Distribution

3- Semi direct: major of light waves fall on

the surface and some waves reflect on the
CH 1 Power Distribution:
ceiling.
Objective: Designing the distribution system
4- Semi indirect: major of light waves reflect
and choosing luminaires, cables, transformers
on the ceiling and some waves fall on the
and circuit breakers.
surface.
(A) Lighting Design
5- Diffused: light waves are transmitted in the
First we should ask what is light? all area.

There is two definitions of light from the

physics criteria and the illuminating
engineering criteria.
Physics criteria consider light as
electromagnetic energy transmitted through
space or medium in form of waves.

Fig 1-2 types of lighting

Important Parameters:
 Lumen (lm): The unit of luminous flux is
a measure for the quantity of luminous
energy emitted per second by a light
Fig 1-1 Electromagnetic waves spectrum source.
 Luminous Intensity (I): Light flux
Illuminating engineering criteria consider light irradiated through a tri dimensional
as visually evaluated radiated energy. angle (solid angle) directed by the
magnitude of the referred angle.
So light is an electromagnetic wave can L= (Q/w) Lm/Seta radians.
located in electromagnetic spectrum be visible
for human eye.
Types of interior lighting ▪ Luminance (Lm/M2): The quantity of
incidental light falling onto a given
1-Direct: lights falls directly to the surface. surface per unit area of the surface
2- Indirect: lights reflects on the ceiling and taking into consideration that, it is
then distributed. uniform illuminated. E=Q/A Lux.
 Distribution
▪ Color Rendering Index (CRI): A Determine the Utilization Factor (U.F) of the
measure of the degree to which the application which is: The amount of flux
appearance of a surface color under a emitted by lamb reaches the working surface,
it is affected by the wall reflectance.
▪ given light source Compares to the
Determine the maintenance factor (M.F): for
same surface under a CIE reference
example for clear surface 0.8, for semi clear
source.
surface 0.7 and for dirty surface 0.6.
▪ Color Temperature (°K): All
materials emit light when 𝐿𝑢𝑥 (𝐸) 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
𝑁=
heated (e.g. metal glows red 𝑈. 𝐹 𝑥 𝑀. 𝐹 𝑥 𝛷
through to white as the Where:
temperature Increase). The E: average horizontal intensity of
temperature to which a full illumination in lux (lum/𝑚2 ).
radiator (or ‘black body’) A: area to be illuminated in square
would be heated to achieve the meter.
same chromaticity (color
quality) of the light source 𝛷 : Luminous flux per lamb (lm).
being considered, defines the 𝑈.F: Utilization Factor.
correlated color temperature of
the lamp, quoted in degrees 𝑀.F: Maintenance Factor.
Kelvin. Different types of lamb
▪ Luminous Efficacy (lm/W):
The ratio of light emitted, to
the power consumed by a lamp.

Calculation of luminaires:-
It depends on the dimensions of the room
L,W&H Where L: Length of room in meter
W:Width of room in meter
H:Hight of room in meter
Choose the lux required according to the area
of application ( E ) As it is the total flux falls
on a surface per unit area.
Fig 1-3 comparison between lambs
Distribution

Fluorescent lamp: is a low-pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to

produce visible light. An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor, which produces short-
wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow.

Fig 1-4 Fluorescent lamp

LED lamb: produces light using light-emitting diodes its more efficient and cheaper come to full
brightness without need for a warm time the life of fluorescent lighting is also reduce by frequent
switching on and off by frequent switching on and off

Fig 1-5 Led lamp

Halogen lamb: is an incandescent lamp consisting of a tungsten filament sealed into a compact
transparent envelope that is filled with a mixture of an inert gas and a small amount of
a halogen such as iodine or bromine.

Fig 1-6 Halogen lambp

 Distribution

Example of lighting sheets

Fig 1-7 Activities building lighting sheet

Distribution
(b) Sockets Design:-
Its function is delivering electric power * All sockets used are two or three
to the appliance like TV, fan and pole type (Line, Neutral and
fridge. Earth).
*All sockets are 35:40 cm height from
It is constructed from two conducting
finished floor except kitchen and bath.
pieces which are connected to line cable
*Sockets are separated by 1.85 cm
and neutral and an isolation material in
from the wall and separated by min
the frame.
3.65 cm from each other.
*All sockets used in baths and kitchens
should be waterproof
* Normal socket circuit should have
5:7 socket
*Power socket circuit should have only
one socket
*Normal socket rating 180VA
*Double socket rating 360 VA
*Power socket rating 2000:5000 VA
*Normal socket used for light loads
like TV, fan, laptops and mobile
charger
Sockets Types:- *Power socket used for heavy loads
like drill machines, water heaters.
Light current outlet:
Single Socket used to serve
the telephon
plugs

Double
Socket Telephone outlet

It used to
serve net
Power Socket plugs

Fig 1-8 Used power sockets

Ethernet Outlet

Fig 1-9 light current outlet

Distribution
Example of Load Schedule Calculation Sheet

Fig 1-10 Activities building load schedule

 Distribution
(c)Cable Selection:- Insulation properties:
There are three main categories in cables 1-High insulation resistance
1-Power cable 2-High dielectric strength
2-Control cable 3-Good mechanical properties
3-Special purpose cable for communication 4-Low thermal resistance
and data transmitting.
5-Able to work under high temperature s
Cable construction:
Insulation Types:
In general Cables are consisted of conductor
Pvc,Xlpe,Epr(ethylene propylene rubber), Butyl
and insulation
rubber.
Conductor: it is a conducting material used for
PVC XLPE
carrying electric current to the desirable place
and it’s mainly manufactured from copper or Max Temp 160 C A>300 250 C
aluminum that depends on the required S.C.C sq.mm
conductivity and cost and flexibility. 140 C A<300
sq. mm
Copper Aluminum
Conductivity 100 61
Ground Temp 1.13 : 0.65 1.09 : 0.8
Electric 1.724:1.777 2.826 Derating
resistivity
Air Temp 1.22 : 0.71 1.14 : 0.8
Temp 0.00393 0.00403 Derating
Coefficient
Advantage Best Electrical Withstand
Thermal 3.8W/Cm.C 2.4W/Cm.c spec <3.3K S.C.C/High
Conductivity Temp
Tensile 225Mn/SqM
Strength
Disadvantage It’s affected by High Toughness
Table 1-1 Comparison bet Al & Cu ambient T

Conductor properties:
Application Most widely Used in M V /
1-High conductivity used Low Volt HV
2-Permessible flexibility
3-Anti corrosion Cost Cheap Expensive
4-Non flammable
Insulation: it insulation material used for Table 1-2 Comparison bet xlpe & pvc
preventing electric current to non-desirable
place and protect human.
 Distribution

Armoring: it is added to the cable to increase 3-Voltage Drop

its mechanical strength.
(d) Short Circuit Calculation:
Sheath: It is added to the cable to uniform the
* Each Conductor should withstand a
electric field that the insulation is subjected to
symmetrical 3 phase short circuit fault current
reduce breakdown probability.
for certain period specified by the
Outer sheath: It is made of PVC to protect the manufacturer normally for 1 sec as the
armoring the conductor against moisture and maximum temperature of the insulation pre-
provide protection for human. defined in table 2 .
* If the S.C.C for specified period is not given
in tables of manufacture it can be obtained by
divide the S.C.C for 1 sec by the square root
of required period.
𝐼𝑠𝑐(1𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝐼𝒔𝒄 =
√𝑡
(e)Voltage Drop Calculation:

V.D = (mv/AMP/m) x 10−3 x Iactual x L

Where (mv/Amp/m) factor obtained from
manufacture catalogue.
Fig 1-11 Cable Construction
I actual: Rated load current
Cable Sizing:
L: Load length
1-Cable Current=Load Current x 1.5
𝑆 𝑥 1000 * Acceptable V.D ≤ 5%
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (1 𝛷) =
𝑉𝛷 * V.D %=(V.D/380) x 100
𝑆 𝑥 1000
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (3 𝛷 ) =
√3 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
Where S is the apparent power in KVA.
Enter the cable catalogues and choose cable
according to:
1-Cable Current: which is the current that the
cable can carry continuously at maximum
operating temperature.
2-Short Circuit Current Rating
 Distribution
(f) Circuit Breaker: -
C.B:it is a device which is used for
disconnecting the circuit under fault condition.
Its types are air, oil, SF6and vacuum CB which
are the mediums of vanishing the arc.
Comparison Between types of Breaker
Miniatur Molde Earth
Vacuu
e d case m
Leakag
C.B C.B e C.B
C.B
Nominal 10~12 32~16 1600~ 10~10
current 5A 0 5 0
0A 000A A
Short 6~30K 10~80 Up to 6~30K
Circuit A KA 150 A
Current KA
Num. of SP – DP TP- FP FP DP
poles – TP -
Fig 1-12
FP
Medium Voltage Vacuum Circuit Breaker Adjustm Fixed Fixed- Fixed Fixed
ent Adjusta
Circuit Breaker Capacity can be calculated ble
as:- Table 1-3 comparison bet C.B Types
ICB=Load Current x 1.25 (g)Transformers: -
𝑆 𝑥 1000
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (1 𝛷) = Transformer is a static device consists of two
220
or more winding used to transmit power by
𝑆 𝑥 1000 electromagnetic induction from one circuit to
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (3 𝛷 ) = another but with same frequency and different
√3 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
voltages and currents.
There are many types of transformer
according to its application mainly step up /
down.
There is tower mounted transformer has rating
up to 1 MVA.
Pad-mounted transformer has rating up to 5
MVA.
 Distribution

Network (power) Transformer has rating up to

100 MVA.
Transformer is rated by kilovolt amperes which
is related to load current.
The capacity of transformer is the current
which can be delivered continuously at rated

Voltage without exceeding the maximum Fig 1-13 Oil type transformer
permissible temperature.
It uses oil for cooling and isolation also.
Transformer importance is to step up the
voltage so the current will step down due to
similarity in power delivered between sending
and receiving so when current reduced the
cross section area of cable is reduced so the
cost is reduced.
Comparison between Oil Trans & Dry Trans
Oil type Dry type

Operate at normal Operate at

operation at 80% normal operation
ofloading capacity at 100% of Fig 1-14 Dry type Transformer
loading capacity
During over load May be operate
operate at at over load at
100% 110% or120%
Suitable location at Suitable location
outdoor at indoor
(Basement)
Low lowsesEfficiency High
high lossesEfficiency
Oil>Efficiency
dry
Low cost compared with High cost
dry type compared with oil
type
Table 1-4 Comparison bet Transformer types
 Distribution

(h) Light Current System

Not all lenses have focus and iris adjustment.
CCTV System Most have iris adjustment. Some very wide
angle lenses do not have a
Introduction
Focus ring. The 'BNC' plug is for connecting
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) is a system in
the coaxial video cable. Line powered cameras
which the circuit is closed and all the elements
do not have the mains cable. Power is
are directly connected.
provided via the coaxial cable.
The Applications for CCTV
The Monitor
Probably the most widely known use of CCTV
is in security systems and such applications as The picture created by the camera needs to be
retail shops, banks, government reproduced at the control position. A CCTV
establishments, etc. monitor is virtually the same as a television
receiver except that it does not have the
Some examples are listed below.
tuning circuits.
 Monitoring traffic on a bridge.
 Recording the inside of a baking oven
to find the cause of problems.
 Used by the stage manager of a show
to see obscured parts of a set.
 The well-publicised use at football
stadiums.
 Hidden in buses to control vandalism.
Fig 1-16 CCTV Monitor
 Production control in a factory.

The Camera
The starting point for any CCTV system must Simple CCTV Systems
be the camera. The camera creates the picture
The simplest system is a camera connected
that will be transmitted to the control position.
directly to a monitor by a coaxial cable with
the power for the camera being provided from
the monitor. This is known as a line powered
camera. Diagram 3 shows such a system.

Fig 1-15 Camera and Lens

Distribution
Mains Powered CCTV Systems
The basic CCTV installation is shown in
diagram 5 where the camera is mains powered
as is the monitor. A coaxial cable carries the
video signal from the camera to the monitor.
This arrangement allows for a great deal more
Fig 1-17 A Basic Line Powered CCTV System flexibility in designing complex systems. When
more than one camera is required, then a
The next development was to incorporate the
video switcher must be included as shown in
outputs from four cameras into the monitor.
diagram 6. Using this switcher any camera
These could be set to sequence automatically
may be selected to be held on the screen or it
through the cameras or any camera could be
can be set to sequence in turn through all the
held selectively. Diagram 4 shows a typical
cameras. Usually the time that each camera is
arrangement of such a system.
shown may be adjusted by a control knob or
There was a noticeable, and sometimes by a screwdriver.
annoying, pause between pictures when
switching. This was because the camera was
powered down when not selected and it took
time for the tube to heat up again.

Fig 1-19 A Basic Mains Powered

CCTV System

Fig 1-18 A Four-Camera Line Powered CCTV

System
Distribution
Movable Cameras
In many applications the area to be covered
would need many fixed cameras. The solution
to this is to use cameras fixed to a movable
platform. This platform can then be controlled
from a remote location. The platform may
simply rotate in a horizontal plane and is
generally known as a scanner. Alternatively
the platform may be controllable in both
horizontal and vertical planes and is generally
known as a pan, tilt unit. A basic system is
illustrated in diagram 8.
Fig 1-20 a Four-Camera System with Video
Switcher
Systems with Video Recording
The next development of a basic system is to
add a video recorder, the arrangement would
be as shown in diagram 7.

Fig 1-22 Basic Movable Camera System

Cameras may be used indoors or outdoors.

When used outdoors they will always require a
protective housing. For indoor use the
environment or aesthetic constraints will dictate
whether a housing is needed. Systems may
Fig 1-21 A Multi Camera System with Video contain a combination of both fixed and
Recorder movable cameras.
With this arrangement the pictures shown
during play back will be according to the way
in which the switcher was set up when
recording. That is, if it was set to sequence
then the same views will be displayed on the
monitor. There is no control over what can be
displayed.

Fig 1-23 Multiple Camera System

Distribution
Distance between two smoke detectors
Fire System
Aim of fire alarm system: This type covers a radius of R=7.5m , but we
use R=5m to make sure that all area is covered.
1-identify fire location.
2-warn the people inside the building
3-kill off the fire in its first stages.
4-call the nearest fire station.
Construction of fire alarm system:
1-detectors.
2-auidoable or visible alarms.
3-modules.
4-fire alarm control panel (facp).
5-cabels.
Detectors:
1-smoke detector
*ionization smoke detectot
 For fast fire.
 For high energy fire.

Fig 1-24 Ionization smoke detector this spacing when the roof height is 3m but for
* Optical Smoke Detector higher roofs the spacing will be according to
the following table:
 For slow fire.
 Can't be used in places that contain dust
or smoke at normal state.

Fig 1-25 Optical smoke detector

Distribution
2-heat detector Alarms:

 Used to protect from undesirable increase Type of alarms :

in temperature.
1- bells
 Placement of heat detector
 It produces an alarm when the system
1 Kitchen 2 Boiler detects fire.
3 Generator Room 4 office

Fig 1-26 Heat detector

Fig 1-27 Bell Alarm
 This type cover Max Radius R = 5.3 ,But 2-strobe light (flash)
we use R=4m
 Produces visible alarm.

Fig 1-28 Flash Alarm

3-speaker
Produces an alarm message in case of fire.

Fig 1-29 Speaker

Distribution
2-monitor module (MM)
4-Horn  Used to watch some operation such as:
 Water flow switch that should always
 The same as bell but it used outside. be opened to make sure that water
exists.
 Tamper switch that should always be
opened to make sure that water will
flow in case of fire.

The following figure shows how MM is

connected

Fig1-30 Horn
It should be noted that the maximum level
of sound of fire alarm signals is 65db ,
but in some blaces that have too much
noise we have to increase this value also
we should increase this value as the
distance from alarm is increased according
to this curve.
Modules :
1-control module (CM)

 Used to turning on and off some operations

during fire such as:
 Stop elevators Fig 1-32 Connection of monitor module
 Turning off electrical panels Fire Alarm Control Panel F.A.C.P
 Turning on fans to pull air out of
building

Fig 1-33 Fire alarm control panel

Fig 1-31 Control module
 Distribution

1-Conventional F.A.C.P

 Used in following cases:

 Less cost
 Used if number of sensor low
 Used in less important
area because if sensor is
failure all above sensor
will be out of service
[open loop]
 If any sensor operate all zone
will be operate so can't know
the area of fire [Main
Disadvantage]
 ended with resistance to damping the
voltage [24VDC]
2- Addressable F.A.C.P
Identify the excat location of the fault by
giving an address for each detector.
This type is used for places that have a lot of
rooms as companies. Fig 1-34 Addressable F.A.C.P

In caes of Adrissable FACP we can identify fire alarm cables :

the location of fire,but in Conventional all
alarms operate. Fire alarm system should be still operated
during fire so we should consider the
We place an isolator after 10 detectors to following:
isolate the fault.
 When we use exposed cables it should
be armored.
 The exposed conduits should be metalic
and the embeded conduits shhould be
from PVC and fire retarded.
 The length of the cable shouldn't be
longer than it's rated in order to avoid
voltage drope.
 The C.S.A of cables are 0.8 & 1.5 &
2.5& 4 mm2.
Distribution

(i) Distribution Board

Introduction
Power Distribution is a system, consisting of a
Main Distribution Board (MDB), Sub Main
Distribution Boards (SMDBs) and Final
Distribution Boards, by which the electrical
energy is transmitted via branches to reach the
exact end user

Types of Distribution Board:

Main Distribution Board (MDB
Sub- Main Distribution Board (SMDB)
Distribution Board (DB)
Emergency Distribution Board (EDB)

1-Main Distribution Board (MDB)

An MDB is a panel or enclosure that houses the

fuses, circuit breakers and ground leakage
protection units where the electrical energy,
which is used to distribute electrical power to
numerous individual circuits or consumer
points, is taken in from the transformer or an
upstream panel.

An MDB typically has a single or multiple

incoming power sources and includes main
circuit breakers and residual current or earth
Fig 1-35 leakage protection devices.

An MDB is comprised of a free standing

enclosure, a bus bar system, MCCB's, metering
and support equipments and required current
transformers.

Panels are assembled in a systematic manner

such as incomer section and outgoing section.
 Distribution
3-Distribution Board (DB)

*Distribution board is used in low-voltage

systems

*Distribution board is installed in the technical

room of each floor or before group of load
consumers inside factory or industrial
workshop and civil projects.
Fig 1-36 Main distribution board Such as factories, industrial workshops,
2-Sub-Main Distribution Board (SMDB) commercial centers, office buildings,
apartments, hospitals, schools, harbors ,
The MDB feeds SMDBs, which is installed airports ...
generally at the point where a large
distribution cable terminates and several *Distribution board is installed after main
smaller sub-circuits start. switchboard and before consumption loads

These are the switchboards that although 4-Emergency Distribution Board (EDB)
similar construction, are larger than a final
distribution board circuit.  It is a switchboard which distributes
emergency load that power is supplied
The boards are installed midway through the from emergency generator during the
power distribution system, at the point in a main power source failure.
large distribution cable ends, and several
smaller starting sub-circuits.  When main power is lost, this Circuit
breaker is tripped (opened).

 Emergency generator comes into action,

and supplies power through another circuit
breaker.

 An interlock is provided, to prevent

simultaneous closing of both breaker (both
main and emergency generator may be
running, simultaneously).

Fig 1-37 Sub main distribution board

 Distribution

*Design Calculations of Distribution Boards: -

The distribution boards contains main circuit

breaker and sub-main circuit breakers.

The calculation of the main circuit breaker may

be carried out using two schemes:-

-The first one is the load estimation technique.

- the second is to use the summation of the

connected loads power of three phases, then
calculate the current from the power relation.

For Lighting & Socket Circuits: -

Each line is loaded maximum load of 1500

VA. these to avoid exceed of voltage drop on
circuits

Usually we use 3 mm2 for light & socket

circuits

Type of C.B used is Miniature circuit breaker

(M.C.B)

Wattage of lighting of luminaire according to

the type of lamp

Wattage of one gang normal socket = 250

VA.

Wattage of a power socket = 1000-2500

VA.
 Renewable &Control
CH2 (Renewable Energy) •Uranium (Fission of atoms)

Energy does things for us. It moves cars along

the road and boats on the Renewable
Water. It bakes a cake in the oven and keeps Nuclear
ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favorite
songs and lights our homes at night. Energy •Geothermal (Conversion)
helps our bodies grow and our minds think. •Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)
Energy is a changing, doing, moving, working
thing. Gravity

Energy is defined as the ability to produce •Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)

change or do work, and that work can be Indirect Solar
divided into several main tasks we easily
recognize Energy produces, light, heat, •Biomass (Photosynthesis)
motion, sound.
•Wind (Pressure differences)
(a)Forms of Energy
Direct Solar
•Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)
Egypt continues to rely on non-renewable
sources of energy by more than 90% to meet
its needs while increasing energy consumption
by 5-7% per year.
The location of Egypt gives it enviable
advantages to various countries, especially the
European, and the proper harnessing of these
characteristics will raise the productive capacity
of renewable energy enormous lifting, from
power generation from the high dam through
Fig 2-1 Forms of energy the capture from the wind and to absorb it from
(b)Energy Resources the sun.

Non-Renewable Egypt aims to cover 20% of its needs through

the production of "clean energy" by 2020,
Chemical 12% of which wind power, 6% water power
and 2% solar energy
Fossil fuels (Combustion)
Nuclear
 Renewable &Control
Wind Energy generators. 12 generators with a capacity of
175 MW for one and a total of 2100 MW
generating the highest value of clean energy in
Egypt.
Solar Energy

Fig 2-2 Wind energy

Egypt has a high potential for wind energy,
especially in the Red Sea coast area. As of
2006, 230 MW of wind energy was installed,
with additional 320 MW to be installed by
2009. In 2009, 430 MW of wind power
were installed. Because the potential for
hydroelectricity is largely utilized, the Supreme
Council of Energy’s goal of increasing Fig 2-4 Solar energy
renewable energy to 20% by 2020 is Egypt has a high solar availability. The total
expected to be reached predominantly
through the development of wind power as capacity of installed photovoltaic systems is
solar remains too costly. Wind power is about 4.5 Mwp. They are used in remote areas
expected to reach 12% (a power capacity of for water pumping, desalination, rural clinics,
about 7200 MW) of total electricity output telecommunications, rural village
with hydro (100 MW of CSP power) and electrification, etc, the proposed large scale
solar (1 MW of PV power) making up the solar power project Deserted involves also
remaining 8%
Egypt.
Hydropower
The country in some areas receives over 4,000
hours of sunshine per year which is among the
highest quantities registered in the world. Due
to the sharp population growth and a series of
blackouts during the summer caused by
shortage supply, Egyptian demand of solar
energy is increasing. However, only 1% of the
electricity is produced by solar energy. The
Fig 2-3 Hydropower main part of the solar energy available in the
About 11,000 cubic meters of water pass country derives from small/scale projects. The
through the Upper Aswan Dam, which protects only big projects, up to 10MW, are
Egypt from drought and floods and plays a role constituted by hybrid solar/diesel solutions
in the reclamation of land as well as to which are developed by the Emirati company,
Generate energy at the exit of the tunnels. Each Masdar and Benban Solar Park which is the
tunnel is divided into two branches, each with biggest solar installation in the world
 Renewable &Control
Ch 3 Solar Energy electricity to consumers in a region or state.
The electricity is distributed along the
(a) Introduction for PV electrical grid-the utility’s network of
conductors, substations, and equipment that
Growing concerns for the depletion of the distributes electricity from its central hub to
world's natural resources and our future the consumer. The grid can span hundreds of
energy supply has increased the need and miles from the power plants to thousands of
development of solar power. The most critical homes and businesses. By having a PV
advancement in the development of solar system, you don’t have to rely on your utility
technology has been Photovoltaics, a solar company if there is a system distribution
energy system that uses semi-conductors to break down along the grid. Electrical
directly convert solar radiation into outages, though rare, do still occur under
electricity. Photovoltaic (PV) systems are certain circumstances such as overloaded
composed of a large number of cells systems or severe weather events.
(typically made of crystalline silicon)
arranged in formation on a metal frame, the
entirety of which is known as a module.

Fig 3-1 Periodic Table

When exposed to sunlight these cells produce

a small direct current of electricity, and when Fig 3-2 PV cell structure
used en masse will generate a large amount
of electrical power with no moving parts, Owning a PV system allows you to create
noise or emissions. The amount of electricity your own power to supply your entire house
generated is dependent on several factors: and lifestyle without being tied to the issues
the size and arrangement of the PV system, that can occur with utility grids. You only
the PV module array, and the efficiency of require the utility company to activate the
the electrical components used to covert solar system and only need to use the grid until
your system is actively producing the energy
Energy into electricity usable by your home output your household or business requires.
or building (called inverters).
Most electricity is distributed through an
electrical utility provider, which is the
company that produces and/or distributes
 Renewable &Control
Throughout the year your energy For his explanation of the photoelectric effect
consumption changes and what energy you Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics in
don’t use from the PV system will be banked 1921.
in the utility grid. This can then be used
The photovoltaic effect can be divided into
during night hours or during times of the
three basic processes:
year when the sun isn’t as intense or if
shading occurs due to weather.

Where: : (a) Illustrating the absorption of a

photon in a semiconductor with bandgap Eg.
The photon with energy Eph = h𝞵 excites an
Fig 3-3 Cell to Module To Array electron from Ei to Ef. At Ei a hole is created.
(b)The operation of a Solar Cell: (b) If Eph > Eg, a part of the energy is
thermalized.
The working principle of solar cells is based on
the photovoltaic effect. The generation of a In a real semiconductor, the valence and
potential difference at the junction of two conduction bands are not flat, but vary
different materials in response to depending on the so-called k-vector that
electromagnetic radiation. The photovoltaic describes the crystal momentum of the
effect is closely related to the photoelectric semiconductor. If the maximum of the valence
effect, where electrons are emitted from a band and the minimum of the conduction band
material that has absorbed light with a occur at the same k-vector, an electron can be
frequency above a material-dependent excited from the valence to the conduction
threshold frequency. In 1905, Albert Einstein band without a change in the crystal
understood that this effect can be explained momentum. Such a semiconductor is called a
by assuming that the light consists of well- direct bandgap material. If the electron cannot
defined energy quanta, called photons. The
energy of such a photon is given by:(E = h𝞵)
Where h is Planck’s constant
is the frequency of the light.
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. If the electron cannot be excited without
changing the crystal momentum, we speak of
an indirect bandgap material. The absorption ❸. In most solar cells, these membranes are
coefficient in an direct bandgap material is formed by n- and p-type materials.
much higher than in an indirect bandgap
material, thus the absorber can be much
thinner . If an electron is excited from Ei to Ef ,
a void is created at Ei . This void behaves like
a particle with a positive elementary charge
and is called a hole. The absorption of a
photon therefore leads to the creation of an
electron-hole pair, as illustrated in

❶. The radiative energy of the photon is Where: A very simple solar cell model.
converted to the chemical energy of the
electron-hole pair. The maximal conversion ❶ Absorption of a photon leads to the
efficiency from radiative energy to chemical generation of an electron-hole pair.
energy is limited by thermodynamics. This ❷ Usually the electrons and holes will
thermodynamic limit lies in between 67% for combine.
non-concentrated sunlight and 86% for fully
concentrated sunlight ❸ With semipermeable membranes the
electrons and the holes can be separated.
Usually, the electron-hole pair will recombine.
the electron will fall back to the initial energy ❹ The separated electrons can be used to
level Ei , as illustrated in drive an electric circuit.
❷. The energy will then be released either as ❺ After the electrons passed through the
photon (radiative recombination) or circuit, they will recombine with holes.
transferred to other electrons or holes or
lattice vibrations (nonradioactive A solar cell has to be designed such that the
recombination). If one wants to use the energy electrons and holes can reach the membranes
stored in the electron-hole pair for performing before they recombine. the time it requires the
work. charge carriers to reach the membranes must
be shorter than their lifetime. This requirement
in an external circuit, semipermeable limits the thickness of the absorber
membranes must be present on both sides of
the absorber, such that electrons only can flow
out through one membrane and holes only can
flow out through the other membrane , as
illustrated in
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(c)The equivalent circuit: • If one light goes out, the others stay lit
The behavior of an illuminated solar cell can
be described by a simple equivalent circuit,
illustrated in (a), in which a diode and a
current source are connected in parallel. The
diode is formed by a p-n junction . In practice
the FF is influenced by a series resistance Rs ,
and a shunt resistance Rp .

2- Series circuits

• maintain electrical flow (current is

constant)
• Voltage is divided among components
• Easy to open circuit quickly

Where: : The equivalent circuit of an (a) ideal

solar cell and a (b) solar cell with a series
resistance Rs and a shunt resistance Rp.

Homes, Christmas lights, and many other

things are wired in parallel, because one
component not working will not shut off the
Fig 3-4 PV cell Equivalent circuit
whole circuit. Old Christmas lights, which went
The equivalent circuit of a solar cell based on dark when just one bulb burned out, were
the two-diode model. wired in series. Both ways of wiring circuits
have advantages and disadvantages,
Parallel and series circuit:
depending on the application and components
1-Parallel circuits involved.

• maintain potential (voltage is constant) Squiggly lines in the diagrams indicate resistors.
Because all electrical objects have a certain amount of
• Current is divided among components resistance to electrical current flow, any device
can be represented by a resistor.
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The most commonly used educational load is a
little light bulb or a buzzer of some sort. 1-Monocrystalline silicon cell:
These cells are composed primarily of silicon
crystals. To produce these, a cylindrical crystal
of silicon is "grown" from molten silicon. This
crystal is then cut into thin slices and shaped
into a hexagon so that they fit together well
on the solar panel. These cells are smooth in
appearance and are rigid, thus they must be
mounted in a sturdy frame to prevent them
from breaking. Generally speaking, these cells
Fig 3-5 Effect of series resistance have efficiencies of 13-16% and are the
most efficient of the silicon-type
cells. Additionally, these panels yield
more power per unit area and are thus more
space efficient. As well, these panels live
longer than polycrystalline varieties and
perform better in
low light conditions. However, they are more
expensive and time consuming to produce than
the polycrystalline variety. These cells also do
not perform as well in cold conditions
Fig 3-6 Effect of parallel resistance
Where: : Effect of the (a) series resistance and
(b) parallel resistance on the J-V characteristic
of a solar cell.

(d)Types of PV Cells:
There are four main types of solar panels that
are commercially available, and they include
monocrystalline silicon PV, polycrystalline
silicon PV, amorphous silicon PV, and hybrid
PV. Currently, the first two cells are the most
common and make up 93% of all solar panel
sold worldwide. Amorphous silicon accounts
for 4.2% of global solar panel sales.
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2-Polycrystalline Silicon Cell Where: A thin film solar panel composed of
non-crystalline silicon deposited on a flexible
These cells are also composed primarily of
material.
silicon, but instead high purity molten
silicon is shaped using a cast and cooled This type of cell is made from non-crystalline
under controlled conditions in a mound. It or amorphous silicon and is one type of thin
sets somewhat irregularly into multi-crystal film cell. The film of amorphous silicon is
form, giving the final product a speckled sprayed as a gas onto some surface, such as
appearance. This square block is then cut glass or flexible rubber material. After this
into thin slices and the slices are arranged a conducting grid and electrical contacts are
on the panel. The cell is then coated with an attached. This cell is especially thin so less raw
anti-reflective coating (which gives the cell material is needed as compared to crystalline
its blue colour) to ensure maximum silicon cells. These are fairly inefficient cells,
absorption of light. These cells generally only about 6-8% efficient, and are thus not
have efficiencies of 12-16%, and are less suitable for use on residential developments as
expensive than monocrystalline varieties. they require large amounts of space. However
they are still used in a number of solar
devices. This type of cell is generally found in
solar powered calculators or other small solar
devices. One property of these cells is that
their power output is reduced over time,
especially in the first few months of use.
However after these few months the output
does tend to stabilize.
Fig 3-7 Polycrystalline Silicon cell
4-Hybrid cell:
Where: a polycrystalline silicon cell (left) and
These types of cells are simply PV cells that
a monocrystalline silicon cell (right).
use two different types of PV technology. For
3-Amorphos silicon cell: example, a hybrid cell could be composed of
a monocrystalline PV cell covered by a layer
of amorphous silicon. These cells generally
perform well at high temperatures and have
efficiencies exceeding 18%. However, these
cells can be very expensive.

Fig 3-8 Amorphos silicon cell

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5-other types of cells:
The four types of cells listed above are the
most commonly used solar cells, however there
are many other types of cells that exist but are
not used widely. There are many other kinds of
thin film cells that are built using some
material other than silicon. These cells include
cadmium telluride (9-11% efficient), copper
indium gallium selenide (sometimes known as
CIGS, they are 10-12% efficient), and
organic photovoltaic cells. However, the only
cell that is as cost-efficient as silicon panels is
currently the cadmium telluride cell. CIGS cells
show the most promise in terms of efficiency in
the future, and contain smaller amounts of
toxic cadmium than other
alternatives. Organic photovoltaics are simply
photovoltaic cells that utilize inexpensive
plastics and electronics that are made of
conductive organic molecules.
Concentrating photovoltaics are also an
option, but are not widely used. This
photovoltaics simply use some sort of solar
collector - generally composed of lenses or
mirrors - to concentrate sunlight on a smaller
number of photovoltaic cells. This decreases
the number of overall cells needed - thus
decreasing the overall cost of the setup - while
still maintaining a significant energy output
from the panel. This type of cell setup could be
more efficient, but methods to deal with it
increased temperatures would have to be
developed.
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(e)Inverter
String Inverter Micro Inverter Hybrid
The inverter is one of the most important Inverter
devices in electrical power distribution because Standard Latest Smarter
type Technology inverter
it converts the direct current (DC ) into
Can add More Used with
alternative current ( AC ) and it does not multiple versatile batteries
produce power it delivers and converts the inverter
power. 1:5 KW 1𝞥 Higher yield Available in
in most single phase.
Inverter has two types single phase inverter installation
and three phase inverters. 5:20 KW 3 Higher cost
𝞥
Table 3-1 Comparison bet Inverter types

Solar Inverter

Off Grid

Grid Tie Battery Back-up Micro

Fig 3-9 Single phase inverter circuit diagram Fig 3-11 Inverter Types
There is many ways to connect the inverter to
the system

Fig 3-10 Three phase inverter circuit diagram

Inverter type depends on the application that
the inverter will operate in our project we used
solar inverter which has many types
From its type hybrid inverter, string inverter
and micro inverter.

Fig 3-12 Inverter Concepts

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Central inverter means to collect all strings in String inverter means to make each string
one inverter this method provide less cost due connected to an inverter this is high cost due to
to only one inverter usage. many inverters used but it is high efficiency.
Module integrated means to make the inverter Multistring inverter means to collect each
in the panel itself this method needs no dc string first in Dc/Dc converter to regulate the
cables only ac cables used. voltage input to the inverter it less cost than
string due to only one inverter is used.

Fig 3-13 Used Inverter Datasheet

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(f) MPPT

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

used for extracting maximum available
power from photo voltaic module (PV)
under certain conditions.

Fig 3-15 Current-Voltage & Power-Voltage

curves.

Throughout the day, as the weather

changes, the voltage produced will be
constantly varying. And For any given
Fig 3-14 V-I Characteristics Curve voltage, the solar panel will also produce
a current. Now bear in mind that these
In the image shown above as you move
are just 5 curves at 5 different irradiations
along the curve above you will find one
and a panel temperature of 25C. There
point where the voltage multiplied by its
are actually an infinite number of curves.
corresponding Current is higher than
anywhere else on the curve. This is called
the Maximum Power Point (MPP).
MPPT is most effective under these
The parameters affect the output of panels conditions:
and changes the power curve: 1-weather:
MPPT is utilized to extract the max power
1-The amount of sun light. available when the pv module works at
cold temperature.
2-The temperature on solar panel. 2- When battery is deeply discharge:
MPPT can extract more current and
3-Dust and shadow. charge the battery if the state of charge
in the battery is lowers.
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MPPT is DC to DC converter which
operates by taking DC input from PV
module, changing it to AC and
converting it back to different DC voltage
and current to exactly match the PV
module to the battery.
MPPT algorithm can be applied to (Boost
converter, Buck
converter) depending on system design.

Effect of load mismatching:

Fig 3-16 Effect of load mismatching
 In a certain V-I curve the output power
can decreased and the operating To overcome this problem, a maximum
point changes due to the connected power point tracker system (MPPT) must
loads characteristics. be used to force the PV module to
 When a PV module is directly loaded operate at the MPP. MPPT can extract
to a given load resistance RLA (Fig), the more than 97% of the PV power when
operating point is located at A. For properly optimized.
another value of resistive load RLB, the
operating point will move to B. During The location of the MPP in the I-V curve of
this range of load variation, there is PV module is not easy to know and
only one point at which the PV module always changes continuously depending
provides its maximum power point on irradiance and temperature.
(MPP). This occurs when load resistance Therefore, the MPP needs to be located
is equal to the optimum value (load by tracking algorithm, which is the heart
resistance at MPP: (RL = Ropt). But it’s of MPPT controller. The goal of the MPPT
is to match the load resistance RL to the
very difficult to select a fixed load
which matches this value, and even if it optimal output resistance of PV module
is done, this point itself changes under Ropt defined as:
changed climatic conditions. ……Ropt = Vm,pv/ Im,pv……
When RL matches with that of Ropt , the
maximum power transfer from PV to the
load will occur.
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 There are two problems:

1-Matching the load resistance with the
optimum resistance of pv panel.
2-Tracking the maximum power point.
 The first problem solved by using dc to dc
converter.
DC TO DC CONVERTERS:

(a) BUCK COVERTER

We must change the duty cycle from the Fig 3-17 DC-DC Converters.
relation shown in Fig … make operate at MPPT uses the DC-DC converter for a
the Mpp. different purpose: regulating the input
voltage at the PV module’s MPP and
If the load resistance (RL ) locate at the providing load matching for the maximum
right side of Mppt , and changing the D power transfer.
by decreasing it ,the value of Rin will
increase. On the other hand, when a DC-DC converter
is interposed between the PV module and
the load, the operating point depends on the
impedance seen by the module (Rin), which
(b) BOOST CONVERTER shows dependence on two parameters:
As the same of buck converter but if the RL and duty cycle (D). Thus, under different
RL in the left side of Mppt ,and increase loads, the duty cycle can be adjusted to
the value of D ,the curve of Rin will change Rin to match Ropt at any climatic
decrease and Further away from mppt . condition.

(c) BUCK BOOST CONVERTER

Overcome the above problems and can
operate at any value of load resistances.
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decrease the voltage until the maximum
 Second problem solved by using the mppt power point.
technique.

MPPT Algorithm:

There are different techniques used to

track the maximum power point.

1) Perturb and Observe.

2) Incremental Conductance.
3) Fractional short circuit current.
4) Fractional open circuit voltage.
Fig 3-19 Perturb and observe P-V curve
1-Perturb and Observe method: 2-Incremental conductance method
(hill-clamping method).(P&O) (IC):

Fig 3-20 IC P-V Curve

Incremental conductance considers that

the slope of the power voltage curve is
zero at the maximum power point,
positive at the left of the MPP and
Fig 3-18 Perturb & observe algorithm
negative at the right of the MPP.

Mature the power of solar panel output then

∆I / ∆V= -I/V, at MPP
increases the voltage if the power also ∆I / ∆V> -I/V, at left of MPP
increases that mean we need to increase the ∆I / ∆V< -I/V, at right of MPP
voltage more Until the voltage value at
which the output power decreased then
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Measuring ISC during operation is

problematic. An additional switch usually has
to be added to the power converter to
periodically short the PV array so that ISC
can be measured using a current sensor.

The accuracy of the method and tracking

efficiency depends
on the accuracy of K and periodic
measurement of short circuit
current.

The basic outline of this technique follows

Fig 3-21 IC Algorithm that the current at MPP (IMPP) is closely
located near the short circuit current Isc.
Due to the fast-varying atmospheric
condition the perturb cannot able to track
the peak power. But the IC overcome this
issue.

The IC can know that the MPPT has

reached the MPP and
stop perturbing the operating point.
where P&O oscillates around the MPP.
Also, IC can track rapidly increasing and Fig 3-22 Fractional SC Current algorith
decreasing irradiance conditions with
higher accuracy than P & O. 4-Fractional open circuit voltage:

3-Fractional short circuit current : Fractional open-circuit voltage method

sets the voltage value at
Fractional ISC results from the fact that, the MPP equal to some fixed fraction of
under varying atmospheric conditions, the measured open circuit voltage.
IMPP is approximately linearly related to
the ISC of the PV array.
IMPP = k1 ISC.
K1 has to be determined according to the
PV array in use.
k1 is generally found to be between 0.78
and 0.92.
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As the PV cells keep operating over

longer periods, their open-circuit voltages Characteristics of different MPPT
are reduced and the values used for techniques:
MPPT are reduced.

Its tracking efficiency is relatively low. MPPT Implementatio Sensed

Technique n complexity parameter
s
Implementation of this method is simple. Perturb & Low Voltage
VMPP = k2 Voc . observe
K2 is generally found to be between 0.71
and 0.78 .
Incrementa Medium Voltage
l &
conductanc Current
e
Fractional Medium Current
short
circuit
current
Fractional Low Voltage
open
circuit
voltage
Fig 3-23 Fractional Open circuit voltage
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CALCULATIONS:

We will use the boost converter for many

reasons:
i-Looking to the buck and buck-boost
converters in Fig… We see that the switch is
in series with the source, and with changing
the duty cycle the switch will open and close
for several times, this make an
electromagnetic interference.

ii-the algorithm coded to take like 100

reading of current and voltage and take
the average to calculate the power, with
the big changing in the value of source
current, the average value does not be
accurate. As shown in fig (3-24).
Fig(3-24) Wave form of source current

iii-The driver we used designed to

operate with 2 switches but we use one
switch of the converter, then look in the
circuit in Fig…we find that we must use
the lower switch and this switch need
aground then we cannot use the buck
boost converter or buck converter
because the ground of switch and ground
of source are different.

Fig 3-25 Drive circuit .

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DESIGN OF BOOST CONVERTR :
We use lamp of 70 watt , 24 vdc.
Frequency of 20 kHz.
Duty cycle (0.1-0.8)
Capacitor :
C = D * Vo ∕ (∆Vo * RL * Fsw ).
D : Duty cycle.
Fig 3-26 Boost converter by matlab simulation
Vo : Output voltage .
.
∆Vo : Voltage drop.
RL : Load resistance.
Fsw : Switching frequency.
Then
Max. capacitance at D=0.8
C= 100 Micro farad

Inductor :
L = 1.2*D*(1-D)^2 *RL /2F Fig 3-27 Wave form of o/p voltage&current.

I will design the boost by MATLAB Other components:

simulation :
 Panel 100 watt.
And change the inductor value to reach  Voltage and current sensor.
almost no ripple .  Level shifters (7407).
 Buffer (4050).
L = 2mH.  Capacitors (50pF).
 Resistors.
 IR2113 driver.
 Switch IGBT.
 Schottky diode.
 Diode.
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HARDWARE AND IMPLEMENTAION:

C1 U3:A
U1:A R1
U1:A(A) 3 2
1 2
3k
50pF
4050
7407 VDD=GND
U1:B R2 C2 VSS=VCC
U1:B(A) U3:B
3 4
3k
5 4
50pF
7407
U1:C C3 4050
U1:C(A) U3:C
5 6
R3 VDD=GND
VSS=VCC
7 6
3k
50pF
7407
U1:D C4 4050
U1:D(A) R4 VDD=GND
9 8 U3:D
VSS=VCC
3k
50pF 9 10
7407
U1:E C5
U1:E(A) R5 4050
11 10
VDD=GND
3k U3:E
VSS=VCC
50pF
7407
U1:F C6
11 12
U1:F(A) R6
13 12 U3:F
4050
3k VDD=GND
50pF 14 15
7407 VSS=VCC

4050
VDD=GND
VSS=VCC
GND
VCC

Fig 3-28 Level shifter circuit. Fig 3-29 Drive ciruit.

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Ch 4 Calculation of PV station

A- Calculate the total Watt-peak rating

needed for PV modules
Sizing the solar station depend on the load
consumption of your application. Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed
from the PV modules (from 1-B) by 3.43 to
So there is steps to calculate the number of the get the total Watt-peak rating needed for the
modules. PV panels needed to operate the appliances.
(a) Determine power consumption demands B- Calculate the number of PV panels for the
system:
The first step in designing a solar PV system is
to find out the total power and energy Divide the answer obtained in item 2.A by the
consumption of all loads that need to be rated output Watt-peak of the PV
supplied by the solar PV system as follows modules available to you .Increase any
fractional part of result to the next highest
1-Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each full number and that will be number PV
appliance used modules required.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances Result of the calculation is the minimum the
together to get the total Watt-hours per day number of number of PV panels. If more PV
which must be delivered to the appliances modules are installed, the system will perform
better and battery life will be improved. If
2-Calculate Total Watt-hours per day needed fewer PV modules are used, the system may
from the PV modules not work at all during cloudy periods and
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per battery life will be shortened.
daytimes 1.3 (the energy lost in the system)
to get the total Watt-hours per day which After making our calculations we found that
must be provided by the panels the total load supplied from the pv is
0.48 MW So we used 2000 panel of 245 W
(b) Size the PV modules each 400 panel in one array and in each
array 20 panel are connected in series and
Different size of PV modules will produce
20 strings will be used.
different amount of power. To find out the
sizing of PV module, the total peak watt Inverter sizing is to divide the total load
produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) needed over the inverter efficiency.
produced depends on size of the PV module
and climate of site location. We have to In our station we used 5 inverter each of
consider “panel generation factor” which is 100 KW and each 5 arrays in one inverter.
different in each site location. For Thailand,
the panel generation factor is 3.43. To
determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate
as calculate as follows.
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Ch 5 Biomass

(a) Introduction:
A biomass is produced when bacteria digest
and consume organic material the byproducts
produced are methane, carbon dioxide and
other trace amounts of gases. Methane is an
energy source, which can produce power when Fig 5-1 Agriculture residues of preferred
burned. As energy costs rapidly increase, crops
biomass is becoming a viable alternative to
standard means of producing energy. (c)waste fuel types

(b)Biomass in Egypt:
The existing biogas systems:
1- At present there are 800 small biogas
fomenters existing in the size 8-15 m3.
2- The Indian type is the common one, yet
some Chinese type are also present.
3- The used feeding materials are mainly
the animal manure from 4-10 large
animals such as cows or buffaloes,
buffaloes, yet other animals are also
existing in some cases.
4- Studies are indicating that those models
can be increased in the near future to
be one million units with some efforts
through subsidizing and rising public
awareness programs.

Agriculture residues of preferred crops: Fig 5-2 Waste fuel types

(d) Energy production from waste
1-Solid wastes reach 20 million ton annually
as 35% of it is in Cairo.
2-By the year 2025 Solid wastes will reach 33
million ton annually. Around 70% of the total
quantity is currently November 17, 2011.
3-Around 70% of the total quantity is
currently exposed to safe collection and
recycling system.
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(E) HOW DOES IT WORK

In a direct combustion system, biomass is

burned in a combustor or furnace to generate
hot gas, which is fed into a boiler to generate
steam, which is expanded through a steam
turbine or steam engine to produce mechanical
or electrical energy.

Fig 5-3 Principle of operation of biomass

energy

In a direct combustion system, processed

biomass is the boiler fuel that produces steam
to operate a steam turbine and generator to
make electricity.
(F) OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE:
O&M costs of biomass energy systems are
predominately the costs of fuel and labor. In
other respects, these systems are similar to
other boiler-based electricity production
systems. Operation is continual, so costs for
operation and for the purchase and storage of
fuel need to be assessed with the overall
project costs.
 Renewable &Control
Ch 6 Biomass Operation Biogas contain significant amount of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) gas which needs to be stripped
(a) Introduction: off due to its highly corrosive nature. The
removal of H2S takes place in a biological
Biogas plants are decentralized energy system
desulphurization unit in which a limited
that can lead to self-sufficiency in heat and
quantity of air is added to biogas in the
power requirements, and at the same time
presence of specialized aerobic bacteria which
reduces environmental pollution. A biogas
oxidizes H2S into elemental sulfur.
plant stabilizes organic waste through natural
biological process in the absence of air and Gas is dried and vented into a CHP unit to a
transforms waste into biogas and bio fertilizer. generator to produce electricity and heat. The
Such facilities are well-suited to wet organic size of the CHP system depends on the amount
material and are commonly used for treating of biogas produced daily. The digested
biodegradable waste materials such as waste substrate is passed through screw presses for
paper, grass clippings, leftover food, sewage dewatering and then subjected to solar drying
and animal waste. and conditioning to give high-quality organic
fertilizer. The press water is treated in an
(b)Operation:
effluent treatment plant based on activated
The fresh animal manure is stored in a sludge process which consists of an aeration
collection tank before its processing to the tank and a secondary clarifier.
homogenization tank which is equipped with a
The treated wastewater is recycled to meet in-
mixer to facilitate homogenization of the
house plant requirements. A chemical
waste stream. The uniformly mixed waste is
laboratory is necessary to continuously monitor
passed through a macerator to obtain uniform
important.
particle size of 5-10 mm and pumped into
suitable-capacity anaerobic digesters where Environmental parameters such as BOD, COD,
stabilization of organic waste takes place. VFA, pH, ammonia, C: N ratio at different
locations for efficient and proper functioning
In anaerobic digestion, organic material is
of the process. The continuous monitoring of
converted to biogas by a series of bacteria
the biogas plant is achieved by using a remote
groups into methane and carbon dioxide. The
control system such as Supervisory Control and
majority of commercially operating digesters
Data Acquisition (SCADA) system.
are plug flow and complete-mix reactors
operating at mesophilic temperatures. The type This remote system facilitates immediate
of digester used varies with the consistency feedback and adjustment, which can result in
and solids content of the feedstock, with energy savings.
capital investment factors and with the primary
purpose of digestion.
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Fig 6-1 Biogas station flow chart

Fig 6-2 Operation flow diagram

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Calculation of The Bio-station

Fig 6-3 Calculation of bio station

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Ch7 Home Automation With the touch of a button in your smart App.
The range of controls that you have over your
Objective: Introduction for the Home
automated devices range depending on the
automation system, it`s function, How it Work
purpose of the device. Some controls
and it`s component.
allow you to turn a device on or off at a
(a): Home Automation definition. specific time, while other devices may be
triggered by some external events.
Home automation is a System gives you
access to control devices in your home from a
mobile device anywhere in the world.
The term may be used for isolated
programmable devices, like thermostats and
sprinkler systems, but home automation more
accurately describes homes in which nearly
everything like lights, appliances, electrical
outlets, heating and cooling systems.
Are hooked up to a remotely controllable
network. From a home security perspective,
this also includes your alarm system, and all
(C) Technology of Home Automation Systems.
of the doors, windows, locks, smoke detectors,
surveillance cameras and any other sensors Stages of development of home
that are linked to it. automation

1: X10. How does it start (Slow, wired And

Limited)

(B) How does it work?

Home automation describes a system of
network. You can “speak” with your
automated home through a remote control or
smart device Or send Commands From Any
Where.
Homes that have a high degree of automation
Fig 7-1 Lamp module
often have all of their automated devices
accessible on one device
making it truly easy to control your home
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2: INSTEON Advanced More Than X10.
(Use Power Line and Radio Frequency (RF) to
5. 6LoWPAN more Features than last models
communicate with devices)

Fig 7-5 6loWpan

Fig 7-2 Insteon 6. Home Plug. High Speed PLC
3. Z-Wave Proprietary Wireless

Fig 7-3 Z-Wave proprietary wireless Fig 7-6 Home plug high speed plc

4. ZigBee. Open Standard Wireless 7. WIFI High speed WIFI

more advanced and high speed in send and
receive commands

Fig 7-4 ZigBee open standard wireless

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(d) Component of Smart Home.
1. Software Component :( Smart Phone App,
Controller Program)
Smart Phone Application Have The ability to
send / receive data to/From Hardware
Component - controller Program: to control Fig 7-8 Motion sensor Fig 7-9 Ultra sonic
and monitoring the smart features in House. sensor

Popular Controllers Used in Smart Home

1) KNX
1. International Standard, therefore future
proof
2. By product certification, KNX guarantees
Interoperability & Interworking of products.
3. KNX stands for high product quality.
4. A unique manufacturer independent
Engineering Tool Software ETS®.
5. KNX can be used for all applications
in home and building control.
2. Hardware component.
6. KNX is fit for use in different kind of
(Controller, Sensors, touch screen…etc.)
buildings
7. KNX supports diffèrent configuration
Is usually used to, define, Monitoring,
modes.
Manage and Operate the Commands on the
8. KNX supports several communications
Smart features in House
media
9. KNX can be coupled to other systems
10. KNX is Independent from any hard- or
software technology

Fig 7-7 Temperature Sensor Fig 7-10 KNX MODULE

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2) Respire Pi
1) Raspberry Pi is as small as the size of a 6) Have the reliability to connect with
credit card. Bluetooth and WIFI Modules .
2) It works as if a normal computer at a 7) Have the reliability to connect other module
relatively low price. with it to increase IN/OUT pins
3) It is possible to work as a low-cost server to
handle light internal or web traffic.
4) Grouping a set of Raspberry Pi to work as
a server is more cost-effective than a normal
server.

Fig 7-12 Arduino Uno

It is the kit which have suitable NO. of bins
IN/OUT.

Fig 7-11 Raspberry Pi

3) Arduino
1) Inexpensive Arduino boards are relatively
inexpensive compared to other microcontroller Fig 7-13 Arduino Mega
platforms. It is a kit which have more NO. of bins
IN/OUT.
2) Open source and extensible hardware

3) Simple, clear programming environment

4) Cross-platform - The Arduino software runs

on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux
operating systems. Most microcontroller
systems are limited to Windows.

5) Have an Excellent Efficiency in Small S.H Fig 7-14Arduino micro

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Fig 7-15 Arduino Nano

It is a kit which have less NO. of bins
IN/OUT.

Finally, we decided to Use Arduino Uno In Our

Project for the last advantage and features
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Ch 8 Arduino Arduino modules used to send Data and
receive Data
(a) what is Arduino? into and from Arduino
Arduino is simply a Single-Board In our project we use two Type of Arduino
microcontroller used to building Digital First type:
devices and interactive objects that can sense. Arduino Uno SMD R2
(b) Arduino types:
second type :
Arduino board are designed with a Arduino Mega 2560
microprocessor which have many digital and
and we don’t use any shield
analog input/output pins that may be covered
by shield and we use a Bluetooth Module
The board have Universal Serial Bus(USB) on (c)Hardware of Arduino
some model Arduino mega and Uno SMD R2 boards
which use to loading programs to the Board consist of an Atmel 8-bit
and supplying power to it . AVR microcontroller like (ATmega2560)
with varying amounts of flash memory, pins,
There is module may be connect to the Board and features
to easily control of it Bluetooth module, Wi-Fi The board use single or double-row pins or
female headers that facilitate connections for
module or internet module. programming and incorporation into other
circuits. These may connect with add-on
modules termed shields
Most boards include a 5 V linear
Arduino Types regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator
Arduino boards are programmed
via Universal Serial Bus (USB), implemented
using USB-to-serial adapter chips such as
the FTDI FT232
Mega

Uno Nano Due

Fig 8-1 Arduino types

The differences between the various types in
1- The size of the Board and you choose the
suitable size for your application
2- The number of input/output pins and how
much you will use this pins

3-The microprocessor of the Chip Board if the

application you use multitask app. You use
more evolve microcontroller
The Types of shield & modules:
Arduino may covered by some shield. Arduino
and Arduino-compatible boards use printed
circuit expansion boards called shields, which
plug into the normally supplied Arduino pin
headers. Shields can provide motor controls
for 3D printing and Ethernet, liquid crystal
display (LCD), or bread boarding. Several
shields can also be made do it yourself
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Contracture of Uno SMD R2:-

Construction of Mega 2560:-

Fig 8-2 Construction of Arduino mega

(d)The software of Arduino: -

A program for Arduino hardware may be

written in any programming language with
compilers that produce binary machine code
for the target processor. Atmel provides a
development environment for their 8-
bit AVR and 32-bit ARM Cortex-M based
microcontrollers.
And we use Arduino program for coding
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Ch 9 Smart Applications with most shields designed for the Arduino
Duemilanove or Diecimila.
(a)Component used in Our Project.
Microcontroller ATmega1280
1 Arduino Mega Operating
5V
2 Relays Voltage
3 LM 35 Input Voltage
7-12V
4 LEDs (recommended)
5 Bluetooth Module Input Voltage
6-20V
6 DC Lock (limits)
7 LDR 54 (of which 15
8 Jumpers Digital I/O Pins provide PWM
9 Power Supply output)
10 Keypad Analog Input Pins 16
11 Liquid LCD DC Current per
40 mA
12 DC fan I/O Pin
13 Solenoid valve DC Current for
50 mA
14 IR sensor 3.3V Pin
128 KB of which 4
(1) Arduino Mega. The Function: Used to Flash Memory KB used by
operate the commands according to the built- bootloader
in code. SRAM 8 KB

Fig 9-1 Arduino mega

The Arduino Mega is a microcontroller board
based on the ATmega1280 (datasheet). It has
54 digital input/output pins (of which 14 can
be used as PWM outputs), 16 analog inputs,
4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a
16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a
power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset
button. It contains everything needed to
support the microcontroller
Simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or
battery to get started. The Mega is compatible
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(2) Relays
The Function: Used to sense the temperature
degree.

The LM35 series are precision integrated-

circuit temperature devices with an output
voltage linearly-proportional to the
Fig 9-2 Relay Centigrade temperature. The LM35 device has
The Function: Connect between power an advantage over linear temperature sensors
calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required
(220V) circuit and control circuit (5V)
to subtract a large constant voltage from the
output to obtain convenient Centigrade
scaling. The LM35 device does not require any
external calibration or trimming to provide
typical accuracies of ±¼°C at room
temperature and ±¾°C. Over a full −55°C to
150°C temperature range. Lower cost is
assured by trimming and calibration at the
water level. The low-output impedance, linear
Fig 9-3 Relay Connection output, and precise inherent calibration of the
Comprises of an electromagnet and a LM35 device makes interfacing to readout or
contact unit. The definition is: Activating control circuitry especially easy. The device is
the contact unit using electromagnetic used with single power supplies, or with plus
attraction, which is produced when electric and minus supplies. As the LM35 device draws
current exceeding the specified value only 60 µA from the supply, it has very low
flows to the electromagnet; the voltage self-heating of less than 0.1°C in still air. The
and current (input signal) applied to the LM35 device is rated to operate over a
coil opens or shuts the contact. −55°C to 150°C temperature range, while the
LM35C device is rated for a −40°C to 110°C
(3) LM 35 range (−10° with improved accuracy). The
LM35-series devices are available packaged
in hermetic TO transistor packages, while the
LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D devices are
available in the plastic TO-92 transistor
package. The LM35D device is available in an
8-lead surface-mount small-outline package
and a plastic TO-220 Package

Fig 9-4 Lm35 Sensor

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A semiconductor device that emits visible light
when an electric current passes through it. The
light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs
it is monochromatic, occurring at a
single wavelength. The output from an LED can
range from red (at a wavelength of
approximately 700 nanometers) to blue-violet
(about 400 nanometers). Some LEDs emit
infrared (IR) energy (830 nanometers or
longer); such a device is known as an infrared-
emitting diode (IRED).
An LED or IRED consists of two elements of
processed material called P-type
semiconductors and N-type semiconductors.
Fig 9-5 Lm35 Datasheet These two elements are placed in direct
(4) LEDs (light emitting diode) contact, forming a region called the P-N
junction. In this respect, the LED or IRED
resembles most other diode types, but there
are important differences. The LED or IRED has
a transparent package, allowing visible or IR
energy to pass through. Also, the LED or IRED
has a large PN-junction area whose shape is
tailored to the application.

Fig 9-6 Led

The Function: Used to emitting light with
different color using 0/5 volte input
Fig 9-7 Led Schematic symbol
Light Emitting Diodes or simply LED´s, are
among the most widely used of all the
different types of semiconductor diodes
available today and are commonly used in
TV’s and color displays.
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(5)Bluetooth Module (HC-06) Status LED Blue (Top Left)

Power LED Red (Bottom Right)

There are two LED’s on board for indication,
refer the diagram below, for better idea:

Fig 9-8 Bluetooth module

The Function: Used to data transfer in
certain rang from APP to Arduino

Board needs 4-lines to communicate most of the times,

i.e. Vcc, Gnd, RX and TX pin. There are two
additional pin onboard, one is Key pin and the other is
Reset pin, this Reset pin can be used to send reset
signal from microcontroller to reset the Bluetooth
module. Refer the table and image below in detail:

Pin Description

Fig 9-9 Bluetooth module construction RST Reset input (Logic Low resets the Module)
Note: HC-05 the Same Construction OF HC-06
VCC Supply input 3.3V to 5.5V Input
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for GND Ground
exchanging data over short distances (using
short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM TXD Transmit Data (Connect RX line from other
peripheral here)
band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and
mobile devices, and building personal area RXD Receive Data (Connect TX line from other
networks (PANs). Range is approximately 10 peripheral here)
Meters (30 feet). KEY This function is intended to use with Master
module to clear the memory and search
Bluetooth version v2.0 + EDR for new slave device
Table 9-1Connection of bluetooth module
Firmware hc01.comV2.0 (It does
not use Linvar firmware)

Default baud rate 9600

Default PIN 1234

Default NAME HC-06

Fig 9-10 Connection of Bluetooth module

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(6) DC LOCK have the following resistances:

You can therefore see that there is a large

variation between these figures. If you plotted
this variation on a graph you would get
Fig 9-11 DC Lock
something similar to that shown by the next
The Function: Used to open and close doors by graph.
electrical power Not mechanical.
DC lock is a component which need 12v to
make a change in the metallic arm.
Usually use with relay to take it`s voltage by
using micro controller signal.

So we use keypad to enter the password, then

if it true the micro controller give pulse to
relay which give required voltage to DC LOCK
from External battery.
Fig 9-13 Resistance to light curve
(7) LDR (Light Dependent resistor)
(8) Jumpers

Fig 9-12 LDR

The Function: Used to give High resistive value
Fig 9-14 Jumper
during High light and versa vice
Function: use to connect between devices and
The most common type of LDR has a resistance
each other
that falls with an increase in the light intensity
falling upon the device (as shown in the image
above). The resistance of an LDR may typically
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(9) Power Supply In this tutorial, I will show you how to use a
16x2 LCD with an Arduino. The 16x2 LCD
used in this experiment has a total of 16
pins. As shown in the table below, eight of
the pins are data lines (pins 7-14), two are
for power and ground (pins 1 and 16),
three are used to control the operation of
LCD (pins 4-6), and one is used to adjust the
LCD screen brightness (pin 3). The remaining
Fig 9-14 PS two pins (15 and 16) power the backlight.
The details of the LCD terminals are as
Function: used to supply the external loads by
follows:
its rated voltage (5/12) Volt
(10) Keypad (4*4)

Terminal
GND
1
Terminal
+5V
2
Terminal Mid terminal of potentiometer (for brightness
3 control)
Terminal
Register Select (RS)
4
Fig 9-15 Keypad connection Terminal
Read/Write (RW)
5
Function: use to enter the data to the Arduino Terminal
Enable (EN)
6
(11) Liquid LCD Terminal
DB0
7
Terminal
DB1
8
Terminal
DB2
9
Terminal
DB3
10
Terminal
DB4
11
Fig 9-16 LCD Terminal
DB5
12
Function: used to show the given data from Terminal
DB6
13
keypad and built-in massage Terminal
DB7
14
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are a commonly Terminal
+4.2-5V
used to display data in devices such 15
Terminal
as calculators, microwave ovens, and many 16
GND
other electronic devices
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(13) Solenoid valve

Function: use to control fluid flow

automatically.

A Solenoid valve is used wherever fluid flow

must be controlled automatically. They are
being used to an increasing degree in the most
varied types of plants and equipment. The
variety of different designs which are
available enables a valve to be selected to
Fig 9-17 LCD Connection specifically suit the application in question.
Solenoid valve is a control unit which, when
electrically energized or de-energized, either
(12) DC fan shut off or allow fluid flow. The actuator takes
the form of an electromagnet. When
energized, a magnetic field builds up which
pulls a plunger or pivoted armature against
the action of a spring. When de-energized,
the plunger or pivoted armature is returned to
its original position by the spring action.
(14) IR sensor (infrared sensor)

Fig 9-18 Function: use to cool certain area.

Fig 9-20 IR Sensor

Function: Use to detect motions and give

signals according to it.

Fig 9-19 Dc fan connection

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IR Sensors work by using a specific light
sensor to detect a select light wavelength in
the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. By using an LED
which produces light at the same wavelength
as what the sensor is looking for, you can look
at the intensity of the received light. When an
object is close to the sensor, the light from the
LED bounces off the object and into the light
sensor. This results in a large jump in the
intensity, which we already know can be
detected using a threshold.

Fig 9-22 IR Sensor Operation

Fig 9-21 IR sensor operation

Detecting Brightness: Since the sensor works
by looking for reflected light, it is possible to
have a sensor that can return the value of the
reflected light. This type of sensor can then be
used to measure how "bright" the object is.
This is useful for tasks like line tracking.
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(b) Smart Applications (1) Smart lighting
1. Smart lighting.
Components used:
2. Air condition.
(1) Smart phone (android)
3. Smart external lighting.
(2) Smart application
4. Smart lock
(3) Bluetooth module
5. Smart tap.
(4) LEDs
(5) Jumpers
(6) Arduino Mega

We use the android app to send commands to

the controller through Bluetooth module
(ON/OFF)

Fig 9-23 Smart Lighting Application Wiring

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(2) Smart Air conditioning.

Component Used
(1) Smart phone (android)
(2) Smart application
(3) Bluetooth module
(4) Fan
(5) Jumpers
(6) Arduino Mega
(7) Relay
(8) Supply 12v DC
We use the android app to send commands to
the controller through Bluetooth module
(ON/OFF)

Fig 9-24 Smart Air Conditioning Application Wiring

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(3) Smart External lighting.

Component Used
(1) LDR
(2) Relay
(3) LEDs
(4) Jumpers
(5) Arduino Mega
(5) Supply 220v AC

We use LDR to sense the light intensity and control the

ON/OFF led strip by send a signal to relay which allow
required voltage (220 AV) to LED strip

Fig 9-25 Smart External Lighting Application Wiring

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4) Smart Lock
Component Used
(1) Smart phone (android)
(2) Smart application
(3) Bluetooth module
(4) DC Lock
(5) Jumpers
(6) Arduino Mega
(7) Keypad
(8) LCD
(7) Supply 12v DC

We use the keypad to send Certain password

to the controller through Bluetooth module.
The controller compares the entered password
to built-in password.
LCD Show the Massage if you are the user
(DC Lock Open) or not The LCD Show “Please
Enter the Correct Password “

Fig 9-26 Smart Lock Application Wiring

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(5) Relays
(5) Smart tap.

Component Used
(1) IR Sensor
(2) Solenoid Valve We use the IR Sensor to sense motions and
send signal to the relay Which ON/OFF 12v
(3) Jumpers DC source on the Valve
(4) Supply 12 V DC

Fig 9-27 Smart Tap Application Wiring

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(C) What did We Do?

We made a simulation Of KNX Module by

Using Arduino Mega.
We use a mobile application as a controller.
We use a Bluetooth module as a connection
method.
We need to make smart home available for
more people so we need to make it
Available in different price categories.
We made a box can make the basic
functions of KNX (controlling for
ON/OFF), But in different price. Fig 9-29 Arduino Power Input
It is the Arduino cable input used to burn the
code from PC.

Fig 9-28 Our Project Box

The box contains?

1) Relay Module 4 Channel

2) Arduino Mega
3) Jumpers as a connections

Input of the Box. Fig 9-30 Our Project Inputs & Outputs
1) Keypad 1) Input data of LCD 2) input data of LCD 3)
2) Bluetooth Module input data of Keypad 4) Bluetooth Module 5)
3) LDR 12 Volte 6) 12 Volte
Output of the Box. 7) LDR Input 8) spare 9) LDR Input
1) External lighting (Led strips)
2) Internal lighting (LEDs)
3) Fan
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Fig 9-31 Applications Pins

1) Fan 2) DC Lock 3) LED Strips 4) Fan 5) DC
Lock 6) LE Strips

Fig 9-32 Application Pins

1) LED
2) LED
3) LED
4) LED
5) LED
6) LED
7) LED
8) 5 Volte (-)
9) 5 Volte (+)
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Our Prototype

Fig 9-33 Project Final Prototype