CHAPTER 8

INFINITE SEQUENCE AND INFINITE SERIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to

 distinguish between infinite sequence and infinite series
 determine if an infinite sequence converges or diverges
 identify harmonic series, p – series and geometric series
 find the sum of a telescoping and geometric series
 use various test to determine the convergence and divergence of a series
 determine the type of convergence of a series
 find the interval of convergence of a power series
 find Taylor series, Maclaurin series and Binomial series

8.0 Introduction

A infinite sequence is an unending succession of numbers. For example

1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , . . .
1 1 1
, , , ...
2 4 8
1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1,  1, . . .

The dots suggest that there are infinite terms following the obvious pattern. The
number a1 is called the first term, a2 is the second term, and so on. Symbolically the
terms of a sequence are represented with indexed letters:
a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, . . . , {an}, . . .

The sequence a1, a2, a3, . . . is also denoted by a n n1 or simply {an}


Definition
A sequence is a function whose domain is a set of positive integers,
denoted as  a n n1 or simply written as { an }


106
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 107

8.1 Convergence of Infinite Sequence

THEOREM 1
An infinite sequence {an} converges if lim an exist.
n 

Note:
i) If lim an exist then {an } converges.
n 
ii) If lim an does not exist then {an } diverges.
n 

Example 1  Determine if {an } converges or diverges.

 
 1  n 2  1
a.   b.  
 n  n1  n  n1
 
 n  2n   1
c.  n
d. ( 1)n  
 2n  3  n1  n  n1

Solution

 
 1  n 2  1
a.   b.  
 n  n1  n  n1
1 n2  1   
lim = 0 ( exists) = lim   L’Hopital
n n n n 

 1 2n
   converges = lim =  (does not exist)
 n  n1 n 1

 n 2  1
  diverges
 n  n1

 
 n  2n   1
c.  n
d. ( 1)n  
 2n  3  n1  n  n1

n  2n 1
lim lim (1)n +
n 2n  3 n n n
1  2 n ln 2 1
= lim = lim (1)n + lim **1 when n is even,
n 2  3 n ln 3 n n n  1 when n is odd

2 n (ln 2) 2
= lim =**  1 + 0
n 3 n ( ln 3) 2
108 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

2 n (ln 2) 2
= lim limit does not exist, because it is not
n 3 n ( ln 3) 2
unique.
2 n 
 ln 2  2  1
=   lim   ( 1)   diverges. 
n

 ln 3  n  3   n  n1
2
 ln 2 
=    0
 ln 3 
= 0 (exists)

 n  2n 
 n
converges.
 2n  3  n1

Exercise 8A

Determine if the following sequence converges or diverges.

 
 2n   2
a.   b.  1 
 3n  1 n1  n  n1
 
n5   1 
c.  n d.  
 e  n1  n  ln n  n1

e.
1 3 5 7
, , , , ... f. sin nn1 . . .
2 4 6 8

g. 2  3, 3  4, 4  5, h. cos nn1

 4 n

 1  
n

1   
n n
i. j. n1
 n   n1

8.2 Infinite Series

An infinite series is the sum of infinitely many numbers, for example

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +. . .
1 1 1
1     . . .
2 3 4

Definition

An infinite series is an expression of the form


a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + . . . = a
n 1
n
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 109

Note:
i. A sequence is a succession: a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . .,an , . . .
ii. A series is a sum of a succession: a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + . . .+ an + …So, do not
confuse the two terminology.

The convergence of a series can be tested by two methods:

i. sum of a series
1. Geometric series
2. Telescoping series

ii. convergence test

1. Divergence Test
2. Integral Test
3. Comparison Test
4. Limit Comparison Test
5. Root Test
6. Ratio Test
7. Alternating Series Test

8.3 Sum of Infinite Series

Consider
S1 = a1
S2 = a1 + a2
S3 = a1 + a2 + a3
.
.
.
Sk = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + . . . + ak

The number Sk is called the kth partial sum of the series. If the sequence Sk
converges to a limit S, then the series converges to the sum S.

Definition
k
i. Sk = a
n 1
n , kth partial sum of a series,

ii. S = lim Sk , sum of the series

k 

Theorem 2

i. If S = lim Sk exists , then
k  a
n 1
n converges to S


ii. If S = lim Sk does not exists , then
k  a
n 1
n diverges
110 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

In this segment we will look at two series:

i. Geometric Series
ii. Telescoping Series


8.3.1 Geometric Series r
n1
n

A geometric series is one of the form

a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + . . . , a ≠ 0

where each term is obtained by multiplying the preceding one by a constant r, called

ratio. Geometric series can simply be written as r
n1
n
.

e.g. 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , . . . a=2,r=2
4 4 4 4 4 1
, 2 , 3 , 4 ,... a= ,r=
3 3 3 3 3 3
 n 1
 1

1 1
  a= ,r=
1 3 9 3

Theorem 3


r n a
converges to S= if r < 1 where a is the first term
n1
1 r
and diverges if r  1

Example 2  Determine if the following series converges or diverges. If it converges,

find its sum.

 n 1  3n
 1 3
a. 
1
 
3
b. 1
 
2
 
2 2n1
 
2
c. d.
1 5n 1 3n

Solution

 n 1  3n
 1 3
a. 
1
 
3
b. 1
 
2
 n 1   n 
 1
n
 1  1  33   27 
n


1
 
3
= 
1
   
3 3
 1

 23

 =


1
 
 8 
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 111

 n
 1

1 27
=   r =  1 , diverges
3 1 3 8
1
r = < 1, converges  No Sum
3
1
1
S= 9 =
1 6
1
3

 
2 2n1
 
2
c. d.
1 5n 1 3n

 n   n
 1 2 2n 2 4
=2 
1
 
5
= 
1 3n
=2 
1
 
3
1 4
r = < 1, converges r =  1, diverges,
5 3
1
1
S = 2 5 =  No Sum
1 2
1
5

Example 3  Express 0.3333333 . . . as fraction.

Solution

0.3333333 . . .= 0.3 + 0.03 + 0.003 + 0.0003 + …

3 3 3 3
=    +...
10 100 1000 10000



3 3 1
= n
, converging geometric series , a = ,r=
1 10 10 10
3
10 1
S= =
1 3
1
10
1
 0.3333333 . . .= 
3

Theorem 4
 
Let 
n 1
an , b
n1
n converges to S1 and S2, and c a constant.

    
i. 
n1
ca n = c 
n 1
a n = cS1 ii. n 1
a n + bn = 
n 1
an + b
n1
n

= S1 + S2
112 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

Theorem 5
  
Let 
n 1
a n converges and  n1
b n diverges. Then a
n 1
n + bn diverges

Note:
i. C + C  C
ii. C + D  D

Example 4  Determine if the following series converges or diverges. If it converges,

find its sum.

 n 1 3n 
 1 3 2n
 
5
a.   +   b. + n
3 2
n
1 1 9 4
 n
e
c. 0.212121 … + 1
 
3

Solution

 n 1 3n
 1 3
a. 1
 
3
+  
2
 n 1  n
 1  1
 
1 1
Consider:   =   : r = < 1 , converges
1 3 3 1 3 3

 3n  n
3  27 
 
27
  =   : r =  1 , diverges
1 2 1  8  8

 n 1 3n
 1 3
1
 
3
+  
2
is a diverging series because C + D  D


2n

5
b. n
+ n
1 9 4

  n
2n 2
 
2
Consider: =   : r = < 1 , converges
1 9n 1 9 9

 

 
5 1 1
n
=5 n
: r = < 1 , converges
1 4 1 4 4

C + C  C , sum exists

Sum , S = S1 + S2
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 113

2 5
= 9 + 4
2 1
1 1
9 4
2 5
= 
7 3
41
=
21

2n

5 41
+ n converges to .
1 9n 4 21

 n
e
c. 0.212121 … + 
1
 
3
 21


21 21 1
Note that 0.212121 =  a= ,r= , S1 = 1001
1 100 n 100 100 1 100
21
=
99
 n
e
 1
  , converging geometric series
3
e
e e
a= ,r=  S2 = 3 e
3 3 1 3
e
=
3e
21 e
S = S1 + S2 = +
99 3e
63  78e
= 
99(3  e)

Exercise

Determine if the following geometric series converges or diverges. If it converges,

find its sum.

 
2 2n1 ( 3e ) n
a. 
1 3n
b. 
1 9n
 
( 3e ) n
 
7
c. (-1)n+1 d.
1 8 n1 1 9n
e. 0.234234 . . . h. 3.1212 . . .

 
3n
 
2
i. n
 j. 3n – 3n+1
1 3 4 1
114 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series


3n  1
k. 1 2 n1

8.3.2 Telescoping series

A telescoping series is a series where the internal terms cancel each other (as we

will soon see in the examples). Usually a telescoping series is in the form 
1
an  bn.

For example,
 

 
1 1 1 1
 n 1
, 
n 1 2 n
2 n 1
n n2

Steps.
i) Find partial sum, Sk
ii) Find sum, S
iii) Conclusion

Example 5 Determine if the following series converges or diverges. If it converges,

find its sum.
 

 
1 1 3 3
a.  n 1
b. 
n 1 4 n
4 n 1
n 1 n  2
 
n 1
 
1
c. ln d.
n 1
n3 n 1 n  5n  6
2

Solution


1 1
a. n
 n1
1 4 4

i. Find Partial Sum Sk

k


1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A= n
  2  3  4  5  ... 
1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4k
k


1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B= n 1
= 2
 3
 4
 5
 ...  k
 k 1
1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

1 1
Sk =  k 1 (from A – B, deducting common terms from A and B)
4 4

ii. Find Sum, S

1 1 1
S = lim Sk = lim  k 1 = (sum exists)
n k  4 4 4
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 115

iii. Conclusion



1 1 1
n
 n1 converges to .
1 4 4 4



1 1 1
(can be written as n
 n1 = )
1 4 4 4

Note: Notice that the terms cancel in pairs and the sum collapse like a folding
1 1
telescope, leaving only  n1 .
4 4


3 3
b. 
1
n 1 n  2

i. Find Sk
k


3 3 3 3 3 3 3
=      ... 
1
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 k 1
k


3 3 3 3 3 3 3
=     ...  
1
n2 3 4 5 6 k 1 k  2

3 3
Sk = 
2 k2

ii. Find Sum, S

3 3 3
S = lim Sk = lim  = (sum exists)
n k  2 k2 2

iii. Conclusion



3 3 3
 converges to
1
n 1 n  2 2

 
n 1
c. 
n 1
ln
n3
= 
n 1
ln ( n+1) – ln (n+3)

i) Find Partial Sum Sk

k

1
ln ( n+1) = ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 + ln 5 + … + ln (k+1)

1
ln ( n+ 3) = ln 4 + ln 5 + … + ln (k+1) + ln (k+2) + ln (k+3)

Sk = ln 2 + ln 3  ln (k+2)  ln (k+3)

ii) Find Sum

116 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

S = lim Sk = lim ln 2 + ln 3  ln (k+2)  ln (k+3)

k  n
= ln 2 + ln 3    
=   (does not exist)

iii) Conclusion

n 1
Sum does not exist, thus 
n 1
ln
n3
diverges.

d. n 4
1
n  4n  3
2


The above expression is not in the 
1
an  bn form. By using partial fraction

technique learned in chapter 5, we can show that

  

 n 4
1
=
n  4n  3 n 4
2  1
(n  1) (n  3)
= 
n 4
3

3
n  3 n 1

i. Find Sn


k
1 1 1 1 1
3 = 1     ... 
n3 2 3 4 k 3
n 4


k
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 =    ...   
n 1 3 4 5 6 k  3 k  2 k 1
n 4

 1 1 1 
Sk = 3 1    
 2 k 2 k 3

ii. Find Sum, S

 1 1 1  9
S = lim Sk = lim 3 1    = (sum exists)
n k   2 k 2 k 3 2

iv. Conclusion



n 4
3

3
n 1 n  2
converges to
9
2


Exercise 8B

Find the sum of each of the following series if it exists. Hence determine the series
converges or diverges.
 

 
3 1
a. b.
1 n n
2
n 1
( 2n  1)(2n  5)
 
 1 ( 3)n
 
3
c. ln 1   d. n 1
+
1  n  1 4 n n2
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 117

 

 
1 1
e. f.
n 1 n  5n  6
2
n 1 n 1 n



2
g. 1.234234234…+
1
(2n  1)(2n  5)

8.4 Harmonic Series

One of the most important diverging series is the harmonic series.

Definition



1
A harmonic series is a diverging series.
1
n

Theorem 5

If the series a
n 1
n converges, then lim an = 0
n 

Note: Thm 5 states that i) an converges  lim an = 0,

ii) lim an = 0 , then an may converge or may diverge.
 

 
1 1
Consider and ,
1
n 1 2n



1 1
lim = 0 and , divergent Harmonic series
n  n n
1



1 1
lim = 0 and , convergent geometric series.
n  2 n 2n
1

8.5 Test For Convergence

For most series, the convergence or divergence are determined by using the
convergence tests. In the coming section, we will be looking into these tests.

8.5.1 Divergence Test

Theorem 6

If lim an  0, then
n 
a
n1
n diverges
118 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

Note: Divergence test is meant for series that diverge only. If lim an = 0, then
n 
Divergence test is not suitable. Use other convergence test.

Example 6  Use divergence test to determine if each of the following series

converges or diverges.

 
4n  1 en
a. 1
6n  1
b. 
1
ln (n  1)
 n 
 3
 
1
c. 1   d. n sin
1  n 1
n

Solution

 
4n  1 en
a. 1
6n  1
b. 1
ln (n  1)
4n  1    en 
lim   L’Hopital lim   L’Hopital
n  6n  1    n  ln (n  1)   
4 en
= lim = lim
n  6 n  1
n 1
2
= 0 = lim (n+1) en
3 n 

4n  1
1
6n  1
diverges. = 0


en
 n
 ln (n  1)
diverges
 3

1
c. 1  
1  n



1
 3
n d. n sin

lim 1   1 1
n
n   n
1
lim n sin (0  )
n  n
1
n sin
 3 n  0  L’Hopital
Let y = 1   = lim
 n n  n 1 0
1
n cos ( n 2 )
 3 n
lim ln y = lim ln 1   = lim
n  n   n n   n 2

 3 1
= lim n ln 1   .0 = lim cos = 1≠ 0
n   n n  n
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 119

 3
ln 1   
 n

0 1
= lim L’hopital  n sin diverges
n  n 1 0 1
n
 
 
 1   3  n 2
 3
 1 
= lim 
n
n   n 2
ln y = 3
y = e3
1
 3 n
lim  (1   ≠ 0,
n   n
 n
 3
Hence  1
1   diverges
 n


Exercise 8C

Use divergence test to determine if each of the following series converges or

diverges.

  
k 2  2k  1 ln 3 k
a. 
1 1  3k  2k 2
b. 1
k
c.  1
cos n

  
2n  n
d. 
1
sin n e. 1
nsin n f.  1 2n  3
1
  
 3 n
  
1 ln n
g.  (1   h. n sin i.
1  n 1
n 1 en

8.5.2 Integral Test

Theorem 7

Let a n1
n be positive, continuous and decreasing.

 
If  1
f (x) dx converges (diverges) then a
n1
n converges (diverges).

Note : Satisfying the three conditions stated above, an integral test might be be
considered when the series is ‘easy to integrate’ as in example 6a.
120 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

Example 6  Use integral test to determine if each of the following series converges
or diverges.

 

 
1 1
a. b.
1
3n  1 1 n 1
2

 

 
1
n e n
2
c. d.
3
n ln n 1

Solution

 

 
1 1
a. b.
1
3n  1 1 n 1
2

 
1 1

1
3x  1
dx 
1
x 1
2
dx

t t
1 1
= lim
t   1
3x  1
dx = lim
t  
1
x 1
2
dx

t t
1
= lim ln (3x + 1) = lim tan – 1 x
t  3 1 t  1

1
= lim [ ln (3t + 1) – ln 4 ] = lim tan – 1 t – tan – 11
3 t  t 

1  
= (  –1.3863 ) =
3 2 4

=  ( diverges ) = ( converges )
4
 

 
1 1
 diverges.  converges
1
3n  1 1 n 1
2

 

 
1
n e n
2
c. d.
3
n ln n 1

 
1
 
dx x e  x dx
2
Substitution
1
x ln x
1
u =  x2
t
1
t du =  2x dx
  x e  x dx
2
= lim dx = lim
t  x ln x t 
1 3
Substitution
1 u = ln x 1
= lim
t   u
du ,
du =
1
x
dx
=  lim
2 t   eu du

1
= lim ln u = lim e u
t  2 
t

1 t
=  lim e  x
t 2
= lim ln ln u 1
t  2 t   1
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 121

t
1 1
= lim ln ln t – ln ln 3 = lim ( 2 )
t  2 t  e x 1
1  1 1
=  (diverges) =  lim  2  1  )
2 t   e t e 



1 1
diverges. = ( converges )
3
n ln n 2e


 n e n converges
2

1

Exercise 8D

Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges.

 

 
n 1
a. b.
1 n 3
2
1
3
2n  1
 

 
2  n3 1
c. n e d.
1 3
(n  1) ln (n  1)
1
 sin 

 
n 1
e. f.
1 n 2
1 (2n  3) 4
 
tan 1 2n
 
1
g. h.
3 n ln 2 n 1 4n 2  1

8.5.3 P-Series

A p–series is an infinite series of the form 1 

2
1
p

3
1
p

1
4 p

1
5 p
 ...   n1
1
p

Theorem 8



1
p
converges if p > 1 and diverges if p  1
n1 n

Note: Using Integral Test, the p – series can be tested for its convergence or
divergence.

Example 7 Consider the following series.




1
a. 3
Converging p – series , p = 3 > 1
n 1 n
122 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

n
1
b. 2
Diverging p – series , p = 2  1
n 1

 2n
1 1
c. 3
+
n 1 n

Consider
 

 2n n
1 1 1
3
= 3
Converging P – series , p = 3 > 1
n 1
2 n 1

 

 
1 1 1
= 1
Diverging P – series , p = 1
n 1 n n 1 2
2
n
C+DD


 2n
1 1
3
+ diverges 
n 1 n

Exercise 8E

Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges.

  

a.  2n
n 1
1
5
b.  n 1
3
2
n
c.  n4
n 1
3

  
d. n
n 1
4
7
+
2
3n
e.  n 1
3n  3n 2
n3
f. 
n 1
3n 2  2 n
n 2 2n

8.5.4 Comparison Test

Theorem 9
 
Let 
n1
an , b
n1
n be positive series.

 
a. n1
a n converges if i) b n1
n converges ii) an  bn

 
b. 
n1
a n diverges if i) b
n1
n diverges ii) an  bn

Note : If a ‘bigger’ series converges, then it follows that the ‘smaller’ also converges.
Likewise, If a ‘smaller’ series diverges, then it follows that the ‘bigger’ also diverges.
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 123


To use comparison test, choose a series  1
bn ( either geometric series, harmonic

series or p  series) where convergence properties are known and general term bn is
similar to an


How to find  1
bn.

Function an bn
polynomial 3n + 1 3n
n2 + 3n – 2 n2

Logarithm ln n 1 or n

Exponential / index e3n e3n

3n+1 3n+1
2e3n 2e3n

Trigonometry sin2 n 1
3 cos2 n 3 (1)

Multiple functions e3n ( 2n +1) e3n (2n)

1 + 2 sin2 n 1 + 2(1)
2e (3 cos2 n + sin2 n)
3n
2e3n( 3 + 1)

Example 8  Use comparison test to determine if each of the following series

converges or diverges.

 

 
1 3
a. b.
1
3n  1 1 n 1
2

 
2  3 sin 2 n
 
ln n
c. d.
3
n 1 4n

Solution


1
a.
1
3n  1

  

  
1 1 1 1 1
  bn = =
3n  1 3n 1 1
3n 3 1
n
3n  3n – 1 (True for n  1) Diverging Harmonic series


1
 diverges.
1
3n  1
124 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series


3
b.
1 n 1 2

  

  
3 3 3 1
 2  bn = =3 ,p=2>1
n 1
2
n 1 1 n2 1 n2
n2  n2 + 1 (True for n  1) converging P – series


3
 converges.
1 n 1
2


ln n
c.
3
n

 

 
ln n 1 1
  bn = diverging Harmonic series
n n 1 1
n
ln n  1 (True for n  3)


ln n
is a diverging series.
3
n


2  3 sin 2 n
d.  1 4n

 
2  3 sin 2 n 2  3(1)
 
1
 bn = 3 converging geometric series
4 n
4n 1 1 4n
sin2 n  1 is true since 0  sin2 n  1


2  3 sin 2 n
 1 4n
converging geometric series 

Exercise 8F

Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges.

 
n 1
 
1
a. b.
1 2n  1 1 3n 2  1
 
2n  1
 
n
c. d.
1 2 (n  2)
n
1 n 13
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 125

 
3  ln n 2
 
5
e. f.
1 n 2 (n  1) 1 n3
 
tan 1 n
 
ln n
g. h.
1 n2  1 3 n3
 
3  5 sin2 n
 
n ln n
i. j.
3 n2  1 1 4 n1

8.5.5 Limit Comparison Test

It is not always easy to make a suitable comparison between two similar series such
  
as 
n2
1
n 1
and  n2
1
n 1
. Using  1
1
n
for comparison,

1 1
 is definitely true, comparison test is a suitable test
n 1 n
1 1
but  is not true, so comparison test is not a suitable test
n 1 n

As comparison test is a sensitive test, limit comparison test has proved to be a useful
alternative to comparison test.

Theorem 10
 

 b
an
Let an , n be positive series and L = lim
n  bn
n1 n1

 
a. a
n1
n converges if i) b
n1
n converges

and ii) L  0 ,  
 
b. 
n1
a n diverges if i) b
n1
n diverges

and ii) L > 0


Note: Finding  1
bn in limit comparison test is similar to that in comparison test.

However, since limit comparison test is not sensitive to numbers, constant may be
disregarded (see example 10(a) and 10(b)).

Example 9  Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges.

 

 
1 2
a. b.
1
3n  1 1 3n  n 2  1
3


n ln n
c.
3 n2  1
126 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

Solution
  

  
1 1
a. bn = diverging Harmonic series
1
3n  1 1 1
n

an 1 n
L = lim = lim x
n  bn n  3n  1 1
n
= lim
n  3n  1

1
= >0
3
 

 
1
Since bn diverges, then diverges.
1 1
3n  1

   

   
2 1 1 3
b. bn = = 3
, p= >1
1 3n3  n 2  1 1 1 n3 1
2
n2
converging p – series,
3
an 2 n2
L = lim = lim x
n  bn n 
3n3  n 2  1 1
3
2n 2
= lim
n 
3n 3  n 2  1
2
= 0
3
 

 
2
Since bn converges, then converges.
1 1 3n3  n 2  1


n ln n
c.
3 n2  1
  

  
n 1
bn = = , diverging p – series, p = 0 < 1
1 1 n2 1 n0
an n ln n
L = lim = lim x1
n  bn n 
n2  1
n
= lim lim ln n
n  n 
n2  1
=1 =
 

 
n ln n
Since bn diverges, then diverges 
1 3 n2  1
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 127

Exercise 8G

Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges using limit

comparison test.

 
n1
 
1
a. b.
1 2n  1 1 4n  3n2  1
4

 
2n  1
 
5
c. d.
1 2 (n  2)
n
1 n (n  1)
2

 
3  ln n 2
tan 1 n
e. 1 n3
f. 
1 3n3  n2  1

n 2  3n  1 n 2  3n  1
g. 1 n 3  3n 2  1
h.
n 3  3n 2  1

8.5.6 Root Test

This test is particularly useful with a series involving a kth power.

Theorem 11
1
Let L = lim a n n
n 
 
i. L<1: a
n1
n converges absolutely  a
n1
n converges


ii. L > 1 : a
n1
n diverges

iii. L = 1 : No conclusion (use other test)

Note: If  an is a positive series, there is no need to take the absolute value.

Example 10  Use root test to determine if each of the following series converges or
diverges.

  
2 3n1
n
3 (ln n)n
a. 1
(1)  
4
n
b. 1 n n2
c. 
3 3n

Solution

 
2 3n1
n
3
a. 1
(1)  
4
n
b.  1 n n2
128 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

1 1
L = lim an n L = lim an n
n n
1 1
n
 3 n  2 3n1  n
= lim   = lim  n2 
n   4  n 
n 
1
3
3 2 n
= lim = lim 2
n  4 n  1
n n

3
= <1 =0<1
4
 
2 3n1
n
3
 1
  converges absolutely,
4
 1 n n2
converges.

 n
3
Hence ,  1
  converges.
4

  n
(ln n)n  ln n 
c.  3 3n
= 3

 3 


1
L = lim (a n ) n
n
1
n
 ln n  n
= lim  
n   3 

ln n
= lim
n  3

=<1

(ln n)n
 3 3n
diverges 

Exercise 8H

Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges using root test.

 
(2n)n
a . 
1 n 2n
b. 
1
( 1)n (n 3  1)

 
( 3)n1  3n 
c.  1 2 2n
d. 
1
( 1)n  
 2  5n 

 n2  n
 n   3n 
e.  1
 
 n  1
f. 
1

 4 ln n 4




Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 129

8.5.7 Ratio Test


Intuitively, a series of positive terms 1
an converges if and only if the sequence

a n 1 decreases rapidly toward 0. One way to determine this is to examine the ratio
a n1
as n  ∞.
an

Ratio test is very suitable for series involving factorial or kth power or the
multiplication of factorial, kth power with polynomial or ln function.
  

e.g 
1
k! 2 ,n
1
n
k! 2 (2n + 1) ,  3 kln! n
1
n

Theorem 12
a n1
Let L = lim . If
n  an
 
i. L< 1 : a
n1
n converges absolutely  a
n1
n converges


ii. L>1: a
n1
n diverges

iii. L = 1 : No conclusion (use other test)

Example 11  Use ratio test to determine if each of the following series converges or
diverges.

 
3n 2 3n1
a. 1 n2
b. 
1
(1)n
2n
 
 3n (n  2)! 
 
n! 2n
c. d. (1)n  

1 2n 1  2  5n 

Solution


3n
a. 1 n2

a n1 3 n1 n2
L = lim = lim x
n  a n  (n  1) 2 3n
n

3n3 n2
= lim lim group function from the same family
n  3 n n n 2  2n  1
130 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

= 3 (1)
L=3>1

3n
1 n2
diverges.


2 3n1 2 3n1
b. 1
(1)n
2n
 an 
2n
2 3(n1)1 2 3n  4
a n1  
2(n  1) 2(n  1)
an1
L = lim
n an
2 3n  4 2n
= lim 
n  2(n  1) 2 3n1
n
= lim 23n+4-3n-1 lim
n  n  n 1
= 23 (1)
=8>1


2 3n1
1
(1)n
2n
diverges


n! 2n
c.
1 2n
a n1 ( n  1)! 2(n  1) 2n
L = lim = lim x
n  a
n
n  2n1 n!2n
n! (n  1) n1 2n
= lim lim lim n
n  n! n  n n  2 2
 1
= lim n + 1 (1)  
n  2
=


n! 2n
diverges.
1 2n


 3n (n  2)! 
d. 1
(1)n 
 2  5 n



an1  3 n1 (n  1  2)!  2  5n 
L = lim = lim  
 n


n an n 
 2  5(n  1)  3 (n  2)! 
3n3 2  5n (n  1)!
= lim n lim lim
n  3 n  7  5n n  (n  2)!
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 131

(n  2)!(n  1)
= (3) (1) lim
n  (n  2)!
L = 3 lim n – 1
n 
= 


 3n (n  2)! 
1
(1)n 
 2  5n 
 diverges.


Exercise 8I

1. Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges.

 
( 3)n 3n (1  4n)n
a. 
1
( n  1)!
b. 
1
n!
 
( 2n  3 )!
 
n
c. d.
1 (ln n )n 1 3n
 
ln (n  1) (n  1)!
e. 
1
(1)n
(2n  1)!
f. 
3 n2  1


(n! ) 2
2. Find the value of k for which 1
( kn )!
is convergent.

8.5.8 Alternating Series Test

There are two classes of series for which the successive terms alternate in sign. For
example,

 

1 + 3  5 + 7  + …= 
n 1
(1) (2n  1) =
n
n 1
cos n (2n  1)


1 1 1 1
  
2 4 8 16
 ... =  (1)
n 1
n 1 1
2n

Theorem 13


 (1) a
n 1
n
n converges if it satisfies the following conditions:

i) lim an = 0
n 
ii) an > an+1

Note: an > an+1 must be shown (algebraically or by using y’ < 0).

132 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

Example 12  Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges by

using AST.

 2n  1 

 
1
a. (1)n 3n b. (1)n
1 3
n ln n
 

 
4n
c. n
cos n d. (1)n n  1  n
1 3 1

Solution

 2n  1 

 
1
a. (1)n 3n b. (1)n
1 3
n ln n
2n  1 2 1
i) lim 3n =  0 i) lim =0
n  3 n  n ln n
 2n  1
1
(1)n 3n diverges. ii) an+1 < an

1 1
 true for n  3
n ln n (n  1) ln (n  1)


1
(1)n converges.
3
n ln n

  

  
4n 4n
c. cos n = (1)n d. (1)n n  1  n
1 3n 1 3n 1
4n i) lim an = lim n 1 n
i) lim an = lim n n  n 
n  n  3
4  n  1  n 
= lim = lim ( n  1  n ) 
n  n
3 ln 3 n   n  1  n 

=0 n  1 n
ii) an > an+1 = lim
4n 4(n  1)
n  n 1 n
> =0
3 n
3 n1
4n 4n  4
> n ii) an > an+1
3 n
3 3
n  1  n > n  2  n  1 (can’t tell alg)
4n (3) > 4n + 4
12n  4n – 4 > 0, Diff. an :
1

1
 0 , true for n  1.
8n – 4 > 0 , true for n > 0. 2 n 1 2 n



4n 
Hence
1 3 n
cos n converges.
 1
(1)n n  1  n is a converging series 
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 133

EXERCISE 8J

Determine if each of the following series converges or diverges using AST.

 
( 1)n1
a. 1
2n  1
b. 
1
(3n+1) cos n

  n1
 
ln n
c. (1)n d. (1)n+1 3n  1
1
n 1
 n4 

 
2n
e. (1)n n 2  n f. cos n
1 1 2n
 cos n
g. 1
n ln n

8.6 Types Of Convergence

The convergence test developed so far only applied to either positive series or
alternating series. These tests cannot be applied to series that has mixed terms or
terms that do not strictly alternate. For example,
1 1 1 1 1
1+     + ...
2 3 4 5 6
does not fit into any categories of the convergence test. In such cases, it is often
useful to apply the following result.

Definition

 
i) n1
a n is called absolutely convergent if a
n1
n converges.

 
ii) n1
a n is called conditionally convergent if a
n1
n diverges


and a
n1
n converges.

Example 13

 1
a. 
1
(1)n n 2 is an absolute convergent series because

  1

n1
an = 
1
n 2 is a convergent p - series, p = 2 > 1.
134 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

 1
b. 
1
(1)n n is a conditionally convergent series because

  1  1
 n1
an = 1
n is a divergent harmonic series, and 
1
(1)n n is a

convergent series by alternating series test. 

STEPS

i) a
n1
n

ii) Test for convergence (could be known series such as PHG, or

test by using the 5 convergence tests)
iii) If it converges, then it converges absolutely
Else : Use Alternating Series Test (converges conditionally)

Example 14 Determine if the following series is absolutely convergent,

conditionally convergent or divergent.

 

 
1 1
a. (1)n b. (1)n
1
3n  1 1 n 1
2

 cos n 
n 2  3n  1
c. 1
n ln n d. 
3
(1)n
n 3  3n 2  1

Solution



1
a. (1)n
1
3n  1

 

 
1
i) an =
n1 1
3n  1

ii) Test for convergence - Use Comparison / Limit / Integral Test
 

 
1 1 1 1
> bn =
3n  1 3n 1
3 1
n
3n > 3n – 1 (True for n  0) Diverging Harmonic series


a
n1
n diverges.

i) Use AST
1
lim =0
n  3n  1

ii) an+1 < an

Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 135

1 1
<
3(n  1)  1 3n  1
1 1
<
3n  2 3n  1
3n – 1 < 3n + 2 
True for all n  1 



1
So (1)n converges .
1
3n  1

iv) Conclusion
 

 a
1 n
(1) converges conditionally since diverges and
3n  1
n
1 n1



1
(1)n converges.
1
3n  1


1
b. (1)n
1 n 12

 

 
1
i) an =
n1 1 n 12


ii) Test for convergence - Use Comparison / Limit / Integral Test
 

 
1 1 1
 2 bn = converging P-Series
n 1 n
2
1 1 n2
n2  n2 + 1 ( True for n  1) p=2>1


a
n1
n converges.


1
iii) Conclusion : (1)n converges absolutely.
1 n 1
2

 cos n
c. 1
n ln n
  1
i) n1
an = 1
n ln n (why?)
 1
ii) Test for convergence - By Integral test 1
n ln n is a diverging series.
 cos n
iii) By Alternating Series Test 1
n ln n is a converging series.
 cos n
iv)  1
n ln n converges conditionally.
136 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series


n 2  3n  1
d.  3
(1)n
n 3  3n 2  1
 
n 2  3n  1
i) 
n 3
an =  3 n 3  3n 2  1

n 2  3n  1
ii) Test for convergence - By Limit comparison test, 3 n 3  3n 2  1
diverges.


n  3n  1
2
iii) By Alternating Series Test 3
(1)n
n 3  3n 2  1
converges.


n  3n  1
2
iv)  3
(1)n
n 3  3n 2  1
converges conditionally 

Exercise 8K

Determine if the following series is absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent or

divergent.

 n  1
a.  1
(1)n n 2  1 .b. 
1
(1)n+1 n  1  n
n
 1   n1 
c.  1
(1)n ln n d. 
1
(1)n+1  2n  1 

 1  sin n
e.  1
(1)n n ln n 4 f. 
1
(1)n n n

 1  1 1
g.  1
(1)n n ln 2 n h. 
1
(1)n n  n n

 (n  1)!   1 1
i.  1
(1)n (n  1)! j. 
1
(1)n  2n  4n 

8.7 Power Series

In the previous section we concentrated on series with constant terms. Now we will
consider series whose terms contain variables.

Definition
A power series is a series of the form


a
n1
n xn = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + a4x4 + . . .

a0, a2 , a3 are constant and x is a variable. If a number is substituted for x, then the
resulting series of constant may converge or diverge.
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 137

The main objective in this section is to determine all the values of x for which a power
series converges – called the interval of convergence. Ratio test is used to find the
interval of convergence of a power series.

8.7.1 Interval Of Convergence


In this section we want to determine the values of x where a
n1
n xn converges.

Steps
1. Use Ratio Test to get L.

2. For any power series a
n1
n (x  y)n, exactly one of the following is true.

a. If L =  then the point of convergence is x = y

b. If L = 0 then the interval of convergence is ( ,  )

c. otherwise the interval of convergence will either be (a , b) or [a , b)

or [a , b].

3. For case (iii)

a. L < 1 ( Converge Absolutely)
b. L = 1 ( End Points)

Example 15  Find interval of convergence for the following series.

 
ln (n  1)
 
n! 2n
a. x n
b. (x 1)n
1 2 n
1
(2n  1)!
 
n
(2x  1)n
 
x
c. d. (1)n
1
3n  1 1 4n

Solution



n! 2n
a. xn
1 2n
I Use ratio Test to find L.
a n1
L = lim
n  an
( n  1)! 2(n  1) x n1 2n
= lim x
n  2n1 n! 2n x n
n!n  1 2( n  1) 2n xnx
= lim   n  n
n  n! 2n 2 2 x
n2  2n  1
x
= lim
2 n n
=  except at x = 0
138 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

Point of convergence is x = 0.


ln (n  1)
b. 1
(2n  1)!
(x 1)n

a n1
L = lim
n  an
ln ( n  1  1) ( x  1)n1 ( 2n  1)1
= lim 
n  ( 2[ n  1]  1)! ln (n  1) ( x  1)n
ln ( n  2 ) ( x  1)n (x  1) ( 2n  1)!
= lim  
n  ln ( n  1) ( x  1)n ( 2n  3 )!
ln ( n  2 ) ( 2n  1)!
= x  1 lim lim
ln ( n  1)
n  n  ( 2n  1)! ( 2n  2 ) ( 2n  3 )
1
= x  1 lim n  2 lim
1
n  1 n ( 2n  2 ) ( 2n  3 )
n1
n1 1
= x  1 lim lim
n  n  2 n  ( 2n  2 ) ( 2n  3 )

= x  1 (1) (0)
=0

Interval of convergence is (  ,  ).


xn
c. 1
3n  1

I By ratio test
a n1
L = lim
n  an
x n1 3n  1
= lim 
n  3( n  1)  1 xn
3n  1
= x lim
n  3n  2
= x (1)
= x

II By ratio test, for absolute convergent : L < 1

x <1
1 < x < 1
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 139


xn
III Checking End Points: 1
3n  1
At x = 1 At x = 1
 
( 1) n

 
1
1
3n  1 1
3n  1
AST: Comparison Test:

 n Div. Harmonic
1 1 1 1 1
i) lim =0 > ,
n  3n  1 3n  1 3n 3
1 1
ii) < 3n > 3n – 1  True for n1
3( n  1)  1 3n  1
1 1
< True for n1 Diverge at x = 1
3n  2 3n  1
Converge at x = -1

iv Conclusion : Interval of convergence is –1  x < 1.


(2x  1)n
d.  1
(1)n
4n

I By ratio test:
a n1
L = lim
n  an
( 2x  1)n1 4n
= lim 
n  4n1 ( 2x  1)n
2x  1
=
4

II Absolute convergent : L < 1

2x  1
<1
4
2x  1 < 4

–4 < 2x – 1 < 4
–3 < 2x < 5
3 5
<x<
2 2

(2x  1)n
III Checking End-points: 1
(1)n
4n

3 5
At x = At x =
2 2
 
(4)n 4n
1
(1) n

4n
1
(1)n
4n
140 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

 

1
1 =  1
(1)n

By Divergent test: By AST

lim 1 = 1  0 lim 1 = 1  0
n  n 

3 5
Diverges at x = Diverges at x =
2 2
3 5
IV Conclusion : Interval of convergence is <x< 
2 2

Exercise 8L

Find the interval of convergence of each of the following power series.

  
3n x n (3x  1)n
a. 1
n! x n
b. 1 n!
c. 1 n3
  
( x  1)n 2n  1 xn x n1
d. 1 2n1
e. 1 n(n  1)
f. 3
n ln n

  
(n  1)!
  
ln n ln n
g. xn d. (x  1)n h. xn
3 n 1
2
3
( n  1)! 3 n 3

  
( x  2) n 3 n cos n (n  1)! n
i. 1
(1) n

n2  1
j. 3
ln n
( x  3) n k.  1
(n  3)!
x

 

l. x 1
n
n
m. x
1
n
n!
(n  1)!

8.8 Power Series

In the following section we want to find a polynomial function that approximate f(x) at
a number x = a in its domain namely Taylor Series.

8.8.1 TAYLOR SERIES

The Taylor series can be represented by

Definition

The Taylor series of function f at x = a is given by

f (a) f (a) f (a)

f(x) = f(a) + (x – a) + (x – a)2 + (x – a)3 + . . .
1! 2! 3!
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 141

Example 16 Find the Taylor series for f(x) at the given value of a
a. f(x) = e2x at x = 1 (first 4 non-zero terms)
b. f(x) = ln (x + 1) at x = 3 (first 5 non-zero terms)

c. f(x) = sin 3x at x = (first 4 non-zero terms)
9

Solution

a. f(x) = e2x at x = 1 (first 4 non-zero terms)

f(x) = e2x f(1) = e2
f (x) = 2 e2x f (1) = 2e2
f (x) = 4 e2x f (1) = 4e2
f (x) = 8 e2x f (1) = 8e2

The Taylor series for f(x) = e2x at x = 1 is

4e 2 8e 2
f(x) = e2 + 2e2 (x – 1) + (x – 1)2 + (x – 1)3 + . . .
2! 3!
4 2
= e2 + 2e2 (x – 1) + 2e2 (x – 1)2 + e (x – 1)3 + . . .
3

a. f(x) = ln (x + 1) at x = 3 (first 5 non-zero terms)

f(x) = ln (x + 1) f(3) = ln 4
1 1
f(x) = f(3) =
x 1 4
1 1
f(x) = f(3) = 
x  12 16
2 1
f(x) = f(3) =
x  13 32
6 3
f(4) (x) = f(4) (3) = 
x  14 128

The Taylor series for f(x) = ln (1 + x) at x = 3 is

1 1 1 1 1 3 1
f(x) = ln 4 + (x – 3)  (x – 3)2 + (x – 3)3  (x – 3)4 + …
4 16 2! 32 3! 128 4!
3 1 1 1 1
= ln 4  + x– (x – 3)2 + (x – 3)3 – (x – 3)4 + . . .
4 4 32 192 1024
142 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series


c. f(x) = sin 3x at x = (first 4 non-zero terms)
9

  3
f(x) = sin 3x f   = sin 3   =
9 9 2

  3
f(x) = 3 cos 3x f   = 3 cos 3   =
 
9 9 2

  9 3
f(x) = – 9 sin 3x f   = – 9 sin 3   = 
9 9 2

  27
f(x) = – 27 cos 3x f   = – 27 cos 3   = 
 
9  
9 2


The Taylor series for f(x) = sin 3x at x = is
9

3 3  9 3 1  27 1 
f(x) = + (x – )  (x – )2  (x – )3 + . . .
2 2 9 2 2! 9 2 3! 9

3 3  9 3  9 
= + (x – )  (x – )2  (x – )3 + . . .
2 2 9 4 9 4 9

Exercise 8M

Find the first 3 terms of the Taylor series for the following functions.

a. f(x) = (x+ 1)3 at x = 1


b. f(x) = sin2 x at x =
4
x2
c. f(x) = e at x = 4
d. f(x) = 2x  1 at x = 4
e. f(x) = tan – 1 x at x = 1 (first 3 non-zero terms)
f. f(x) = 2x at x = 2 (first 4 non-zero terms)

8.8.2 MACLAURIN SERIES

The special case of a Taylor series where a = 0 is called Maclaurin series of f(x).

Definition

The Maclaurin series of function f(x) is given by

f (0) f (0) 2 f (0) 3

f(x) = f(0) + x + x + x +...
1! 2! 3!
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 143

Example 17 Find the Maclaurin series for the following:

a. f(x) = (x + 1)5 up to x4.
 
b. f(x) = sin  x   , up to x3
 4
2
b. f(x) = ln (x + 2x + 3) , first 3 terms.

Solution
a. f(x) = (x + 1)5 up to x4

f(x) = (x + 1)5 f(0) = 1

f(x) =5(x + 1)4 f(0) = 5
f(x) = 20(x + 1)3 f(0) = 20
2
f(x) = 60(x + 1) f(0) = 60
(4)
f (x) = 120 (x + 1) f(4)(0) = 120

Maclaurin series for f(x) = (x + 1)5 is given by

20 2 60 3 120 4
f(x) = 1 + 5x + x + x + x +...
2! 3! 4!
= 1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + 5x4 + . . .

 
b. f(x) = sin  x   up to x3
 4

  1
f(x) = sin  x   f(0) =
 4 2

  1
f(x) = cos  x   f(0) =
 4 2

  1
f(x) =  sin  x   f(0) = 
 4 2

  1
f(x) =  cos  x   f(x) = 
 4 2

 
Maclaurin series for f(x) = sin  x   is given by
 4
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3
f(x) = + x x x +...
2 2 2 2! 2 3!
1 1 1 1
= + x x2 x3 + . . .
2 2 2 2 6 2

c. f(x) = ln (x2 + 2x + 3) , first 3 terms.

144 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

f(x) = ln (x2 + 2x + 3) f(0) = ln 3

2x  2 2
f(x) = f(0) =
x  2x  3
2
3

2( x 2  2x  3)  (2x  2)(2x  2)
f (x) =
( x 2  2x  3) 2

2x 2  4 x  6  4 x 2  8 x  4
=
( x 2  2x  3) 2

 2x 2  4 x  2 2
= f (x) =
( x 2  2x  3) 2 9

Maclaurin series for f(x) = ln (x2 + 2x + 3) is given by

2 2 1 2
f(x) = ln 3 + x+ x + ...
3 9 2!
2 1 2
= ln 3 + x + x + ...
3 9

Below are some important Maclaurin series.

x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + x + + + +...
2! 3! 4!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 – + – +...
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x – + – +...
3! 5! 7!
x2 x3 x4
ln (1 + x) = x    +...
2 3 4

x2 x3 x4
Example 18  Given that ex = 1 + x + + + +...,
2! 3! 4!
2
a. Find the Maclaurin series for e x (up to x6 ).
0 .1


2
b. Hence, evaluate e x dx.
0
Solution
2
a. Let e x = ey  x2 = y
y2 y3 y 4
Know that ey = 1 + y + + + + . . ---------------------
2! 3! 4!
Substituting y = x2 into 
2 ( x 2 ) 2 ( x 2 )3
e x = 1 + x2 + + ++...
2! 3!
x4 x6
=1+x2+ + +. ..
2 6
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 145

0 .1 0 .1
x4 x6
 
2
b. e x dx.= 1+x2+ + + . . .dx
2 6
0 0
0.1
x3 x5 x7
=x   
3 2.5 6.7 0
3
( 0.1) ( 0.1)5 ( 0.1)7
= [ 0.1 +   0
3 10 42
= 0.100334335 

Example 19 Given that Maclaurin series for

x2 x3 x 4
ln (1 + x) = x    +...
2 3 4
1  x  2x 2
find the Maclaurin series for ln .
( 1  x )e 2 x

Solution

1  x  2x 2 (1  x ) ( 1  2x )
ln = ln
( 1  x )e 2x
( 1  x )e 2 x
= ln ( 1 – x) + ln (1 + 2x) – ln (1 + x) – ln e2x
= ln ( 1 – x) + ln (1 + 2x) – ln (1 + x) – 2x

( x ) 2 ( x )3 ( x ) 4
ln ( 1 – x) = ln [ 1 + (– x) ] = –x    + . .+
2 3 4
x2 x3 x 4
=–x   
2 3 4

(2x ) 2 (2x )3 (2x ) 4

ln (1 + 2x) = 2x    +..
2 3 4
4x 2 8x 3 16x 4
= 2x   
2 3 4
3
8x
= 2x – 2x2 + – 4x4
3
1  x  2x 2
x2 x3 x 4 8x 3
 ln = – x    + … + 2x – 2x2
+ – 4x4 +
( 1  x )e 2x
2 3 4 3
x2 x3 x 4
…– x    . . . – 2x
2 3 4

= – 2x  2x2 + 2x3  4x4 + . . . 

x3 x5 x7
Example 20  Given that sin x = x – + – + . . . show that
3! 5! 7!
sin x
lim = 1.
x0 x
146 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

Solution
x3 x5 x7
 x   ...
sin x 3! 5! 7!
lim = lim
x0 x x 0 x
2 4
x x x6
= lim 1     ..
x 0 6 120 5040
= 1 (shown) 

Exercise 8N

1. Find the first 4 nonzero terms in the Maclaurin series.

a. f(x) = x + x 1

x2
b. f(x) =
1 x4
c. f(x) = tanh 3x
d. f(x) = tan1x

2. Use the known Maclaurin series in ex , sin x cos x and ln (1 + x) to find the
Maclaurin series for the following:

a. e  x cos 2x
2

sin x
b.
ex
c. x ln ( 1 – x2)

3. Using the result in ex.2, evaluate:

 e  x cos 2x dx
2
a.
sin x
b.  ex
dx

d.  x ln ( 1 – x2) dx

9 Use the known Maclaurin series in sin x cos x and ln (1 + x) to find :

1  cos x ln 1  x  sin 2x
a. lim b. lim
x 0 sin x x 0 x
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 147

8.8.3 BINOMIAL SERIES

The Binomial series is given by

n ( n  1) 2 n ( n  1) ( n  2) 3
(1 + X)n = 1 + nX + X  X +
2! 3!
n ( n  1) ( n  2) (n  3) 4
X +...
4!

Example 21  Find the first 4 terms in the binomial series for the functions:
a. f(x) = ( 1 + x2 )7 b. f(x) = 1 2x
1 x
c. f(x) = d. f(x) =
2  3x 1 x2

Solution

a. f(x) = ( 1 + x2 )7  n = 7 , X = x2

7 (7  1) 2 2 7 ( 7  1) ( 7  2) 2 3
( 1 + x2 )7= 1 + 7x2 + )( x )  (x ) + . . .
2! 3!
7(6) 4 7( 6 ) (5 ) 6
= 1 + 7x2 + x + x +...
2! 3!
= 1 + 7x2 + 21x4 + 35x6 + . . .

1
1
b. f(x) = 1 2x = ( 1  2x ) 2  n=, X = 2x
2
1 1 1 1 1
1 (  1) (  1) (  2)
1
( 1  2x ) 2 = 1 + (2x) + 2 2 )( 2x ) 2  2 2 2 ( 2x ) 3
2 2! 3!
1 1
= 1 + x  x2 + x3 + . . .
2 2

1 1
c. f(x) = =
2  3x  3 
2 1  x 
 2 
1
1 3 
= 1  x 
2 2 
1   3  ( 1)(2)  3  ( 1)(2)(3)  3  
2 3
= 1    x    x    x   . . .
2   2  2!  2  3!  2  
1 3 9 27 3
=  x  x2  x  ... 
2 4 8 16
148 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

1
x 
d. f(x) = = x (1  x 2 ) 2

1 x2
  1 1   1 1  1  
       1       1   2  
= x 1  1 (  x 2 )   2  2  )(  x 2 )2   2  2  2  (  x 2 )3  ...
 2 2! 3! 
 
 
 1 3 5 6 
= x 1  x 2  x 4  x  ... 
 2 8 16 
1 3 3 5 5 7
= x x  x  x  ...
2 8 16

Example 22  Express 4  x 2 as a binomial series. Hence estimate the value of

4.01 .

Solution
x2 1 x2
4  x2 = 2 1 :n=
,X=
4 2 4
1 1 1 1 1
(  1)  2  2 (  1) (  2)  2  3
1  x2  2 2 x x
4  x2 = 2 [1 +  +    2 2 2   +.....

2  4  2!    
 4  3!  4 
1 1 4 1
= 2 [ 1 + x2  x + x6 . . . ]
8 128 1024
1 1 4 1 6
= 2 + x2  x + x ...
4 64 512

4.01 = 4  x 2  4.01 = 4 + x2
0.01 = x2
0.1 = x

1 1 1
Hence, 4.01  2 + (0.1)2  (0.1)4 + (0.1)6  . . .
4 64 512
 2.0025
Note (check using value from calculator : 4.01  2.002498439) 

Example 23  Given the binomial series

1
= = 1 – x2 + x4 – x6 + . . .
1 x 2

find tan – 1 x.

Solution.


1
Know that tan – 1 x = dx
1 x2
then tan – 1 x=  1 – x2 + x4 – x6 + . . .dx
Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series 149

x3 x5 x7
=x    +...
3 5 7

Example 24  Given the binomial series

1
 1  2x  4x 2  8x 3  ...
1  2x
find i) ln (1 + 2x)
1
ii)
(1  2x ) 2

Solution


1 1
i) know that dx = ln (1 + 2x)
1  2x 2


1
 ln (1 + 2x) = 2 dx
1  2x


= 2 1  2x  4 x 2
 8x 3  ... dx

 4 
= 2  x  x 2  x 3  2x 4  ... 
 3 
8
= 2x  2x 2  x 3  4x 4  ...
3


 1  2
ii) Know that   =
 1  2x  (1  2x ) 2

1 1  1 
 =   
(1  2x ) 2 2  1  2x 
1
=  ( 1  2x + 4x2  8x3 + …)
2
1
= ( 2 + 8x  24x2 + …)
2
= 1  4x +12x2  …

Exercise 8O

1. Find the first 4 terms of the binomial series for the following functions.

2x 3
a. f(x) = 3 1 3x b. f(x) = c. f(x) = x2 3 1 3x
1 x
2
x
d. f(x) = f. f(x) = x (8  x ) 2 3

1 x2
150 Infinite Sequence and Infinite Series

2. Use binomial series 3 1 3x to estimate the value of 3 1.6 .

1
3. Use the binomial series to find the first 4 nonzero terms in the Maclaurin
1 x2
series for sin – 1 x.

1
4. Given the binomial series for  1  x  x 2  x 3  ... find
1 x
a. ln 1  x
2
b.
(1  x ) 2

4x  3 1 2
5. a. Show that   .
( x  1)(2x  1) x  1 2x  1

1 4x  3
b. Given the binomial series for  1  x  x 2  x 3  ... find .
1 x ( x  1)(2x  1)