THE PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN NIGERIAN AND THEIR CULTURE IN PRE-

COLONIAL TIMES [PART I]

CONTENT
Introduction
Objectives
Main content
Major ethnic groups of Southern Nigeria
The Yoruba
Origins of the Yoruba
The socio-political Organisation of the Yoruba
The Bini
Origins of the Bini
The socio-political Organisation of the Bini
The Igbo
Origins of the Igbo
The socio-political Organisation of the Igbo.
Conclusion
Summary
References/Further Reading
s of Southern Nigeria and their culture.
of Northern Nigeria and their culture.

OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that at end of this unit, you should be able to:

-political Organisation

Major Ethnic Groups of Southern Nigeria

We can identify among several others, at least six (06) major ethnic groups in Southern Nigeria.
These are the Yoruba, the Bini, the Igbo, the Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw. However, the first
three are our main concern in this unit.
The Yoruba
In a nutshell, the Yoruba can be described as one of the major ethnic groups in Southern Nigeria.
Of course, several members of the Yoruba race can be found everywhere around the globe. But
the majority of them are found in some Western and Central states of Nigeria stretching across
Oyo, Osun, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos, Kwara and Kogi. They practice both Islam and Christianity but
most of them are still traditionalist to the core. The Yoruba ethnic group is believed to have come
into existence between 2000 – 1000 BC
Origins of the Yoruba
Till today, the history of the origins of the Yoruba people remains controversial. The Yoruba, as
an ethnic group still holds many versions about its origins.

Rev. Samuel Johnson’s Version

In his book, History of the Yoruba (1950), Johnson traces the origin of the Yoruba to the “East”.
According to him, the Yoruba originally came from the North-Eastern area of Africa. The
similarities between the cultures of the Yoruba and the Egyptians in terms of religious
observances, works of arts, burial and other traditional practices are enough evidence. It is from
Egypt, after several years of journey that the Yoruba finally settled in Ile-Ife in Nigeria.
Oduduwa is believed to be the first leader that led the Yoruba to Ile-Ife and subsequently sent his
sons and grandsons to found other Yoruba kingdoms. Johnson’s conclusion is worth recalling:
That the Yoruba came originally from the East, there cannot be the slightest doubt as their habits,
manner and customs, etc., all go to prove. With them the East is Mecca and Mecca is the East.
Having strong affinities with the east looming so largely in their imagination, everything that
comes from the east with them comes from Mecca, and hence it is natural to present themselves
as having hailed originally from that city.

The Oke Oramfe’s Version

Oke Oramfe is located in Ile-Ife. It is believed to be the centre from which the world was created.
In their paper Yorubaland up to 1800, Akinjogbin & Ayandele (1980) give us a full picture of
what Oke Oramfe’s version is all about. According to the legend, there was a period when the
world was covered by water. The Almighty God then decided to send some of his messengers to
the world and they included Obatala or Orisa Nla or Orisa Alase [as the leader] and sixteen Oye
[immortals]. They were given fives pieces of iron, a lump of earth tied to a white piece of cloth,
and a cockerel. Somewhere on their way to the world, the leader, Obatala, got drunk with palm
wine. Oduduwa seized the symbol of authority from him and eventually led the party to the
world. The site on which they landed is traditionally known as Oke Oramfe in Ile-Ife. On arrival
at the site, Oduduwa set down the pieces of iron and placed the lump of earth on them. The
cockerel then spread its toes on the earth. Consequently, the earth was formed and Oduduwa thus
became the ruler. It was from this base (Ife) that he extended his authorities to other Yoruba
towns and villages

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Yoruba

Oyo is best known as the major kingdom that eventually emerged as an empire in Yorubaland.
Various traditions believe that Oyo was founded by Oranmiyan, the son of Oduduwa, who is also
credited with establishing the present Benin monarchy. Oyo Empire was founded in the middle
of the fifteen century. A century later, it became very powerful and prosperous, extending its
authority as far as Dahomey.

The Alaafin Administration

Oyo Empire was very unique and exceptional in its system of government. For instance, in the
sixteenth century, Oyo was one of the rare empires that had in-built checks and balances, and,
this contributed to its stability for centuries. The Alaafin was the head of the empire, and was
resident in the capital. He was also regarded as “Lord of many lands”. The Alaafin was assisted
in his administration by a retinue of officials made up of priests, officials and eunuchs. He had a
well organized court as well.
Theoretically, the Alaafin was the fountain of authority and was therefore regarded as the
“companion of the gods”. Sometimes, he had an autocratic tendency, but in practice, his powers
were often limited and regulated by the Oyomesi, a council of seven members headed by
Bashorun who acted as the prime minister. The members of Oyomesi were king makers as well.
At the demise of the Alaafin, they were the ones to select his successor. The Oyomesi also had
the power to remove any Alaafin especially when he appeared dictatorial or transgressed the
laws of the land. Usually the deposed Alaafin was expected to commit suicide.

The Ogboni Cult’s Administration

Apart from the Alaafin cabinet, members of the Oyomesi cult constituted another arm of government. It
was a very powerful cult. It was composed of free and prominent members of the society as well as
members of the Oyomesi. The Ogboni cult had a very vital position Yoruba society. It played a mediatory
role in any conflict between the Oyomesi and the Alaafin. It was a kind of counter power to the Oyomesi
as well.

The Army

The Army was another arm of government in traditional Yoruba society. It was very organized.
Its head was conferred with the coveted title of Are-Ona-Kankanfo. It was made up of infantry
and calvary. The Are-Ona-Kankanfo was expected to live outside the capital. The Army was
credited with performing important functions which included stability of the empire, expansion,
as well as keeping dissident territories in check.
Oyo Empire also had provincial governments. They were modelled after the central government.
They were administered by princes, minor kings and baales [provincial governors]. All of them
were subject to the over-lordship of the Alaafin. The provincial governments enjoyed
considerable autonomy. But the Alaafin had personal agents, Ilari, all over the provinces. The
Alaafin used the Bere annual festival periods to acknowledge the renewal of allegiance of the
provincial governors to him.

The Bini Kingdom

It is obvious that the Bini, more than any other ethnic group, have played major roles in the
history of Nigeria. For instance, the Bini were the first to be visited by the Europeans as early as
1472 A.D. According to Hodgkin the second half of the fifteenth century witnessed the arrival of
the first Europeans to Benin. For instance, a Portuguese, Ruy de Sequeira, arrived during
Ewuare’s reign in 1472 while Alfonso de Aviero arrived during Ozolua’s reign in 1484. The
Benin Kingdom was also the first in the West Coast of Africa to exchange ambassadors with a
major European power, the Portuguese. This was between 1481 and 1504.
The Egharevba’s Version
Just as other Nigerian peoples, the Bini have various traditions of origin. Egharevba (1968) for
instance, claims that the Bini people emigrated from Egypt and in the course of their journey
southward, settled at Ile-Ife before finally arriving at their present location.

Igbafe’s Version
Another tradition has it that the Bini peoples have been living in the area “from the very
beginning”. According to Bini mythology, Bini was the youngest child of Osanobua [the High
God]. He and his brothers, who included the king of Ife, were sent to live in the world. They
were asked by the High God to take whatever they wanted along with them to the world. While
others chose wealth, magical skills and material well-being, the youngest on the advice of a bird,
chose a snail shell. On arrival, they found that the world was covered by water. Following
instruction from the bird, the youngest child over-turned the snail shell, whereupon sand poured
out of it and covered a large part of the water to form land. Thus, the first ruler of Bini became
the owner of the land. Land made him powerful and wealthy as he had to sell portions of it to his
elder brothers who then became his subjects.

Ogiso’s Version
The first period of pre-colonial Bini history is known as the Ogiso era. This is because their
rulers were the Ogisos, which means “kings of the sky”. The first Ogiso was known as Igbodo.
He was succeeded by Ere who is credited with forming the guild system and laying solid
foundation for the kingdom. Ere was succeeded by Orire, who himself was succeeded by a
number of Ogisos among whom were women. The last Ogiso was Owodo.
History tells us that Owodo was the one that clashed with the nobles and eventually became a
victim of intrigues of his wives. This led to the banishment of his only son and heir apparent,
Ekaladeran. Ekaladeran founded Ughoton, a port-town in Benin. He later moved to Ife through
Erua, where he spent the rest of his life. Many years later, because of a serious political crisis in
Benin, the nobles sent for him to come back and rule over them. But it was too late. Ekaladeran
was very old and decided to send his youngest son Oranmiyan [Omonoyan = pampered child]
who came and established the Eweka dynasty.

With the end of Ogiso dynasty, Benin went through a period of interregnum during which the
elders established a form of republican government headed by Evian who eventually attempted
to usurp the throne by nominating his son Ogiamen to succeed him. However, as Evian was not
an Ogiso, the Benin people rejected his son Ogiamen. This situation led to a serious political
crisis in the Bini Kingdom. During the crisis, two factions emerged: 1) the pro-monarchy and 2)
the pro-Ogiamen [also known as Republicans]. This stalemate forced the elders to send a
delegation to the Ooni of Ife requesting him to send somebody to Benin to rule over them. The
request was granted and Oranmiyan, one of the Ooni’s sons, was sent to rule the Benin people.
But on his arrival to Benin Kingdom, Oranmiyan found the Bini people ungovernable. So, he
decided to go back to Ife. However, on his way back, history tells us that Oranmiyan had an
affair with a Bini woman, the daughter of Enogie of Ego-Erinmwinda. The woman became
pregnant and eventually gave birth to a child who later became Eweka I. He is credited with
establishing the present Bini dynasty.
A recent version of this episode by some Bini elites maintains that Oranmiyan, who came from
Ife to establish the present monarchy, was a Bini prince. According to them, Oranmiyan was the
son of Ekaladeran who had earlier been banished from Benin and who subsequently settled at
Ile-Ife and eventually became the ruler, Oduduwa. Before Oranmiyan got back to Ife, he said of
the Bini kingdom: “the country is a land of vexation, Ile-Ibinu, and only a child born, trained and
educated in the arts and mysteries of the land could reign over the people”. It was this son of
Oranmiyan born by a Bini woman who was subsequently “trained and educated in the arts and
mysteries of the land” that eventually ascended the throne with the name Eweka I. Eweka I thus
became the first Oba of Benin and his dynasty still reigns in Benin till today.
The overall position of the Bini elites is that although Oranmiyan came from Ile-Ife, the
monarchy which he established is indigenous to the Bini because he [Oranmiyan] was the son of
a Benin prince, and his son, Eweka I, was conceived, born and brought up in Benin. There is no
doubt that to them, the present monarchy is indigenous to the Bini. But more research is still
needed to ascertain the veracity of this version. Coincidentally, Eweka I had a long and glorious
reign. He had many children who were sent to villages as Enogies.

The Socio-political Organisation of the Bini

As earlier mentioned, the Bini kingdom was the first in the West Coast of Africa to exchange
ambassadors with a major European power. This was between 1481 and 1504. At that time, the
Bini kingdom was already socio-politically well organized. This is what Hodgkin (1975) who
visited Benin in 1604 declared: “the town seems to be very great. When you enter into it, you go
into a great broad street, not paved, which seems to be seven to eight times broader than the
Warmoes Street in Amsterdam….”
Bini kingdom had a unique political system, which centered on the Oba. He was the head of the
kingdom and succession to the throne was by primogeniture, that is, the first surviving son
succeeded his father. To Hodgkin, “the Oba was not only the civil head of state; he was also the
religious head as well. He was in fact regarded as a divine person who, in himself, summed up
the whole of the race… In him dwelt the divine spirit passed on to him from his forebears”
(Hodgkin, 1975).
The Bini society was classified into two distinct classes: 1) the nobility [Adesotu], and 2) the
commoner [Ighiotu]. The nobility was organized into three [03] groups of title holders:

The ordinary people too, most especially those within the city, were organized into a number of
guilds. The guilds were professional groups of the common people. There were a number of
them such as those of the carvers, brass-workers, blacksmiths, doctors, butchers, etc. These
guilds, most especially those that lived in defined quarters in the kingdom, had a system of
administration which was the same as that of the villages.
.
The Igbo
The Igbo people are best known for their segmentary or acephalous way of life. This is because
from the ancient times, they had no centralized states. Consequently, they operated a kind of
government without kings.
The Igbo are grouped into five sub-cultures:

-eastern Nigeria
-eastern Nigeria

Generally, the Igbo are predominantly farmers and traders. Despite some cultural diversity
among them, they do share a common basic culture in their language with a cluster of dialects
that are mutually intelligible. They also share a common political system based on
decentralization of power and delegation of authority exercised by the holders of the staff of
authority, the Ofo.

Origins of the Igbo

The origin of the Igbo people is as controversial as that of the Yoruba and the Bini. There are so
many versions and it is very difficult to say which is the most acceptable.

The Middle East Version

Some believe that the Igbo peoples migrated to their present location from either the North or the
Middle-east.

The Igboland Centred Version

Others believe that the Igbo people had been in their present abode from the beginning.
Therefore, Igboland is the original homeland.

The Nri Version

Professor M.A. Onwuejeogwu (2000) regards the Nri version as the only authentic version of
origin in existence in the oral tradition of the Igbo. According to Nri version, the ancestor of the
Igbo, Eri, descended from the sky and sailed down the River Anambra. When he arrived at
Aguleri, he met some autochthonous group of people who had no living memory of their own
and settled with them. As their population increased, some groups migrated to other parts of
Igboland to establish their own settlements.

The Awka or Orlu Version

Another tradition considered Awka or Orlu towns as the center of origin of the Igbo from where
they dispersed to other areas.

The Idah Version

Some groups such as the Umunri claim to have migrated to their present location from Idah.

The Benin Version

The Onitsha and the Igbo on the other side of the River Niger [Delta Igbo], claim Benin origin.
The Israeli Version
One of the most popular versions of the migratory stories of origin of the Igbo people is the one
that points to Israel. This assumption is based on the so-called similarities between the cultures
of the Igbo and the ancient Hebrew. Some Igbo scholars consider themselves as off-shoots of the
lost tribes of the Hebrews who migrated southward.
You should remember that the Igbo society has always been known as acephalous. Moreover,
there were very limited professional historians as at that period. There were no equivalents of
Oba, and Alaafin or of palaces over most parts of Igboland. This is why it is very difficult to
reconcile all these various versions.

The Socio-political Organisation of the Igbo

Unlike other ethnic groups such as the Yoruba and the Bini, the Igbo people did not build any
strong centralized states. This is mainly because Igbo society had always been fragmentary or
acephalous. In traditional Igbo for instance, the village was the centre of government. This has
been described as direct democracy. The village-centered administration implied that every
linkage for instance, including all male adults in the village, participated in its political process.

The Amala Oha

You should always remember that the socio-political Organisation of the traditional Igbo was
fundamentally based either on the age grades or age and titled societies. Amala Oha was
therefore a form of general assembly in traditional Igbo society. All the male adult members
usually met in this assembly to perform legislative functions. In ancient times, the Amala Oha’s
meetings were held in the open village square. All the decisions taken during those meetings
were absolute and final. As a democratic society, the life of every individual was highly
respected. More so, the recognition of an individual in the society was based on individual
capability and age rather than family background. The elders formed the core of village
administration. They were highly respected accordingly. Hardworking and wealthy individuals
were respected and given important responsibilities in the society as well. The youth, middle age
or able bodied men and elders constituted age-sets or age groups. You should remember that
each age-set had its own special rights, duties, obligations and responsibilities in matters
affecting the village.

CONCLUSION
This unit dealt with the Southern Nigeria peoples and their cultures particularly in pre-colonial
times. The Yoruba, the Bini and the Igbo have been the main focus. It should be clear to you now
that there is a kind of cultural shift from what happened to the traditional Yoruba, Bini and Igbo
to what we witness today.

SUMMARY
In this unit, I introduced you to the Southern Nigerian peoples and their cultures in pre-colonial
times. I discussed and analyzed the first three major ethnic groups of the Southern Nigeria: the
Yoruba, the Bini and the Igbo. Therefore, at the end of this unit you are expected to know who
are:
 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Afigbo, A. E. “Igboland Before 1800”. In Obaro Ikime, ed. Groundwork of Nigerian History.
Ibadan: Heinemann, 1980.
Akinjogbin, I. A. and E.A. Ayandele. “Yorubaland Up to 1800”. In Obaro Ikime, Ed.
Groundwork of Nigerian History. Ibadan: Heinemann, 1980.
Egharevba, J. U. A Short History of Benin. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1960.
Hodgkin, T. Nigerian Perspective. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.
Igbafe, P.A. “Benin in the Pre-Colonial Era”. Tarik, Vol.5 No.1 (1974).
Johnson, S. History of the Yourbas. Lagos: C.M.S., 1950.
Nzemeke, A.D and E.O Erhagbe, eds. Nigerian Peoples and Cultures .2nd Edition. Benin City:
University of Benin, 2002.
Onwuejegwu, M.A. African Civilizations: Origin, Growth and Development. Lagos: Uto
Publications, 2000.
 THE PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN NIGERIA AND THEIR CULTURE IN PRE-
COLONIAL TIMES (PART II)
CONTENT
Introduction
Objectives
The Itsekiri
Origin of the Itsekiri people
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Itsekiri people The Urhobo
Origin of the Urhobo people
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Urhobo people The Ijaw
Origin of the Ijaw people
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Ijaw people
Conclusion
Summary
References/Further Reading
INTRODUCTION
This unit is the prolongation of the preceding one. Remember we are still discussing the People
of Southern Nigeria and their Culture in Pre-Colonial times. In Unit I, we dealt with the first
three (03) major ethnic groups of Southern Nigeria. This present unit focuses on the last three
(03) major ethnic groups of Southern Nigeria. These are: the Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw.
OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that at the end of this unit you should be able to:
Know who are:

rities and dissimilarities among them.

MAIN CONTENT

The Itsekiri
Origin of the Itsekiri People
Iginuwa is known as the man through whom the kingdom of Itsekiri is said to have been
established. History tells us that Iginuwa was the son and heir apparent of Oba Olua of Benin in
about 1473. You should remember that unlike the Yoruba, Bini and Igbo peoples, the Itsekiri do
not have many versions of their origin. According to the Itsekiri tradition, Iginuwa at a time
wrongly advised his father on a particular issue. The advice was so disastrous that Iginuwa
became very unpopular to the extent that his people vowed never to let him succeed his father.
When his father, Oba Olua, noticed the seriousness of the anger of his people against his son, he
decided to arrange a kingdom outside Benin for him. This was according to him, the best way to
avoid problems in his kingdom.
According to the tradition, Iginuwa was then sent with some chiefs and servants to an area by the
sea to establish a kingdom of his own. On his arrival, Iginuwa met with some Ijaws who took
him along with his followers by canoe to an Island where they finally settled. To most of the
Itsekiri, this settlement is known as Itsekiri Kingdom till today
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Itsekiri People
The Kingdom Iginuwa founded was made up and is still made up of the Itsekiri, Ijaw and a good
number of other elements. Ode Itsekiri is the capital. Other settlements such as the Forcados,
Escravos and Benin Rivers surround the capital. The socio-political Organisation of the Itsekiri
people was very close to that of Benin Kingdom. The Palace and titles for instance were modeled
after that of Benin Kingdom. But in the Itsekiri case, the Kingdom was ruled rather by the Olu.
He alone presided over a council known as Ojoye which was made up of seven nobles or title
holders. The Olu combined in himself spiritual and temporal powers.
The Urhobo

Origin of the Urhobo People

Unlike the Itsekiri, the Urhobo people have more than one version of their Origins.

Ughelli, Aghara and Ogo Version

According to Ughelli, Aghara and Ogo, the Urhobo people originated from the Ijaw. To them, it
is very difficult, if not impossible to culturally and historically differentiate the Urhobo from the
Ijaw.

Uwherun, Abraka, Agbon, Oogun and Olomu Version

To Uwherun, Abraka, Agbon, Oogun, Olomu and many others, the Urhobo people are the
product of the Benin immigrants. According to them, it is very difficult if not impossible to
historically and culturally differentiate the Urhobo people from the Bini.

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Urhobo People

Just like the Itsekiri, the Urhobo people are found in the Niger Delta region. However, unlike the
Itsekiri, the Urhobo are fragmented and live in different places in the Niger Delta area. This may
be the reason why the Urhobo people, unlike the Itsekiri and Benin, have never established a
single Kingdom. Socio-politically speaking, each Urhobo Village had its own traditional
institution headed by a ruler (Ovie). Just like the Itsekiri, the socio-political Organisation of the
Urhobo people was modeled after that of Benin Kingdom.
The Ovie for instance, had a court made of prominent individuals and titleholders. Moreover,
just like in Igboland, the adult male members of the Urhobo society were divided into age sets
corresponding with youth, middle age and elders. Of course, each of the age sets performed
specific duties in the societies.
91

The Ijaw

Origin of the Ijaw People

As one of the major ethnic groups in the Niger Delta region, the Ijaw people share almost the
same stories of origin with their Itsekiri and Urhobo counterparts. That is to say there is no clear-
cut demarcation on the history of the origin of the Ijaw from that of the Itsekiri and Urhobo

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Ijaw People

Socio-politically speaking, the traditional Ijaw did not develop any centralized system of
government. For some scholars, this might be so because the Ijaw were scattered in small fishing
settlements in the creeks of the River Niger. The “House System” characterized Ijaw societies.
Ijaw people were traders especially fishermen. The traditional major Ijaw states were Bonny,
Kalabari, Ibrika, Opobo and Brass-Nembe.

CONCLUSION
This unit dealt also with the Southern Nigerian Peoples and Culture Specifically in Pre-colonial
times. The Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw have been the main focus. It should be clear to you
by now that the Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw people are located in the Niger Delta region.
You should also remember that although the Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw people have many
things in common, they do have notable differences as well. It is also obvious that there is a kind
of socio-cultural shift from what happened to the traditional Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw to
what we witness today.
92

SUMMARY
In this unit, I introduced you to the Part II of the peoples of southern Nigeria and their culture in
pre-colonial times. I discussed and analyzed the three last major ethnic groups of the Southern
Nigeria. That is, the Itsekiri, the Urhobo and the Ijaw. Therefore, at the end of this unit you are
expected to know:

-political Organisation

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Ikime, Obaro. “The People and Kingdoms of the Delta Province.” In Obaro Ikime, Ed.
Groundwork of Nigeria History. Ibadan: Heineman, 1980
Nzemeke, A.D and E.A. Erhagbe, eds. Nigerian People and Cultures. 2nd Edition, Benin City:
University of Benin, 2002.
Onwuejeogwu, M.A. African Civilizations: Origin, Growth and Development. Lagos: Uto
Publications, 2000.
THE PEOPLES OF NORTHERN NIGERIA AND THEIR CULTURE IN PRE-
COLONIAL TIMES (PART I)
CONTENT
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
Major ethnic groups of Northern Nigeria
The Hausa
Origins of the Hausa
The social-political Organisation of the Hausa
The Kanem-Bornu
Origins of the Kanem-Bornu
The social-political Organisation of the Kanem- Bornu
The Nupe
The social-political Organisation of the Nupe
Conclusion
Summary
References/Further Reading

INTRODUCTION
This study unit introduces you to the Part I of the Peoples of Northern Nigeria and their culture
in pre-colonial times. It focuses on the first three major ethnic groups found in the Northern
Nigeria namely: the Hausa, the Kanem-Bornu and the Nupe.

OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that at the end of this unit you should be able to know:

-Bornu

-political Organisation
MAIN CONTENT

Major Ethnic Groups of Northern Nigeria

We can identify at least six (06) major ethnic groups in Northern Nigeria. These are the Hausa,
the Kanem-Bornu, the Nupe, the Igala, the Jukun and the TIV. However, the first three ethic
groups are the main concern of this study unit.

The Hausa/Fulani People

The Hausa people represent one of the important and politically dominant groups in Northern
Nigeria. By the year 2000, the Hausa population was estimated at about twenty million. They are
also one of the largest linguistic groups in the whole of Africa.

Origins of the Hausa

Just like other major ethic groups in Nigeria, the Origin of the Hausa people is not very certain.

The Bayajida Version

Most scholars agree that the Bayajida story is the most authentic oral tradition in Hausaland that
attempts to explain the origin of the Hausa states. According to the legend, Bayajidda is believed
to be the founder/hero of the Hausa states. He is also believed to have come from Baghdad to
Kanem-Bornu and thence to Hausa land in present Nigeria. History tells us that Bayajida married
the daughter of the Mai of Bornu by whom he had a son at Biran. After a while, Bayajida left
Biran to Daura. While in Daura, he helped to kill a snake, which had for a long time prevented
the people from taking water from a well. According to the legend, the queen of Daura was very
impressed and decided to marry him. They later had a son named Bawo. Bawo had six (06)
children who, together with Bayajida’s other son at Biran, are believed to have founded the
original seven Hausa states referred to as the “Hausa Bakwoi.”

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Hausa

The Sarki has always been known as the head of any typical Hausa state. He always works with
a retinue of officials in a well-organized court. Sarkin Kasar, which means “ruler of the land”,
was the full title given to any effective and efficient head of Hausa State. The Sarkin Kasar
combined both political and religious/spiritual functions. He was also the chief executive and
judge of the State, but he was aided by a council of state.
At the district level, the government was modeled after that at the national level. You should also
know that between 14th and 15th centuries, the socio-political Organisation of Hausa States took
another shape. For instance, Islam was adopted and this gave birth to many new political
institutions such as the offices of the Galadima, Madawaki, Magaji, Dogari, Yari Sarki and Sarki
Yau. The Islamization of Hausaland also influenced its judicial system. The Sharia law started
taking shape. Some new titles such as Alkali and Qadi’s (judges) became commonplace in the
administration of justice.
The Kanem-Bornu People
Kanuri is the language that unites all the Kanem-Bornu people.
 Origin of the Kanem-Bornu People
Kanem-Bornu ethic group also has many versions of its origin. But all these versions are not
certain. They are also known to have been exaggerated in the region North East of the Lake
Chad.

The SO version
Some scholars argue that the So people were the first settlers in Kanem-Bornu. According to
them, the So had developed a sophisticated socio-political culture based on agriculture and the
knowledge and use of iron technology. This happened long before the Zaghawa who later
invaded the land.

The Saif b. Dhiyazan Version

There is another tradition of the history of Kanem-Bornu, which attributes the foundation of
Kanem-Bornu to the great Arab hero, Saif b. Dhiyazan. This happened between 9th and 10th
centuries A.D. Yazan is also credited to have established the now famous Saifawa dynasty.
You should remember that the Saifawa dynasty was one of the longest ruling dynasties in the
pre-colonial West African Sub-region.

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Kanem-Bornu

It is very important to notice that the nucleus of the socio-political Organisation of the Kanem
Bornu people was based on kinship. For instance, the Mai (king) was the highest authority in the
political structure. His mother i.e. the Queen Mother or Magira was a very important and
respected personage in the Kanem political structure as well. The King’s sister was also very
important. She was to assist the King in the day-to-day administration of Kanem.

The “Nokena”
Besides the kinship oriented political system of the Kanem people, there was an imperial state
council known as the council of the twelve, or the “Nokena”. The principal duty of the “Nokena”
was to offer the king useful advice.

The Maini Kanendi

The Maini Kanendi was the chief judge of the State. He played a major role in the Kanem
political structure. By his position, he was the Mai’s legal adviser as well.
The Army
In the traditional Kanem-Bornu, the army played a vital role in the administration. The army was
very professional. It was divided strategically into two divisions: a home division and a bush
garrison.

The Titled Nobility

The titled nobility was another institution within the Kanem-Bornu political structure. They are
known to have exercised tremendous influence in the state and were assigned fiefdoms to
administer. The most important of these were Galadima, Kaigama, Yerima and Meshema.

The Servile Institution

The servile was made of slaves and eunuchs. They are known to be important in the
administration of the state. They also held offices like “Mushemu”, “Yuroma” and Kachella”.
 The Nupe
Just like the Hausa/Fulani, the early history of the Nupe people is not much known. What you
should remember is that the pre-colonial Nupe people and state developed in the region of the
Niger and Benue valleys of the Nigerian Middle Belt. The Nupe state was located on the north
bank of the Niger at its confluence with the River Kaduna. Nupeland was located at the cross
roads of trade from Borno to Kano axis in the Northeast, as well as Yorubaland, Ganga and
Benin in the Southwest. Gbara was its capital. It was located on the bank of the Kaduna River
and was an important trading center as well. Gbara functioned as an entreport connecting Benin
and Oyo trade with Nupe.

Origins of the Nupe People

Like any other ethnic group in Nigeria, the Nupe people also have various versions of origin.

The Nupe-Centred Version

Some scholars believe that the early Nupe people originated where they presently occupy.

The Egyptian Version

Other elites argue that the first peoples of the Nupe came from Egypt. Therefore, Egypt was the
origin of the Nupe people.

The Idah Version

Tsoede or Edegi is considered by some Nupe people as the founder of their State. And, according
to Nupe tradition, Tsoede might have arrived in the early 16th century from Idah. He (Trodede)
is also believed to have had an Igala father and a Nupe mother.

The Igala Version History tells us that the Nupe people had at a time paid allegiance and tribute
to the Attah of the Igala state. To them, in the 16th century, a hero, an Idah Prince known as
Tsoede re-established Nupe’s independence with himself as the “ETSU NUPE” king of
Nupeland.

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Nupe People

The Etsu Nupe was known as the head of the Nupe Kingdom. He operated a two–level
administration: central and provincial. History tells us that the Etsu Nupe enjoyed a divine status
and people worshipped and respected him. His word was law. But the Etsu Nupe was not always
absolute because his power and actions were regulated by a body of traditions and taboos.

The Nobility
Besides the Etsu Nupe, there was a class of powerful gentlemen called nobility. Its main task was
to help the king in carrying out his duties as leader. There were nobilities such as the Shaba,
Kpotuh and Maku.

The Zitzu
In traditional Nupe land, each village was headed by the Zitzu. He was an appointee of the Etsu.
The Zitzu was in turn assisted by a council of elders. The Zitzu always pays tribute to the Etsu in
recognition of his authority.
CONCLUSION
This study dealt with the peoples of Northern Nigeria and their culture in pre-colonial times. The
Hausa, the Kanem–Bornu and the Nupe have been the main focus.

SUMMARY
In this study unit, I introduced you to the Part I of the Peoples of Northern Nigeria and their
culture in pre-colonial times. I discussed and analyzed the three first major ethnic groups of
Northern Nigeria: the Hausa, the Kanem-Bornu and the Nupe. Therefore at the end of this unit
you are expected to know:

-Bornu

-political Organisation

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Adamu, Mahdi. The Hausa Factor in West African History. Zaria: ABD Press, 1978.
Last, M. The Sokoto Caliphate. London: Longman, 1967.
Nadel, S.F. A Black Byzantium: The Kingdom of Nupe in Northern Nigeria. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1955
THE PEOPLES OF NORTHERN NIGERIA AND THEIR CULTURE IN PRE-
COLONIAL TIMES (PART II)
CONTENT
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
The Igala
Origin of the Igala
The Social-Political Organisation of the Igala
The Jukun
Origins of the Jukun
The Socio-political Organisation of the Jukun
The Tiv
The Origin of the Tiv
The socio-political Organisation of the Tiv
Conclusion
Summary
References/Further Reading

INTRODUCTION
This study unit introduces you to the part two of Northern Nigeria peoples and culture in pre-
colonial times. It will focus only on the last three ethnic groups found in the Northern part of
Nigeria namely, the Igala, the Jukun or Kwararafa and the Tiv.

OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that at the end of this unit you should be able to know:

-political Organisation
MAIN CONTENT
The Igala

Origin of the Igala

Like any other ethnic group in Nigeria, the origin of the Igala people is not clear. However, Idah
has always been known as the capital state of Igala people.

Abutu Eje Version

History tells us that Abutu Eje was the first personality to seriously contribute to the
development or evolution of the Igala state. Abutu Eje sometimes identified as child reared by a
leopard (Eje) or as a prince from Ado (Benin) or Apa (Wukari Jukun), was a foreigner.
According to the legend, the sovereignty was transferred to him from an aboriginal population
(the Okpoto).

Achadu Version
Some Igala elites attribute the emergence of their state to one Achadu. He is believed to have
come from the Igbo country. He married the Attah and later became a patron (ritual husband)
and the leader of the kingmakers (Igalla-mela).

The Yoruba Version

Some scholars also argue that the Igala are of a Yoruba extraction. Historical evidence exists to
show that the territories of the Igala and some Yoruba speaking peoples had been contiguous.

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Igala

Ayagba or Idoko is best known as the ancestor to all the Attahs. He is also credited to have
founded the present Igala dynasty. History tells us that he was the one who helped the Igala
people to break away from the Jukun rule.
Politically speaking, each Igalla Mela was the head of any effective Igala territory. His
administrative power was like that of the Uzama Nihiron of Benin or the Oyemisi of the Yoruba.
he traditional Igala political structure was operated on two levels. There was the central and the
provincial level of administration. The Attah was head of the centre. A council of chiefs and
other officials assisted him in the local or provincial administration of the kingdom.
The Jukun (Kwararafa)

Origin of the Jukun

Again, like other ethnic groups in Nigeria, the origin of the Jukun people is not fixed. The Jukun
are also known as the Kwararafa. They are believed to have occupied the area between the River
Benue and the River Ibi in Gongola state. Wukari was also known as the principal town of the
Jukun people, and it is in that town that their King resided. The Jukun State was large.

The Kano Chronicle Version

The Kano chronicle version was the most authentic source that could say something convincing
about the Jukun history of origin. According to records from the Kano Chronicle, the Jukun
people raided the Hausaland and Bornu in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This shows
that although the origin of the Jukun people was almost unknown, they were at least in existence
before the sixteenth century or thereabouts.
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Jukun
As said earlier, the Jukun state was certainly not a small state. This is one of the reasons why
Jukun was seen as a confederation of peoples who recognized the religious supremacy of the
AKU UKA. History tells us that by the end of the seventeenth century, the Jukun had been well
established in the middle Benue region. The Jukun people operated a theocratic system of
government. AKU UKA was the head of any effective Jukun state. He was believed to be
spiritually appointed and was regarded as the representative of the gods on earth. Although AKU
UKA was very powerful, his system of government was not despotic. He had no absolute power
over his people. There were many ways of regulating his power. According to Jukun tradition,
AKU UKA was judged, for instance, by his performance (result). Since he was the symbol of the
Jukun existence, a good harvest could bring in more prestige while a bad harvest could result in
serious calamity, and thereafter, his unpopularity and downfall. Also, there were many taboos
which acted as checks on his royal power as well. Even as the head of the executive, legislative
and judiciary, AKU UKA also ruled with the advice of his nobles and subjects. Public opinion
was respected in Jukun pre-colonial administration.

Achuwo
He was the head of Aku Uka’s Council of nobles. He functioned as the Prime Minister. He was
seconded by the Abo Zike, Kinda Achuwo and the Aku Nako. You should also remember that
these nobles were representatives of their lineages as well.

The Tiv
P. Bohannan (1953) in his book The Tiv of Central Nigeria classifies the Tiv people as the
largest single ethnic group in the middle Benue basin of Northern Nigeria. According to him, the
southern and eastern portions of the Tiv country, also called “Ityough Kiteragh”, lie among the
foothills of the Cameroon highlands and the Sonkwalla or Sankwura hills of the Obudu hills
territory. These regions are flanked by the Alago and Jukunized group on the North, the Basta
and other Cameroon groups like the Undir and Iyon on the South and South –East, with the
Jukun and Chamba to the West. Of course, they presently occupy the Tiv local government areas
of Buraka, Gboko, Gwer, Gwer West, Gumu, Kwande, Katisina Ala, Konshisha, Vandeikya,
Ukun, Ushonyo, and Mukurdi.

Origin of the Tiv

Needless to say again that the origin of the Tiv people is not certain. What we know about their
origin came from oral traditions of myths and legends and theories of migration.

Tiv Version
According to the Tiv oral tradition, it was Tiv, as a person, that founded the Tiv ethnic group of
today. So, the word Tiv refers both to the language and founding father of the group.

Swem Version
Other traditions argue that earlier settlements of the ethnic group came from Swem down to their
present location through Nwange and Ibinda, and this occurred between the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.
 The Socio-Political Organisation of the Tiv
Again, P. Bohannan (1953) argues that the socio-political system of the traditional Tiv was very
unique. It was a classic example of segmentary or largely decentralized system of government in
pre-colonial and post-colonial Nigeria ever studied.
“Tsombor”
“Tsombor” was the name of the family group and was the largest recognized entity as well.
“Mbavessen” (Elder)
Mbavessen or elder was the head of a unit. You should remember that in Tiv traditional system,
each family group was in turn divided into smaller units.
You should also remember that the Tiv attached much importance to the spirit of brotherhood
and mutual relations because of the belief that all of them were from one father and therefore
from one lineage. For Bohannan (1953) the Tiv socio-political structure “was so simple that it
was difficult to understand.” According to him, Tiv society was very much segmented. It was a
hierarchical society. It started with the individual at the lowest level, the family, the extended
family, the kindred, and through clan to Tiv, i.e. the whole tribe. In Tiv society, more than in any
other Nigerian ethnic group, genealogical affiliation was very strong. Even today, in traditional
Tiv society, it is upon this kind of genealogical framework of hierarchy that kinship relationship
is organized.

CONCLUSION
This study unit dealt with the Northern Nigerian peoples and culture particularly in pre-colonial
times. The Igala, Kwararafa and Tiv have been the main focus.

SUMMARY
In this study unit, I introduced you to the Part II of the peoples Northern Nigeria and their culture
in pre-colonial times. I discussed and analyzed the last three major ethic groups of the Northern
Nigeria, that is the Igala, the Kwararafa or Jukun and the Tiv. Therefore, at the end of this unit,
you are expected to know who are;

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Afigbo, A.E, ed. The Igbo and their Neighbours. Ibadan: UI Press, 1987.
Boahen, A.A. Topics in West African History. London: Longman, 1966.
Bohannan, P. The Tiv of Central Nigeria. London: Laura, 1969.
Onwuejoegwu, M.A. African civilizations: Origin, Growth and Development. Lagos: Uto
Publications, 2000.
ANALYSIS OF EDUCATION AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
CONTENT
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
Education and National development in history
Education and National development in Nigeria
Stage 1: Nigerian Education in pre-colonial times
Stage II: Nigerian Education after independence
The 1969 National Conference on Education
Is Nigerian Educational system a Failure?
The “No” Answer
The “Yes” Answer
Which way forward?
Conclusion
Summary
References/Further Reading

INTRODUCTION
This study unit introduces you to the relationship between education and national development
from a historical perspective. It will focus mainly on the evolution of the Nigerian educational
system from pre-colonial times to the year 2000.

OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that at the end of this study unit you should be able to:

cation and National development

Education and National Development in History

You should always remember that the strong relationship between education and development
cannot be overemphasized. We can even say with confidence that education is to a nation what
the mind is to the body. This is not only true for Nigeria alone but is a fact worldwide.
Even in ancient Greece, best known as the cradle of Western scholarship, education was the
backbone or a searchlight boomed on society. In ancient Greece, for instance, education was a
standard bearer and a blender of minds, behaviour and cherished values. Greek social order and
institutions were centered on the philosophy of great educationists of the kind of Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle. However, education also followed the life cycle system. Onovbaydedo (1995) puts
it better in this way: the journey of reason and western learning from the ancient; through the
classical to the modern world are both eventful and chequered. They were “exorcised” by the
medieval Church of perceived traces of heresy and tinted with Christianity. They experienced a
rebirth in the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries and in turn gave birth to the
Enlightenment in which educational structures were modernized. Even in Europe, although
modern educationist forms were taken a field by the missionaries and various agents of
imperialism, they nonetheless successfully engendered the industrial revolution and breath-
taking development. But what happened in the Nigerian case?

Education and National Development in Nigeria

It is obvious that the type and level of education have to be in line with the needs of society.
History tells us that this world-wide fact is not in line with the Nigerian situation.

Stage 1: Nigerian education in Pre-Colonial times

In pre-colonial era, most Nigerian communities were small, largely rural and self- sufficient. Not
only that the system of education was informal and non-literate, it was not specialized at all.
Education in colonial Nigeria was nothing more than schooling. Before independence, Nigerians
were schooled to accept the society designed for them by the colonialists. This seriously
contradicts Jane F. Doyle’s understanding of education. According to her, education must
engender in the individual a disposition of personal autonomy, responsibility and a mastery of
relevant forms of life, thought and action. A good education should be free from moral
indoctrination, but rich in moral training. Education indefensibly becomes indoctrination when a
person is indoctrinated under the pretence of being educated (Doyle 1973).

Stage2: Nigerian education after independence

As stated earlier, the type and level of education have to be in line with the needs of the society.
So as soon as Nigeria became independent, the functional inadequacies of education in the
nation’s schools became glaring as well. As a Republic, Nigerian government became a complex
and a complicated one. Therefore, the need to fashion out an educational system that would fit
the new mood and the development needs of the nation became obvious and pressing. For
instance, the government needed a good number of qualified individuals in almost every sector.

The 1969 National Conference on Education

The year 1969 witnessed the first independent National Educational Conference on curriculum
development in Nigeria. The Nigerian Educational Council organized it. The overall aim of the
conference was to set a new policy of education for Nigeria. For that reason, it was not limited
only to experts and professionals. It was a conference of the people of Nigeria. It was made up of
representatives drawn from a cross-section of interest groups such as trade unions, farmers
unions, religious bodies, women’s organizations, teachers association, university teachers and
administrators, professional organizations and ministry officials. One of the conference’s main
tasks was to review old goals and identify new national goals for Nigerian’s education. The
findings and decision of the 1969 conference became the cornerstone in the formulation of a
national policy on education in 1977. These are some basic tenets:

the Nigerian society;

anding of the world around; and

individual to live in and contribute to the development of his society.

The success of the national policy on education of 1977 was unprecedented. Available statistics
indicate a tremendous expansion in the country’s educational system both in terms of number
and variety of relevant institutions.
According to Imogie (1999), the enrolments in schools as at December 1996 were as follows:

nt enrolment of 89, 242

Is Nigerian education system a failure?

The answer to this question from a historical perspective cannot be a fixed one. History, being a
process, some scholars advocate the “no” answer while others advocate the “yes” option.
The “No” answer

Primary and Secondary levels

In 1976, the Nigerian government introduced the Universal Basic Education Programme (UBE).
This favoured the increase of the number of schools along with an impressive increase in
enrolment. By December 1996, primary schools enrolment figure was about 17 million. In the
south and parts of the middle-belt regions, over 90 percent enrolment of children of school age
was recorded (Imogie 1999). But according to Imogie, enrolment and transition rate from
primary to secondary schools was still very low in a country with a population of over 100
million people as at that time.

The Tertiary Level

In 1981, the tertiary education witnessed a tremendous improvement with the adoption of the 6-
3-3-4 system. This system was the making of Shagari’s administration. The main aim was to
train Nigerians that would lead the country on the part of industrial and technological
advancement. The 6-3-3-4 system was very much welcomed by many Nigerian scholars. To
accomplish this goal, the government decided to increase the Federal Universities from 13 to 21
out of which nine Universities of Technologies were established and located in the main geo-
political zones.

The “Yes” answer

For some scholars, the Nigerian educational system has been a failure. They claim that the
theoretical frame under which these programmes were cultivated was perfect on paper but the
government lacked the will, the ways and the materials to see them through. At least two reasons
have been put forward by them.

The Cultural Conflict

According to G.N. U Uzoigwe (1989), “one of the dominant factors that slows down the growth
and productivity of the Nigerian education system is the persistent conflict between foreign
intellectual traditions and the African tradition. The result is that the educated Nigerian is thrown
into the morass of moral and intellectual confusion. He has neither assimilated the Christian or
Islamic traditions fully nor abandoned the Nigerian varied traditions.
The Nigerian Factor
According to the scholars of the “Yes” answer, one of the major reasons for the failure of the
Nigeria Education system is that of the “Nigerian factors”. It is unfortunate that many of those
who established the Nigerian educational facilities did it for monetary purpose. The end-use of
these facilities had never been their intention. They were concerned only with accruable
monetary rewards through fat contract settlements. The consequences nowadays are the
production of graduates who carry certificates without the knowledge. They constitute a great
danger to the society. Indeed, they have acquired nothing and they have nothing to lose.

Which way forward?

As seen earlier, it is not easy to say with accuracy the exact period when the standard of
education started to decline in Nigeria. It is also obvious that there have been some successes and
failures. Since failure seems to be higher than successes, my aim in this section is to see what to
do about it. These following are some policies the Nigerian education system needs to pursue:
s should regain their autonomy
-owned schools should be privatized

-known paradigms for measuring

school standards are maintained.

to separating the chaffs from the seeds.

CONCLUSION
This study dealt with the analysis and understanding of the relationship between education and
national development in Nigeria. The historical perspectives have been the main focus.

SUMMARY
In this study unit, I introduced you to the analysis and understanding of the relationship between
education and national development in Nigeria from a historical point of view. Therefore, at the
end of this unit, you are expected to:

on and national development in Nigeria.

Etc.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Elvin, H.L Education and Contemporary Society. London: 1968.
Fafunwa, A.B. History of Education in Nigeria. London: 1974.
Imogie, A.I. “Nigerian Education System and the Future of our Children.” A Lecture Delivered
at the 1999 Oba Akenzua II Memorial Lecture Organized by the University of Benin Alumni
Association, Benin City.
Onovbayedo, O.A. “The Missing Link Between Education and Development in Nigeria: Trauma
in the History of an Evolving Nation.” Proceedings of 5th Annual Conference of H.T.A.N
College of Education, 1995.
Uzoigwe, G.N. “History and Democracy in Nigeria”. Presidential Inaugural Lecture delivered at
the 34th Congress of the Historical Society of Nigeria at the University of Benin, Benin City on
16th May, 1989.

AN ANALYSIS OF MORAL AND SOCIO-POLITICAL RIGHTS OF CITIZENS IN

NIGERIA
CONTENT
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
Origins of Citizenship
Ancient Origins
Contemporary Origins
How to become a citizen of a State in Nigeria?
Citizenship by birth
Citizenship by legal processes
Rights and Privileges of citizens
Obligations of citizens
Conclusion
Summary
References/Further Reading

INTRODUCTION
This study unit introduces you to the understanding of ancient and contemporary origins of
citizenship; the issue of rights of citizens; the methods or conditions of acquiring citizenship, and
duties and obligations of a citizen in Nigeria.

OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that at the end this unit you should be able to:
ally means in Nigeria

Origins of Citizenship
Ancient Origins
It is very difficult if not impossible to trace the origins of citizenship without going back to
Greek philosophers. Indeed, Greek philosophers are best known as the systematisers of early
“scientific thought”. In early Athenian society, the concept of citizen was very different from
what we know of it today. Plato and Aristotle, for instance, had a strange and unique
understanding of citizenship. According to them, a citizen was he who was born into or classified
within the penumbra of the ruling class or the Aristocratic class. That is, the philosopher–king,
the guardian and the like. Only this category of people could exercise the right to life, private
property, education, leadership, vote and be voted for, etc. To Plato and Aristotle, anyone outside
the foregoing categories was just an ordinary person, someone of low birth or a servant. He did
not deserve the status of a citizen. His lifestyle could not go beyond that of an animal. Indeed, he
was someone totally imbued with passions instead of reason.

Contemporary Origins
The contemporary origin and understanding of citizenship different from that of Plato and
Aristotle can be traced to as far back as 1789. The declaration of the Rights of Man issued by the
National Assembly of France during the French Revolution in 1789 gave a universal and an
unbiased dimension to citizenship. We could hear statements such as Men are born and always
continue, free and equal in respect of their rights (Appadorai, 1975:86). We hold these
truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal… was also found in the American
Declaration of independence in 1776.

How to become a citizen of a state in Nigeria

According to The Oxford Advanced Dictionary of Current English, a citizen is he that has full
rights in a State either by birth or by gaining such rights. While for Okoli and Okoli, in a simple
language, citizenship means the totality of all rights and privileges accorded to all members of a
given state (Okoli and Okoli, 1990:27).

In Nigeria, there are at least two ways of acquiring citizenship, namely by birth and by legal
process.
Citizenship by birth
The citizenship by birth is also called Jus Sanguinis. In Nigeria, there are some conditions to
fulfill in order to acquire citizenship by birth:
i) For instance, all persons born in Nigeria before independence either of whose parents or any of
whose grand parents belong to an indigenous Nigerian community.
ii) All persons born in Nigeria after independence either of whose parents or any of whose grand
parents is a Nigerian Citizen are automatically citizens of Nigeria.
You should also remember that the citizenship by Jus Sanguinis does not necessarily mean that
you must be born within Nigeria. As long as your parents are citizens of Nigeria, it does not
matter where you are born in order to acquire citizenship status. However, this is different from
the so-called law of soil or place. In the case of the law of soil (also called Jus Soli), any person
born within the territorial jurisdiction of a State is automatically a citizen of that State
irrespective of the citizenship of the parents. This is clearly stated in the 14th Amendment of the
United States of America: “All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the
jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and the State wherein they reside.”

Citizenship by Legal Processes

Naturalization is the commonest legal mode of acquiring the citizenship of a State. You should
know that there are at least three forms of naturalization namely:
Direct Naturalization
Here, the individual acquires the citizenship of a State after he has fulfilled the prescribed legal
prerequisites as determined by that state. In Nigeria’s case, for instance, an applicant must be
resident in the country for a continuous period of fifteen years, or for at least fifteen of non-
continuous twenty years, including twelve consecutive months immediately preceding
application to the president for the grant of certificate of naturalization.
Besides, the applicant must be able to contribute to the growth or advancement of Nigeria; must
be of age and capacity, and must be of good character and wishes to be domiciled in Nigeria.
Furthermore, the person must satisfy the Governor of the State of residency that he or she is
acceptable to the immediate community and has indeed been assimilated into its norms, values,
etc.
Derivative Naturalization
This simply means that a spouse or a child becomes or acquires citizenship status as a result of
the parents’, spouses’ or relatives’ direct naturalization.
Collective Naturalization
In this case, a group of people occupying a defined territory acquires the citizenship privileges of
another either by treaty or by statute annexing the territory to a new one.

Rights and Privileges of Citizens

You should know that in any State the individual must have his rights and privileges as well.
Civil liberty is an aggregate of the rights recognized by the State. Gettel, according to Appadorai
(1975), contends that civil liberty consists of the rights and privileges which the state creates and
protects for its citizens. According to Okoli and Okoli (1990) the most important of these rights
and privileges that citizens of any state enjoy can be grouped into two, namely: political rights
and civil rights
a) Political Rights
Here every adult citizen for instance, is entitled to vote or be voted for in any election unless and
until he is disqualified by competent authority of the State.
b) Civil Rights
These are rights that inhere in the individual, and they must, ipso facto, be protected by the basic
law or the constitution, and indeed, the legal process of the state. These are rights to:

thought, private and family life, peaceful assembly and association, freedom of
movement and freedom from discrimination.

Obligations of Citizens
As stated earlier, besides the rights and privileges the individual enjoys as a member of the state,
he also has some obligations vis-is-vis the State. These obligations can be summarized as
follows:

f the State;
involved in the defence of the State against internal and external enemies;

CONCLUSION
This study unit dealt with the issue of rights and obligations of citizens, the ancient and
contemporary understanding of citizenship, and the methods of acquiring citizenship in Nigeria.
SUMMARY
In this unit, I introduced you to the ancient and contemporary origins of citizenship, the rights of
citizens, the methods or conditions of acquiring citizenship, and the duties and obligations of
citizens in Nigeria. Therefore, at the end of this unit, you are expected to:
ns in Nigeria

of citizen in Nigeria

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Appadorai, A. The Substance of Politics. London: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Constitution. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information, 1979.
Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Constitution. Lagos: Daily Times Publication, 1989.
Okoli, H.F. and F.C. Okoli. Foundations of Government and Politics. Onitsha: Africa-FEP
Publishers, 1990.

A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
CONTENT
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
Justice and Social Justice in Nigeria
Individual and Social Justice In Nigeria
Development and Social Justice in Nigeria
Social Justice and National Development in Nigeria
Conclusion
Summary
References/Further Reading
INTRODUCTION
This study unit introduces you to the understanding of social justice in Nigeria. It focuses mainly
on the historical perspective.
OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that at the end of this unit you should be able to:

icated.
MAIN CONTENT
Justice and Social Justice
Justice is not a simple word; it is a way of life as well. In English, for instance, the word
“justice” is mostly limited to its judicial and administrative contexts, while in ancient Greece
“justice” was something more than that. Apart from the administrative and the judicial usages,
justice has an ethical meaning as well (Orieso, 1996: 29).

Greek philosophers and thinkers, justice was equated with morality. For Socrates and especially
Plato, justice is a part of human virtue. It made man to be good. Accordingly, to Plato, justice
was one of the virtues apart from wisdom, courage and temperance that made a good individual.
In Plato’s thought, justice was designed for the amicable relationship of man in society.
Consequently, “social justice” was seen as restraint on the individual’s capacities from doing
things that lacked virtue or that made him a bad person. Simply put, social justice was the quality
which men possessed that enabled them to enter into potential relation with each other. You
should also remember that the term “social justice” was synonymous with “human rights.”
Individual and social Justice in Nigeria

You should remember that every country or nation is an aggregation of individuals. But the
individual, being the sole creative and the prime mover in all activities, is considered a vital key
to human development. Since the end result of every country or nation is general harmony, then,
the individual must impose some degree of restraint on himself for the country to achieve the
needed harmony. He must allow his ability to be regulated by law. In Plato’s understanding, for
instance, the rules that make society possible also make men good. Social justice is the
cornerstone of other virtues of the state. Without social justice the state cannot be harmonious.
You should know that in Nigeria there is yet no general harmony. There is no check and balance
between the individual and the State. In the Nigerian context, some conditions need to be
fulfilled:

-Being;

It is only under these conditions that the individual as the sole creative and propelling force of
development could be optimized.

Development and Social Justice in Nigeria

You should remember that the concept of “development” does not have a universal definition.
Each scholar defines it according to his school of thought. In this section development will refer
to a change, or a transformation into a better state. In this way, you see that development is a
process. As stated earlier, social justice and human rights are interrelated. The question of
development and human rights are being tackled both at the international and national levels. At
the international level, with the adoption of the African Charter, there is now an African
perspective to human rights or social justice. But you should also know that the African Charter
or UN Commission on Human Rights cannot effectively enforce measures against human rights
violations. It is only at the national level that this can be effectively done. Every nation must
consider the right to development as an inalienable human right. And so, the violation of the
right to development must be considered as a serious social injustice. Besides, you should always
remember that for now, the African continent has the highest concentration of the least
developed nations of the world. This is much disturbing as well as challenging.

Social Justice and national development in Nigeria

Historically, the problem of social justice in Nigeria can be traced back to the first amalgamation
of 1914. It is recorded that since that period, the Nigerian experience with social justice has
never been a pleasant one at all. Nigerian people have been suffering from oppression and
repression ever since. The post-independence era represents another period. You should know
that even after the official handover of power in 1960 social injustice did not stop in Nigeria. Till
date, the question of social injustice is so glaring because Nigeria as a country is still
characterized by:

the affairs of the Federal Government;

-powering and obsessive desire on the part of our political
leaders to stick indefinitely to public office by all means, fair or foul;.

he rights of individuals. For example, unnecessary detention of members of

opposition groups without trials;

tion, high spate of poverty, unemployment, and so on.

However, you should also know that social injustice is not a permanent condition; it cannot reign
forever. Therefore, it is possible to reverse the policy of “social injustice” which seems to be a
“permanent” feature in Nigeria. This can be done only and only if the Nigerian government is
ready to listen to all shades of opinion because Vox populi Vox dei, i.e. the people’s voice is
God’s voice as well.
CONCLUSION
This study unit dealt with the relationship between social justice and national development in
Nigeria. It is clear to you now that although social injustice has been reigning in Nigeria before
and after independence, it is not a permanent condition. Social injustice can be eradicated in
Nigeria.
SUMMARY
In this study unit, I introduced you to the relationship between social justice and national
development in Nigeria. I also discussed the relationship between social justice and Human
Rights. Therefore, at the end of this unit, you should be able to:
ow the relationship between social justice and national development in Nigeria;
 n be eradicated;

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Eghagha, H.O. “Faces of Repression.” The Guardian, Friday, April 5, 1996.
Fafowora, . “Relevance of Awolowo’s Political, social and Economic Philosophy.” The
Guardian on Sunday, March, 30, 1997, P. A12.
Gye-Wado, Oye. “Human Rights: The Right to Development and the African Challenge.”
Ibadan: Halenye SSCN, 1991.
Harrison, P. Inside the Third World. London: Penguin, 1981.
Orieso, M.A. A Brief History of Political Thought: Plato- Machiavelli- An Introduction. Adena
Monograph Series. Benin City: Adena, 1997.