SHS

General Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 – Week 7
Module 7 - Formation and Structure of Polymers
General Chemistry 1
Grade 11/12 Quarter 2 - Module 7 - Formation and Structure of Polymers
First Edition, 2020

Copyright © 2020
La Union Schools Division
Region I

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced in any form
without written permission from the copyright owners.

Development Team of the Module

Author: GLORIFINA R. DACANAY, T-III

Editor: SDO La Union, Learning Resource Quality Assurance Team

Illustrator: Ernesto F. Ramos Jr., P II

Management Team:

Atty. Donato D. Balderas, Jr.

Schools Division Superintendent

Vivian Luz S. Pagatpatan, PhD

Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

German E. Flora, PhD, CID Chief

Virgilio C. Boado, PhD, EPS in Charge of LRMS

Rominel S. Sobremonte, Ed.D., EPS in Charge of Science

Michael Jason D. Morales, PDO II

Claire P. Toluyen, Librarian II

General Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 – Week 7
Module 7 - Formation and
Structure of Polymers
 Target

Polymers are extremely large molecules that are essential to our very
existence. They are a main constituent of our food (starch, protein, etc.), our
clothes (polyester, nylons, etc.), our houses (wood cellulose, alkyd paints, etc.),
and our bodies (poly (nucleic acids), proteins, etc.). And so, the introduction
of polymers to our lesson is reasonable since they are widely used and found
almost in every material we used in our daily life.

After going through with this learning material, you are expected to:

1. Describe the formation and structure of polymers STEM_GC11OCIIg-

j-91
2. Explain the properties of some polymers in terms of their structure
STEM_GC11OCIIg-j-93

Specifically, you will be able to:

1. Define polymers;
2. Give the basic classification of polymers;
3. Distinguish between addition polymerization and condensation
polymerization;
4. Describe the arrangement of polymers;
5. Relate the arrangement of polymers to their properties; and
6. Illustrate the appropriate uses of polymers.
 Jumpstart

The strength of one kind of polymer, called Lexan, is so great

that it is used to make bullet-proof windows. The models show the starting
monomers bisphenol-A (C15H16O2) and phosgene (COCl2) and a repeating
unit of Lexan.
(images credit: securityworldmarket.com; researchgate.com)
Activity: Word Search

To start the lesson, the keywords for the concepts to be learned are
found below. They are arranged horizontally, vertically and slanting.

a. Polymers f. Addition polymerization k. Syndiotactic

b. Natural polymers g. Condensation polymerization l. Atactic
c. Synthetic polymers h. Homopolymer m. Plastic
d. Monomers i. Copolymer n.
Thermoplastic
e. Macromolecules j. Isotactic o. Thermoset
C F H E E H A H R S T B N M H Y H K R D W M E N R T
P O O N I U Y R E M Y L O P O M O H T E R W S A S D
G H N J K L Z X C V B N M Q A S R D F G H J K T L F
Z X C D V B N M Q W E R F G H E T Y U I O L K U J H
R E M Y E I U Y R E M Y L O M B N M H Y H K R R F R
F S D M O N O M E R S K T Y J K L Z X S A S D A T R
W B N M Z X S C L H U I L O P Y H K R S R S K L N M
J F R M T D V A Y H K O M O B N M E R Y E M S P O P
S O E W Y L Z X T M P L Z X G C M V T N C V N O M Q
E H S J B B N M J O I B N M H Y X Z N D Q W O L F G
L X O L E Y H K C N I Y L Z L Y L Z H I R E M Y L O
U E M K M A H L Z X U N F O M O B N M O E R Y M K R
C S R S S Y T B N M T O P J E T Y U I T L H F E J T
E B E N U D V A Y H K C D O B N M H Y A F G L R H N
L H H O H L Z X C Q I Y H K L D C I T C A T O S I H
O U T M O B N M W T Y L Z K M Y Y L Z T M L R F R Y
R E M Y E I U Y R E T Y J K L Z X S A S C V B N M Q
M L R F R Y H K E E I P S S N M M A S I M L R F R Y
O B T L T D V H Y H K C A R O P P E O C E T Y U I R
R I F P N F T R W S A S D E M Q D V R I B N M H Y T
C N U L H N R H J K T L F M F G Y L Z I U L Z X E N
A X H A Y O O N I U Y R E Y L O L Z X Y Z B N M W H
M A X S D H N J K L Z X C L H Z B N M T R A I F P N
S Y R T A D D I T I O N P O L Y M E R I Z A T I O N
M Z R I U O O N I U Y R E P R W S A S D L Z X I N M
V N E C P H N J K L Z X C X H J K T L F B N M B O V
W F B S R D V D V C I T S A L P O M R E H T D V C N
 Discover

WHAT ARE POLYMERS?

The word polymer is derived from the classical Greek words poly
meaning “many” and meres meaning “parts.”

Certain polymers, such as proteins, cellulose, and silk, are found in

nature, while many others, including polystyrene, polyethylene, and nylon,
are produced only by synthetic routes. In some cases, naturally occurring
polymers can also be produced synthetically. An important example is natural
(Hevea) rubber, known as polyisoprene in its synthetic form.

Figure 2:
(Image Credit: teachengineering)

Polymers are large molecular compounds made up of many repeating

units called monomers. They can be natural or synthetic.

Examples: starch, cellulose, proteins,

NATURAL
rubber
POLYMERS

Examples: polyethylene, nylon, lucite,

SYNTHETIC
plexiglass,
 Polymers are the giant molecules of chemistry. Chemists also call them
macro-molecules. The small building-block molecules are called
monomers.

Figure 2:
(Image Credit: galaxact.wordpress.com)

One of the simplest synthetic polymers is polyethylene. The polyethylene

monomer is ethene (also called ethylene).

Figure 3
(Image Credit: Pearson Education)

When ethene monomers react with each other, it breaks the double
bond between carbons and bonds to form a long polymer chain.

Figure 4
(Image Credit: Pearson Education)
POLYMER SYNTHESIS

How are polymers made?

The chemical reaction by which the monomers are linked together to

form polymers is called polymerization.

Figure 5: During a polymerization reaction, a large number of monomers become connected by

covalent bonds to form a single long molecule, a polymer. (Image credit: LibreTexts)

There are two major types of' polymerization methods used to convert
small molecules (monomers) into polymers. These methods were originally
referred to as addition and condensation polymerization.

A. Addition Polymerization (Chain-Reaction Polymerization)

➢ Monomers simply link together without the elimination of any atoms.
➢ Involves unsaturated compounds containing double or triple bonds,
particularly C═C and C≡C.

The polymerization reaction consists of three steps:

• Initiation - often through the use of free-radicals.
• Propagation - radicals join to form larger radicals.
• Termination - occurs when a molecule is formed that no longer has an
unpaired electron.

Consider the formation of polyethylene, a stable polymer used widely as

packaging wrap.

1. Initiation
➢ a free radical initiator (X∗) attacks the carbon-carbon double bond (first
step below). The initiator can be something like hydrogen peroxide. This
material can easily split to form two species with a free electron
attached to each: H−O−O−H→2H−O⋅ .
 ➢ This free radical attacks a carbon-carbon double bond. One of the pi
electrons forms a single bond with the initiator while the other pi
electron forms a new free radical on the carbon atom.

X* + CH2 ═CH2 → X + CH2 ─ CH2 *

e- e-
2. Propagation
➢ the new free radical compound interacts with another alkane,
continuing the process of chain growth (second step below).

X + CH2 ─ CH2 * + CH2 ═CH2 → X + CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH2 *

3. Termination
➢ Occurs whenever two free radicals come in contact with one another.
➢
X ─ (CH2 ─ CH2)n ─ CH2 ─ CH2 * + X ─ (CH2 ─ CH2)n ─ CH2 ─ CH2 * →

X ─ (CH2 ─ CH2)n ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ (CH2 ─ CH2)n ─ X

➢ The process gets terminated when two long-chained radicals combine
to form the polyethylene polymer.

Note:
(CH2 — CH2)n is a shorthand convention that represents n repeating units.

➢ Some of the plastics made by addition polymerization include

polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acrylics, polystyrene, and
polyoxymethylene (acetal).
Practice Exercise A
Write the structure of the monomer tetrafluoroethylene after
polymerization (up to 10 carbons in length). Identify the repeating units.

Answer:

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

CF2 ═ CF2 ─CF2 ─ CF2─ 5

↓
Repeated units
B. Condensation Polymerization (Step-Reaction Polymerization)
➢ A condensation polymerization is a form of step-growth polymerization
in which monomers react with each other to form larger structural units
while releasing smaller molecules as a byproduct such as water or
methanol.
➢ In a condensation reaction, two different monomers are combined
through multiple condensation reactions to form a polymer. Each
monomer must have two functional groups attached to each end of the
monomer.
➢ Functional groups would either be alcohol, amine, or carboxylic acid
groups which can link up with two other monomers.
➢ Nylon and Polyester are some of the most common examples of products
of this type of polymerization.

Example 1: Polyester
Polyesters are examples of a polymers produced from condensation
polymerization. Polyesters are formed by the reactions between a carboxylic
acid containing two carboxyl functional groups and an alcohol containing two
hydroxyl groups.

➢ Ethane diol and hexanedioic acid undergo condensation polymerisation

to form a polyester.

Ethane diol HO ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ OH

Hexanedioic acid HOOC — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — COOH

 Figure 6:
(image credit: passmyexams)

Example 2: Nylon
One of the best-known polymer condensation processes is the reaction
between 2 monomers, hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, shown below
which gives the final product as polyamide and a by-product which is a water
molecule.

Figure 7: The formation of nylon by the condensation reaction between

Hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid.
 Final Molecular Structure of Polyamide (Nylon 66)

Practice Exercise B

Draw the structure of the polymer which would form when the
following molecules react. (draw two repeating units)

Answer
O O O O
║ ║ ║ ║
─ N ─ CH2 ─ N ─ C ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ C ─ N ─ CH2 ─ N ─ C ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ C ─
│ │ │ │
H H H H

_____________________________________ ____________________________________

1st unit 2nd unit

Classification of Polymers

A. Classification Based on Source

1. Natural polymers
➢ Polymers which occur in nature and are existing in natural sources like
plants and animals.
➢ Common examples are: Proteins, Cellulose and Starch, Rubber

2. Synthetic polymers
➢ Polymers which humans can artificially create/synthesize in a lab.
Commercially produced by industries for human necessities.
➢ Some commonly produced polymers which we use day to day are:
• Polyethylene (a mass-produced plastic which we use in packaging)
• Nylon Fibers (commonly used in our clothes, fishing nets etc.)
3. Semi-Synthetic polymers
➢ Polymers obtained by making modification in natural polymers
artificially in a lab. Formed by chemical reaction (in a controlled
environment) and are of commercial importance.
• Examples: Vulcanized Rubber, Cellulose acetate (rayon) etc.

B. Classification Based on Structure of Polymers

Figure 8: Diagrams of linear, branched, crosslinked, and networked polymer structures.

(Image Credit: Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister & Rethwisch 5e.
https://www.e-education.psu.edu)
1. Linear polymers
➢ A linear polymer is simply a chain in which all of the carbon-carbon
bonds exist in a single straight line.
➢ The monomers in these are linked together to form a long chain often
referred to as the backbone. Atoms or small groups of atoms attached
to the long chain are called pendant atoms.
➢ These polymers have high melting points and are of higher density.

^^^^^^─A─A─A─ A─A─A─^^^^^^

Liner polymer

^^^^^^─A─A─A─ A─A─A─^^^^^^
│ │ │
B B B

Pendant atoms or pendant groups

➢ The arrangement of the pendant atoms or pendant groups attached to

the backbone gives different properties to the polymer. Three distinct
arrangements are observed: syndiotactic, isotactic, or atactic.
❖ The isotactic arrangement is where all the pendant groups or
substituents (represented by R—) are on the same side of the
polymer chain. They pack efficiently resulting in polymers with
high melting point, high crystallinity, and superior mechanical
strength.
❖ A syndiotactic polymer chain is one where the substituent group
alternates from left to right of the asymmetric carbons. They pack
less efficiently than isotactic chains.
 ❖ In atactic polymers, the substituents occur randomly. Therefore,
they do not pack well. These polymers are rubbery, not crystalline,
and relatively weak.

Figure 9
(Image credit:
bartleby.com)

A common example of linear polymer is PVC (Poly-vinyl chloride). This

polymer is largely used for making electric cables and pipes.

Figure 10: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is used for many pastic plumbing supplies,
such as pipes and connectors
Pearson Education

2. Branch chain polymers

➢ When linear chains of a polymer form branch, then, such polymers are
categorized as branched chain polymers.
➢ As a result of these branches, the polymers are not closely packed
together. They are of low density having low melting points.
 ➢ Low-density polyethene (LDPE) used in plastic bags and general
purpose containers is a common example

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

3. Crosslinked polymers
➢ Resemble ladders. The chains link from one backbone to another.
➢ In this type of polymers, monomers are linked together to form a three-
dimensional network.

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

➢ The crosslinks tie or bind the polymer strands together. Therefore,

when these crosslinked polymers are heated, the strands cannot flow
past each other. They do not melt or break apart.
➢ These polymers are brittle and hard. Ex:Bakelite (used in electrical
insulators), Melamine etc.
Copolymers
➢ Two or more different monomers that are joined together to form a
polymer.

When the two monomers “A” and “B” are arranged in an alternating
fashion, the polymer is called an alternating copolymer.

-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B–

When the two monomers (A and B) are arranged such that they do not
follow any specific order they are called a random copolymer.

-A-A-B-A-B-B-A-B-
In a block copolymer, each species of monomer is grouped together,
and all of the other are grouped together.

-A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-B-
Properties of Polymers
Depending on the desired use, polymers can be fine-tuned to leverage
certain advantageous properties. These include:

❖ Reflectivity: Some polymers are used to produce reflective film, which

is used in a variety of light-related technologies.
❖ Impact Resistance: Sturdy plastics that can withstand rough handling
are perfect for luggage, protective cases, car bumpers, and more.
❖ Brittleness: Some forms of polystyrene are hard and brittle and easy
to deform using heat.
❖ Translucence: See-through polymers, including polymer clay, are often
used in arts and crafts.
❖ Ductility: Unlike brittle polymers, ductile polymers can be deformed
without falling apart. Metals such as gold, aluminum, and steel are
known for their ductility. Ductile polymers, while not as strong as other
polymers, are useful for many purposes.
❖ Elasticity: Natural and synthetic rubbers have elastic properties that
make them ideal for car tires and similar products.

Some Monomers and Their Common Synthetic Polymers

MONOMER POLYMER
Formula Name Name and Formula Uses
Plastic
piping,
bottles,
H2C═CH2 Ethylene
electrical
insulation,
toys
Packaging
film,
carpets,
crates
for soft-
Propene
drink
bottles,
lab
wares,
toys
Piping,
siding,
gutters,
Vinyl
floor
chloride
tile,
clothing,
toys
 Carpets,
Acrylonitrile
knitwear

Coating
on
Cooking
Tetrafluoroe
utensils,
thylene
electrical
insulation,
bearings

Optical
Methyl
equipment
methacrylat
, home
e
furnishing

Container
s, thermal
insulation
(ice
Styrene
buckets,
water
coolers),
toys
Tire tread,
Butadiene coating
resin
Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR)

Butadiene Synthetic
and styrene rubber
PLASTICS AND POLYMERS

What is the meaning of plastic? Are all polymers plastic? Are all plastic
polymers?

The word ‘plastic’ comes from the Greek ‘plastikos’ meaning ‘to mold’.
Generally, plastics refer to synthetic polymers. Plastics are polymers but not
all polymers are plastic.
Plastics are classified into two types: thermoplastics and thermosets.

A. Thermoplastics
➢ are those that keep their plastic properties: they melt when heated and
harden when cooled.
➢ Thermoplastic materials are made of long linear polymer chains that
are weakly bonded to each other. When heated, the bonds are easily
broken and the polymer chains easily glide past each other. Therefore,
they are readily remolded.

B. Thermosets
➢ are permanently “set” once they are formed. They cannot be melted or
reshaped; if enough heat is added, they will crack or become charred.
➢ made up of linear chains that are cross-linked to one another
preventing the material from being melted and reformed.

Thermosets Thermoplastics

Figure 11
(image credit: teachengineering)
 Explore

A. Write the letter designating the monomer(s) from which the polymer could
be made from the choices in box located below. Use a separate sheet of paper
for your answers

_____ 1.

_____ 2.

_____3.

_____4.

_____ 5.

_____6.

_____. 7.

Choices:
B. Write the structure of polyvinylchloride up to 5 repeating units. That is n
= 5.

C. Draw out the structure of the polymer that would form from the given
monomer (up to 3 repeating units). What type of polymerization would take
place?
H H
│ │
C═C
│ │
OH H

D. Identify the monomer that is/are needed to create the following polymer.

E. Draw the structure of the polymer which would form when the following
molecules react. (draw two units)
 Deepen

Activity: Everyday Polymers

Plastics are identified by numbers 1 through 7. Usually located on the

bottom of the package, this number is code for the specific type of plastic
you’re holding. Here are a couple of examples of the identification numbers
and their corresponding products:

Identification Key: Recycling Codes and Application Examples for Polymeric

Materials in the USA
#1 PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) – Fizzy drink bottles, oven-ready meal
trays and water bottles
#2 HDPE (High-density polyethylene) – Milk bottles, detergent bottles,
yogurt and margarine tubs, cereal box liners and grocery, trash and retail
bags
#3 PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) – Cling film (plastic food wrap), vegetable oil
bottles, loose-leaf binders and construction products such as plastic pipes
#4 LDPE (Low-density polyethylene) – Dry cleaning bags, produce bags,
trash can liners, bread bags, frozen food bags and squeezable bottles, such
as mustard and honey
#5 PP (Polypropylene) – Ketchup bottles, medicine bottles, aerosol caps and
drinking straws
#6 PS (Polystyrene) – Compact disc jackets, grocery store meat trays, egg
cartons, aspirin bottles, foam packaging peanuts and plastic tableware
#7 Other - Three- and five-gallon reusable water bottles, certain kinds of food
containers and Tupperware

What to Do?
1. Collect all types of polymeric materials found at home.
2. Once you have collected these varieties of plastic consumer products
frequently found at home, sort them based from the identification key given
above.

Safety Consideration
While sorting and handling collected materials, wear disposable plastic gloves
and wash hands thoroughly after touching collected products.

3. Consolidate the collected plastic according to identification key.

4. Use the template below in submitting your output.
Assessment Questions

Using your polymeric materials data collection and sorting table you or
your class/team produced, please answer the following questions on a
separate sheet of paper.

From the polymeric material samples collected:

1. Which polymeric material was most commonly collected?

2. What percentage of the total collection did the most common material
represent?
3. Which polymeric material was the least common collected?
4. What percentage of polystyrene materials were collected?
5. What was the most common application collected for polyethylene
terephthalate materials collected?
6. Ranking the polymeric materials collected from the most common to
least common, where did high-density polyethylene rank in your sample?
 Gauge

Answer the following. Use a separate sheet for your answer.

A. Multiple choice. Write the letter that best describes the correct answer.

1. How will you classify the polymerization of propene, CH3CH=CH2?

A. an addition reaction C. a substitution reaction
B. an elimination reaction D. a condensation reaction

2. What term do you refer to the reactions in which polymers are produced?
A. Decomposition C. Synthesis
B. Polymerization D. Single displacement

3. What do you call this unit that comes together to form a polymer?
A. Amino acid C. Monomer
B. Copolymer D. Thermoset

4. Polyvinyl has the following structure.

OH OH OH
│ │ │
,,,,,, ─ CH2 ─ CH ─ CH2 ─ CH ─ CH2 ─ CH ─ ,,,,

What is the monomer that is used to form this polymer?

OH
║
A. HO ─ CH2 ─ CH3 C. HO ─ CH2 ─ CH

O
║
B. HO ─ CH2 ═ CH2 D. HC ─ CH3

5. What do you call the polymers that can be heated easily to form other
shapes?
A. Foams B. Gels C. Rubber D. Thermoplastics

6. Which one is not a polymer?

A. carbohydrates C. nucleic acid
B. carboxylic acid D. proteins

7. Which pattern is not a copolymer?

A. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA C. CCCDDDCCCDDDCCC
B. BBBBBBBBAAAAAAA D. CCDDDCCDDDCCDDD
8. Repeat units are often designated using what letter to represent the number
of repeats?
A. a B. n C. x D. y
9. Where is the reaction site in addition polymerization?
A. By-product C. Functional group
B. Double bond D. Hydrogen
10. When asymmetric alkenes polymerize (such as chloroethene to produce
PVC), the pendant group like chlorine can be arranged in different ways. What
do you call an arrangement in which the –Cl groups are arranged on the same
side of the polymer?
A. Atactic B. Isotactic C. Syndiotactic D. Random

B. Give what is asked.

1. Identify the monomer that is/are needed to create the following polymer.
CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H
│ │ │ │ │ │
─C─C─C─C─C─C─
│ │ │ │ │ │
CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H
2. Identify the type of polymerization in each of the following:
a.

b.

3. For each of the following, draw three linked monomer units of the polymer’s
structure:

a. Teflon b. Tedlar

4. While polymers have some negative environmental aspects to them, what

are some reasons why polymers are so widely used? Provide at least here (3).
 a.
F F F F F F
│ │ │ │ │ │
─C─ C─ C─ C─C─C─
│ │ │ │ │ │
F F F F F F CH3 H
│ │
b. ─C─C─
H F H F H F │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ a. condensation CH3 H
─C─C─C─C─C─C─ 3. b. addition 2. B. 1.
1. A 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. B 7. A 8. B 9. B 10. B A.
GAUGE
O CH3 O O CH3 O
║ │ ║ ║ │ ║
N ─ CH2 ─ C ─ N ─ CH ─ C ─ N ─ CH2 ─ C ─ N ─ CH ─ C ─
│ │ │ │
H H H H
E.
H H
│ │
C═ C
│ │
H H
D.
H H H H H H
│ │ │ │ │ │
─C─C─C─C─C─C─
│ │ │ │ │ │
OH H OH H OH H
C.
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
─C─C─C─C─C─C─C─C─C─C─
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
H H H H H H H H H H
B.
1. E
2. H
3. B
4. C
5. D
6. F
7. A
A.
EXPLORE
ANSWER KEY
References:
Chang, Raymond. (2010). Chemistry.-10th edition. USA. McGraw-Hill. pp.
1062 - 1068

Steven S. Zumdahl and Donald J. DeCoste. (2010). Introductory Chemistry: A

Foundation, Seventh Edition. USA. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. pp. 673 -
677.

Tro, Nivaldo J. (2011). Chemistry: a molecular approach. USA. Pearson

Prentice Hall. pp. 937 - 939.

“Basic Polymer Structure”, accessed October 22, 2020, https://www.e-

education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2210

“Classification of Polymers”, Accessed October 17, 2020,

https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/polymers/classification-of-
polymers/

“Close Encounters of the Polymer Kind”, accessed October 25, 2020,

https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/uoh_polymer_lesson01

“Introduction to Polymers”, accessed October 19, 2020,

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental
_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Polymers/Introduction_to_Polymers

“Introduction to Polymer Chemistry”, Harris, Frank W. Wright State

University, Dayton, OH 45435, Accessed October 22, 2020,
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/ pdf/10.1021/ed058p837

“Introduction to Polymer Science”, Fried, Joel R. (2014), Accessed October 15,

2020, https://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2235827

“Polymers”, Accessed October 15, 2020, https://byjus.com/chemistry/

condensation-polymerization/

“Principles of Condensation Polymerization”, accessed October 26, 2020,

https://polymerdatabase.com/polymer%20chemistry/Condensation%20Pol
ymerization.html

Structure of vinyl chloride, accessed October 17, 2020,

https://www.bartleby.com/solution-answer/chapter-312-problem-4p-
organic-chemistry-9th-edition/9781305080485

“What is a Polymer?”, Bradford, Alina (2017), Accessed Oct0ber 15, 2020,

https://www.livescience.com/60682-