PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

Lesson 1: The Concepts of Politics and Governance

POLITICS
The great Greek philosopher Aristotle once said, Man by nature is a political animal. For
Aristotle, this made politics the ‘master science’: that is, nothing less than the activity through
which human beings attempt to improve their lives and create the Good Society. Politics is,
above all, a social activity. It is always a dialogue, and never a monologue.
To study politics is in essence to study government or more broadly, to study the exercise of
authority. Politics is the art of government, the exercise of control within the society through the
making and enforcement of collective decisions (Heywood, 1997).
Politics came from the word polis meaning “of or pertaining to state” in Greek. It is also the root
word for polites meaning people or citizens and politikos meaning “of, for, or relating to citizens”
which also translates to “affairs of the state.” It involves decision-making, law-making, and
governance. It is the study of practice and distribution of powers.
The word moved into the Latin language as politicus, with additional meanings of "city" and
"civics." As with much Latin, the word made its way into modern English through French
derivations. The first use of the singular politic showed up in English in the 1400s, coming from
the Middle French politique.
In ancient times, city-states like Athens and Sparta were relatively small and cohesive units, in
which political, religious, and cultural concerns were intertwined. The Greek philosopher
Aristotle's word for ‘politics’ is politikê, which is short for politikê epistêmê or ‘political science.'
Politics is a practical science since it is concerned with the noble action or happiness of the
citizens (although it resembles a productive science in that it seeks to create, preserve, and
reform political systems).
DIFFERENT POLITICAL VIEWS
According to the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2001), a
political ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions, exhibiting a recurring pattern,
that competes deliberately as well as unintentionally over providing plans of action for public
policy making, in an attempt to justify, explain, contest, or change the social and political
arrangements and processes of a political community. Political ideologies, may more or less
provide basis for coherent ideas for organized political action whether these ideas intend to
preserve, modify or overthrow an existing government or power structure. Below are some of
the different ideologies.
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

 Conservatism is the belief that traditional institutions work best and that society should
avoid radical change. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are,
emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose modernism and seek a return
to the way things were. Links the state to the need to provide authority and discipline
and to protect society from chaos and disorder, hence, their traditional preference for a
strong state.
  Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equality. Most liberals support
such fundamental ideas as constitutions, liberal democracy, free and fair elections,
human rights, free trade, secularism, and the market economy. Liberalism sees the
state as a neutral arbiter among competing interests and groups in society, a vital
guarantee of social order. While classical liberals treat the state as a necessary evil and
extol the virtues of a minimal or custodian state, modern liberals recognize the state’s
positive role in widening freedom and promoting equal opportunities
 Socialism refers to the various theories of economic organization which advocate either
public or direct worker ownership and administration of the means of production and
allocation of resources. Socialists generally share the view that capitalism unfairly
concentrates power and wealth among a small segment of society that controls capital
and derives its wealth through a system of exploitation. This in turn creates an unequal
society, that fails to provide equal opportunities for everyone to maximize their potential,
and does not utilize technology and resources to their maximum potential nor in the
interests of the public. Socialists believe in utopian visions of a better society where
individuals can achieve genuine emancipation and fulfilment as members of society. It
believes in social equality as it upholds justice or fairness, underpins community and
cooperation, and enlarges freedom in a positive sense as it likewise believes that human
fulfilment and realization is based on need-satisfaction.
POLITICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political Science is the study of the phenomena of the state and government; it is derived from
two Greek words, “polis” or “city” which today would mean a sovereign state; and “scire”
meaning “science.”
Aristotle (324-322 B.C.) a Greek philosopher, is credited with the observation that “man by
nature is a political animal.” By this statement, Aristotle meant that the basic underlying
substance of human existence is politics, that is, that man is predisposed to be involved in
politics. He added that the only way to optimize the potentials and capabilities of an individual
and to achieve the highest form of social existence was through interaction with others in a state
(Rodee, et al., 1983).
Political Science as defined by Rodee (1980) is “a branch of social science that deals with the
theory, organization, government, and practice of the state.”
Political Science also deals with those relations among men and groups, which are subject to
control by the state, and with the relations of the state to other states.
Montesquieu (1689-1755), expounded the concept. He posited that all the functions of
government could be encompassed within the categories of legislation, execution, and the
adjudication of law. He assumed that liberty could best be assured by the distribution of these
functions – referring to legislation, execution, and adjudication – among separate branches of
the government namely: the legislative, the executive department, and the judiciary of the courts
of law. The preceding modules will discuss further the three branches of the government.
Jean Bodin (1530 – 1596) a French political philosopher coined the term “Political Science”.
Political Science is a discipline in social science that is concerned with political institutions and
with the principles and conduct of government. It deals with the theory and practice of politics;
description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. It may be defined as the
study of the activities of the government (Laswell, 1935) in determining who gets what and how.
Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.), the father of Political Science considered Political Science as the
master of all sciences. He was the first thinker to use the term ‘politics.' The term "Politics" is
derived from the Greek word ‘Polis" which means city-state, a small independent self-contained
political society. Greeks did not make any distinction between politics and society. Greek city-
state of ancient times provides an ideal point for the beginning of a systematic study of political
science.
What are the Methods of Political Sciences?
Several methods are available to political phenomena. These methods are available to political
phenomena. These methods are discussed below:
1. Deductive Method – this method employs the drawing up of specific conclusions from
premises presumed to be infallible.
2. Inductive Method – this method proceeds to establish general truths upon the basis of
known facts are to be used as premises for a specific application. Observational Method
– this method allows the political scientist to observe the workings of political systems
and political processes. Every change in governmental structure, law, or public has
significance.
3. Historical Method – present and probable political phenomenon are interpreted by the
political scientist based on his knowledge and observation of the past serving as a
backdrop. Comparative Method – this method allows the political scientist to correlate
economic, geographical, psychological, sociological data, and other scientific
phenomena.
VALUE OF POLITICS
Why should you care about politics?
One reason you should care about politics is that you should always know what is going on
around you. For example, if a new law is made is made in your area, you might want to make
sure that you and the people around you know that a new law has been made so that no one
breaks the law without even knowing it. Also, if something dangerous is happening around you
or someone you know, you want to be aware if someone is breaking the law. It is very important
to know what is happening around you.
Another reason you should care about politics is that you should have a say in what will happen.
Everyone should have a say in what will happen, because we all live side by side with each
other, and it would not be fair if someone was left out. Also, each vote makes a difference in the
ways that we live. It is always important to share your opinion. The way you vote will affect
many people and their everyday life.
Finally, you should care about politics because the decisions people make will affect many lives.
For example, if someone wanted to build on the land, it might be good for the people who
worked in the area, but residents who lived nearby and loved the land and relied on the land for
water and food might be devastated. Sometimes things that sound like good ideas might be
very devastating later.
GOVERNANCE AND GOVERNMENT

MEANING OF GOVERNANCE
Governance in General The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more
originally from the Greek word “kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its etymology,
governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or of directing and controlling, a
group of people or a state.
Definition of Governance
Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for
the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects. It is the complex process whereby some
sectors of the society wield power and enact and promulgate public policies which directly affect
human and institutional interactions and economic and social development. The power
exercised by the participating sectors of the society is always for the common good, as it is
essential for demanding respect and cooperation from the citizens and the state. As such, a
great deal about governance is the proper and effective utilization of resources.
Governance and Government
1. Governance is traditionally associated with the government. In works of literature, they
are often used interchangeably. But in the 1980s, political scientists broadened the
meaning of governance as including, not just government actors, but also civil-society
actors. Today, governance includes three sectors: the public sector (state actors and
institutions), the private sector (households and companies), and the civil society (non-
governmental organizations). These three sectors are said to work hand in hand in the
process of governance. This new use of the term focuses on the role of “networks” in the
achievement of the common good, whether these networks are intergovernmental,
transnational, or international. In other words, governance is broader than government in
that other sectors are included in it.
2. Many authors also distinguish the two by associating government with "control and
domination," and governance with "decentralization and relational management." On the
one hand, the government refers to a central institution which wields power over its
subjects. It is the instrument patterned after the model of "command and control," the
government being in command over the affairs of the people. On the other hand,
governance is closely associated with the concept of decentralization of power and the
need for inter-sectoral management. Governance is based on the realization that the
government cannot do everything for the people so that in order to survive the state
should not only rely on government but also on the other sectors of the society.
3. Thus, under the current trend, there is a need to move from the "traditional hierarchical
exercise of power by the government" to the new notion of a "dispersed and relational
power in governance" – from the government to governance. To govern should now
mean to facilitate or regulate, not to dominate or command.

GOVERNANCE HAS THREE LEGS:

 1. Economic governance includes decision-making processes that affect a country's
economic activities and its relationships with other economies. It clearly has major
implications for equity, poverty, and quality of life.
2. Political governance is the process of decision-making to formulate policy.
3. Administrative governance is the system of policy implementation.
CURRENT STATE OF GOVERNANCE IN THE PHILIPPINES
1. The Philippines is plagued by bad governance. Based on the six dimensions of
governance in the Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI), it ranks in the lower half of
the percentile. In 2010-2011, the Philippines ranked only 85th in the Global Competitive
Index (GCI), lagging behind most of its Southeast Asian neighbors. The decline of trust
on the actors of governance and the consequential poor economic condition were
brought about by the systemic corruption among and between public officials and private
organizations. In 2013, it ranked 94th among 177 countries in the Corruption Perception
Index. Among the key institutions in the Philippines perceived to be most corrupt based
on the Global Corruption Index are “political parties,” “judiciary,” “police,” “public officials
and civil servants,” and “legislature.” This means all branches of the Philippine
government are now challenged.
2. As perceived and experienced by the common Filipino masses, the foremost indicators
of bad governance in the Philippines are the unending cycle of poverty, the huge gap
between the rich and the poor, the deep-seated tradition of corruption, mistrust on formal
government institutions, yawning cynicism on the true motive of political actions,
instability of the economic environment, constant threats to the authority of the
established government, and questions on accountability and transparency. These are
the usual content of everyday broadcast media, so common that there perceived to be
the normal state of affairs in the Philippines.
3. Bad governance is the root cause of all evils. It is what prevents the Philippines from
achieving its Millennium Development Goals. Rising above such state of governance is a
political imperative and the ideal solution to a wide range of politico-economic problems.
While the Philippines has already created “islands of good governance” in some national
agencies and local government units, its overall state is still miserable.
PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Lesson 2: Political Ideologies
ANARCHISM
Anarchy is a political ideology which treats any fixed system of government as repressing. In
this political ideology, the government is unnecessary and is the cause of harm because it
controls people. Ownership of production should be common to everyone, with both economic
and political freedom as its goals.
Key Concepts:

 Freedom from Governing Authority- any form of state or government is rejected

ABSOLUTISM
Absolutism is an ideology that centralizes control to one individual, may it be by heredity or by
divine right. This may lead to societies treating their leaders as leader of both governmental and
religious affairs.
Key Concepts:

 Adherence to Order- societies are carefully designed to establish a stable structure.

 Compelling Natural/Divine Law- Law is supreme, and natural or divine right states that
there are certain people which are meant to rule.
 Obsession to Tradition- New ideas are considered dangerous to the order of things.
LIBERALISM
The ideology that focuses on equality and liberty. Liberalism advocates that every individual
should enjoy freedom. Government and States are created to ensure that people can enjoy their
rights. In such ideology, everybody is provided with basic rights- no person is born with more
rights than others. Thus, liberalism replaces previous ideas of hereditary privilege, state religion,
and other social structures which create different social classes.
Key Concepts:

 Individualism- focuses on the importance of the ‘self’ over society.

 Liberty- Every individual has the right to do anything it wants to, as long as it is not
illegal.
 Rationalism- the idea that humans are capable of thinking rationally and reasonably.
 Openness to Novelty- New ideas are accepted and treated as stepping stones towards
progress.
 Free Market- a byproduct of individualism. Individuals may own property, control means
of production, and set a market value for their goods.
CONSERVATISM
As a reaction to the liberalism, conservatism seeks to avoid the former's unstable tendencies. It
holds that certain traditions must be kept to maintain social stability. Human reason is
insufficient in trying to solve the problems of governance. In this sense, we must concede to the
traditional methods of governance, which is a collection of wisdom for many years past.
Key Concepts:

 Return to Tradition- Stability is an important concept of a government thus emphasizing

the need for traditional methods of having a hierarchy of power.
 Human fallibility- human beings are not perfect. Human rationality is limited and
therefore, prone to mistakes.
 Specific-concepts such as freedom are too general to be applied to a functional society.
 Unique Circumstances-societal problems do not come with universal solutions. Different
cultures will react differently to different problems.
SOCIALISM
Unlike other ideologies, socialism emphasizes social consciousness. Socialism emphasizes that
society should collectively own means of production; private ownership is discouraged. In such
cases, only the public owns a property, there is no free market as prices will be set by the
authority. Economic equality is strictly observed thus, there will be no rich nor poor. The state
provides everyone their necessities.
Key Concepts:

 Collectivism-as opposed to individualism, collectivism emphasizes collective good or

“the good of everyone” over the self.
 Public ownership-everyone owns the means of production; no private individual may
own or dispose of property.
 Centralized Economy- The government (public) plans the economy, thus there is no free
trade.
 Economic Equality- all citizens enjoy the same level of prosperity.
PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Lesson 3: Power
Definition of Power
There is no single definition of power different authority has its own definition of power. Let us
read some of the definitions:

 Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics- defines the term in the following words: The power
or rights to give orders and enforce obedience, the power to influence others based on
recognized knowledge or expertise.
 Robert Alan Dahl, an American political scientist, and educator defines power and
analyzed its various aspects. In his A Preface to Democratic Theory Dahl Calls power as
a type of relationship in respect of capability and control. Example: There are two men –
A and B if Individual A has power over individual B to the extent that he can get
individual B to do something that individual B would not otherwise do.
 Leslie Lipson (The Great Issues of Politics) thinks that power is nothing but the ability to
achieve results through concerted action.
 Max Weber (1947), power is the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their
own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others who are
participating in the action.
 Alvin Genldner (1970) noted that power is the ability to enforce one’s moral claims. The
powerful can conventionalize their moral defaults.
 Anthony Giddens (1997) A celebrated sociologist, sees power as the ability to make a
difference, to change things from what they could have been, as he puts it
“transformative” capacity.
 Steven Lukes (2005), Power has three dimensions or faces (1) decision-making, (2)
non-decision making (3) shaping desires.
Dimensions of Power
Stephen Lukes in his book, Power: A Radical View (1974) explains the nature and definition of
power through the “three dimensions of power or faces of power” He based his works from the
notions other scholars and claimed that power is exercised in three dimensions or faces,
namely (1) decision making (2) agenda setting (3) preference shaping.
The first dimension of power: Decision- Making
The first face of power as proposed by Dahl who viewed power as a relation among people, A
has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do something that he would not do. (Dahl
1957,201 cited in Hay 2002,172). It is the ability of a person to succeed in convincing others to
comply even if they don’t want to. In governmental power, this can be observed when the
government decides through a law that requires the obedience of the people. It is clear who is
making the decision and why they are making it.
The second dimension of power: Agenda Setting
The second face of power originates from the work of Bachrach and Baratz (1962,1963,1970)
Bachrach and Baratz coined their theory based on their criticism on the work of Dahl, they
claimed that a single dimension of power only focuses on the power to select from the list of
choices but fails to explain what is on the list so they proposed the second face of power, which
is the ability to manipulate the agenda. They argue that in addition to dahls claim that power is a
choice indirectly making decisions, to indirectly manipulate the decisions is also a realm of
power. They believed that power is not only about decision making but also setting the agenda
that leads to decisions. In government power, this can be perceived in decisions made behind
closed doors and corridors of power where power is held not only by elected officials but also by
agenda setters like a lobbyist, corporate sponsors, politicians and other interest groups who
influence decision making for personal gains.
The third dimension of power: Preference shaping
The third face of power is Ideological power. Lukes argues that Ideological power is an indirect
way of manipulating the mindset of anyone affected. People tend to believed that the decisions
they made are from their own free will but in reality, they made the decision due to the constraint
of society and they can't fathom of any other options but to accept biased decisions without
question. In government power, this appears in propaganda, creating speeches that are
designed to change minds before the decision is announced. For example, if the legislation is
against a certain bill, Congress or even senate will deliberately publicize how this bill is put into
law will negatively impact the lives of the people. Ideological power is dangerous because in
order to shape the preference or belief of the society trickery and psychological methods are
used to persuade society to shift their values or change what they considered important.
TYPES OF POWER
The inherent powers of the state are police power, the power of eminent domain, and the power
of taxation.
Further discussion of these powers can also be found in the Bill of Rights (Article 3) of the 1987
Philippine Constitution.
Types and Consequences of Power
FRENCH AND RAVEN 1959 DESCRIBED 5 TYPES OF POWER
1. Coercive - Power comes from the ability to punish someone for noncompliance. It is
based upon the idea of coercion or to force someone to do something against their will.
Coercive power, in general, has negative consequences. It decreases morale and instils
fear and mistrust.
2. Reward Power comes from the ability to issue rewards it allows people to exert influence
by giving rewards. If a reward is expected there is a high possibility of a positive
outcome but when rewards don't have enough perceived value, the power weakens.
3. Legitimate Power stems from formal right to command because of their position. This
type of power depends on the position held by a person exercising it. Legitimate power
may be derived from prevailing cultural values that assign legitimate power. This type
of power is unpredictable and unstable because if the individual loses the title or
position, legitimate power instantly disappear since the origin of power is from the
position and not from the person.
4. Expert Power comes from experience or knowledge. Power is derived from the
member's assumptions that the leader possesses superior skills, knowledge, and
 abilities. However, expertise is only a source of power if others are dependent upon the
experts.
5. Referent Power comes from being trusted or respected. The power is based upon the
ability of an individual to attract others and to build loyalty within. Referent power can
be easily abused. If the individual who rises to power lacks integrity and honesty, can
use that power to hurt and alienate people and can also use power to gain personal
advantage.
PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Lesson 4: States, Nations, and Globalization
NATION AND STATE
The words nation and state are often times used interchangeably. Do you know that nations and
state have their own identities? Let us examine the difference between nation and state.
State
A state is a group of people who lived together in a defined area we call this a territory under
one government generally this is what we think of as a country but the proper name states.
Elements of State

 People - There must be people residing in a state to be governed and to perform the
leadership role.
 Government - A state requires a functioning government with permanent institutions,
defined governmental functions, and centralized enforceable authority. Autonomy is the
ability of leaders to pursue goals without outside pressures while capacity refers to the
means of disposal of the state to implement the goals.
 Territory - A state must have a definite territory on which the people can reside. It does
not only consist of land but also water and air.
 Sovereignty - It is the inherent power of the state to impose its will on people free from
outside control.
Nation
A Nation is a large group of people who believed that they belong together because they share
common identities such as race, language, religion a common culture or all of the above. They
do not necessarily share a government or lived in one defined place or territory they are more of
a group of people who shares important similarities.
Nations are born out of a confluence of two factors (1) A group of people have cohesion in order
that community continues to exist as a distinct entity. (2) Individual members aspire to belong to
a homogenous community to have security and meaning.
Classification of Nation

 Ethnic Nations - An entity that is united on the basis of ethnicity. Populated by a single
ethnic group.
 Territorial Nations - An entity that is populated by various groups that have been
assimilated into a nation.
Globalization
Globalization is a process of growing exchange, Interaction between people, government and
private organizations across the globe. International trade, capital flows, migration, technological
transfer, and cultural exchanges are some of the typical manifestations of globalization.
Political globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization along with
economic and cultural globalization. The political dimension is a newer feature of globalization.
William R. Thompson has defined political globalization "as the expansion of a global political
system, and its institution, in which inter-regional transaction are managed". Valentine M.
Moghandam defines political globalization as "an increasing trend towards multilateralism in
which UN plays an important role, towards an emerging transnational state apparatus and
towards the emergence of national and international nongovernmental organizations that act as
watchdogs over governments and have increased their activities and influence."
Manfred B. Steger, in turn, wrote that political globalization refers to the intensification and
expansion of political interrelations across the globe".
Colin Crouch defines political globalization as the growing power of institutions of global
governance such as European Union, Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian
Nation, International Monetary Fund. The spread of its influence and transactional advocacy
networks operating across borders and constituting a kind of global society.' Gerald Delanty
and Chris Rumford defined political globalization as "tension between three processes which
interacts to produce the complex field of global politics: global geopolitics, global normative
culture, and polycentric networks.
How Globalization influences Nation-States
PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Lesson 5: Historical Background of Philippine Democratic Politics
History of the Philippine Politics
PRE - COLONIAL PERIOD
A long time ago, the Philippines was already home to native settlers. The Negritos, the
Indonesians, and the Malays race of origin, they were believed to be the first migrant tribes to
reach the country. The Pre-colonial period of the Philippines had a rich political landscape
consisting of polities. In strengthening societies was to make alliances and networks rather than
territorial conquest in expanding their political power. Trades and commerce prospered as
described and documented in other countries whose early traders reached the Philippines.
But also, Barrow (2011) described that the early political and social life of Filipino was so
weak. He said that there were in the Philippines no large states, nor even great rajas and
sultans such as were found in the Malay Archipelago, but instead on every island were a
multitude of small communities, each independent of the other and frequently waging war.
Examples of small communities were the Chiefdoms of P’u-tuan (Butuan), Ma-i (Mindoro), Sulu,
Maguindanao, Cebu, and etc.
When the Spaniards arrived in the country, they learned the presence of chieftains (Hari,
Datu, or Sultan) in every polity they encountered. They realized that they needed to persuade
and build collaboration later with these chieftains. These small communities are called and
organized as Barangay (Balangay) and Sultanate, with about thirty to one hundred families.
Why is it necessary for the Spaniards to establish good terms with the Chieftains or
Sultans? It was because during their time, what they observed as power connected to the
position/role of a chieftain or Sultan in a polity was so great. For example, the chieftain is the
one responsible in decision making covering all aspects (social, cultural, spiritual, and political)
that affects their community life. The responsibility of decision making means it covers the
power of Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary (discussed at a later part). He is helped, of
course, by community elders and cultural/religious leaders/Masters. The presence of a
community head or leader signifies the existence of a law. There was then a written or an oral
Law followed obediently. Examples of these were the Maragtas Code by Datu Sumaktel of
Panay (1250), the Code of Kalantiaw in 1433, Koran, and the Sunnah.
Women, in the polities of the early Filipinos, must not also be belittled. In the early times,
remember that political engagement was more on alliance rather than conquest. And, among
the popular strategies employed were intermarriages, food trades, and ritual feasting where
women actively participated as expected by their customs and traditions.
Ballano (2016) said that to understand our Philippine government is to understand the
three branches of the Government (Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary). Let us simply define
these three branches of government to help us observe how these evolved over time. A
separate module will discuss this in-depth with you later.

 EXECUTIVE BRANCH - Is the branch of the government that executes Laws.

 LEGISLATIVE BRANCH - Is the branch of the government that creates Laws.
  JUDICIARY BRANCH - Is the branch of the government that interprets the Laws,
including its penalties if it was obstructed or disobeyed.

SPANISH PERIOD
During the Spanish period, the three branches of government are still identifiable. There were
also two units of government employed: The Central Government and the Local Government
(Balleno, 2016). Most importantly to know, the Philippines was under the sovereign power of the
King of Spain - who solely has the authority to appoint his representative (Governor-General).

Two Units of Government

Central Government
Branch: Executive
Governor-General:

 Appointed by the King of Spain as his representative in the colony and with the
following executive powers:
1. Commander-in-chief of the armed forces in the colony.
2. The highest Authority who can appoint colonial officials and reserves the
power to remove them, except those appointed directly by the king.
3. Vice-royal patron or king's representative with the power to recommend
priests, declare war or peace, and appoint or receive ambassadors.
4. Administrator of the Marianas, the Carolines, and the Palaus as part of
the Philippines during the Spanish times.
5. Chief justice/President of the Royal Audiencia (Supreme Court).
Branch: Judiciary
Royal Audiencia (Supreme Court):
Stands as the Supreme Court of the Philippines during the Spanish times. Its decision
was final except on cases of great importance which could be appealed to the King of Spain.

Local Government
Branch: Executive
Province, Cities, Towns, Barrios & Pueblo:
Provinces have two types: The Alcadia (Province where people recognized Spain's
possession over the land) and Coregimiento (Province where people had not
succumbed to Spain's ruling power).
 The growth of the Philippines as a colony of Spain, from the time of the first Governor-
General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1569 up to the time before the 1986 revolutions, is not
commendable for Spaniards. Because for what 1986 Filipino uprising is all about if Filipinos
were contented as the colony of Spain in general.
From 1568 - 1815, Manila - Acapulco galleon trade makes the Philippine (as a colony of
Spain) the regional center of trade in Southeast Asia (please use the above map for reference).
Goods such as spices from the Moluccas, pepper from Ceylon, ivory from China, and India are
transported going to Mexico. While the Philippines exports gold, wax, cordage, and cotton
textiles. But it was never an advantage on the part of Filipinos. Some reasons are enumerated
as follows:

 Polo y Servicio - Filipinos work in the shipyards forcibly. They cut and transport
timber to the coast and construction of the galleons, but they receive less than
the Spanish Sailors. These are the reasons why the Pampanga revolt in 1660.
 Encomienda - It is a policy of reward for performing crown servants of Spain in a
colony like the Philippines. It is taking over a portion of land and its population for
purposes of tribute, census, and workers.
 Bandala - The provincial commodity quota. Filipinos are obligated to produce the
quota of goods but paid at a very low price.

THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

On August 30, 1896, Spanish Governor-General Ramon Blanco placed the eight
provinces of the Philippines under martial law, namely Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga,
Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva Ecija. It was because of the uprising of hundreds of
rebels and Katipuneros led by Andres Bonifacio aiming for independence started at the Cry of
Pugad Lawin. Following Bonifacio's death in 1897, the Katipunan was headed by Emilio
Aguinaldo. Since then, there was a continuous state of war between the Filipinos and
Spaniards.
How did the war end? The answer is Pack of the Biak – na – Bato on December 15,
1897. It was a truce that brings Aguinaldo's exile in Hong Kong. However, in 1889, war broke
out between the United States of America and Spain. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines
together with the Americans signaling the resumption of Revolution against Spain on May 19,
1898.

THE AMERICAN PERIOD and THE FIRST PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC

On August 13, 1889, the Mock Battle of Manila between America and Spanish forces
happened. Emphasizing that it is a mock battle because the engagement already been planned
to license America in their occupation of the country. It was a fact that in the Treaty of Paris,
America paid $20,000,000 to Spain in exchange for the Philippines. Aguinaldo proclaimed
Philippine independence at Cawit, Cavite, on June 12, 1898 (known as the Philippine
provisional government).
 By January 4, 1899, American President McKinley sends a special message to General
Otis stating American sovereignty must be recognized in the Philippines without conditions.
However, Filipinos longed for independence so much that they feared other colonizers would
invade again. Declaration of war between the Philippines and America happened. During those
days, the revolutionary government was drafting the Malolos Constitution until the inauguration
of the Republic on January 23, 1899. Agoncillo commented that the Malolos constitution is the
first important Filipino document ever produced by the people's representatives. It creates a
Filipino state with a government that is popular, representative, and responsible. It also has
three distinct branches - the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. Don Emilio Aguinaldo
was elected as the first President of the Republic of the Philippines with all his cabinets and
secretaries (bureaucracy). However, Aguinaldo was defeated and captured eventually in
Palanan, Cagayan. He remained President of the Philippine First Republic until June of 1901.

AMERICAN COLONIAL PERIOD

The Military Government (headed by a general, serving as the chief political executive of
an area under military government) was a temporary government established by the Americans
in the Philippines at first. It was replaced with the Taft Commission - which started organizing
local governments. However, since there were still places unpacified after Aguinaldo's capture,
some areas were placed under Military Governor. On the other hand, pacified areas were under
the control of Civil Governors.
The time came when the U.S Congress enacted the Philippine Organic Act, which
abolished the Office of the military governor but created the Philippine assembly composed of
elected Filipino leaders. The Taft Commission in the Philippine Commission became the upper
house. The Organic Act served as the Philippine basic law until it was replaced by the 1935
Constitution.

THE COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT AND THE SECOND REPUBLIC

On November 15, 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth Government was inaugurated.
America promised the Philippines liberation only if they were ready. It all started with the Jones
Law of 1916, followed by the Tydings-McDuffie Act. There were missions deployed to the U.S.
to lobby for independence. The Constitution of the Commonwealth established a presidential
system of Government, a unicameral legislature, but it was then replaced with the bicameral
legislature in 1940.
As the Filipinos were hoping for independence, the Second World War broke out on
December 8, 1941. The aggressive Japanese tried to invade the Philippines, prompting
President Manuel L. Quezon and his Cabinet to leave for the United States. While the President
was in exile, the commonwealth government functioned to represent the country continually
outside the country. But the Philippines back home was one step closer to its defeat when the
Japanese captured Corregidor, Bataan, and the USAFFE defense collapsed on April 3, 1942.
During the war, some Filipino elite leaders collaborated extensively with the Japanese in
their harsh exploitation of the country. But it was then claimed as advised by President Quezon
before his exile. The First President of the Second Republic, Dr. Jose P. Laurel, regretted
becoming one of them.

While the Japanese thought of winning the war, Filipino organized into groups called
guerillas and once again joined forces with the Americans. The largest guerilla group formed
was called the HUKBALAHAP (People's Anti-Japanese Army) led by Luis Taruc. The
Philippines and the Americans were victorious. The World War II ended. However,
unexpectedly, the Americans disarmed and imprisoned Luis Taruc and other leaders and
members of the Huk.

THE THIRD, FOURTH, & FIFTH REPUBLIC

On July 4, 1946, is the day of the inauguration of the Third Philippine Republic. Hence
from 1946 to 1962, they celebrated Independence Day on that date. But in 1964, Congress
assigned June 12 of every year as the date on which we celebrate Philippine Independence.
That was to commemorate June 12, 1898, the Proclamation of Philippine Independence at
Kawit, Cavite. But July 4 was remembered as Republic Day.

Third Republic of the Philippines

The Roxas Administration (May 28, 1946 – April 15, 1948)
Problems & Issues:

 Facing the aftermath of war

 Severe damages in all aspects of human condition
Actions:

 Reorganized the government

o Established the Rehabilitation Finance Corporation (reorganized as the
Development Bank of the Philippines in 1958)
o Creation of the Department of Foreign Affairs
o Central Bank of the Philippines

The Quirino Administration (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953)

Problems & Issues:

 Low confidence in the government (insurgency) and problems on Peace and Order due
to socio-economic problems, especially in rural areas (labor disputes)
Actions:

 Established the Action Committee on Social Amelioration

 Established the Social Security Study Commission
 Established the Labor Management Advisory Board
  Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration
 Started peace negotiations to persuade HUKBALAHAP leaders by granting amnesty
 EDCOR (Economic Development Corps)
 LASEDECO (Land Settlement & Development Corporation)

The Magsaysay Administration (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957)

Problems & Issues:

 Communism & insurgency (HUKBALAHAP)

 Land Reform Problems
 Lack of funding for rehabilitation from damages of WWII
Actions:

 Agricultural Tenancy Act of the Philippines

 The Land Reform Act of 1955
 Court of Agrarian Relations
 National Resettlement & Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA)
 Manila Pact of 1954 that led to the establishment of the (SEATO)
 Luis Taruk surrendered in 1954
 The Laurel-Langley Agreement

The Garcia Administration (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961)

Problems & Issues:

 Not good condition of the economy

 Corruption in Government
 Imbalance condition of product imports and exports
Actions:

 "Filipino First Policy"

 "Austerity Program"
 Anti-Graft Corrupt Practices Act
 Bohlen-Serrano Agreement of 1959

The Macapagal Administration (December 30, 1961 – December 30, 1965)

Problems & Issues:

 Low living standards of the masses

 Lack of economic stability
 Unemployment
 Devaluation of the Philippine Peso
  Revocation of 350 midnight appointments
Actions:

 Agricultural Land Reform Code (an act establishing the Land Bank of the Philippines)
 Emergency Employment Administration (established the Philippine Veterans Bank)
 National Cottage Industries Development Authority
 Philippine National Railway
 Lifted foreign exchange to promote national economic stability and growth

The Marcos Administration (December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986)

Problems & Issues:

 Unemployment
 Destabilized Economy
 Rampant Corruption in the Government and abuse of authority and power
 Increased crime rates (before martial law) due to poverty
Actions:

 Reorganizes the government and the Armed Forces, the Philippine Constabulary, the
Bureau of Internal Revenue, and the establishment of the Cultural Center of the
Philippines (1969)
 Investments Incentive Act
 Police Act
 Philippine Coast Guard

Fourth Republic of the Philippines

The Corazon C. Aquino Administration

 Second President of the Fourth Republic

 First President of the Fifth Republic
Problems & Issues:

 Political Turmoil
 Displeased citizens
 Shortage/Rampant Brownouts
Actions:

 Commissioned a referendum that would be the framework of the new government (1987
Constitution)
 Privatization
 Land Reform
 Free Secondary Schooling
Fifth Republic of the Philippines
President Fidel V. Ramos

 2nd President of the Fifth Republic

Problems & Issues:

 Poverty
 Moro insurgency
Actions:

 Social Reform Agenda

 Build – Operate Transport
 MNLF peace Agreement

Joseph E. Estrada

 3rd President of the Fifth Republic

 Was impeached on November 12, 2000
Problems & Issues:

 Poverty
 Moro Insurgency
 Impeachment
Actions:

 MILF All Out War

 ERAP Para sa Mahirap
 Anti-Graft and Corruption Campaign

Gloria M. Arroyo

 4th President of the Fifth Republic

 The constitution allows the president to run for a second term since she was sworn into
office by succession and served in less than 4 years.
Problems & Issues:

 Political unrest
 Terrorism
 Electoral fraud scandal
 Charter Change controversial Plan
 Recession
Actions:

 All out Peace

 Declared Martial Law in the region of Mindoro

Benigno Simeon C. Aquino III

 5th President of the Fifth Republic

Problems & Issues:

 National leadership’s legitimacy was in question

 Confused people with half-truths and outright lies
 No lasting solutions for the many problems of the country
 Weak democratic institutions that hold our leaders accountable
 No vision of governance beyond political survival and self-enrichment
 Political instability, corruption, inefficient government bureaucracy, and weak rule of law
characterized the state of governance when he became president (Philippine
development plan 2011-2016, chapter
Actions:

 Pantawid pamilyang pilipino program (4ps)

 Universal philhealth coverage (financial risk protection)
 Enhanced basic education (k-12 program)
 Comprehensive agrarian reform program
 Housing program for informal settler families in danger areas
 Matuwid na daan
 Kung walang kurap walang mahirap
 Transformational leadership

Rodrigo R. Duterte

 6th President of Fifth Republic

Ferdinand Marcos Jr.

 The current President of our Country

PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Lesson 6: The Executive
Executive Branch of Government
The executive departments of the Philippines are the largest component of the executive
branch of the government of the Philippines. These departments comprise the largest part of the
country's bureaucracy. The secretaries of these departments are referred to as the Cabinet of
the Philippines—these two, however, are not synonymous with each other since some members
of the Cabinet do not have their own respective departments. Under the mandate of the 1973
Constitution during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, executive departments were converted
into ministries from 1978 until the end of his administration. For example, the Department of
Education became the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports. Twenty-one departments
have been established since then.
Article VII, Section 1, of the 1987 Constitution vests executive power in the President of
the Philippines. The President is the Head of State and Head of Government, and functions as
the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. As chief executive, the
President exercises control over all the executive departments, bureaus, and offices.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES

The President of the Philippines is elected by direct vote by the people for a term of six
years. He may only serve for one term and is ineligible for reelection. The term of the President
of the Philippines starts at noon on the 30th day of June after the election.
Qualifications:
The qualifications for an individual aspiring to become the President of the Philippines are
outlined in Article VII, Section 2 of the 1987 Constitution. According to the constitution, an
individual may become President provided he meets the following criteria:

 natural-born Filipino;
 a registered voter;
 must be able to read and write;
 40 years of age on the day of the election; and
 must have resided in the Philippines for ten years before the election is held.
History
The President of the Philippines is elected by direct vote of the people and has a term of
six years with no provision for reelection. There have been 15 Presidents of the Philippines
since the establishment of the office on January 23, 1899, in the Malolos Republic. President
Emilio Aguinaldo is the inaugural holder of the office and held the position until March 23, 1901,
when he was captured by the Americans during the Philippine-American War.
The Office of the President of the Philippines was abolished after the capture of
Aguinaldo and ceased to exist until the inauguration of the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935.
After the first national elections were held on September 16, 1935, Manuel L. Quezon was
elected as the second President of the Philippines and the first President of the Philippine
Commonwealth. Originally elected to a six-year term, President Quezon would stay in office
until 1944 because the 1935 Constitution was amended in 1940 to allow reelection but
shortened the term of the President to four years. Quezon was elected again in 1941; however,
due to constitutional limitations, he would not have served the full four years—his term started
on November 15, 1935, and thus would end on November 15, 1943. In 1943, however,
President Quezon had to take an emergency oath of office, extending his term because of the
outbreak of World War II.
When World War II forced the Philippine Commonwealth into exile, a different
government would be installed in the Philippines, which would later be known as the Second
Republic of the Philippines. Jose P. Laurel would lead this government as the third President of
the Philippines and the only President of the Second Republic.
Laurel stayed in office from 1943 to 1944 when the Second Republic was abolished. At
this point, the President of the Second Republic would overlap with the President of the
Commonwealth. On September 17, 1945, however, the laws of the Second Republic were
declared null and void by the Supreme Court. The Philippine Commonwealth would be
reestablished in Philippine soil in 1945 with President Sergio Osmeña as the second President
of the Commonwealth and the fourth President of the Philippines. Osmeña took his oath of
office in the United States after the demise of President Quezon. Osmeña would run in the first
post-war presidential elections held in 1946 but lost to Senate President Manuel Roxas.
President Roxas was elected in 1946 as the third President of the Philippine Commonwealth,
the first President of the independent Republic of the Philippines, and the fifth President of the
Philippines. He would usher in the end of the Philippine Commonwealth on July 4, 1946, and
the birth of the Third Republic. Roxas would be followed by Presidents Elpidio Quirino, Ramon
Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, and Diosdado Macapagal as the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth,
seventh, eighth, and ninth President of the Third Republic and the Philippines, respectively.
President Ferdinand E. Marcos became the last President of the Third Republic when he
declared martial law in 1972. While the 1973 Constitution suspended the 1935 Constitution, he
only formally proclaimed the “New Republic”—the Fourth—in 1981. Marcos became the first
President of the Fourth Republic and the tenth President of the Philippines overall. Marcos
stayed in office for 20 years—the longest-serving President of the Philippines. In 1986, the
EDSA Revolution successfully installed Corazon C. Aquino as the new President of the
Philippines—the 11th in the country’s history. President Aquino served as the second and last
President of the Fourth Republic at the beginning of her term. A transitional, Freedom
Constitution was put into effect in the same year. When the 1987 Constitution was put into full
force and effect, the Fourth Republic ended, and the Fifth Republic was inaugurated. Thus,
President Aquino became the first President of the Fifth Republic. She would be followed by
Presidents Fidel V. Ramos, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, and Benigno S.
Aquino III as the second, third, fourth, and fifth President of the Fifth Republic and the 12th,
13th, 14th, and 15th President of the Philippines, respectively. The previous President, Rodrigo
Roa Duterte, is the sixth President of the Fifth Republic and the 16th President of the
Philippines.
POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT
Besides the constitution, the powers of the President of the Philippines are specifically
outlined in Executive Order No. 292, s. 1987, also known as the Administrative Code of 1987.
The following powers are:

1. Power of control over the executive branch: The President has control over all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices, including restructuring, reconfiguring, and
appointments of their respective officials. The President is also responsible for ensuring
these offices strictly implement laws.
2. Power of ordinance: The President has the power to issue executive issuances, which
are means to streamline the policy and programs of an administration. There are six
types of issuances that the President may issue:
 Executive orders: Providing rules of a general or permanent character in
implementation or execution of constitutional or statutory powers.
 Administrative orders: Relating to particular aspects of governmental operations.
 Proclamations: Fixing a date or declaring a status or condition of public moment
or interest, upon which the operation of a specific law or regulation depends.
 Memorandum orders: Addressing matters of administrative detail or subordinate
interest.
 Memorandum circulars: Concerning matters relating to internal administration.
 General or special orders: Acts and commands in the capacity as commander-in-
chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.
During President Ferdinand E. Marcos's term, presidential decrees were used as
a form of legislation until President Corazon C. Aquino's term when executive
orders were used. These decrees had the full force and effect of laws.
3. Power over aliens: The President has powers over non-Filipinos in the Philippines,
including the authority to:
 Deport aliens from the Philippines after due process.
 Change the status of a foreigner from a non-immigrant status to a permanent
resident status.
 Overrule the decisions of the Board of Commissioners of the Bureau of
Immigration before their decisions become final and executory.
 The President must also exercise powers as recognized by generally accepted
principles of international law.
4. Powers of eminent domain, escheat, land reservation, and recovery of ill-gotten wealth:
The President has the authority to exercise the power of eminent domain, which allows
the state to seize private property for public use with just compensation. The President
can also direct escheat or reversion proceedings over lands transferred to disqualified
persons and recover ill-gotten properties unlawfully acquired by public officials or
employees.
 5. Power of appointment: The President may appoint officials of the Philippine government
as provided by the constitution and laws. Some appointments may require approval from
the Committee on Appointments, composed of members from the House of
Representatives and the Senate of the Philippines.
6. Power of general supervision over local governments: The President, as chief executive,
can supervise local governments in the Philippines, despite their autonomous status
provided by the Local Government Code of 1991. This supervision is traditionally carried
out by the Department of the Interior and Local Government, headed by a cabinet
secretary who acts as an alter ego of the President.
7. Other powers: Besides the mentioned powers, the President can also exercise powers
enumerated in the constitution and those given by law.

Line of Succession:
The constitution provides a line of succession in the event the elected President cannot
fulfill their duties due to death, disability, or resignation. The following is the line of succession:

 Vice President: In cases of the death, disability, or resignation of the President.

 Senate President: In cases of the death, disability, or resignation of the President and
Vice President.
 Speaker of the House of Representatives: In cases of the death, disability, or resignation
of the President, Vice President, and Senate President.
Contrary to popular belief, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is not included in the
President's line of succession. The Congress of the Philippines is mandated to enact a law
calling for a special election three days after a vacancy occurs in the Office of the President and
Vice President. This special election should take place within 40 days of the enactment of the
law but no later than 60 days after the law's enactment.

VICE PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES

The Vice President of the Philippines is elected by direct vote by the people for a term of
six years, with the possibility of running for reelection once. The term of the Vice President
starts at noon on the 30th day of June after a regular election is held.
QUALIFICATIONS
The qualifications for the Office of the Vice President are outlined in Article VII, Section 3
of the constitution. According to the constitution, the qualifications for the Vice President are the
same as those for the President.

HISTORY
The Vice President of the Philippines is elected via a direct vote for a six-year term, with
the option of taking on a cabinet portfolio concurrently if chosen by the President. The Malolos
Constitution, the first constitution of the Philippines, did not provide for a Vice President; it only
had provisions for a president and a prime minister. The first legal basis for the existence of the
office came in 1935 with the inauguration of the Commonwealth government.
There have been 12 Vice Presidents in the Philippines since its establishment in 1935.
Sergio Osmeña was the inaugural holder of the position, serving until 1944. He took his oath
after the 1935 elections, once again after being reelected in 1941 before the government went
into exile, and a third time in the United States when the terms of the Philippine government-in-
exile officials expired and were extended.
Elpidio Quirino was elected as the second Vice President in 1946 under the
Commonwealth government, transitioning to the Third Republic on July 4, 1946. Quirino was
followed by Fernando Lopez, Carlos P. Garcia, and Emmanuel Pelaez. Fernando Lopez was
elected for two terms until the Office of the Vice President was abolished on September 23,
1972, with the declaration of martial law. The 1973 Constitution did not provide for a Vice
President, and the position remained abolished until constitutional amendments were made in
1978.
The position was filled in 1986 by Arturo Tolentino, running mate of President Ferdinand
Marcos during the 1986 Snap Elections. On February 15, 1986, the Batasang Pambansa
certified the COMELEC results, proclaiming the Marcos-Tolentino ticket as winners of the
election. Arturo Tolentino took his oath as Vice President on February 16, 1986, but his term
lasted only a few days before the EDSA Revolution installed new leadership. When the 1987
Constitution was ratified, Salvador Laurel Jr. became the inaugural Vice President.
Since the institution of the 1987 Constitution, the Fifth Republic has had six Vice
Presidents, with five being elected (Laurel, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo,
Noli De Castro, and Jejomar Binay), and one being appointed and confirmed by Congress
(Teofisto Guingona Jr.).

DUTIES OF THE VICE PRESIDENT

According to the constitution, the Vice President may concurrently assume a cabinet
position if offered by the President of the Philippines. The Vice President will become a
secretary concurrent to the position of Vice President. Additionally, the Vice President is
mandated to assume the presidency in case of the death, disability, or resignation of the
incumbent President.

LINE OF SUCCESSION
In the event of a vacancy in the Office of the Vice President, the President of the
Philippines is required by the constitution to nominate a replacement with the concurrence of the
Committee on Appointments.

CABINET SECRETARIES
FUNCTIONS OF A CABINET SECRETARY
 Cabinet secretaries act as the alter ego of the President, executing the power of the
Office of the President within their respective departments. The number of cabinet secretaries
varies depending on the administration's needs. According to the Administrative Code of 1987,
the President may create or dissolve any department as deemed fit.

APPOINTMENT OF CABINET SECRETARIES

According to Article 7, Section 16 of the constitution, the President may appoint anyone
to executive departments with the consent of the Commission on Appointments. Names of
individuals nominated to cabinet posts are submitted to the Commission on Appointments for
consideration. An individual cannot assume their post in a department unless confirmed by the
Commission on Appointments.
However, the constitution provides for individuals to become cabinet secretaries in an
acting capacity before confirmation. According to Article VII, Section 16 of the constitution, the
President may appoint anyone to cabinet posts even if Congress is in recess. These
appointments are valid until the Commission on Appointments disapproves them or at the end
of the next session of Congress.
Not all cabinet members are subject to confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments. The Commission of Appointments website lists the following as needing
confirmation:
1. Executive Secretary
2. Secretary of Agrarian Reform
3. Secretary of Agriculture
4. Secretary of Budget and Management
5. Secretary of Education
6. Secretary of Energy
7. Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources
8. Secretary of Finance
9. Secretary of Foreign Affairs
10. Secretary of Health
11. Secretary of Justice
12. Secretary of Labor and Employment
13. Secretary of National Defense
14. Secretary of Public Works and Highways
15. Secretary of Science and Technology
16. Secretary of Social Welfare and Development
17. Secretary of the Interior and Local Government
18. Secretary of Trade and Industry
19. Secretary of Transportation and Communications
20. Secretary of Tourism
21. Commission on Higher Education
22. Director General of the National Economic and Development Authority
POWERS OF A CABINET SECRETARY
 As stated earlier, a cabinet secretary is the alter ego of the President in their respective
departments, possessing the power to issue directives, such as department orders, relative to
their departments. These orders apply only to offices under the specific department's
jurisdiction. Cabinet secretaries also act as advisors to the President for their respective areas.

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
The executive branch extends beyond the national government. According to Article X,
Section 4 of the constitution, the President of the Philippines is mandated to supervise local
governments all over the country. However, because of Republic Act No. 7160, otherwise
known as the Local Government Code of 1991, local governments enjoy relative autonomy from
the national government.
Among the social services and facilities that local governments should provide, as
stipulated in Section 17 of the Local Government Code, are the following:

 Facilities and research services for agriculture and fishery activities, which include
seedling nurseries, demonstration farms, and irrigation systems.
 Health services, which include access to primary health care, maternal and child care,
and medicines, medical supplies, and equipment.
 Social welfare services, which include programs and projects for women, children, the
elderly, and persons with disabilities, as well as vagrants, beggars, street children,
juvenile delinquents, and victims of drug abuse.
 Information services, which include job placement information systems and a public
library.
 A solid waste disposal system or environmental management system.
 Municipal/city/provincial buildings, cultural centers, public parks, playgrounds, and sports
facilities and equipment.
 Infrastructure facilities such as roads, bridges, school buildings, health clinics, fish ports,
water supply systems, seawalls, dikes, drainage and sewerage, and traffic signals and
road signs.
 Public markets, slaughterhouses, and other local enterprises.
 Public cemetery.
 Tourism facilities and other tourist attractions.
 Sites for police and fire stations and substations and municipal jails.
Local government units also have the power to create their sources of revenue and to
levy taxes, fees, and charges that shall accrue exclusively to them. Each local government has
its own chief executive. The following is the list of local chief executives:

 Barangay — Punong Barangay (Barangay Chairman)

 Municipality — Municipal Mayor
 City — City Mayor
 Province — Provincial Governor
The local chief executives have the power to approve or veto local ordinances
recommended by the local legislators.
PUNONG BARANGAY
The Punong Barangay, as the chief executive of the barangay government, shall
exercise and perform the following powers and functions:

 Enforce all laws and ordinances which are applicable within the barangay.
 Negotiate, enter into, and sign contracts for and on behalf of the barangay, upon
authorization of the Sangguniang Barangay.
 Maintain public order in the barangay.
 Call and preside over the sessions of the Sangguniang Barangay and the Barangay
Assembly.
 Appoint or replace the barangay treasurer, the barangay secretary, and other appointive
barangay officials.
 Organize and lead an emergency group for the maintenance of peace and order or on
occasions of emergency or calamity within the barangay.
 Prepare the annual executive and supplemental budgets of the barangay, in
coordination with the Barangay Development Council.
 Approve vouchers relating to the disbursement of barangay funds.
 Enforce laws and regulations relating to pollution control and protection of the
environment.
 Administer the operation of the Katarungang Pambarangay.
 Exercise general supervision over the activities of the Sangguniang Kabataan.
 Ensure the delivery of basic social services and access to facilities.
 Conduct an annual palarong barangay which shall feature traditional sports and
disciplines included in national and international games.
 Promote the general welfare of the barangay.

MUNICIPAL AND CITY MAYORS

The municipal mayor and city mayor, as the chief executive of the municipal government
and city government, respectively, shall exercise and perform the following powers and
functions:
1. Exercise general supervision and control over all programs, projects, services, and activities
of the municipal or city government:
 Determine the guidelines of municipal policies and be responsible to the Sangguniang
Bayan or Panlungsod for the program of government.
 Direct the formulation of the municipal or city development plan.
 Present the program of government and propose policies and projects for consideration
at the opening of the regular session of the Sangguniang Bayan or Panlungsod.
 Initiate and propose legislative measures to the Sangguniang Bayan or Panlungsod.
 Represent the municipality or city in all its business transactions and sign on its behalf all
bonds, contracts, and obligations, upon authorization by the Sangguniang Bayan.
 Carry out emergency measures as may be necessary during and in the aftermath of
man-made and natural disasters.
  Examine the books, records, and other documents of all offices, officials, agents, or
employees of the municipality or city.
 Visit component barangays of the municipality or city at least once every six months.
 Solemnize marriages, any provision of law to the contrary notwithstanding.
 Conduct a palarong bayan or panlungsod.
 Submit to the provincial governor an annual report on the administration of the
municipality or city, and supplemental reports when unexpected events and situations
such as calamities arise.

2. Enforce all laws and ordinances, and implement all approved policies, programs, projects,
services, and activities of the municipality or city:

 Issue executive orders as are necessary for the proper enforcement and execution of
laws and ordinances.
 Call conventions, seminars, or meetings of any elective and appointive officials of the
municipality or city.
 Formulate and implement the peace and order plan of the municipality or city.
 Call upon the appropriate law enforcement agencies to suppress disorder, riot, lawless
violence, rebellion, or sedition or to apprehend violators of the law.

3. Initiate and maximize the generation of resources and revenues, to be used for the
implementation of development plans, program objectives, and priorities:
 Prepare and submit to the Sangguniang Bayan or Panlungsod for approval the annual
executive and supplemental budgets of the municipality or city.
 Ensure that all taxes and other revenues of the municipality or city are collected.
 Issue, suspend, or revoke licenses and permits.
 Adopt measures to safeguard and conserve land, mineral, marine, forest, and other
resources of the municipality or city.
 Provide efficient and effective property and supply management in the municipality or
city and protect the funds, credits, rights, and other properties of the municipality or city.
 Institute or cause to be instituted administrative or judicial proceedings for violation of
ordinances in the collection of taxes, fees, or charges, and for the recovery of funds and
property.
4. Ensure the delivery of basic services and the provision of adequate facilities as provided for
under Section 17 of the Local Government Code.

PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS
The provincial governor, as the chief executive of the provincial government, shall
exercise and perform the following powers and duties:
1. Exercise general supervision and control over all programs, projects, services, and activities
of the provincial government:
 Determine the guidelines of municipal policies and be responsible to the Sangguniang
Panlalawigan for the program of government.
  Direct the formulation of the provincial development plan.
 Present the program of government and propose policies and projects for consideration
at the opening of the regular session of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan.
 Initiate and propose legislative measures to the Sangguniang Panlalawigan.
 Represent the province in all its business transactions and sign on its behalf all bonds,
contracts, and obligations, upon authorization by the Sangguniang Panlalawigan.
 Carry out emergency measures as may be necessary during and in the aftermath of
man-made and natural disasters.
 Examine the books, records, and other documents of all offices, officials, agents, or
employees of the province.
 Furnish copies of executive orders issued by him to the Office of the President within 72
hours after their issuance.
 Visit component cities and municipalities at least once every six months.
 Represent the province in inter-provincial or regional sports councils or committees and
coordinate the efforts of component cities or municipalities in the regional or national
palaro or sports development activities.
 Conduct an annual palarong panlalawigan.
 Submit to the Office of the President an annual report on the administration and
development of the province, and supplemental reports when unexpected events and
situations such as calamities arise.

2. Enforce all laws and ordinances, and implement all approved policies, programs, projects,
services, and activities of the province:
 Issue executive orders as are necessary for the proper enforcement and execution of
laws and ordinances.
 Call conventions, seminars, or meetings of any elective and appointive officials of the
province.
 In coordination with the component cities and municipalities and the National Police
Commission, formulate and implement the peace and order plan of the province.
 Call upon the appropriate law enforcement agencies to suppress disorder, riot, lawless
violence, rebellion, or sedition or to apprehend violators of the law.

3. Initiate and maximize the generation of resources and revenues, to be used for the
implementation of development plans, program objectives, and priorities:
 Prepare and submit to the Sangguniang Panlalawigan for approval the annual executive
and supplemental budgets of the province.
 Ensure that all taxes and other revenues of the province are collected.
 Issue, suspend, or revoke licenses and permits.
 Adopt measures to safeguard and conserve land, mineral, marine, forest, and other
resources of the province.
 Provide efficient and effective property and supply management in the province and
protect the funds, credits, rights, and other properties of the province.
 Institute or cause to be instituted administrative or judicial proceedings for violation of
ordinances in the collection of taxes, fees, or charges, and for the recovery of funds and
property.
  Ensure the delivery of basic services and the provision of adequate facilities as provided
for under Section 17 of the Local Government Code.

TERM LIMITS
The offices of the abovementioned local chief executives are limited to three consecutive
three-year terms. Once they end their third term, they may not run for reelection, but may run
again once they let one term pass.

PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

Lesson 7: The Legislative
Legislative Power
According to Section 1 of Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution: “The legislative
power shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines which shall consist of a Senate and a
House of Representatives, except to the extent reserved to the people by the provision on
initiative and referendum.”
The legislative power is vested in a bicameral body, the Congress of the Philippines,
which is composed of two houses -- the Senate and the House of Representatives. The
Legislative Branch enacts legislation, confirms or rejects Presidential appointments, and has the
authority to declare war. The Congress of the Philippines is the country's highest lawmaking
body.

Senate
The Senate shall be composed of twenty-four Senators who shall be elected at large by
the qualified voters of the Philippines, as may be provided by law.
The qualifications to become a senator, as stipulated in the constitution, are:

 a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;

 at least thirty-five years old;
 is able to read and write;
 a registered voter; and
 a resident of the Philippines for not less than two years before election day.

House of Representatives
The House of Representatives shall be composed of not more than two hundred and fifty
(250) members, unless otherwise fixed by law, who shall be elected from legislative districts
apportioned among the provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with
the number of their respective inhabitants, and on the basis of a uniform and progressive ratio,
and those who, as provided by law, shall be elected through a party-list system of registered
national, regional, and sectoral parties or organizations.
Meanwhile, the constitution provides for the following criteria to become a member of the
House of Representatives:

 a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;

 at least twenty-five years old;
 is able to read and write; and
 except for party-list representatives, a registered voter and a resident for at least one
year in the district where he/she shall be elected.
The district congressmen represent a particular congressional district of the country. All
provinces in the country are composed of at least one congressional district. Several cities also
have their own congressional districts, with some having two or more representatives.
The party-list congressmen represent the minority sectors of the population. This
enables these minority groups to be represented in the Congress when they would otherwise
not be represented properly through district representation. Also known as party-list
representatives, sectoral congressmen represent labor unions, rights groups, and other
organizations. The party-list representatives shall constitute twenty per cent of the total number
of representatives, including those under the party list. For three consecutive terms after the
ratification of this Constitution, one-half of the seats allocated to party-list representatives shall
be filled, as provided by law, by selection or election from the labor, peasant, urban poor,
indigenous cultural communities, women, youth, and such other sectors as may be provided by
law, except the religious sector.

Legislative Process
Congress is responsible for making enabling laws to make sure the spirit of the
constitution is upheld in the country and, at times, amend or change the constitution itself. In
order to craft laws, the legislative body comes out with two main documents: bills and
resolutions.
Resolutions convey principles and sentiments of the Senate or the Representatives. These
resolutions can further be divided into three different elements:

 Joint resolutions — require the approval of both chambers of Congress and the
signature of the President, and have the force and effect of a law if approved.
 Concurrent resolutions — used for matters affecting the operations of both chambers of
Congress and must be approved in the same form by both houses, but are not
transmitted to the President for his signature and therefore have no force and effect of a
law.
 Simple resolutions — deal with matters entirely within the prerogative of one chamber of
Congress, are not referred to the President for his signature, and therefore have no force
and effect of a law.
Bills are laws in the making. They pass into law when they are approved by both houses and
the President of the Philippines. A bill may be vetoed by the President, but the House of
Representatives may overturn a presidential veto by garnering a 2/3rds vote. If the President
does not act on a proposed law submitted by Congress, it will lapse into law after 30 days of
receipt.
Legislators grouped in committees conduct hearings and consultation meetings to
improve or pass a proposed bill. Those outside the group can also discuss any proposed bill in
plenary before it is voted upon. These debates during plenary are very important because they
ideally give a chance for others to scrutinize the proposed bill before it is passed. Once
approved, a law can affect not just the government’s function but the life of every Filipino. It is
also vital that it adheres to the Constitution.
Here are the various steps in the passage of a bill:

1. First Reading - Any member of either house may present a proposed bill, signed by him,
for First Reading and reference to the proper committee. During the First Reading, the
principal author of the bill may propose the inclusion of additional authors thereof.
2. Referral to Appropriate Committee - Immediately after the First Reading, the bill is
referred to the proper committee or committees for study and consideration. If
disapproved in the committee, the bill dies a natural death unless the House decides
otherwise, following the submission of the report.
3. Second Reading - If the committee reports the bill favorably, the bill is forwarded to the
Committee on Rules so that it may be calendared for deliberation on Second Reading.
At this stage, the bill is read for the second time in its entirety, together with the
amendments, if any, proposed by the committee, unless the reading is dispensed with
by a majority vote of the House.
4. Debates - A general debate is then opened after the Second Reading and amendments
may be proposed by any member of Congress. The insertion of changes or
amendments shall be done in accordance with the rules of either House. The House
may either "kill" or pass the bill.
5. Printing and Distribution - After approval of the bill on Second Reading, the bill is then
ordered printed in its final form, and copies of it are distributed among the members of
the House three days before its passage, except when the bill was certified by the
President. A bill approved on Second Reading shall be included in the calendar of bills
for Third Reading.
6. Third Reading - At this stage, only the title of the bill is read. Upon the last reading of a
bill, no amendment thereto is allowed, and the vote thereon is taken immediately
thereafter, and yeas and nays entered in the journal. A member may abstain. As a rule,
a majority of the members constituting a quorum is sufficient to pass a bill.
7. Referral to the Other House - If approved, the bill is then referred to the other House
where substantially the same procedure takes place.
8. Submission to Joint Bicameral Committee - Differences, if any, between the House's bill
and the Senate's amended version, and vice versa are submitted to a conference
committee of members of both Houses for compromise. If either House accepts the
changes made by the other, no compromise is necessary.
9. Submission to the President - A bill approved on Third Reading by both Houses shall be
printed and forthwith transmitted to the President for his action - approval or disapproval.
If the President does not communicate his veto of any bill to the House where it
 originated within 30 days from receipt thereof, it shall become a law as if he signed it. A
bill repassed by Congress over the veto of the President automatically becomes a law.
How Important is the Lawmaking Function of Congress?
The lawmaking function of Congress is of paramount importance in a democratic
system. Here's why:

 It passes laws that regulate the conduct of and relations between private citizens and the
government.
 It defines and punishes crimes against the state and against persons and their property.
It determines the taxes people should pay for the maintenance of the government.
 It appropriates the money to be spent for public purposes.
 It can reorganize, create, or abolish offices under the civil service.
 It can create and abolish courts, except the Supreme Court.
 Finally, it is only Congress which was given by the Philippine Constitution the sole power
to declare war and to authorize the President - in case of a national emergency or war -
to issue executive orders embodying rules and regulations intended to carry out the
national policy.
Other Responsibilities
Aside from lawmaking, Congress is also given several powers and responsibilities in
certain situations. Congress' role in exacting accountability is crucial as legislators play a part in
checking on possible excesses by the executive and judicial branches of government.
The 1987 Philippine Constitution provides many instances when Congress can invoke
this power:
1. Congress has the power to remove from office impeachable government officials,
including the President, Vice President, members of the Supreme Court, members of
constitutional commissions, and the Ombudsman. The House of Representatives can
tackle impeachment complaints and submit the resolution setting the Articles of
Impeachment. The Senate, meanwhile, decides on cases of impeachment in a full-blown
trial.
2. Congress has the “sole power to declare the existence of a state of war,” according to
Section 23 Article VI of the Constitution. A vote of two-thirds of both Houses, voting
separately, is needed.
3. Congress can revoke the President’s proclamation of martial law by a vote of at least a
majority of all members of the Senate and the House. If requested, Congress can also
extend the period of martial law beyond the mandated 60 days.
4. Congress may authorize the President to exercise powers to carry out a declared
national policy “for a limited period and subject to restrictions" in times of war or other
national emergency.
5. Congressional committees can conduct hearings "in aid of legislation” on various issues
that affect the nation and release a report based on findings. For example, the Senate
committee in August 2018 conducted a hearing on the TRAIN law's impact on inflation
amid rising prices of commodities.
PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Lesson 8: The Judiciary
The Philippine Judiciary
Meaning of Judicial Power
The power to decide on legal disputes is known as judicial power. Article VIII, section 1
of the 1987 Constitution provides that "judicial power shall be vested in one supreme court and
in such other courts as may be established by law." As provided in the same section, it includes
the duty of the courts of justice to settle actual controversies involving rights that are legally
demandable and enforceable, and to determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of
discretion amounting to a lack of excess of jurisdiction on the part of the branch or
instrumentality of the Government. Hence, the central function of the judges is to adjudicate and
interpret the law.
The Judicial branch is one of the 3 independent, coequal, and coordinate branches of
the government. The independence of the Philippine judiciary is manifested in the following:
Creation of the Judicial Bar Council

 Expanded power of judicial review

 Fiscal autonomy of the judiciary
 Power to review the proclamation of martial law and suspension of the writ of habeas
corpus
 Security of tenure of the judges
 The Supreme Court as the judge in presidential elections

Scope of Judicial Power

 Adjudicating Power – the power to settle legal disputes

 Power of Judicial Review – Refers to the power of the Supreme Court to interpret and
make judgments with respect to the law
 Incidental Powers – Powers necessary for the discharge of judicial functions
Organizational Structures of the Judiciary Branch of the Philippine and Their Particular
Functions

 Supreme Court – the highest court, also known as the court of last resort, composed of a
chief justice and 14 associate justices.
 Court of Appeals – the second-highest judicial court and primarily exercises appellate
jurisdiction over the decisions of the regional trial courts. It also reviews cases involving
the Ombudsman and the Department of Justice, as well as the decisions of government
agencies exercising quasi-judicial functions, including the Office of the President. It
consists of 1 presiding justice and 69 associate justices who are then grouped into 23
divisions.
 Regional Trial Court
 Metropolitan Trial Court, Municipal Trial Court, Municipal Circuit Trial Courts, and
Municipal Trial Court in Cities.
Special Courts

 Shari'a Court
 Court of Tax Appeals
 Sandiganbayan
The expanded judicial system in the Philippines also includes quasi-court or quasi-
judicial agencies, bodies, or agencies that exercise adjudicatory power in certain types of
controversies like the Civil Service Commission, Commission on Elections, and Commission on
Audit.
The Judiciary settles disputes and has the power to mediate conflicts between the other
branches of the government. It is very important that this branch be protected and maintained
because it brings justice and fairness.