3ME05: CONTROL ENGINEERING

Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Mechanical Engineering Dept’
BVM Engineering College-
V.V.Nagar

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 न चोरहार्यं न च राजहार्यंन भ्रातृभाज्यं न च भारकारी ।
व्यर्ये कृते वर्धते एव ननत्यं नवद्यार्नं सवधर्न प्रर्ानम् ॥

विद्यारुपी धन को कोई चुरा नहीीं सकता, राजा ले नहीीं

सकता, भाईयोीं में उसका भाग नहीीं होता, उसका भार नहीीं
लगता, (और) खचच करने से बढता है । सचमुच, विद्यारुप धन
सिचश्रेष्ठ है ।

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 Course Objective:
To develop know how for implementation of control system
for engineering application

3ME05.pdf

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Course Outcomes (COs):
At the end of this course students will be able to …
1. Develop the mathematical model for engineering systems.
2. Develop the transfer function from block diagrams and signal flow graphs of
linear systems.
3. Understand concept of time and frequency response analysis.
4. Use hydraulic and pneumatic concepts/components in control systems.
5. Evaluate stability conditions and steady state error.
6. Apply modern concepts of control in engineering systems.

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List of References:
1. Ogata K, “Modern Control Engineering”, Pearson Education
2. Nagrath &Gopal, “Control Systems Engineering” New Age
International Publishers
3. Kuo, Benjamin, “Automatic Control System”, Prentice Hall
4. S K Bhattacharya, “Control Systems Engineering”, Pearson Education
5. Jeremy blum, “Exploring Arduino: Tools and Techniques for
Engineering Wizardry”, Willey Publication

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 Basic Control System

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 Reflex Action and Reflex Arc
Reflex is a special ability that
evolution gifted us to facilitate our
survival. Whenever part of your body
comes in contact with an object
capable of causing you harm, you
tend to quickly withdraw that part of
the body. This happens before your
brain gets the time it needs to process
the threat.

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 Reflex Action
If you accidentally touch a hot pot
on your stove while cooking, you
would involuntarily (and nearly
instantaneously) snatch your hand
away from the pot. This response
is called a ‘reflex action’.

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Reflex Arc
Contact with the hot pot triggers the start of a series of events in the body to evoke a response.
At the point of contact with the hot pot, skin receptors quickly send nerve impulses (electrical) to
the spinal cord (central nervous system) via sensory neurons. In the spinal cord, the impulses are
processed and a response is relayed back.
In the spinal cord, the interneurons (also known as relay neurons) make the connections between
the sensory neurons (bringing the message from hand) and the correct motor neurons (taking the
response back to the hand). It would not be useful if the response was sent to the wrong part of
the body—in this case, a response sent to the leg wouldn't be too helpful as the stimulus is
coming from the hand.

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Control:
The word control is usually taken to mean
 Regulate
 Direct
 Command

A control system is an arrangement of physical components

connected or related in such a manner as to command, direct, or
regulate itself or another system.

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How heating takes place?
High Temperature Muffle Furnace
Regulated electrical power
supply

Electrical resistance heating

Furnace chamber and mass inside

gets heated by conduction,
convection and/or radiation
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Controlled Variable and Manipulated Variable
 The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is measured
and controlled.
 The manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that is varied by
the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.

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Basic Concept of Control System or Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are
used to solve the following six problems in the most efficient manner possible.
 The identification problem :to measure the variables and convert data for analysis.
 The representation problem: to describe a system by an analytical form or mathematical
model
 The solution problem: to determine the above system model response.
 The stability problem: general qualitative analysis of the system
 The design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one
 The optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.

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The electrical oriented conventional approach is based on complex
function theory. The modern approach has mechanical orientation and
based on the state variable theory. Therefore, control engineering is
not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally applicable to
aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil and electrical
engineering. For example, a control system often includes electrical,
mechanical and chemical components. Furthermore, as the
understanding of the dynamics of business, social and political
systems increases; the ability to control these systems will also
increase

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Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the
system.
“Control means measuring the value of the controlled
variable of the system and applying the manipulated
variable to the system to correct or limit deviation of
the measured value from a desired value.”
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Plants:
A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a
set of machine parts functioning together, the
purpose of which is to perform a particular
operation. Any physical object to be controlled (such
as a mechanical device, a heating furnace, a
chemical reactor, or a spacecraft) is termed as a
plant.

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Processes:
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines a process to be a
natural, progressively continuing operation or development
marked by a series of gradual changes that succeed one
another in a relatively fixed way and lead toward a particular
result or end; or an artificial or voluntary, progressively
continuing operation that consists of a series of controlled
actions or movements systematically directed toward a
particular result or end. Any operation to be controlled is
termed as a process.
Examples: Chemical, Economic, and Biological processes
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Systems:
A system is a combination of components that act together
and perform a certain objective.
 A system is not limited to physical ones. The concept of
the system can be applied to abstract, dynamic phenomena
such as those encountered in economics.
 The word system should, therefore, be interpreted to imply
physical, biological, economic, and the like, systems.

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 System – A Concept
System “A collection of components which are coordinated together to
perform a function.”
Dynamic System :
A system with a memory.
For example, the input value at time t will influence the output at future
instant.
A system interact with their environment through a controlled boundary.

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 System – A Concept
The interaction is defined in terms of variables.
 System input
 System output
 Environmental
disturbances

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Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a
control system.

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Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output
of a system.
If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called internal, while an external
disturbance is generated outside the system and is an input.

Feedback Control: Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of

disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the output of a system and some
reference input and does so on the basis of this difference.
Here only unpredictable disturbances are so specified, since predictable or known
disturbances can always be compensated for within the system.

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Control system: A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another
system to achieve a certain goal.
Automation: The control of a process by automatic means
Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the
device that provides the motive power to the process.
Design: The process of considering or formulating the forms, parts, and details of
system to achieve a specified purpose.
Simulation: A model of a system that is used to investigate the behavior of a
system by utilizing actual input signals.
Optimization: The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favorable or
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Operation:

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Control:

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Control System Definition:
A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants)
assembled for the purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired
performance, given a specified input. Figure shows a control system in its
simplest form, where the input represents a desired output.

Control system is the ability to compensate for disturbances.

Typically, we control such variables as temperature in thermal systems, position and
velocity in mechanical systems, and voltage, current, or frequency in electrical
systems.

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Feedback control is the basic mechanism by which systems, whether mechanical,
electrical, or biological, maintain their equilibrium or homeostasis. In the higher life
forms, the conditions under which life can continue are quite narrow. A change in
body temperature of half a degree is generally a sign of illness. The homeostasis of
the body is maintained through the use of feedback control.

Feedback control may be defined as the use of difference signals, determined by

comparing the actual values of system variables to their desired values, as a means of
controlling a system. An everyday example of a feedback control system is an
automobile speed control, which uses the difference between the actual and the
desired speed to vary the fuel flow rate. Since the system output is used to regulate
its input, such a device is said to be a closed-loop control system.

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For example, consider an elevator. When the fourth-floor button is pressed on
the ground floor, the elevator rises to the fourth floor with a speed and floor
leveling accuracy designed for passenger comfort. The push of the fourth-
floor button is an input that represents our desired output.

Two major measures of performance are apparent: (1) the transient response
and (2) the steady-state error. In our example, passenger comfort and
passenger patience are dependent upon the transient response. If this response
is too fast, passenger comfort is sacrificed; if too slow, passenger patience is
sacrificed. The steady-state error is another important performance
specification since passenger safety and convenience would be sacrificed if
the elevator did not level properly

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History of Control Systems
Liquid-Level Control
The Greeks began engineering feedback systems around 300 B.C. A water clock
invented by Ktesibios operated by having water trickle into a measuring container
at a constant rate. The level of water in the measuring container could be used to tell
time. For water to trickle at a constant rate, the supply tank had to be kept at a
constant level. This was accomplished using a float valve similar to the water-level
control in today’s flush toilets.

Steam Pressure and Temperature Controls

Regulation of steam pressure began around 1681 with Denis Papin’s invention of
the safety valve (Dead weight safety valve).

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Flyball Governor Balls fly out
as speed
increases,

“Flyball” Governor (1788)

◦ Regulate speed of steam engine Valve closes,
◦ Reduce effects of variations in load (disturbance slowing engine
rejection)
◦ Major advance of industrial revolution Steam Flyball
engine governor

Boulton-Watt steam engine http://www.heeg.de/~roland/SteamEngine.html

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The seventeenth century, Cornelis Drebbel in Holland invented a purely mechanical temperature
control system for hatching eggs. The device used a vial of alcohol and mercury with a floater
inserted in it. The floater was connected to a damper that controlled a flame. A portion of the vial
was inserted into the incubator to sense the heat generated by the fire. As the heat increased, the
alcohol and mercury expanded, raising the floater, closing the damper, and reducing the flame.
Lower temperature caused the float to descend, opening the damper and increasing the flame.

Speed Control
In 1745, speed control was applied to a windmill by Edmund Lee. Increasing winds pitched the
blades farther back, so that less area was available. As the wind decreased, more blade area was
available. William Cubitt improved on the idea in 1809 by dividing the windmill sail into movable
louvers.
The eighteenth century, James Watt invented the flyball speed governor to control the speed of steam
engines. In this device, two spinning flyballs rise as rotational speed increases. A steam valve
connected to the flyball mechanism closes with the ascending flyballs and opens with the
descending flyballs, thus regulating the speed.

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Stability, Stabilization, and Steering
In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell published the stability criterion for a third-order
system based on the coefficients of the differential equation.
In 1874, Edward John Routh, using a suggestion from William Kingdon Clifford
that was ignored earlier by Maxwell, was able to extend the stability criterion to
fifth-order systems.
In 1877, the topic for the Adams Prize was “The Criterion of Dynamical Stability.”
Alexandr Michailovich Lyapunov also contributed to the development and
formulation of today’s theories and practice of control system stability.
In 1874, Henry Bessemer, using a gyro to sense a ship’s motion and applying power
generated by the ship’s hydraulic system, moved the ship’s saloon to keep it stable.
Other efforts were made to stabilize platforms for guns as well as to stabilize entire
ships, using pendulums to sense the motion.

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Twentieth-Century Developments
It was not until the early 1900s that automatic steering of ships was achieved. In
1922, the Sperry Gyroscope Company installed an automatic steering system that
used the elements of compensation and adaptive control to improve performance.
Nicholas Minorsky, a Russian born in 1885 , his theoretical development applied to
the automatic steering of ships that led to what we call today proportional-plus-
integral-plus-derivative (PID), or three-mode, controllers.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s, H. W. Bode and H. Nyquist at Bell Telephone
Laboratories developed the analysis of feedback amplifiers..
In 1948, Walter R. Evans, working in the aircraft industry, developed a graphical
technique to plot the roots of a characteristic equation of a feedback system whose
parameters changed over a particular range of values. This technique, now known
as the root locus.

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Classification
Natural control system and Man-made control system:
Natural control system: It is a control system that is created by nature, i.e. solar
system, digestive system of any animal, etc.
Man-made control system: It is a control system that is created by humans, i.e.
automobile, power plants etc.

Automatic control system and Combinational control system:

Automatic control system: It is a control system that is made by using basic theories
from mathematics and engineering. This system mainly has sensors, actuators and
responders.

Combinational control system: It is a control system that is a combination of natural

and man-made control systems, i.e. driving a car etc

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Time-variant control system and Time-invariant control system:
Time-variant control system: It is a control system where any one or more
parameters of the control system vary with time i.e. driving a vehicle.

Time-invariant control system: It is a control system where none of its parameters

vary with time i.e. control system made up of inductors, capacitors and resistors only.

Linear control system and Non-linear control system:

Linear control system: It is a control system that satisfies properties of homogeneity
and additive.

Non-linear control system: It is a control system that does not satisfy properties of
homogeneity and additive, f (x)=x3

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Continuous-Time control system and Discrete-Time control system:
Continuous-Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all
of its parameters are function of time, i.e. armature type speed control of motor.

Discrete -Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of

its parameters are function of discrete time i.e. microprocessor type speed control
of motor.
Deterministic control system and Stochastic control system:
Deterministic control system: It is a control system where its output is predictable
or repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.
Stochastic control system: It is a control system where its output is unpredictable or
non-repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.

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Lumped-parameter control system and Distributed-parameter control system:
Lumped-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by ordinary differential equations.

Distributed-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical

model is represented by an electrical network that is a combination of resistors,
inductors and capacitors.

Single-input-single-output (SISO) control system and Multi-input-multi-output

(MIMO) control system:
SISO control system: It is a control system that has only one input and one output.

MIMO control system: It is a control system that has only more than one input and
more than one output.

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Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system:
Open-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action only
depends on input signal and does not depend on its output response.

Closed-loop control system:It is a control system where its control action

depends
on both of its input signal and output response.

Home work: Find out and list out the control system related
to classification as well as list out the input and output of
control system.

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Open-loop system:
A generic open-loop system is shown in Figure. It starts with a
subsystem called an input transducer, which converts the form of
the input to that used by the controller. The controller drives a
process or a plant. The input is sometimes called the reference,
while the output can be called the controlled variable.

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Examples: traffic signal, washing machine, bread toaster, etc.
Advantages:
 Simple design and easy to construct
 Economical
 Easy for maintenance
 Highly stable operation
Dis-advantages:
 Not accurate and reliable when input or system parameters are
variable in
nature
 Recalibration of the parameters are required time to time

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Open-loop systems, then, do not correct for disturbances and are
simply commanded by the input. For example, toasters are open-loop
systems, as anyone with burnt toast can attest.
The controlled variable (output) of a toaster is the color of the toast.
The device is designed with the assumption that the toast will be
darker the longer it is subjected to heat. The toaster does not measure
the color of the toast; it does not correct for the fact that the toast is
rye, white, or sourdough, nor does it correct for the fact that toast
comes in different thicknesses.

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closed-loop systems:
The disadvantages of open-loop systems, namely sensitivity to disturbances and
inability to correct for these disturbances, may be overcome in closed-loop systems.
The input transducer converts the form of the input to the form used by the
controller. An output transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and
converts it into the form used by the controller.
A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output and feedback of this
signal to compare it with the desired output.

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The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and
the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements)
by considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the
direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the
desired response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic
control systems.

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Examples: automatic electric iron, missile launcher, speed control of DC motor, etc.
Advantages:
 More accurate operation than that of open-loop control system
 Can operate efficiently when input or system parameters are variable in
 nature
 Less nonlinearity effect of these systems on output response
 High bandwidth of operation
 There is facility of automation
 Time to time recalibration of the parameters are not required
Dis-advantages:
 Complex design and difficult to construct
 Expensive than that of open-loop control system
 Complicate for maintenance
 Less stable operation than that of open-loop control system

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Block diagram:
The block diagram of a system gives a perspective view of the
functioning of a system, showing pictorially the
interconnections among various components and subsystems
and the cause and effect relationships by the direction of signal
flow It gives an overall picture of the functioning of the entire
system which is not available from a purely abstract
mathematical representation
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In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each
other through functional blocks.

The functional block (or simply called block ) is a symbol for

mathematical operation on the input signal to the block that
produces the output.

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 The transfer functions of the components are usually
entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected
by arrows to indicate the direction of flow of signals.
Note that signal can pass only in the direction of the
arrows.
 A block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a
unilateral property.
 The dimension of the output signal from the block is the
dimension of the input signal multiplied by the transfer
function in the block.

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 The entire system can be represented by building up
elemental blocks of the components according to signal
flow to overall block diagram. It is possible to evaluate the
contribution of each component to the overall performance
of the system.
 A pictorial representation of the functions performed
by each component. A pictorial representation of the flow of
signals.
 Depicts interrelationships that exist among the various
components. Indicates more realistically the signal flows of
the actual system.
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Why Block Diagram??????
 Functional operation of the system can be visualized more
easily.
 Contains information regarding dynamic behavior but does
not include any information on the physical construction of
the system.
 Consequently many dissimilar and unrelated systems can
be represented by the same block diagram.
 Block diagram representation of a system is not unique, can
be different for same system from point of view of the
analysis.
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The Control Design Process:

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 Glimpse of Areas where
Feedback Control systems have
been employed by mankind

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 Domestic
 Transportation
 Automobiles : Engine control, transmission control, cruise control,
climate control, etc
Even basic vehicles have at least 30 of these microprocessor-
controlled devices, known as electronic control units, and some
luxury cars have as many as 100 , These electronic brains
control dozens of functions, including brake and cruise control
and entertainment systems.
 Chemical Process Control : Regulation of flow rates, temperature,
concentrations, etc. Long time scales, but only crude models of
process
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 Schematic diagram of a manually controlled close-loop
system

The driver uses the difference between the

actual and desired direction of travel to adjust
the steering wheel accordingly.

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 Automatic tank
level control system

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 Autopilot control system:

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 Process control
system (Boiler-
generator)

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Antiaircraft Radar tracking
control system

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LESSONS FROM CONTROL:
 According to Will Durant, education is a progressive
discovery of our ignorance. The systems and control
discipline is more like the philosophy of life than a
faculty of engineering. It teaches one the invaluable
lessons that can be applied directly to our day to day
lives.

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 What do these two have in common?

Tornado Boeing 777

Highly nonlinear, complicated dynamics!

Both are capable of transporting goods and people over long distances
BUT
One is controlled, and the other is not.
Control is “the hidden technology that you meet every day”
It heavily relies on the notion of “feedback”

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 Without feedback, the system is uncontrolled.
 Feedback helps achieve stability.
 Over damped systems are slow to respond.
 Under damped systems can be oscillatory.
 Too much positive feedback brings self destruction. These are the lessons
from the systems and control engineering.
 The nature around us is analog. Engineering is more comfortable with
digital domain. The sensors help bridge this divide and engineering
becomes an art!

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