College of Education, Arts and Sciences

Course Facilitator: Prof. Ryan Necesario

PE 109 – PATH FIT MODULE 4 HANDOUT

MODULE 4: MOVEMENT ENHANCEMENT (MOVEMENT PATTERNS,

EXERCISE BASED) (Continuation)

LESSON 1

BASIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY: A brief introduction.

Anatomy is the identification and description of the structures of living things. It is a branch of
biology and medicine.
The word “anatomy” comes from the Greek words “ana,” meaning “up,” and “tome,” meaning
“a cutting.” Traditionally, studies of anatomy have involved cutting up, or dissecting,
organisms.

Studies of anatomy have traditionally depended on cutting up, or dissection, but now, with
imaging technology, it is increasingly possible to see how a body is made up without
dissection.

The study of anatomy dates back more than 2,000 yearsTrusted Source, to the Ancient
Greeks. There are three broad areas:

 human anatomy

 animal anatomy — zootomy

 plant anatomy — phytotomy

Human Anatomy: is the study of the structures of the human body. An understanding of
anatomy is key to the practice of health and medicine.
 Animal Anatomy: Deals with the different parts of the animal body, such as; cells,
tissues, bone, and muscle.

Plant Anatomy: The study of the tissue and cell structure of plant organs. The term
anatomy, as applied to plants, generally deals with structures that are observed
under a high-powered light microscope or electron microscope.

Now, however, imaging technology can show us much about how the inside of a body works,
reducing the need for dissection.

Below, learn about the two main approaches:

microscopic anatomy and gross, or macroscopic, anatomy.

Gross Anatomy
In medicine, gross, macro, or topographical anatomy refers to the study of the biological structures
that the eye can see. In other words, a person does not need a microscope to see these features.

The study of gross anatomy may involve dissection or noninvasive methods. The aim is to collect
data about the larger structures of organs and organ systems.

In dissection, a scientist cuts open an organism

— a plant or the body of a human or another animal

— and examines what they discover inside.

Endoscopy is a tool for diagnosing illness, but it can also play a role in research. It involves a
scientist or doctor inserting a long, thin tube with a camera at the end into different parts of the
body. By passing it through the mouth or rectum, for example, they can examine the inside of the
gastrointestinal tract.

There are also less invasive methods of investigation. For example, to study the blood vessels of
living animals or humans, a scientist or doctor may inject an opaque dye, then use imaging
technology, such as angiography, to see the vessels that contain the dye. This reveals how the
circulatory system is working and whether there are any blockages.

MRI scans, CT scans, PET scans, X-rays, ultrasounds, and other types of imaging can also show
what is happening inside a living body.

Medical and dental students also perform dissection as part of their practical work during
their studies. They may dissect human corpses.
Human body systems
Students of gross anatomy learn about the major systems of the body.
There are 11 organ systems in the human body:
- the skeletal system
- the muscular system
- the lymphatic system
- the respiratory system
- the digestive system
- the nervous system, including the central and autonomic systems
- the endocrine system, which regulates hormone production
- the cardiovascular system, including the heart
- the urinary system
- the reproductive system
- the integumentary system, which includes the skin, hair, and nails, among
other areas

These systems all work together and depend on each other to function.
Microscopic Anatomy
Microscopic anatomy, also known as histology, is the study of cells and tissues of animals, humans,
and plants. These subjects are too small to see without a microscope.

Through microscopic anatomy, people can learn about the structure of cells and how they relate to
each other.

For example, if a person has cancer, examining the tissue under the microscope will reveal how
the cancerous cells are acting and how they affect healthy tissue.

A researcher may apply histological techniques such as sectioning and staining to tissues and cells.
They may then examine them under an electron or light microscope.

Sectioning involves cutting tissue into very thin slices for close examination.

The aim of staining tissues and cells is to add or enhance color. This makes it easier to identify the
specific tissues under investigation.

Histology is vital for the understanding and advancement of medicine, veterinary medicine, biology,
and other aspects of life science.

Scientists use histology for:

Teaching
In teaching labs, histology slides can help students learn about the microstructures of biological
tissues.

Diagnosis
Doctors take tissue samples, or biopsies, from people who may have cancer or other illnesses and
send the samples to a lab, where a histologist can analyze them.

Forensic investigations
If a person dies unexpectedly, the microscopic study of specific biological tissues can help experts
discover the cause.

Autopsies
As in forensic investigations, experts study tissues from deceased people and animals to understand
the causes of death.

Archeology
Biological samples from archeological sites can provide useful data about what was happening
thousands of years ago.
Histopathology
People who work in histology laboratories are called histotechnicans, histotechnologists, or histology
technicians. These people prepare the samples for analysis. Histopathologists, also known as
pathologists, study and analyze the samples.

The technician will use special skills to process samples of biological tissues. The tissues may come
from:

patients seeking a diagnosis

suspects in a crime, if it is a forensic lab

the body of a person who has died

The process involves:

trimming samples and applying solutions to preserve them

removing any water, replacing it with paraffin wax, and putting the sample in a wax block to make it
easier to slice

slicing the tissue thinly and mounting the slices on slides

applying stains to make specific parts visible

Next, a histopathologist examines the cells and tissues and interprets what they see. Others can use
the histopathologist’s findings to decide on the best course of treatment or help determine how a
death, illness, or crime occurred.

To become a histotechnologist in the United States, a person needs certification from the
American Society for Clinical Pathology. They can start by taking a degree that includes math,
biology, and chemistry, then getting onsite experience. Or, a person can attend an accredited
histology program. Higher qualifications are also available.

To become a pathologist, a person usually needs a degree from a medical school, which takes 4
years to complete, plus 3–7 years of internship and residency programs.

Studying anatomy
Most people working in healthcare have had training in gross anatomy and histology.

Paramedics, nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, medical doctors, prosthetists, and
biological scientists all need a knowledge of anatomy.
A brief introduction to physiology:
Physiology is the study of normal function within living creatures. It is a sub-section of
biology, covering a range of topics that include organs, anatomy, cells, biological
compounds, and how they all interact to make life possible.

From ancient theories to molecular laboratory techniques, physiological research

has shaped our understanding of the components of our body, how they
communicate, and how they keep us alive.
Merriam-Webster defines physiology as:
“[A] branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living
matter (such as organs, tissues, or cells) and of the physical and chemical
phenomena involved.”

FACTS ABOUT PHYSIOLOGY

 Physiology can be considered a study of the functions and processes that create life.

 The study of physiology can be traced back to at least 420 BC.

 The study of physiology is split into many disciplines covering topics as different as
exercise, evolution, and defense.

What is Physiology?

The study of physiology is, in a sense, the study of life. It asks questions about the internal
workings of organisms and how they interact with the world around them.

Physiology tests how organs and systems within the body work, how they communicate, and
how they combine their efforts to make conditions favorable for survival.

Human Physiology - is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical function of
humans, and serves as the foundation of modern medicine. As a discipline, it connects
science, medicine, and health, and creates a framework for understanding how the human
body adapts to stresses, physical activity, and disease. Human physiology is closely related
to anatomy, in that anatomy is the study of form, physiology is the study of function, and
there is an intrinsic link between form and function.
Human physiology, specifically, is often separated into subcategories; these topics cover a
vast amount of information.
BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

The major systems covered in the study of human physiology are as

follows:

 Circulatory system – including the heart, the blood vessels,

properties of the blood, and how circulation works in sickness and
health.
 Digestive/excretory system – charting the movement of solids from
the mouth to the anus; this includes study of the spleen, liver, and
pancreas, the conversion of food into fuel and its final exit from the
body.
 Endocrine system – the study of endocrine hormones that carry
signals throughout the organism, helping it to respond in concert. The
principal endocrine glands – the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals,
pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads – are a major focus, but nearly
all organs release endocrine hormones.
 Immune system – the body’s natural defense system is comprised
of white blood cells, the thymus, and lymph systems. A complex
array of receptors and molecules combine to protect the host from
attacks by pathogens. Molecules such as antibodies and cytokines
feature heavily.
 Integumentary system – the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and
sebaceous glands (secreting an oily or waxy substance).
 Musculoskeletal system – the skeleton and muscles, tendons,
ligaments, and cartilage. Bone marrow – where red blood cells are
made – and how bones store calcium and phosphate are included.
 Nervous system – the central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord) and the peripheral nervous system. Study of the nervous
system includes research into the senses, memory, emotion,
movement, and thought.
  Renal/urinary system – including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and
urethra, this system removes water from the blood, produces urine,
and carries away waste.
 Reproductive system – consisting of the gonads and the sex
organs. Study of this system also includes investigating the way a
fetus is created and nurtured for 9 months.
 Respiratory system – consisting of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea,
and lungs. This system brings in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide
and water.

BRANCHES

There are a great number of disciplines that use the word physiology in
their title. Below are some examples:

 Cell physiology – studying the way cells work and interact; cell
physiology mostly concentrates on membrane transport and neuron
transmission.
 Systems physiology – this focuses on the computational and
mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. It tries to
describe the way individual cells or components of a system
converge to respond as a whole. They often investigate metabolic
networks and cell signaling.
 Evolutionary physiology – studying the way systems, or parts of
systems, have adapted and changed over multiple generations.
Research topics cover a lot of ground including the role of behavior in
evolution, sexual selection, and physiological changes in relation to
geographic variation.
 Defense physiology – changes that occur as a reaction to a
potential threat, such as preparation for the fight-or-flight response.
 Exercise physiology – as the name suggests, this is the study of
the physiology of physical exercise. This includes research into
 bioenergetics, biochemistry, cardiopulmonary function,
biomechanics, hematology, skeletal muscle physiology,
neuroendocrine function, and nervous system function.

Anatomy is closely related to physiology. Anatomy refers to the study of the

structure of body parts, but physiology focuses on how these parts work and
relate to each other.