Information Technology Institute
Operating System Fundamentals
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Chapter Two
COMPUTER SYSTEM
STRUCTURE
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Table of Content
• Computer System Operation
• I/O Structure
• Storage Structure
• Hardware Protection
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COMPUTER SYSTEM
OPERATION
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Computer System Operation
• CPU and device controllers are connected
through common busses (data, address, and
control).
• CPU and device controllers execute
concurrently.
• Memory controller synchronizes access to
memory.
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Computer System Operation Cont’d
Hard Disk Printer Tape Drive
CPU Controller Controller Controller
Memory
Controller
Memory
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Computer System Operation Cont’d
• Each device controller is in charge of a
particular device type.
• Each device controller has a local buffer
• CPU moves data from/to main memory
to/from local buffers
• Device controller informs CPU that it has
finished its operation by causing an interrupt.
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Computer System Startup
1. Power up
2. Initial program: bootstrap
• Stored in ROM
• Initialize:
1. CPU registers
2. Device controllers
3. Memory contents
4. Load the operating system (kernel)
3. Kernel starts the first process, init
4. Init waits for an event (interrupt) to occur
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Interrupts
• A signal sent to the CPU
• Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt
service routine generally, through the interrupt
vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines. service routine , from its name it means the routine of intructions that will be
executed for this service when it's call of interrupt
In I/O devices one of the bus control lines is dedicated for this purpose and is called
• Interrupts: the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).
• Hardware Interrupts
• Software Interrupts: system calls
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Interrupts Cont’d
• A trap is a software generated interrupt caused
by:
• Error: division by zero or invalid memory access
• Request: from a user program to O/S
• An operating system is interrupt driven.
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Interrupt Handling
1. CPU is interrupted
2. CPU stops current process
3. CPU transfers execution to a fixed location
4. CPU executes interrupt service routine
5. CPU resumes process
• Notes:
• Interrupts must be handled quickly
• Interrupted process information must be stored
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I/O STRUCTURE
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I/O Structure
• Controllers:
• Is in charge of a specific type of device
• Moves data between device and local buffer
• A controller may have more than one device
• Buffer size varies
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Two I/O Methods
• Synchronous I/O:
• Process request I/O operation
process is paused untill the i/o operation is finished
• I/O operation is started
• I/O Operation is complete
• Control is returned to the user process
• Asynchronous I/O:
• Process Request I/O operation
• I/O operation is started process is asynchronously working with itself doesn't depend on
the ending of the i/o operation it only stops immediatly at the
middle to make the i/o operation starts then continued again.
• Control is returned immediately to the user process
• I/O continues while system operations occur
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Two I/O Methods Cont’d
Synchronous Asynchronous
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Direct Memory Access Structure
• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to
transmit information at close to memory
speeds.
• Device controller transfers blocks of data
from buffer storage directly to main memory
without CPU intervention.
• Only one interrupt is generated per block,
rather than the one interrupt per byte.
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Direct Memory Access Structure
Cont’d
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STORAGE STRUCTURE
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Storage Structure
• Main memory
• Only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly.
• Secondary storage
• Extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity.
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Storage-Device Hierarchy
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Difference of Storage Devices
• Speed
• Cost
• Capacity
• Volatility
• Reliability
• Portability
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RAM
• Array of memory words
• Each byte has an address
• Memory Address:
• Physical
• Logical
• CPU Instructions:
• Load: moves a word from main memory to CPU register
• Store: move a word from CPU register to main memory
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Magnetic Disk
• Rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks,
which are subdivided into sectors.
• The disk controller determines the logical
interaction between the device and the computer.
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Magnetic Disk Cont’d
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Magnetic Tapes
• Early secondary storage
• Slow access time
• Usage
• Backup
• Storage of infrequently used information
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HARDWARE PROTECTION
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Hardware Protection
• Early OS:
• Single user
• Programmer had full control of hardware
• Programmer was responsible of I/O
• Error in a program
• Single task
• Only one program affected
• Multi task
• Could cause problems to other programs
• Desktop OS allow a program to access any part of
memory or affect other programs instructions or data 28
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Error Handling
• Errors
• Illegal instruction
• Infinite loop
• Access of other memory addresses
• Handling Errors
1. Errors are detected by hardware
2. Hardware trap the error to the O/S
3. Errors are handled by the O/S
4. O/S terminates process
5. O/S dumps the process to disk (if needed)
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Ensuring OS Proper Operation
1. I/O Protection: illegal instructions
• Dual Mode (System Mode & User Mode)
2. Memory protection: illegal memory access
• Base & limit registers
3. CPU Protection: infinite loops
• Timers
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