Section-A Experiments

Experiment No.1
To determine resistance per cm of agiven wire by plotting agraph for potential diference versus current.
Apparatus :
Ammeter,voltmeter (0 -3 volts), wire of unknown resistance, battery, rheostat, one way key, connecting wires.

Theory :
Resistance of the wire can be found using Ohm's law. Physical conditions remaining unchanged, potential drop along a
conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
Vcl
V = IR
slope of the graph gives the
where R is resistance of the wire. As Vcl, graph between Vand I is a straight line and V/I, the
resistance.
NM
Slope = tan =
PM
D N
CD Voltage
R=
AB M
If listhe length of the wire, the resistance per cm
R
p= A

Current

Procedure : Fig. 1.1

Graph between V and I
1. Draw diagram as shown in fig. 1.2.
ammeter and a key.
2. Connect the given wire in series with a battery, rheostat,
3. Connect voltmeter in parallel with the wire.
connected towards positive of the battery.
4. See that positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter are

Resistance
WW

Fig. 1.2. Ohm's law apparatus.

zero error.
are at zero mark, if not adjust them. Note
5. See that pointer of ammeter and voltmeter
6. Find least count of both ammeter and voltmeter. ammeter and
and see therange of variation of current and voltage on
7. Close the key. Slide the rheostat knob distribution of this range on
voltmeter respectively, so that the readings on both remain within the scale. Make equal
ammeter so as to take six readings. voltmeter. Repeat this step
rheostat for first reading on the ammeter. Write this reading. Also note the reading in
8. Adjust
for six readings one by one.
1
 XI
9. Mark ink points n the wire where it ends on two connecting terminals.
10. Take out the wire, remove kinks if any and measure its length between two marked ink points by stretching it on a
rmetre
Observations and caleulations :
Least count of ammeter <<
Least count of voltmeter
Zero error of ammeter A
Zero error of voltmeter
Zero corection of ammeter >
=...... A
<
Zero correction of voltmeter =......>V
Length of wire |= Cm

S. No.
Ammeter reading (A) Voltmeter reading (V)
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected

2
3.
4

5
6.

Graph :
Take current along X-axis and voltage along Y-axis. Plot six points by taking suitable scale. Join these points using a scale
so that almost all points lie on a straight line.
Find two points Cand D on Y-axis corresponding to pointsAand Bon X-axis; then
CD
R=
AB
OD - 0C
OB - OA
ohm
R
Resistance per cm
Result. p =...... ohm/cm.

Precautions :
1. Current should be passed only for short time while taking the readings.
2. Connections should be tight, neat and clean.
3. Use alowresistance rheostat.
4. Clean the ends of connecting wires using sand paper.
5. Positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected topositive of battery.
Sources of error :
1. Area of cross-sectionof wire may not be uniform.
2. Heating of the wire may cause an error.
 3
VINESH Practical Physics-XII

Experiment No. 2
To find the resistance of a given wire using metre bridge
and hence determine the resistivity (specific resis
tance) of its material.

Apparatus :
one way key, jockey, screw gauge, unknown resistance.
Metre bridge, Leclanche cell, resistance box, galvanomerter,

Theory : a cell is
Q, R and X form a quadrilateral ABCD fig 2.1,there
Wheatstone bridge is a principle that when four resistances D,P,current is passed and resistances adjusted so that is no
connected between A and C and a galvanometer between B and and then
bridge is said to be balanced
current through the galvanometer, the
P R
X

Metre bridge is based on this principle.

parts P and Q, fig. 2.2. Resistance box is
One metre long wire is divided in two
cross-section of the wire is uniform.
and unknown resistance is X. Area of
R
P
100-I
R K
100 - X
100 -
X = x R
Fig. 2.1.
L Wheatstone bridge
Applying X = PA =p:TD'/4
specific resistance p can be calculated.
where L is length of given wire and D its diameter, the
p =X
4L

Procedure :
Draw circuit diagram as shown in fig. 2.2.
K

R X
RB wwW
C,

C C C C4

J
Cs P
100

Fig. 2.2. Metre bridge

resistance box
Connections. Cj, C, C3, C4, Cs, Co, C, are connecting terminals provided on metre bridge. Connect
a key K between Cs and C6. Connect C, to
between C and C,. Connect unknown resistance between C; and CA: a celland
a jockey through a galvanometer. See that positive of the cell is connected to zero end of the wire.
 VINESH Practical
Checktheconnections. Closethe key K. Pressthe jockey at zeroend. See the direction of deflectionof the pointer of
Physes
XH
galvanometer. Press the jockey at 100end. See the direction of deflection of the pointer of the galvanmometer. Ths
should be inopposite direction to the first deflection. deflecton
1. Introduce some resistance (say 252) in resistance box. Placeejockey at such a point on the wire, so that
deflection in the
galvanometer is zero. Adjust the resistance Rso that balance point J lies somewhere between 3) arx 7) cm, Note
resistance Rand the reading I at J.
2. Change the resistance Rand repeat step 1, three times more.
3. Mark ink points at the two ends of the wire Xending at the terminais C, and CA
4. Take out the wire from terminals C, and CA. remove kinks if any and measure its length between tWO marked ink points
by stretching it on a metre rod.
5. Measure the diameter of wire Xusing screw gauge in six different positions in two mutually perpendicular directions in
each position.

Observations and caiculations :

Length of wire
L,........ Cm

S. No. 100-1
Resistance Length P Length Q X =
RQ Icm (100 - ) cm
1.
2
3.
4

Mean X=........9
Screw gauge :
Number of divisions on circular scale =

Pitch distance moved in 4 rotations

4
=..... mm

Least count pitch

=..... mm
no. of divisions on circular scale
Zero error = +/ mm

Zero correction ZC = -/+ mm

S.No. 2 3 4 5 6
Observed diameter
(a) mm
(b) mm

Mean observed diameter = ..... mm

Corrected diameterD = Observed diameter + ZC
mm =...... X 10- m
VINESH Practieat Physics XIH

Resuit : Resistivity
4L.

Actual value of p from constant tables p, 2 m

% error Pa P x 100
Pa

Precautions :
1. Current should be passed only fora short time while taking the readings.
2. Connections should be tight, neat and clean.
3. Clean the ends of connecting wires using sand paper.
bridge.
4. Positive terminal of cell should be connected to zero end of metre
Jockey should not be slided along the wire; it should be raised up from a point and then placed at the other point.
5.
30 and 70 cm.
6. Balance point should be somewhere between
7. Resistance box plugs should be tight.
Sources of error:
land 2 same as in expt. 1.
cause an error.
3. Resistances of copper strips, though negligible may
 10 EpertmentNo.6
potentiometer.
primarycellusing
To determine the internalI resistance of a
given
way keys, two
Apparatus :
Potentiomneter, galvanometer, Laclanche or
Danial cell.
ammeter,rheostat,
twO one
resistanCe boxe
jockey.
external resistance R:
Theory :
current through
For a cell of e.m.f. Eand internal resistance r, Ibeing
we get E = I(R + r) across R is
time potential difference
and at the same
V = IR
by (2) we get
Eliminating I, bydividing (1)
1+
R

W E
1
R
R
Fig. 6.1. E.M.F,

so that E/V = l|l, and therefore

Corresponding to E and Vwe have lengths of potentiometer wire l, and l;
r=

Procedure:
1. Draw circuit diagram as shown in fig. 6.2.
2. Make potentiometer circuit same as in step 2 of expt. 5.
3. Connect +ve of the given cell to zero terminal of potentiometer wire and -ve of this cell to jockey through aresit
box R' and a galvanometer.
B
K

400

300
200

100

G RB
R'
R
RB
K

Fig.6.2.
Internal resistance of a cell.
4. Connect a
resistance box Rand a key K' in parallel with the
5. Close the key Kand given cell; as shown in the fig. 6.2.
check the connections as in expt. 5.
VINESH Practical Physics-XII 11

Note : While trying for balance point take out 50002 plug from resistance box R' and when approximate balance
point
is found, lo find exact balance point put in S0009 plug every timne while taking the
reading.
6. Note the leastcount of ammeter. Sce that its zero correction is nil. By touching jockey at
different points on potentiom
eter wire, find the point so that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer. Adjust the current using rheostat such that
balance point Jlies somewhere on 3rd or 4th wire. Note the current in ammeter. Note the
J. Repeat once more.
reading of baiance point at
7. Take out some plug (say 5 )from resistance boxR, close the key K. Again find and read the
balance point on
potentiometer wire.
8 For 2nd, 3rd and 4th sets of readings change the current using rheostat; keeping
current constant for each set of readings.
Observations and calculations :
Least current of ammeter
..... A
Zero correction of ammeter
= il

S.No. Ammater Balance Point (cm) Resistance Internal

reading Kis closed K and Kis closed R resistance

I (A) () (i) Mlan () Man r= -1 R

2
3.
4

Result. Mean value of r =...... 2.

Precautions :
Same as in expt. 5 Sr. No. 1 to 10.

11. Firsttake out some resistance plug from R' andonly then close the key Kotherwise the cell is short circuited.
Sources of error :
Same as in expt 5.

Experiment No. 7
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus :
Given galvanometer, two resistance boxes, battery, two one way keys, voltmeter.
 12

Theory:
e.m.f. E, the current is
Galvanometer of resistance G when connected in series with a resistance R and a battery of
E ..(1)
I=
R +G
E ...2)
if 0 is the deflection. KO
R+G
Now such a resistance S is connected in parallel with G, that the deflection becomes
B
half i. e., /2, then
R E E (G + S)
K ...(3)
2 GS R(G + S) + GS
R+
G+S
Putting value of KO from egn. (2) in eqn. (3) we get
Ky
E(G+ S)
K, (R + G)2 R (G + S) + GS
which on simplification gives
Fig. 7.1 RS
Half deflection method G=
R S
Figure of merit is current per unitdeflection i.e., K = I/e
E
Putting value of I from eqn. (1) we get K = (R + G)0

Procedure :
1. Draw circuit diagram as shown in fig. 7.1.
2. Connect a battery B,galvanometer G, resistance boxR anda key K, in series.
3. Connect another resistance box S and a key K, is parallel with the galvanometer.
4 Take out 5000 2 plug from resistance box R, close the key K,. Change the value of R so that deflection in the
galvanometer is a little less than full scale deflection but even number of division. Note the deflection and also the
resistance R.
5 Take out 50 S2 plug from resistance box S, close the key KT, adjust the value of S so that deflection is half of that
obtained in step 4. Note the value of S. Note the deflection.

6. Take three more such readings by changing deflection as in step 4 and then complete step 5.
7. Note least count of voltmeter and see that its zerO error is nil. Take out the battery from the circuit. Connect its
+ve to + ve of voltmeter and its -ve to -ve of voltmeter. Note the reading of the voltmeter.

Observations andcalculations :
S.No. Resistance R K is closed Resistance S KË and K, closed RS
G=
Deflection 0 Deflection 0/2 R-S

1.
2.
3.
4.
 13
VINESH Practical Physics-XII
G =......... S2
Result. Mean resistance of galvanometer
= ........ V
Least count of voltmeter
Zero error of voltmeter = nil
E= ........ V
E.M.F. of battery using voltmeter
S.No. Resistance R 2 Deflection E
Figure of merit K =
(R+ G)9
I.
2.
3.
4.

Result : Mean figure of merit K =.....A/div.

Procedure :
1. Connections should be clean and tight.
2. Plugs of resistance boxes should be tight.
3. Do not close the key unless some plugs are taken out from resistance boxes.
4. Deflection 9should be even whole number; towards the end side of galvanometer scale.
5. Ahigh resistance voltmeter should be used to measure e.m.f. of battery.
Sources of error :
1. E.M.F. of battery may not be constant.
2. Loose plugs or loose connections cause an error.

Experiment No. 8
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into avoltmeter of desired range and
to verify the same.
Apparatus :
Given galvanometer, resistance box, battery, one way key, voltmeter, rheostat.
Theory :
Agalvanometer gives fullscale deflection with asmall current. If Kis its figure of merit i.e., current per unit deflection.
and there are ndivisions on its scale, then current for fullscale deflection is nK = I,. This is a small current.
We want tomake it a voltmeter of range say 0-V volts. But Vvolts when connected across galvanometer will give high
current which gives deflection out of the scale.
A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. To achieve this a high resistance R is connected in series with given
galvanometer. This high resistance R is such that when Vis the potential difference, the current should be 1,.
 VINESH Practical
14

V =1 (R + G)
x Physics
R
>
ww R+ G =

V
Fig. 8.1. Converting G to V R= - G

where Gis resistance of galvanometer. I, = nK where nis number of divisionson scale of galvanometer and Kits figmre
merit. 0-V is the range of the voltmeter to be made. All quantities are given, therefore R can be calculated.

Procedure
1. Connect a resistance box in series with the given galvanometer.

2. Take outplugs from resistance box equivalent to resistance Rcalculated by using the relation R= -G.
The combination of galvanometer and the resistance box forms voltmeter of range 0 - V volts shown in dotted hlon.
in fig. 8.2.
Verification :
3. Connect battery, a key and a rheostat in series. Rheostat is to be connected at both of its lower connecting terminals s
that whole of resistance of the resistance box comes in the circuit.

4. Connect +ve end of the voltmeter and one end of self prepared voltmeter to the sliding contact of rheostat, towards the
+ ve of the battery. Connect -ve end of voltmeter and other end of self prepared voltmeter at the lower connectino
terminal of the rheostat towards the -ve of the battery shown in fig. 8.2.
5. Close the key K. Note the deflection in galvanometer and also note the reading in the standard voltmeter.
6. Shift the sliding contact of rheostat to different positions and take three more readings as in step 5.

Observations and calculations :

Figure of merit K =....... A/div (given)
K No. of divisions on galvanometer scale n =........

Current for full scale deflection I = nK

Resistance of galvanometer G =........ 2(given)
Range of voltmeter tobe prepared =0-V volts (given)
wwww Maximum voltage to be measured =V volts.

R =-G= ....Q
(Plugs of resistance equivalent to R are to be taken out from resistance box.)
Fig. 8.2.
Circuit for verifications
Least count of galvanometer in self-prepared voltmeter L.C. = V
volt/div.
VINESH Practical Physics XII 15

S.No. Deflection in Voltage in self Standard Voltmeter Difference

galvanometer made voltmeter reading V-Va
V=0x L.C. (volts) V, (volts) volts
1.
2.
3.
4.

Result : As the difference V -V, is almost zero within experimental error, self-prepared voltmeter is
correct.
Precautions :
1, 2, 3and 7same as in expt. 2, numbering 7 as number 4 in this experiment.
5. Standard voltmeter should also be of the same range 0 V volts.
6. After taking out plugs of resistances equal to R all the other plugs should be made tight.
Sources of error :
Same as in Expt. 7.
 Experiment No. 9
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistanceand figure of merit)
into an ammeter of desired range
and to verify the same.
Apparatus:
Given galvanometer, rheostat, ammeter, battery or elminator, one way key, marnganin wire, screw gauge.
Theory:
Agalvanometer gives full scale deflection with a smallcurrent. If K is its figure of merit i. e. , current per unit deflection,
and there are ndivisions on its scale then current for fullscale deflection is nk = I,. This is asmall current.
We want to make it an ammeter of range 0 - 1ampere. But Iampere when passed through galvanometer, it being high
current, gives deflection out of scale.
An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer. To achieve this a low resistance S is connected in parallel with given
galvanometer. This small resistance is such that I, current passes through galvanom
eter and the remaining currentI- I, passes through this small resistance S. This small
resistance is called shunt.

As shunt and galvanometer are in parallel,

pot. diff. across shunt= pot. diff. across galvanometer www
(I-1) S=GI Fig. 9.1.
Gg Converting (G) to (A)
I-I;
where G is resistance of galvanometer. I,= nK where n is number of divisions on scale of galvanometer and K
its figure of merit. 0 -Iis the range of the ammeter to be made. All quantities are given, therefore S can be
calculated.
Procedure :
SWG (Standard wir.
I. Ask your lab attendant for the material of which the standard wire is made of and its
This table
gaugc) Number Also see SWitable of constants given at the end of this physics lab manual.
x, ther
pives us resistance per metre of the wire coresponding to its S.Wi number. Let that value be
lenpth of wire of resistance S is S/x
standard wire in
2. Mark two ink pointson the standard wire at distance S/r from cach other. Connect this
parallel with yalvanometer so that ink points just remain out of the connectiny terminals of galvanormeter
Thiscombination of palvanometer and the standard wire makes the required arnneter see dotted box in
fig 92
Verification :
3. Connect this sclf made ammeter in series with an climinator, standard armmeter, rheostat and a key.
4, Close thc key K.Note deflection in galvanometer and also note the reading in standard armineter.
5. Shift the sliding contact of rheostat to different positions and take three morc readings as in step 4.
Observations and calculations :
Figure of merit K =.. A/div (given)
Www No. of divisions on galvanometer n=

Current for full scale deflection scale I, =nk

Resistance of galvanometer G=... 2(given)
Range of ammeter to be prepared =0 to I A
Maximum current to be measured =IA

Fig. 9.2. Circuit for verification

Applying S =|-l,
Resistance per metre of given standard wire from constant table x =..... 2ml
Length of wire needed Sx =........ Cm

Least count of galvanometer L.C. =

A/div
S.No. Deflection in Current in self Standard ammeter Difference
galvanometer made ammeter reading I- I,
I=0x L.C. A I, amp
1.
2
3.
4

Result : As the difference I -L, is almost zero within experimental error; self
prepared ammeter is correct.
Precautions
1. 1,2, 3, 5 & 7 same as in expt 2; numbering 5 and 7 as 4and 5 in this
6. Standard ammeter should be of
experiment.
same range.
Sources of error:
Same as in expt. 5.