THE SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN

KINGDOMS: THE EMPIRES OF ETHIOPIA & MALI

by

Victoria O. Alapo

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A DISSERTATION

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Presented to the Faculty of

The Graduate College of the University of Nebraska

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In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

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Major: Geography

Under the Supervision of Professor David J. Wishart

Lincoln, Nebraska

March, 2022
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THE SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN

KINGDOMS: THE EMPIRES OF ETHIOPIA & MALI

Victoria Oluyemisi Alapo, Ph.D.

University of Nebraska, 2022

Advisor: David J. Wishart

Pre-Colonial kingdoms in Sub-Saharan Africa were many, and were organized in unique

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ways. The old Empires of Ethiopia and Mali were selected for this research because of

their antiquity and for their contrasts: Ethiopia was an official Christian Empire for about
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two millennia, while Mali was the quintessential Sub-Saharan Islamic kingdom. Also,

both empires possessed documentation written by traditional Africans, in the form of

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ancient indigenous manuscripts, which predate the colonial period (i.e., the coming of

Europeans) by several centuries. In addition, the research analyzes work that has been
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done by historians and other academics, and incorporates the reports of ancient Arabs

traveling in the region. Effort has been made to show how such work can be done from a

Geographer’s point of view. Not only that, but the research includes the very important

and unique perspective of an African academic’s vantage point. That is, the viewpoint of

an African Historical Geographer, as it were, “from the inside looking out”. This research

is important because until fairly recently historical accounts given by Europeans or

Westerners of non-European societies have been tainted with a Western bias; this

research shows that Sub-Saharan Africa did indeed have great civilizations during the

Pre-Colonial Era (i.e., the period prior to European colonization in 1884).

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Dedication

To the Eternal Godhead Who Reigns Forever

And to:

The Continent of Africa

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Acknowledgements

First of all, I thank the Almighty God, for His grace, and for seeing me through this

Project, from the beginning to the end. Also, I thank my Supervisor, Professor David J.

Wishart, for his advice during my time at UNL, and specifically, for his guidance in the

writing of this dissertation. In addition, I thank my Supervisory Committee Members –

Dr. J. Clark Archer of the Geography Program; Dr. Dawne Curry of the History Dept.;

and Dr. Paul Hanson of the SNR, for their invaluable advice and support during my

various classes and especially for their useful feedback on this dissertation.

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I am grateful to the Late Dr. Jim Merchant, Geography Program Head, for his support
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during my early years at the Department, and for always encouraging me to “be more”,

including his gentle nudging for me to create and subsequently teach the Geography of
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Africa Class (GEOG 380). Many thanks also go to Dr. John Carroll, Director of the

School of Natural Resources (SNR) for his support of my Teaching Assistantships when
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the Geography Dept. was at East Campus, and for being a regular and enthusiastic Guest

Speaker at my yearly Geography of Africa Spring Classes. In addition, I am grateful to

Dr. Jeannette Jones of the Dept of History for her constant support whenever I needed a

Guest Speaker for the class. My gratitude also goes to Brian Baskerville, fellow

Geographer and colleague, who was always excited, every year, to share about his

experiences in Morocco, with my Geography of Africa students. I am grateful to Joyce

Hurst, now at the College of Dentistry, but formerly Administrative Assistant at the

Geography Dept, UNL. Your kindness made my early years at the Geography Dept., a

very positive experience.

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I especially thank Dr. Paul Royster of the UNL Libraries for his tremendous help with

various maps, photos and illustrations. My gratitude also goes to the Staff of the Inter-

Library Loan Dept, UNL Love Libraries, for all the books mailed to me over the years! –

I couldn’t have done it without you!

I am grateful to Dr. Joe Lauer (now retired), Africana Librarian at Michigan State

University, who early on in this endeavor, put me in the right path of manuscripts and

sources to research. My thanks also go to Ms. Florence Mugambi, African Studies

Librarian at Northwestern University. In addition, many thanks go to Ms. Dawn Wright,

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Africa Librarian at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of
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London, England. And I am grateful to Ms. Roberta Dougherty, Librarian for African

Studies, Yale University Library.

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My gratitude also goes to the Late Dr. William “Bill” Dando, of the Bible Geography

Specialty Group (BGSG) of the American Association of Geographers (AAG), who

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always believed in me, and for his support every time I presented a paper at the BGSG;

he always encouraged me to “be more”. I miss you, and God bless you. A big thank you

to Dr. Derek Alderman of the Geography Dept., University of Tennessee-Knoxville, for

his advice.

My debt of gratitude goes to ALL the previous generations of Africanist Geographers

who have gone before me (both on the continent of Africa, and here in the West); notable

among them, Prof. Akin L. Mabogunje (now retired) of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
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In addition, I want to use this opportunity to thank my “original” Alma Mater, the

Geography Dept of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, which gave me the excellent

academic foundation on which I have built my career through the years. I particularly

remember the inspiring example of women geography professors at that department,

notable among them, the world-renowned Medical Geographer, the Late Dr. B.

Folashade Iyun.

Many thanks to my “big brothers and sisters” at the Africa Specialty Group (ASG) of the

AAG. Your excellent example of scholarship has inspired me. Notably, women

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professional Geographers such as, Dr. Ibipo Johnston-Anumonwo of the State University
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of New York (SUNY) in Cortland, whose work on Gender Geography has inspired me

over the years.

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I am also grateful for the support of the Metropolitan Community College, Omaha,

Nebraska. Being employed there these 16 years as a full-time Geography Instructor has
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been a positive experience, and this degree would not have been possible, if not for the

flexibility afforded by the College.

In addition, I thank my family for their invaluable support and prayers over the years. I

am grateful for the example of scholarship from my own wonderful parents, Dr. Timothy

G. Alapo and Mrs. Christiana K. Alapo, and for their unwavering support of me from

childhood; they have always been my most enthusiastic “cheerleaders”. I am also

grateful for the support, prayers, and advice of my younger sisters and brothers: Mrs.
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Adeola Osewa (and her family), Dr. Remi Alapo, Shola Alapo, Lola Alapo and Yinka

Alapo. And I thank my big brother, Mr. Abioye Alapo and his family for their moral

support. I am particularly grateful to my sister, Dr. Remi Alapo, for her invaluable

support and advice on my research, without which this dissertation would not have been

completed. May God bless you very much!!! Amen. I am also grateful to my very

supportive spouse, Omololu Henry Oyekanmi, who has been my prayer partner and

friend since we were married; I appreciate you very much, thank you.

And to friends, various church family members, and well-wishers too numerous to list,

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who encouraged and prayed for me over the years, I thank you.
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God bless you, one and all.
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Table of Contents

List of Figures …………………………………………………………………….…….. x

CHAPTER 1: Introduction…...……..…………………………….….………………... 1

Time Frame….…………………………………………………………………………… 3

Study Area ….………………………………………………………………………….... 4

Need for the Study………………………………………………………………………...7

Research Objectives and Methodology ………………………………………………....12

Data Sources……………………………………………………………………………..14

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CHAPTER 2: Conceptual Framework & Review of the Literature………..……....19

A Case for Historical Geography……………………………………………...………...20

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Relevant Theories and Ideas……………………...…………………………………….. 22
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Sources of Information ………………………………………………………………… 35

CHAPTER 3: The Spatial Organization and Function of the Pre-Colonial

Empire of Ethiopia, and the Influence of Judaism and Christianity……….………47
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Introduction………………………………………………………………………..…….48

The Physical Characteristics of Ethiopia …………………………….………………....48

The Economy of Ethiopia and Trade Patterns in Pre-Colonial Times …………………53

The Political Organization of Old Ethiopia……………………………………………..69

The Geographical Analysis of Cities and their Function in Old Ethiopia………………79

- Yeha …………………………………………………………………………….82
- Aksum …………………………………………………………………………..84
- Adulis / Massawa / Mitsiwa …………………………………………………… 86
- Lalibela…………………………………………………………………………. 87
- Gondar………………………………………………………………………….. 88
- Adwa ……………………………………………………………………………89
- Harar / Harar Jugol ……………………………………………………………...91
- Addis Ababa …………………………………………………………………….93
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The Introduction of Judaism…….……….........................................................................99

The Introduction of Christianity ……………………………………………………… 104

Ethiopian Contributions to European Scholarship during the Renaissance...………….118

Conclusion and Ethiopia’s Resistance to Colonization ….…………………………… 122

CHAPTER 4: The Spatial Organization and Function of the Pre-Colonial

Empire of Mali, and the Influence of Islam …….…………...……………………...126

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………126

The Physical Geography of Mali………………..……………………………………..127

The Political Organization of Space and the Influence of Islam

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in the Empire of Mali…………………………………………………………………..132

Additional Thoughts About Women’s Rights in Islamic Mali………………………...140

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Military Resources in Mali Empire…………………………………………………….142

Geographical Analysis of Pre-Colonial Cities and their Function, in Mali……………146

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- Niani ………………………………………………………………………..….152
- Timbuktu……………………………………………………………………….148
- Jenne……………………………………………………………………………155
- Tadmekka………………………………………………………………………157
- Walata…………………………………………………………………………. 159
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- Gao.…………………………………………………………………………… 159
- Awdaghost……………………………………………………………………...160
- Kumbi Saleh……………………………………………………………………160

Early Scholarship in Mali …………………………………………………………….. 162

The Economy of Old Mali and Trade in Pre-Colonial Times ……………………....... 165

CHAPTER 5: Conclusion… ….……………………………………………….….….179

References…................................................................................................................... 185
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List of Figures

CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.1: The Extent of the Empire of Mali around 1350 A.D………………………….5

Figure 1.2: Early Kingdoms in Sub-Saharan Africa………………………………………6

Figure 1.3: Pre-colonial Mosque in Jenne, Mali…………………………………………. 8

Figure 1.4: Ethiopian vs. Malian Manuscripts: Ethiopian Manuscript,

in original Ge’ez or Ethiopic……………………………………………………………. 17

Figure 1.5: Ethiopian vs. Malian Manuscripts: Malian Manuscripts, in Arabic……..…. 17

CHAPTER 2

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Figure 2.1: The urban hierarchy as formulated by Walter Christaller (1933) …….….... 24

Figure 2.2: The rings of agricultural production as envisaged by

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von Thünen (1826) …………………………………………………………………...….28

Figure 2.3: The walls of the Old City of Kano, in Northern Nigeria……………………30
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Figure 2.4: Colonialism in Africa………………………………………………………..32

Figure 2.5: Trans-Saharan Trade Routes in Africa, 200 to 1900 A.D………………….. 36

CHAPTER 3
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Figure 3.1: Present location of Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa………………………… 49

Figure 3.2: Regional Map (cropped) showing the location of modern-day Ethiopia
in relation to N/E Africa and S/W Asia or the Middle East……………………………. 49

Figure 3.3. Map of early kingdoms in Africa, especially showing the various
kingdoms in the northeast, including Old Ethiopia…………………………………...... 50

Figure 3.4: Physical map of Ethiopia…………………………………………………… 51

Figure 3.5: The Danakil Depression……………………………………………………. 52

Figure 3.6: Erta Ale Volcano…………………………………………………………… 52

Figure 3.7: The Ancient Port of Adulis………………………………………………… 54

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Figure 3.8: Map showing approximate location of the Kingdom of Aksum

c.100-700 A.D………………………………………………………………………….. 55

Figure 3.9: Map showing the location of the ancient port of Adulis
along the Red Sea, relative to other regions, and items traded………………………….57

Figure 3.10: Salt miners, removing loads of salt from the Danakil Depression
in Ethiopia……………………………………………………………………………… 61

Figure 3.11: Map of part of Abyssinia, copied from the original published by
Henry Salt, Esqr., in 1814……………………………………………………………… 62

Figure 3.12: Teff seeds……………………………………….………………………….63

Figure 3.13: Unleavened Injera bread………………………………………………….. 64

Figure 3.14: The indigenous niger (nug) oilseed in Northwest Ethiopia………………..66

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Figure 3.15: Female Coffee Farmer in Ethiopia………………………………………...68
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Figure 3.16: Ethiopian women conducting various daily activities……………………. 68

Figure 3.17: Example of Regional / Subsidiary Monarchs in Ethiopia…………………70

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Figure 3.18: The old regions of Ethiopia ……………………………………………….72

Figure 3.19: An excellent example of an Ethiopian Warrior ………………………...... 73

Figure 3.20: Statue of an African Knight ………………………………………..…….. 75

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Figure 3.21: List of cities and their Central Place functions. ……………………….….80

Figure 3.22: Map of Ethiopia showing a sampling of ancient / old cities,

and their distances from each other, in miles………………………..…………………..81

Figure 3.23: Ruins of the ancient temple discovered in Yeha, Ethiopia...………………83

Figure 3.24: Church of Mary of Seyon, Aksum, Ethiopia ……………………………...84

Figure 3.25: A replica of the Jewish Ark of the Covenant …….......................................85

Figure 3.26: The kingdom of Aksum showing some of its trade routes ………………..87

Figure 3.27: The walls of Gondar Palace, Ethiopia,

built by Emperor Fasiladas in the 1600s……………………………………………….. 88
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Figure 3.28: The Debre Berhan Selassie Church, in Gondar, Ethiopia..………………. 89

Figure 3.29: Ruins of the former Jesuit settlement in Fremona,

Adwa, Ethiopia ……………………………………………………………………….... 90

Figure 3.30: Harar Jugol, the Fortified Historic Town…………………………………. 91

Figure 3.31: Harari baskets, from an unknown creator, Ethiopia…………………….….92

Figure 3.32: Emperor Menelik II in coronation robes and Empress Taytu Betul……….93

Figure 3.33: The large Banquet Hall in Addis Ababa,

built by Emperor Menelik II in the palace complex, 1880s……………………………..95

Figure 3.34: The Imperial Palace of Menelik II, also called The Great Ghebi,
in Addis Ababa (built in the 19th century)……………………………………………… 96

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Figure 3.35: The Old Market (“Merkato”), in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 1905…….…..97

Figure 3.36: St. George Cathedral, Addis Ababa. Photo taken in the 1930s…………... 98
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Figure 3.37: Ethiopian Jews holding the Old Testament……………………………….101

Figure 3.38: Map of Ethiopia showing the locations of ancient cities………………… 103
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Figure 3.39: Ethiopian Orthodox Priests, wearing indigenous clothes……….………...105

Figure 3.40: King Ezana’s pre-Christian Aksumite coins …………..............................106

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Figure 3.41: Granite Stelae at Aksum, in present-day Ethiopia ……………………….107

Figure 3.42: A printed portion of the Kebra Nagast (“Glory of Kings”)

manuscript, in the original Ge’ez (Ethiopic) script……………………………..……...108

Figure 3.43: The Ancient Churches of Lalibela, hewn out of solid volcanic rock…..... 111

Figure 3.44: Ethiopian Orthodox Priests, with flat headdresses………………………..113

Figure 3.45: The Church of Maryam (St Mary) in Addis Ababa……………………....114

Figure 3.46: Black Female Saint in Ethiopia:

Saint Walatta Petros (1592-1642)……………………………………………………....116

Figure 3.47: Manuscript drawings showing Saint Walatta

engaged in manual labor………………………………………………………………..117
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Figure 3.48: Ptolemic Map, used in Europe during the Renaissance………………….119

Figure 3.49: “The Departure of the Coptic and Ethiopian Delegates from the
Council of Florence”……………………………………………………………….…..120

Figure 3.50: Ge’ez in modern print………………………………………………….....121

Figure 3.51: Colonization in Africa as of 1914……………………………..………… 123

CHAPTER 4

Figure 4.1: Regional Map showing the location of present-day Mali………………….126

Figure 4.2: Mount Hombori Tondo, the highest peak in Mali………………………… 127

Figure 4.3: Physical Map of Mali………………………………………………………128

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Figure 4.4: The climate regions of Mali
(based on the Köppen system of classification)………………………………………..129
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Figure 4.5: Map of West Africa showing the successive overlapping territories
of the Ghana, Mali and Songhai Empires. ………………………………………….... 131
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Figure 4.6: Detail of Catalan map showing African king,
Mansa Musa of Mali (ca. 1375)……………………………………………………….. 132

Figure 4.7: The Ancient Kingdom of Ghana, showing pre-colonial cities……………..135

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Figure 4.8: Map depicting the early boundaries of the Old Mali Empire
(the maximum extent under Emperor Sundiata), circa 1235 A.D.;
also showing some major pre-colonial cities………………………………………...... 147

Figure 4.9: Approximate extent of the Empire of Mali at its height

(about 1300 A.D.), including some major pre-colonial cities and
some important Trans-Saharan trade routes……………………………………………148

Figure 4.10: Distances and spacing between ancient cities in Mali..…..……….......… 150

Figure 4.11: List of cities and their Central Place functions…..………………….….... 151

Figure 4.12: Plan of the Old City of Timbuktu,

showing streets and major buildings……………………………………………….…...153

Figure 4.13: Sankore Mosque…………………………………………………….…….154

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Figure 4.14: The “four strolls” (or major districts) in Jenne, Mali…………….……….155

Figure 4.15: The Great Mosque of Jenne in Mali………..………………………….… 156

Figure 4.16: The Wikala of Sultan al-Ghuri (built between 1504-05)…………………158

Figure 4.17: Indigenous African manuscripts in Arabic script……………………..… 162

Figure 4.18: Map of Mali Empire showing the locations of the

major goldfields / gold mines…………………………………………………………. 166

Figure 4.19: Salt Mines located in the middle of the Sahara……………….…………. 170

Figure 4.20: Trade routes of the Sahara and the Sudan, c. 1000 to 1500…………...… 171

Figure 4.21: The Tuaregs, also known as the “Lords of the Desert”,
with their camels, near Timbuktu in Mali…………………………………………..… 173

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Figure 4.22: Historical extent of the Tuareg ethnicity………………………………... 174
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Figure 4.23: Women selling their wares, in the Sikasso region of southern Mali….… 175

Figure 4.24: A traditionally embroidered “boubou”, from West Africa……………….177

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CHAPTER 1: Introduction

Spatial decisions have always been made by humans. The word spatial itself is anything

that has to do with the space something occupies on the ground and the interactions

between different places. These kinds of decisions have included both complex and

simple ones, ranging from the locations of cities themselves, and the reasons for those

locations, to the various institutions and amenities located within them (Mabogunje,

1968).

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This spatial decision-making is not unique to just Westerners; native peoples worldwide
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are rational people who have made similar decisions concerning the locations of housing,

marketplaces, palaces, institutions, and various monuments, including religious edifices,

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for centuries. In fact, some of their decision-making efforts are still evident on the

landscape today in the form of pyramids, temples, great walls, and other great buildings,

which modern tourists routinely spend enormous amounts of money and time to go see,
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and marvel over, worldwide.

These features constructed by humans (as was found in pre-colonial empires of Ethiopia

and Mali) that formed part of the visible environment are traditionally referred to as the

“Cultural Landscape”, by human geographers (Fouberg, Murphy & de Blij, 2015;

Johnston, et. al., 2009; Rubenstein, 2020; and Stoddard, Wishart & Blouet, 1989).

Johnston, et. al (2009), quoting an earlier work by Sauer (1925), stated that the cultural
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landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a culture group: culture is the agent,

the natural area the medium, the cultural landscape the result.

Also important to the study of Geography is the idea of spatial interaction between

peoples who live in various locations. This interaction usually shows up on the landscape

in the form of trade linkages between various towns and cities (and even kingdoms), and

also in the form of pilgrimages / patronage of religious sites, as discussed in this

dissertation. According to Fouberg & Murphy (2020), spatial interaction between places

depends on the distances between places (the measured physical space), the accessibility

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of places (the ease of reaching one location from another), and the transportation and
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communication connectivity among places (the degree of linkage between locations in a

network).
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Abler, Adams & Gould (1971), in their book, “Spatial Organization: The Geographer’s

View of the World”, described how human-built features are located or organized on the
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landscape, and the processes that lead to them. In using the term, “Spatial Organization”,

the authors were placing under a general umbrella, as it were, all human endeavors that

can be studied on the landscape. They explain that the interest in distributions is always

focused on spatial structures and the processes which produce them (p.88). And so, the

totality of these various decisions, and the spatial interactions that lead to the observable

cultural landscape are what some Geographers have termed, Spatial Organization (Abler,

Adams & Gould, 1971; Mabogunje, 1968).

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In this current dissertation research, a similar point of view has been adopted. “Spatial

Organization” here, is interpreted to mean the human elements that were observable on

the landscapes of the Empires of Ethiopia and Mali in pre-colonial times, and the various

spatial interactions, and the spatial decision-making processes that led to them. In this

research, these of necessity include, the political structures implemented (and how they

made an imprint on the landscape), the economic / trade networks (including the goods

that were traded and with whom), and the patterns of distribution of religious edifices.

Here, an attempt is made to go beyond a spatial organization that answers “where” and

“what was where” (in pre-colonial times), to “when it was there” and “why it was there”,

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as explained in the Research Objectives and Methodologies section.
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Regarding what a kingdom or an empire is, Evers & West (2011), describe a kingdom as
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a piece of land that is ruled by a king or a queen. The Oxford Dictionary (2021) defines

an empire as an extensive group of states or countries under a single supreme authority,

formerly especially an emperor or empress. The two kingdoms / empires under

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consideration in this dissertation, Ethiopia and Mali, very much fit the bill of both

definitions, as they were headed by emperors / empresses who had extensive power over

a vast region, which frequently included the realms of subsidiary monarchs (Davidson,

1986).
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Time Frame

As a definition, the time frame considered as “Pre-Colonial Africa” is usually recognized

in the literature as any time before the Berlin Conference of 1884, which enabled the

official colonization of Africa by Europeans (Attoh, 2010; Davidson, 1984; Mazrui,

1986; McEvedy, 1980). Occasionally, a different time frame is used by academics; that

is, the period before the 16th century, before the trans-Atlantic slavery began. Until the

Berlin Conference, however, European influence was very limited then in most African

kingdoms, and mostly restricted to coastal areas (Davidson, 1984; Mazrui, 1986). For

this reason, many historians prefer to use 1884 as the official starting point of the

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“Colonial Era”, because it was after the Berlin Conference that European influence in
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Africa became pervasive, resulting in the loss of African political sovereignty and

independence on virtually the entire continent. Adopting that definition, then, it is

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assumed that everything that happened on the continent prior to 1884 can be considered

“Pre-Colonial”.
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Study Area

This research focuses on the similarities and differences between two great Sub-Saharan

African kingdoms, Ethiopia (also sometimes referred to as Aksum / Axum, in ancient

times) and Mali. Even though Ethiopia was actually never colonized by Europeans

(although Italy briefly occupied the country for 6 years during the 20th century), it too,

like Mali, had an old monarchy that no longer exists. And so, the two empires were

selected mainly because they provide a very good contrast: while Ethiopia was an official

Christian Empire for about two millennia, Mali was the quintessential Sub-Saharan
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Islamic kingdom. In addition, Ethiopia was an East African empire, with cultural traits

and political organization that were different from what existed in Mali, in West Africa.

But the two empires also had similarities, which are also explored in this research. For

example, the two empires were both large in size. At its zenith, around 1300 A.D., Mali

was vast, and covered an area that encompasses significant portions of the present-day

countries of Mali, Mauritania, Senegal and the Gambia, and smaller portions of northern

Burkina Faso, western Niger, Guinea, and the Ivory Coast (Figure 1.1, below).

Altogether, the empire included more than 500,000 square miles (Smithsonian Museum,

Washington, D.C., 2015).

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Figure 1.1: The Extent of the Empire of Mali around 1350 A.D. As seen on the map,
the empire was extensive, covering at least in part, or in some cases, the whole area
of the modern states outlined. A few of the pre-colonial cities of that time are also
shown.
Source: Mali Empire – Wikipedia File: Mali Empire Map -.PNG - Wikimedia Commons
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On the other hand, depending on the time period, Ethiopia was larger than, or at least

about the same size as, the present-day country (Figure 1.2, below). Further, both

empires were ruled by Emperors (and also Queens, in the case of Ethiopia). They were

also ancient; Mali was founded in the 13th century, while Ethiopia’s royal heritage can be

traced as far back as 3000 years.

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Figure 1.2: Early Kingdoms in Sub-Saharan Africa, showing the approximate

locations and dates of existence of the Old Empires of Mali and Ethiopia (also
called Abyssinia). Source: Redrawn from Stock (2013).
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Both empires similarly had impressive spatial interactions with other parts of the world

during their time. For example, Ethiopia had early and regular interactions with

Southwest Asia (the Middle East) and Europe, well before the first Europeans visited

Africa (Pankhurst & Gérard, 1996). And Mali regularly interacted with the Arab World

and Mediterranean Europe through the trans-Saharan trade. Furthermore, even though

there were many other pre-colonial African kingdoms (Figure 1.2), Ethiopia and Mali

have the important distinction of being two of the few kingdoms in the entire continent

that possessed ancient indigenous manuscripts. These documentations / indigenous

writings by traditional Africans predate the colonial period (or the coming of Europeans)

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by several centuries. The manuscripts (specifically those that have been translated into
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English) were invaluable in carrying out this research, and they are explained further in

the subsequent chapters.

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Need for the Study

This research is important because the continent of Africa is regarded by many as one of
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the principal cradles of human civilization, and over the course of thousands of years the

peoples of Africa developed rich and varied cultures (Davidson, 1984, 1971 and 1959;

Diop, 1974; Mazrui, 1987 and 1986). These cultures gave rise to many great pre-colonial

political empires, including Egypt, Kush, Nubia, Aksum, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Songhai,

Benin, the Great Zimbabwe, Zulu, Ashanti and many others (Attoh, 2010; Davidson,

1971; McEvedy, 1980; and Niane, 1965). Many of these African empires were

international centers of learning (Figure 1.3, below), drawing scholars from as far away

as the Middle East, across the Trans-Saharan trade routes (Niane, 1965). A prime

example of such is the city of Timbuktu, which was the center of scholarship in the
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ancient Kingdom of Mali, where scholars have recently discovered thousands of African

manuscripts, many centuries old, buried there in the desert sands (The Lost Libraries,

BBC, 2009). The then Empire of Mali was so prosperous that historians tell of a

pilgrimage that one of its rulers, Mansa Musa, took to Mecca in 1324: on his way, he

distributed so much gold during his visit to Cairo that the world price for gold (then the

international currency) was devalued for 12 years (Wisniewski, 1992).

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Figure 1.3: Pre-colonial Mosque in Jenne, Mali, which also doubled as a

pre-colonial school.
Source: http://msmonterossosfacebookpage.wikispaces.com/Mansa+Musa

Despite its ancient historical prowess in many areas of civilization, and its advanced

cultural development, Africa is the least studied of all the 6 habitable continents,

especially here in the West, according to Geographers Kalipeni, Oppong and Ofori-

Amoah (2003). Academic studies on pre-colonial Africa’s contribution to the world are

few (Browder, 1992). Moreover, the little that was presented about the continent in the
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West, especially prior to the late 20th century, has long been dominated by

misinformation (Comaroff & Comaroff, 1991). An example of such gross

misinformation occurred in the travel narratives of one of the most famous women

travelers to Africa during the 19th century. Mary Kingsley was well-known for her

ethnographic studies, and in her travels through Gabon, among the Fang Ethnicity (whom

she refers to as the “Fan”) she states: “…I was too frightened to go into the forest that

afternoon, because on the previous afternoon I had been stalked as a wild beast by a

cannibal savage, and I am nervous” (Kingsley, 1897, p. 197). According to Romero

(1992), Kingsley’s account of cannibalism was false, as the Fang, like the other peoples

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of Africa, did not practice it. Unfortunately, many Westerners who had not had the
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opportunity to visit Africa usually took such accounts at their face value, without

questioning. Other racist accounts include that of Henry Stanley who journeyed in Africa
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in 1878, and wrote such books as, Through the Dark Continent (1878) and In the Darkest

Africa (1890). At the end of his journey, Stanley had thanked God for His guidance and

protection in piercing the “dark continent” (Yeboah, 2010).

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Browder (1992, pp. 17-18) has recorded in his book, Nile Valley Contributions to

Civilization, several examples of odious comments that were made concerning Africa in

the past by various prominent Westerners, including academics. Here are examples:

“When we classify mankind by color, the only one of the primary races which has not
made a creative contribution to any of our twenty-one civilizations is the black race”
(Arnold J. Toynbee [1889-1975], Historian);

“I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the White. There never was a
civilized nation of any complexion than white, nor even any individual eminent either in
action or speculation, no ingenious manufacturers among them, no arts, or sciences”
(David Hume [1711-1776], Philosopher);
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“The study of the Negro is the study of man’s rudimentary mind. He would appear rather
a degeneracy from the civilized man than a savage rising to the first step, were it not for
his total incapacity for improvement” (Richard Burton [1821-1890], Explorer and
Writer);

“I advance it, therefore, as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct
race or made distinct by time or circumstance, are inferior to the whites in the
endowments of both body and mind” (Thomas Jefferson [1743-1826], U.S. President);

“A Black skin means membership in a race of men which has never created a civilization
of any kind. There is something natural in the subordination of an inferior race even to
the point of enslavement of the inferior race …” (John Burgess [1844-1931], Scholar &
Political Scientist, Columbia University).

This relative neglect of the proper study of Africa in Western academic circles has been

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due in part to the prejudices that were developed during the era of slavery and

colonization: because Africa was perceived incorrectly in the minds of academics as a

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place where no significant cultural history occurred, it did not merit the need to be

studied (Browder, 1992; James, 1954). A cursory look at the great pyramids in Egypt
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should have been sufficient to dispel that way of thinking, but academics of the time

where so blinded by racism and prejudice that many even claimed that the Egyptian
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civilization was not even African, but a part of the Middle East, even though it was

located right there on the African continent (Davidson, 1984).

Of course, academics and their worldview have matured since colonial times (which is

just a scant 60 years ago, as far as the independence of most African countries go), and so

some of the more erroneous ideas concerning Africa have now been dispelled. Still, as a

result of past historical neglect, there remains a lingering dearth of academic studies,

especially in the discipline of Geography (and even more specifically in Historical

Geography) about pre-colonial Africa.

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