Diodes
pn junction I–V characteristic
Reverse Forward
𝑉𝑉/𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 -1) region region
Is: Reverse saturation current
– It is proportional to cross-section of
junction (A) and ni, which is temperature
dependent .
– Typical value is 10-18A.
VT: thermal voltage = kT/q at room
temperature (300 K), VT=25.8 mV
n: ideality factor and it takes values
from 1 to 2 depending on the
material and structure of the device.
For standard diode, n =1
Terminal Characteristic of junction Diode (non-ideal)
Most common implementation of
a diode utilizes pn
junction.
I-V curve consists of
three characteristic
regions
forward bias: v > 0
reverse bias: v < 0
breakdown: v << 0
Forward-Bias Region
cut-in voltage – is voltage, below
which, minimal current flows
approximately 0.5V
fully conducting region – is
region in which Rdiode is
approximately equal to 0
between 0.6 and 0.8V
The rated forward current is
depending on the device area
The reverse saturation current
depends on the device area and
temperature
fully conducting region
Forward-Bias Region
The forward-bias region of operation is entered when v > 0.
I-V relationship can be represented by
v / VT
=i IS (e − 1) ( Assuming the
ideality factor n = 1)
where, V=
kT
T =25.8 V
m
q at room
by the relationship
For large V, i can be approximated
v / VT
i = IS e
The above equation can be also formulated as
i
v = VT ln
IS
The Reverse-Bias Region
this expression
applies for
The reverse-bias region of negative voltages
operation is entered when v < 0.
− −𝑉𝑉v /𝑉𝑉
/ V𝑇𝑇
I-V relationship, for negative 𝑖𝑖 i== 𝑖𝑖− IS e T −1)
𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒
voltages with |v| > VT (25mV), is action: invert exponential
closely approximated by equations
to right. 11
i𝑖𝑖 ==−𝑖𝑖I𝑠𝑠S( v / V ) − 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
A “real” diode exhibits reverse-bias e
− 𝑉𝑉 /𝑉𝑉
T
𝑇𝑇
𝑒𝑒
current of larger than IS .
≈0 for larger
10-9 vs. 10-14 A voltage
magnitudes
A large part of this reverse current
is attributed to leakage effects i𝑖𝑖≈=≈−−𝑖𝑖
IS 𝑠𝑠
Breakdown Region
The breakdown region of
operation is entered when v <
VZK.
Zener-Knee Voltage (VZK)
The reverse-bias current is
much larger than IS (i << -Is).
This is normally non-
destructive.
The maximum “safe” level of
the reverse current is specified
by the manufacture
breakdown region
Example
A silicon diode conducts 1mA current at a forward voltage of 0.7
V. (a) Find the revers saturation current (scale current Is). (b) what
is the scale current for a diode that can conduct 1 A at 0.7 V. Use
VT = 25 mV.
Solution
𝑖𝑖 10−3
𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 −1) ≈ 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 ⇒ 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 = = = 6.9𝑥𝑥10−16 A
𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 𝑒𝑒 0.7/0.025
𝑖𝑖 1
𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 −1) ≈ 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 ⇒ 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 = = = 6.9𝑥𝑥10−13 A
𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 𝑒𝑒 0.7/0.025
Answers: 6.9x10-16 A, 6.9x10-13 A
Problems
Problem 4
a) A small discrete silicon diode is found to conduct 100μA at 0.7 V
and 1 mA at 0.815 V. Find the values of n and IS. Use VT = 25mV.
(Ans. n ≈2, IS=8.32x10-11 A)
b) A diode for which n =1 conducts 0.1mA at 0.7 V. Find its voltage
drop at 1 mA. For which current, its voltage drop equal 0.815V? .
Use VT = 25mV.
(Ans. 0.757V, 9.95 mA)
pn Junction (Diode)
pn junction structure
p-type semiconductor (anode): positive terminal of diode
n-type semiconductor (cathode): negative terminal of diode
metal contact for connection
device structure
with pn junction
device symbol
with two nodes
Current-Voltage Characteristics of Diode
External circuit should be
designed to limit…
current flow across
conducting diode (in
forward condition)
voltage across blocking
diode (in reverse
condition)
Example: An external resistor
of 1 KΩ is used to limit:
(a) the forward current and
(b) the reverse voltage
Current-Voltage Characteristic of Ideal Diode
Ideal diode – most fundament nonlinear circuit element
Operates in two modes (on and off)
Current-voltage (I-V) behavior is:
piecewise linear for rated values
nonlinear beyond this range
mode #2: mode #1:
reverse bias = open circuit forward bias = short circuit
A Simple Application – The Rectifier
One fundamental application of this piecewise linear behavior is
the rectifier.
A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC waves into DC…ideally
with no loss.
This circuit is composed of a diode and a series resistor.
The diode blocks reverse current flow, preventing negative
voltage across R.
A Simple Application – The Rectifier
Let vI is sinusoidal input voltage
During the positive half-cycle
vo = vi
During the negative half-cycle
vo = 0
A Simple Application – The Rectifier
Transfer characteristics of vo versus vI
vD = vI – vo (the voltage across the diode)
Example: 12-V Charger
Consider the circuit of Figure 4.4. A source
(vS) with a peak amplitude of 24V is employed
to charge a 12V dc-battery.
Q(a): Find the fraction of each cycle Figure 4.4
during which the diode conducts.
Q(b): Find the peak value of diode current
and maximum reverse-bias voltage that
appears across the diode.
Answers:
(a) vs = 24cost and at t = θ, vs =12 =24cosθ,
thus, half of conduction angle θ=cos-1 (12/24)=60o θ
In this case, the conduction angle 2θ=120o=T/3
(b) The peak diode current = (24-12)/100=120 mA
The peak reverse voltage = 12 V –(-24 V) = 36 V
Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic
The previous slides define a robust set of diode
models (ideal and exponential models).
In general, the diode models could be classified into
analytical and equivalent circuit models:
Analytical model: exponential model
Equivalent circuit model:
Ideal diode
Ideal diode in series with a constant voltage source
Ideal model in series with a constant voltage source
and diode resistance
Equivalent circuit model (Ideal Diode)
Ideal diode – operates in two modes (on and off)
Ideal Model
reverse bias forward bias
v≥ i>0
Equivalent circuit model (Ideal Diode with CVS)
Ideal diode with CVS (Constant Voltage Source)– consider the
constant voltage drop of the diode (built on threshold voltage)
Ideal diode with CVS
reverse bias forward bias
0.7 V
v < 0.7 I = 0 v ≥ 0.7 i > 0
Equivalent circuit model (Ideal Diode with CVS and diode
resistance)
Ideal diode with CVS and rd– consider the constant voltage drop of
the diode (built on threshold voltage) and diode resistance
Ideal diode with CVS and diode resistance
reverse bias forward bias
0.7 V
rd
v ≤ 0.7 I > 0 v ≥ 0.7 I > 0
Equivalent circuit models
Example:
Using the ideal model method, find ID for the circuit if VDD = 5 V and R= 1 KΩ.
Example: Repeat the same example with VD = 0.7 V.
Equivalent circuit models
Example: Repeat the same example with VD = 0.7 V and rd = 10 Ω
0.7 V rd
VDD − VD 5 − 0.7
ID = = = 4.25 mA
R + rd 1000 + 10
Problems
Problem 1
For the following circuits employing ideal diodes, find the labeled
currents and voltages.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Problems
Problems
Problem 2
For the following circuits employing non ideal diodes of constant
voltage drop of 0.7 V, find the labeled currents and voltages.
Problems
vI
(a) (b) (c)
Problems
Summary
In the forward direction, the ideal diode conducts any
current forced by the external circuit while displaying a
zero-voltage drop. The ideal diode does not conduct in
reverse direction; any applied voltage appears as reverse
bias across the diode.
The unidirectional current flow property makes the
diode useful in the design of rectifier circuits.
The forward conduction of practical silicon-junction
diodes is accurately characterized by the relationship
i = ISeV/VT (with n =1).
Summary
A silicon diode conducts a negligible current until the
forward voltage is at least 0.5V. Then, the current
increases rapidly with the voltage drop increasing by
60mV for every decade (x10) of current change.
In many applications, a conducting diode is modeled as
having a constant voltage drop – usually with value of
approximately 0.7V.
A diode biased to operate at a dc current ID has small
signal resistance rd .
