteria reproduce by splitting in two. Each
couldn’t an organism grow simply
daughter cell contains one copy of the DNA from the original cell. by allowing its cells to get larger
and larger? Write your thoughts on
this question in your notebook.
You may wish to review earlier
chapters before you answer.

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Chromosomes
What are Eukaryotic cells are usually larger and more complex than
chromosomes? prokaryotic cells. The DNA of a eukaryotic cell is found in the chromosome - a structure made
nucleus. That DNA is organized into structures called of DNA and protein in the nucleus
of a eukaryotic cell.
chromosomes. A chromosome is a structure made of DNA and
protein in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. Chromosomes organize
DNA into distinct units. Different organisms have different
numbers of chromosomes (Figure 10.2). Humans for example, have
46 chromosomes. The proteins in a chromosome help support its
structure and function. But the genetic information of the cell is
stored in the DNA.
Chromosome Individual chromosomes are not clearly visible under a microscope
doubling until just before a cell begins to divide. Before cell division,
chromosomes exist as long strands of DNA loosely coiled in the
nucleus. Just before cell division begins, the amount of DNA
doubles and so do the chromosomes. The DNA and protein in the
doubled chromosomes coil up tightly. Each doubled chromosome
consists of two copies of the original chromosome joined at the
center.

Figure 10.2: Different organisms

have different numbers of chromosomes.
Does the number of chromosomes have
anything to do with the complexity of the
organism?

10.1 GROWTH AND CELL REPRODUCTION

197
The cell cycle
The life cycle of a As you grow from an infant to an adult, you pass through different
cell stages of your life cycle. Similarly, a cell passes through different
stages of its life. The life cycle of a cell is called the cell cycle. The
cell cycle is the period of time from the beginning of one cell
division to the beginning of the next. It consists of three stages:
interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis (Figure 10.3).
Interphase The longest stage of the cell cycle is called interphase.
Interphase is the stage that occurs in between cell divisions.
During interphase the cell grows and develops and performs
its functions. Toward the end of interphase (just before the cell
begins to divide), the amount of DNA doubles. Organelles of the
cytoplasm (like mitochondria) also double in number.
Mitosis The second stage of the cell cycle is called mitosis. Mitosis is the Figure 10.3: The cell cycle consists of
process in cell division where the nucleus divides into two nuclei, three phases.
each with an identical set of chromosomes. Mitosis is divided into
four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The
illustration on the facing page shows what happens during each cell cycle - the period of time
phase. from the beginning of one cell
division to the beginning of the
Cytokinesis The shortest stage of the cell cycle is called cytokinesis. In next.
cytokinesis, the cytoplasm and its organelles divide into two
daughter cells. Each daughter cell contains a nucleus with an interphase - the stage of the cell
cycle that occurs between cell
identical set of chromosomes. The two daughter cells then start divisions.
their own cycles, beginning again with the interphase stage.
mitosis - the process of cell
The cell cycle results in two daughter cells division where the nucleus divides
into two nuclei.
with identical sets of chromosomes.
cytokinesis - the process where
the cytoplasm and its organelles
divide into two daughter cells.

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You have 46 chromosomes in your body cells. The diagram below shows the cell cycle
in an organism with only 4 chromosomes. Cytokinesis in plant cells
In plant cells, a cell plate forms
between the two nuclei. The cell
plate grows outward until a new
cell wall separates the two cells
as shown below.

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199
Observing the cell cycle with a microscope
With a microscope and specially prepared slides, you can observe
A
the cell cycle and identify each part. Figure 10.4 shows pictures of B
plant cells in each stage of the cell cycle.
Interphase During most of interphase, the chromosomes are not visible.
They appear as a grainy substance inside of the nucleus. Another
way to identify interphase is to look for the nucleolus inside of the Interphase (A) and prophase (B)
nucleus. The nucleolus disappears before mitosis begins.
Prophase The first clue that mitosis has begun is the appearance of
chromosomes. Because the amount of DNA has doubled, each
chromosome appears as two identical strands joined at the center.
Also, the nuclear membrane breaks down during this phase. You Metaphase
may also be able to see threads of protein called spindle fibers.
Metaphase In metaphase, you can see the chromosomes lined up across the
center of the cell. Each half is pointing in the opposite direction.
The spindle fibers are attached to the center of each chromosome.
Anaphase In anaphase, the chromosomes split. Each half is pulled toward
the point where the spindle fibers come together. Anaphase is the Anaphase
phase of mitosis where the doubled chromosomes separate from
each other.
Telophase You can identify telophase by finding cells where the chromosomes
are clustered at separate ends of the cell. The forming daughter
cells begin to separate. A nuclear membrane forms around each
cluster of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis In cytokinesis, you can see that the cytoplasm is divided. Two Telophase
separate daughter cells have formed, each with a complete set of
chromosomes. Because it is so quick, this stage is hard to catch Figure 10.4: Photographs of plant
cells in different stages of the cell cycle.
under a microscope.

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10.2 Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
There are thousands of different species of organisms. Each species produces more of reproduction - the formation of
its own. A species of bacteria splits to make two identical bacteria. A eucalyptus tree new organisms of the same
produces more eucalyptus trees. Humans produce more humans. The formation of species.
new organisms of the same species is called reproduction. Reproduction is an asexual reproduction - a type
important life function. In this section, you will learn about the process of of reproduction that requires only
reproduction. one parent.
sexual reproduction - a type of
Two types of reproduction reproduction that involves special
Asexual There are two types of reproduction: asexual and sexual. cells called sex cells.
reproduction Asexual reproduction is reproduction that requires only one sex cells - special cells that
parent. Most single-celled organisms like bacteria and protozoans contain half the number of
reproduce this way. Cell division is a type of asexual reproduction. chromosomes as body cells.
Your body cells reproduce this way. In asexual reproduction, the
DNA and internal structures are copied. Then the parent cell
divides, forming two cells that are exact copies of the original.
Sexual Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves special
reproduction types of cells called sex cells. Sex cells (also known as gametes)
contain half the number of chromosomes as body cells (all of the
other cells in a multicellular organism). Human body cells have 46
chromosomes. Human sex cells have 23 chromosomes. The male
sex cells are called sperm. The female sex cells are called eggs.
Homologous In body cells, the chromosomes occur in pairs. The
chromosomes chromosomes in each pair are called homologous (equivalent)
pairs. Figure 10.6 shows a complete set of chromosomes found
in a human body cell. Each sex cell has only one of the
chromosomes from each homologous pair.
Figure 10.6: A complete set of
human chromosomes found in a body
cell.

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Meiosis
What is meiosis? A body cell has the same number of chromosomes as its parent
cell. How do sex cells end up with only half the number of meiosis - cell division that
chromosomes? Meiosis is cell division that produces sex cells produces sex cells with half the
number of chromosomes.
with half the number of chromosomes. During meiosis, a cell
undergoes two divisions to produce four sex cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes of the parent cell. Figure 10.7 shows slides
of meiosis in the part of a plant that produces the male sex cells.
The first division In the first division of meiosis, the homologous pairs of
of meiosis chromosomes separate. Remember, just before a cell divides, the
chromosomes double. The doubled chromosome pairs line up along
the center of the cell. Spindle fibers attach and pull the pairs apart.
Two cells form. Each cell contains one doubled chromosome from
each homologous pair.
The second In the second division of meiosis, the doubled chromosomes
division of are split apart. The doubled chromosomes line up in the center of
meiosis the cell. Spindle fibers pull the chromosomes apart at the center.
The two halves move to opposite ends of the cell.
The final result of The final result of meiosis is four sex cells, each with half
meiosis the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell. Each
cell has only one chromosome from each original homologous pair.
When male and female sex cells combine to form offspring, each sex
cell contributes half the normal number of chromosomes. The
offspring has the normal number of chromosomes, half from the
male parent and half from the female parent.

Figure 10.7: Prepared slides

showing meiosis in plant tissues.

10.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND MEIOSIS

203
What happens during meiosis?

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Diploid, haploid, and fertilization

Diploid and A complete set of chromosomes is called a diploid set. Most animal
haploid sets cells except the sex cells have a diploid set of chromosomes. The diploid - a double set of
diploid human set has 23 pairs of chromosomes (a total of 46). Sex chromosomes.
cells have half of a complete set of chromosomes, or only one haploid - a half set of
chromosome from each homologous pair. A half set of chromosomes chromosomes.
is called a haploid set. Humans have 23 chromosomes in their sex fertilization - the union of egg
cells—a haploid set. Figure 10.8 shows the diploid and haploid and sperm.
number of chromosomes for various organisms. zygote - a fertilized egg.
What is Fertilization is the union of egg and sperm to form a new organism.
fertilization? When an egg is fertilized by a sperm, the haploid set of
chromosomes from the father unites with the haploid set of
chromosomes from the mother. A fertilized egg, called a zygote, has
a diploid set of chromosomes. For each homologous pair, one
chromosome comes from the mother, and one from the father.

In a diploid set, chromosomes are found in

homologous pairs. For each pair, one
chromosome comes from each parent.

Figure 10.8: The diploid and

haploid number of chromosomes for
various organisms.

10.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND MEIOSIS

205
Cell differentiation
Specialized cells After fertilization, the zygote rapidly divides by mitosis and
becomes an embryo. An embryo is an organism in its earliest embryo - an organism in its
stages of development. Figure 10.9 shows embryo development of earliest stage of development.
a fish, calf, and rabbit. The final outcome is a multicellular cell differentiation - the process
organism with many different types of specialized cells. You have of cell specialization.
brain cells, stomach cells, skin cells, and muscle cells to name just
a few. All of those cells can
be traced back to the
zygote.
Differentiation Where do all of the
different types of cells
come from? An organism
that is not fully developed
is called an embryo. In the
developing embryo, cells
begin to differentiate. Cell
differentiation is the
process of cell
specialization. For
example, cells that
eventually divide to
become part of the stomach are different from those that will Figure 10.9: An embryo is an
become part of the nervous system. As cells differentiate, they give organism in its earliest stages of
rise to different tissues. These tissues eventually form the organs. development. The embryos of a fish, calf
and rabbit, over time, develop into
Further As the embryo continues to develop, some cells become even more young organisms.

specialization specialized. For example, some cells in the retina of your eye
become rod cells (for vision in dim light) and others become cone
cells (for color vision). After differentiation is complete, most cells
lose the ability to become other types of cells.

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11.1 Traits
Tyler has free earlobes like his father. His mother has attached earlobes. Why does
Tyler have earlobes like his father? In this section you will learn about traits and
how they are passed on to offspring. Look at your earlobes. Are they free or attached?
(Figure 11.1). The type of earlobes you have is a trait that you inherited from your
parents. A trait is a characteristic that an organism can pass on to its offspring.
Studying traits
Breeds and traits Did you know there are over 150 dog breeds, but they are all the
same species (Canis familiaris)? A pug looks completely different
than a black lab, yet they both came from the same ancestors. For
thousands of years, dog breeders have selected certain traits to
produce dog breeds for different purposes. People knew how to
breed in order to obtain certain traits long before scientists knew
about DNA, chromosomes, or meiosis.
Figure 11.1: The type of earlobes you
have is a trait you inherited from your
parents.

trait - a characteristic that an

organism can pass on to its
offspring.
Genetics is the An organism’s heredity is the set of traits it receives from its heredity - a set of traits an
study of heredity parents. Genetics is the study of heredity. Ancient dog breeders organism receives from its
thought that the traits inherited by a dog were a blend of those parents.
from the mother and father. For example, a large dog crossed with genetics - the study of heredity.
a small dog in many cases would produce a medium-sized dog—a
blend of both parents. It turns out that heredity is not that simple.
A monk named Gregor Mendel was one of the first to find that out.

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The priest and the pea

Who was Gregor Gregor Mendel (1822 to 1884) was an
Mendel? Austrian monk. He is often called the
“father of genetics.” Through many years
of experiments in breeding pea plants,
Mendel arrived at some important
conclusions about inheritance. However,
nobody in his lifetime (including Mendel)
realized the importance of his work. It was
ignored by scientists until the early 1900s.
Eventually Mendel’s ideas led to the science
of genetics.
Disappearing Mendel worked in a garden at the monastery where he lived. Figure 11.2: Why do traits
disappear and then reappear?
traits Through his work, he became interested in the traits of plants
and how those traits were passed on to offspring. For example,
he noticed that a trait that appeared in the parent generation of
plants did not show up in their offspring (the first generation), but
in the second generation, the trait showed up again (Figure 11.2)!
Mendel wanted to find out why. So, he decided to study inheritance
in peas. Peas were a good choice because they grow quickly and are
easy to breed.
Peas and Peas are flowering plants. They have male and female parts on
pollination the same plant. Flowering plants reproduce by pollination. During
pollination, pollen containing sperm from the male part of the plant
is carried to the female part of the plant called the ovule.
Fertilization occurs when a sperm from the pollen travels to an
egg in the ovule. In a pea plant, pollen can fertilize eggs on the
same plant (self-pollination). Or, the pollen can be carried by the
wind or an animal to another plant. Figure 11.3 shows how
pollination can occur. Figure 11.3: Flowering plants
reproduce by pollination.

11.1 TRAITS
215
Mendel’s experiment
Pea plant traits Mendel studied pea plants and identified several traits that had Four Pea Traits
only two forms. For example, he observed that peas produced TRAIT FORM 1 FORM 2
plants with either purple flowers or white flowers. Figure 11.4
shows four of the traits Mendel studied and their two forms. Flower color

True-breeding For his experiments, Mendel was careful to start out with true- Purple White

plants breeding plants. When a true-breeding plant self-pollinates, it will

Seed shape
always produce offspring with the same form of the trait as the Smooth Wrinkled
parent plant. For example, a true-breeding plant with purple
flowers will only produce plants with purple flowers. Seed color
Yellow Green
Mendel’s Mendel wanted to find out what would happen if he crossed two
procedure for his plants with different forms of a trait. He used a method called Green Yellow
experiments cross-pollination. In cross-pollination, the parts that contain Pod color
pollen (anthers) are removed from one plant so it cannot self-
pollinate. Next, the pollen from the other plant is used to fertilize
the plant without pollen. The example below shows how Mendel Figure 11.4: Four of the traits
crossed a purple-flowered plant with a white-flowered plant. Mendel studied in pea plants.

true-breeding plant - a plant

that will always produce offspring
with the same form of a trait when
it self-pollinates.
cross-pollination - when the
pollen from one plant is used to
fertilize another plant.

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The first When Mendel crossed true-breeding, purple-flowered plants with

generation true-breeding, white-flowered plants, the first generation produced
all purple-flowered plants. Mendel got similar results for the other
traits he studied. In each case, one form of the trait always showed Parent generation
up in the first generation and the other form of the trait always pollinati
seemed to disappear. ross- on
C
Parents First Generation Parents First Generation

x x
Yellow Green All yellow Purple flowers White flowers
Purple White All purple seeds seeds seeds
flowers flowers flowers
Green Yellow All green
pods pods pods
x x
Smooth Wrinkled All smooth
First generation
seeds seeds seeds

The second Next, Mendel allowed the first generation of plants to self-
generation pollinate. When the purple-flowered plants of the first generation
self-pollinated, white flowers showed up again in the second All purple flowers
generation! Figure 11.5 shows Mendel’s crosses with peas for the Self
pollinatio
n
flower-color trait.
Calculating ratios Mendel counted the plants in the second generation. He found 705
plants with purple flowers and 224 plants with white flowers. He
calculated the ratio of purple-flowered plants to white-flowered Second generation
plants. A ratio is a way to compare two numbers. Here’s how to
calculate the ratio of purple flowers to white flowers:

3 purple flowers for every 1 white flower

(3:1 ratio)
Figure 11.5: Mendel’s experiment.

11.1 TRAITS
217
Mendel’s conclusions
Second Mendel got similar results for the second generation of all the
generation traits he studied. The data from four of the traits he studied is gene - a unit that determines
traits.
results shown in Table 11.1. For practice, calculate the ratio for the last
three traits. alleles - different forms of a gene.
Table 11.1: The second generation from Mendel’s peas dominant allele - the form of a
gene that, when present, covers
Trait Form 1 Form 2 Ratio up the appearance of the
Flower color purple 705 white 224 3:1 recessive allele.
Seed shape round 5,474 wrinkled 1,850 ? recessive allele - the form of a
gene that is hidden when the
Seed color yellow 6,002 green 2,001 ?
dominant allele is present.
Pod color green 428 yellow 152 ?

Genes From the results, Mendel proved that all traits do not blend. For Purple flowers White flowers
instance, purple flowers mixed with white flowers did not produce
pink flowers. Mendel concluded that traits like flower color must
be determined by individual units. Today, we call those units
genes. A gene is a unit that determines traits.
Dominant Recessive
Dominant and Mendel concluded that for each trait he studied, a pea plant must allele allele
recessive alleles contain two forms of the same gene. Different forms of the same (purple flowers) (white flowers)
gene are called alleles. The dominant allele is the form of a gene
that, when present, covers up the appearance of the recessive
allele. The recessive allele is the form of a gene that is hidden
when the dominant allele is present. The gene for flower color in
peas has a dominant allele that causes purple flowers and a
recessive allele that causes white flowers (Figure 11.6). Purple flowers
Dominant allele hides recessive allele
Alleles are different forms of the same gene.
Organisms have at least two alleles for each Figure 11.6: Flower color in peas is
determined by two alleles of the
gene—one from each parent. gene—one from each parent.

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Phenotype and genotype

An organism’s phenotype is the form of a trait that it displays. For
flower color, a pea plant can display a phenotype of purple or white phenotype - the form of a trait
flowers. An organism’s genotype is the alleles of a gene it contains. that an organism displays.
Based on his data, Mendel concluded that a phenotype can be genotype - the alleles of a gene
determined by more than one genotype. an organism contains.

Symbols for Mendel used upper and lower case letters to symbolize the alleles of
genes a gene. For flower color, he used upper case P for purple (the
dominant allele) and lower case p for white (the recessive allele). A
pea plant with purple flowers could have a genotype of either PP or
Pp. A pea plant with white flowers could only have a genotype of
pp. As long as at least one dominant allele is present, the plant will
always have a phenotype of purple flowers. Figure 11.7 shows the
genotypes and phenotypes of four pea plant traits. The graphic
below shows the alleles present in each generation of pea plants
from Mendel’s experiment.
Parent generation First generation

x
Genotype: PP Genotype: pp Genotype: Pp
Phenotype: purple Phenotype: white Phenotype: purple

Second generation

Figure 11.7: The genotypes and

phenotypes of four of the traits Mendel
Genotype: PP Genotype: Pp Genotype: pp studied in pea plants.
Phenotype: purple Phenotype: purple Phenotype: white

11.1 TRAITS
219
 CHAPTER 11: HEREDITY

11.2 Predicting Heredity

When Mendel published his work in the 1800s, he did not use the word “gene” to
describe his units of heredity. He also wasn’t sure where his units might be found or
how to identify them. His work went unnoticed for almost thirty years. In 1902,
American scientist Walter Sutton (1877 to 1916) examined the nuclei of grasshopper
cells under a microscope. He observed that chromosomes occurred in homologous
pairs that separated during meiosis. A year later, Sutton found that chromosomes
contained genes. He had discovered Mendel’s units of heredity! In this section you will
learn how Mendel’s work is used to predict the heredity of offspring.
How traits are passed on to offspring
Genes and alleles Mendel developed the basic laws of how traits are passed on to
offspring (Figure 11.8). He did not know about genes,
chromosomes, DNA, or meiosis. The laws stated below combine the
work of Mendel and Sutton.
1. Individual units called genes determine an organism’s
traits.
2. A gene is a segment of DNA, located on the
chromosomes, that carries hereditary instructions
from parent to offspring.
3. For each gene, an organism typically receives one allele
from each parent.
4. If an organism inherits different alleles for a trait, one
allele may be dominant over the other.
5. The alleles of a gene separate from each other when sex
cells are formed during meiosis.

Figure 11.8: The principles of how

traits are passed on to offspring.

11.2 PREDICTING HEREDITY

221
Alleles and meiosis
Alleles of a gene In the last chapter, you read that homologous pairs of
separate during chromosomes separate during meiosis. Since alleles of a
meiosis gene are found in corresponding locations on homologous
pairs of chromosomes, they also separate during meiosis.
How do alleles To illustrate how alleles separate, let’s follow the alleles for the
separate? flower color trait in a pea plant with the genotype Pp. The plant in
our example has a dominant allele (P) and a recessive allele (p).
What is the phenotype of the plant? You are correct if you said
purple! Figure 11.9 shows what happens to the alleles during
meiosis. To keep it simple, only one pair of chromosomes is shown.
A real pea plant has 14 chromosomes (7 pairs).
Fertilization When fertilization occurs, offspring inherit one homologous
chromosome in a pair from each parent. As a result, one allele for a
gene also comes from each parent. When Mendel crossed pure-
breeding, purple-flowered plants with pure-breeding, white-
flowered plants, the first generation offspring were purple with
the genotype Pp. The diagram below traces the alleles from parent
to offspring.

Figure 11.9: Alleles of a gene are

found in corresponding locations on
homologous pairs of chromosomes.

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Predicting genotype and phenotype

Punnett squares You can predict the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring if you
know the genotypes of the parents. A punnett square shows all of punnett square - shows all of
the possible combinations of alleles from the parents. Figure 11.10 the possible combinations of
alleles from the parents.
shows how a punnett square is made.

You can predict the possible genotypes and

phenotypes of offspring if you know the
genotypes of the parents.
A punnett square You can use a punnett square
of Mendel’s first to show Mendel’s first cross.
cross He crossed a true-breeding,
purple-flowered plant with a
true-breeding, white-flowered
plant. Since the purple-
flowered plant is true-
breeding, it has two
dominant alleles. The
genotype of the purple-
flowered plant is PP. Since
white flowers are recessive, Figure 11.10: The parts of a punnett
square.
the only possible genotype for
a white-flowered plant is pp.
Analyzing the As you can see, all of the offspring in Mendel’s first cross had a In the punnett square shown in
punnett square genotype of Pp. That’s why all of the plants in the first generation Figure 11.10, F = free earlobes
had purple flowers. Using a punnett square, you can predict the and f = attached earlobes. What is
possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. In the example the genotype and phenotype of
above, the only possible genotype is Pp and the only possible each parent? What are the
phenotype is purple flowers. possible genotypes and
phenotypes of their children?

11.2 PREDICTING HEREDITY

223
Punnett squares and probability
A punnett square When Mendel let the Pp plants self-pollinate, white flowers
of Mendel’s showed up in the second generation. Figure 11.11 shows a punnett
second cross square of the cross. Recall that when Mendel counted the plants,
he found a 3:1 ratio of purple to white flowers. There are three
possible genotypes from the cross. Of the three, PP, and Pp are
purple because they have the dominant allele. Only one of the
three (pp) is white. From looking at Figure 11.11, can you see why
there is a 3:1 ratio of purple-flowered to white-flowered plants?
Probability When you flip a coin, there is a 50 percent chance you’ll get heads
and a 50 percent chance you’ll get tails. The way the coin lands is
completely random. Like flipping a coin, the chance of inheriting a
certain genotype and phenotype is random. Probability is the
mathematical chance that an event will occur. Figure 11.11: A cross between pea
plants of the first generation. The plants
Punnett squares Probability can be expressed as a fraction or a percentage. A have a dominant and recessive allele.
and probability punnett square represents all of the possible genotypes of Can you see why white flowers showed
offspring. In Figure 11.11, 1 out of the 4 squares is pp. The up in the second generation?
probability of offspring having pp is therefore 1/4. To convert this
to a percentage, take the numerator of the fraction divided by the
denominator and multiply by 100:
1 probability - the mathematical
× 100 = 25% chance that an event will occur.
4

There is a 25 percent chance of offspring having the pp genotype.

What is the probability of offspring having purple flowers? PP,
and Pp have purple flowers. That’s 3 out of the 4 squares. The
probability is:
3
× 100 = 75%
4

224 UNIT 4 GENETICS

11.3 Other Patterns of Inheritance
Perhaps it was luck for Mendel (and science) that he happened to use pea plants to
discover the principles of heredity. Peas happen to have a number of traits that are
determined by just two alleles. Also, for the traits he studied, one allele happened to
be dominant and the other recessive. Mendel discovered an important pattern of
inheritance and his laws are the foundation of genetics. Since plant and animals
have thousands of genes, some have patterns of inheritance that are different from
the ones Mendel discovered. In this section, you will learn about some of those
patterns.
Male or female?
Sex Mendel worked with peas that had female and male parts on the Figure 11.13: In humans, sex is
chromosomes same plant. Many organisms, like humans, have separate female determined by the last pair of
and male individuals. In humans, sex is determined by the last chromosomes. What is the sex of this
person?
pair of chromosomes, called sex chromosomes (Figure 11.13).
Sex chromosomes carry genes that determine whether an Male
individual is female or male.
Male and female The female chromosome is symbolized with an X and the male
genotypes with a Y. A female has two X chromosomes in her body cells. Her
genotype is XX. A male has an X and a Y chromosome in his body
cells. His genotype is XY. During meiosis, the sex chromosome

Female
pairs separate. Females produce eggs with an X chromosome.
Males produce sperm with an X or a Y chromosome. Figure 11.14
shows a punnett square that crosses a male and a female. What
are the chances of having a boy or a girl?

Figure 11.14: A cross between a

male and a female.

226 UNIT 4 GENETICS

 CHAPTER 11: HEREDITY

Incomplete dominance and codominance

Pink flowers from Sometimes one allele isn’t completely dominant over the other.
red and white! If you cross a true-breeding, red-flowered snapdragon (RR) with a
true-breeding, white-flowered snapdragon (WW), you may expect
the first generation to have all red flowers. In snapdragons,
this does not happen. The first generation has pink flowers
(Figure 11.15)! When you cross two pink-flowered snapdragons
(RW), the second generation of plants will have 25% red flowers,
50% pink flowers, and 25% white flowers.
Incomplete Flower color in snapdragons is an example of incomplete
dominance dominance. In incomplete dominance, the phenotypes of the
two alleles blend—just like mixing paints. Notice that in
Figure 11.15, we use R for the red allele and W for white allele
instead of upper and lower cases of the same letter. Figure 11.15: A cross between red-
flowered snapdragons and white-
Codominance In codominance, an organism that has both alleles of a gene flowered snapdragons produces pink-
displays both phenotypes at the same time. For example, a cross flowered snapdragons. The second
between a black cat (BB) and a tan cat (TT) results in a tabby cat generation has red, pink, and white
flowers.
(black and tan mixed together). Suppose a tabby cat (BT) crossed
with a black cat (BB). What is the probability that one of their
kittens would have tabby fur?
incomplete dominance - when
the phenotype of the two alleles
blend.
codominance - when an
organism that has both alleles of a
gene displays both phenotypes at
the same time.

11.3 OTHER PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

227
Other patterns of inheritance and environmental factors
Multiple alleles So far you have learned about
genes that have just two alleles. polygenic traits - traits that are
Multiple alleles are also common determined by more than one
gene.
in organisms. In humans for
example, three alleles determine
blood type (A, B, and O). Each
person can have only two of the
alleles at one time, but there are
three alleles in the human
population. If a person inherits a
B allele from one parent and a O
allele from the other parent, she
will have type B blood. The
diagram (right) shows the possible genotypes and phenotypes for
human blood type.
Polygenic traits Inherited traits that are determined by more than one gene are
called polygenic traits. Have you ever seen parakeets in a pet
store? Feather color in parakeets is determined by two genes. One
gene controls yellow color and the other controls blue color.
Figure 11.16 shows the possible genotypes and phenotypes. In
humans, eye color and skin color are polygenic traits. The range in
skin colors of humans is determined by no less than four genes! Figure 11.16: Feather color in
parakeets is determined by two genes.
Environmental Genes aren’t the only influence on the traits of an organism.
factors Environmental factors may also influence traits. For instance,
in some turtle species, sex is determined by temperature. During
the development of the embryo, higher temperature favors the Can you think of other
production of males. Human height is determined by genes. But environmental influences on your
if a person does not get the proper nutrients, he or she may not traits? Make a list of as many
influences as you can think of.
reach his or her potential height.

228 UNIT 4 GENETICS

 An Inherited Blood Disease
Genes: the good and the bad
Sickle cell anemia is an inherited blood disease that affects Sickle cell anemia affects populations in Africa, India, the
more than 70,000 Americans. The disease causes severe joint Mediterranean area, and South America. It is most common
pain and weakness and often leads to an early death. The in Africa and in people with African ancestors. About 1 in
disease has been present in Africa for hundreds of years. every 500 African Americans has the disease.
Would you believe that some members of families that carry Some diseases are inherited just like your physical traits.
Chapter 11 Connection

the sickle cell trait can actually benefit? Read on to find out Sickle cell anemia is one such inherited disease.
how.
Everyone carries a gene that is responsible for making
Comparing red blood cells hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that
Sickle cell describes the shape of red blood carries oxygen. People with sickle cell
cells in people who have the disease. The anemia have two mutated alleles of that
other part of the name, anemia, means gene. They produce abnormal hemoglobin.
there are too few red blood cells. In turn, This causes the sickle-shaped cells and
this can mean that too little oxygen is being lowers their ability to carry oxygen to other
carried through the body. Red blood cells cells.
carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues The dominant allele of the hemoglobin gene
in our bodies. causes normal hemoglobin. The recessive
Normally, red blood cells are round. They allele of the gene causes sickle cell anemia.
look like disks (top, right). With sickle cell People who have sickle cell anemia have
anemia the red blood cells are sickle- two recessive alleles for the disease. This
shaped (bottom, right). A sickle is a tool means that one recessive allele came from
shaped like the letter C. each parent.

Normal red blood cells flow easily through Some people have both the dominant allele
small blood vessels. Sickle-shaped red and the recessive allele. These people are
blood cells clog small blood vessels. called carriers. About 8 in every 100 have
the recessive allele for sickle cell anemia.
Normal red blood cells live about 120 days. Carriers may have normal lives. But the
Sickle-shaped red blood cells live only 10 to child of two carriers may have the disease.
20 days. This causes a constant shortage of
red blood cells, a condition known as
anemia.

230
The genetic chances Malaria is caused by a single-
If both parents are carriers of the sickle cell trait, they each celled parasite. Mosquitoes
have one normal allele and one sickle cell allele. Each parent carry the parasite from person
contributes one gene to the child. What are the chances of a to person, spreading the deadly
child getting sickle cell anemia? disease. Malaria has killed
millions of people throughout
• There is a 50 percent chance that the child will end up with the world. The majority of the
one sickle cell allele. In this case, the child has the sickle cell victims are children.
trait and is a carrier.
While non-existent in the United States, malaria is a risk in

Chapter 11 Connection
• There is a 25 percent chance that the child will get one sickle other places. The disease is still common in Africa. Sickle cell
cell allele from each parent. This child will have sickle cell anemia carriers are more common there also. In some parts
anemia. of Africa as much as 40 percent of the population has the
• There is a 25 percent chance that the child will get no sickle sickle cell trait.
cell alleles.
Why do carriers of the sickle cell trait resist malaria? The
N = Normal gene S = Sickle cell gene parasite causes normal red blood cells to become sickle
shaped. Somehow the sickle cell carrier's body produces a
Mother Father Mother Father resistance to the disease. Carriers of the sickle cell trait are
NS NS NS NS partially protected from malaria. The trait does not provide
an absolute protection, but these individuals are more likely
to survive the malaria illness. The exact reason why sickle
N S S N cell traits act as a resistance to malaria is still unknown.
Child Child
25% CARRIER 25% CARRIER Even though sickle cell anemia is harmful to people with the
disease, the trait persists in places where malaria is
Mother Father Mother Father common. This is an example of natural selection. People with
NS NS NS NS the sickle cell trait have an advantage where malaria
thrives.
N N S S
Questions:
Child Child
25% NON-CARRIER 25% DISEASE 1. How can you get sickle cell anemia?
2. If you mother and father are both sickle cell carriers, what
The malaria connection are the chances that you will not have the trait?
The sickle cell allele has not disappeared because it helps 3. How does sickle cell anemia affect the red blood cells?
some people. People with the trait are much more resistant 4. Why are people with the sickle cell trait able to resist
to malaria than people without the trait.
malaria?

UNIT 4 GENETICS
231