PHYSICS

STANDARD-X
REVISION NOTES

Prepared by -
JOJI GEORGE
HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER
ST. JOHNS SYRIAN HSS VADAKARA
KOOTHATTUKULAM, ERNAKULAM
 Effects of Electric Current & Electromagnetic Induction (Unit 1,2,3)

Effects of Electric Current

Heating Effect Lighting Effect Mechanical Chemical Magnetic

effect Effect Effect
Electrical energy is Electrical energy is Electrical Electrical energy Electrical
converted to Heat converted to Light energy is is converted to energy is
energy Energy converted to Chemical converted to
Mechanical Energy. Magnetic
Energy. Energy
• Electric Heater. • Incandescent • Electri • Storage • Electro
• Electric Iron lamp c battery magnet
• Soldering Iron • Discharge motor (charging
• Immersion lamp • Mixie )
Heater. • LED lamp • Electri
c Fan

Heating Effect of Electric Current.

➔ Joule Heating or Ohmic Heating. - The process by which heat is developed in a circuit on
passing current through it is known as the Joule Heating or Ohmic Heating.

Factors influencing • Resistance of the • When the resistance (R) is increasing,

the heat (H) conductor (R) current (I) is decreasing and heat is also
developed, when decreasing.
current passes • If current (I) is a constant, then the heat is
through a conductor - increasing with the increase in
resistance(R).
• Intensity of • When current (I) increases heat also
Electric Current increases.
(Current) (I)
• Time of flow of • When time (t) increases, heat also
Current (t) increases.

➔ Electric Power‍(P) – The amount of energy consumed by an electrical appliance in unit

time is its power.‍(P = W/t)
Unit of power – Watt (W)

• Factors • Resistance(R) • When resistance increases, power

influencing the decreases.
power of an • Voltage (V) • When voltage increases, power is also
electrical device increases. (When the voltage is doubled,
- power becomes four times and when the
voltage is halved power is reduced to 1/4).

1 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Equations to calculate Heat and Power
Heat (H) Power‍(P)
 H = I2Rt  P = I2R
 H = VIt  P = VI
 H = V2t/R  P = V2/R
 H = Pt  P = H/t

Arrangement of Resistors in Circuits

Series Connection Parallel Connection

• Circuit is completed by connecting the • The current completes the circuit by getting
resistors one after the other. divided into each branch.
• Effective resistance is increasing. • Effective resistance is decreasing.
• Current is same for all resistors. • Current is different for each resistor.
(Current is divided, I = I1+I2)
• More current is flowing through the resistor
with low resistance and less current is
flowing through the resistor having high
resistance. (I1 = V/R1, I2=V/R2)
• Voltage is different for each resistor • Voltage is same for all resistors. (Supply
(Supply voltage is divided V = V1+V2) voltage (V))
• Resistors having high resistance gets
more voltage and low resistance gets
less voltage. (V1 = IR1, V2=IR2)
• Effective resistance, R = R1+R2 • 1/R = 1/R1 +1/ R2
• If resistors of the same value are • Effective resistance, R = R1R2 / (R1+R2)
connected, R = r X n, • If resistors of the same value are connected‍,
(r = Value of one resistor, n = Number R=r/n
of resistors)

• When bulbs are connected in series, • When bulbs are connected in parallel, more
bulb with less power (having more current is flowing through the bulb with
resistance) gets more voltage. So it more power (having less resistance). So it
glows with more brightness than the glows with more brightness than the bulb
bulb with high power. with low power.

• When resistors are connected in series, • When resistors are connected in parallel,
the resistor having high resistance, the resistor having low resistance, gets
gets more voltage and heated more. more current and heated more.

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 Safety Fuse.
Safety Fuse- • Safety fuse is a device which protects us and the
appliances from danger when an excess current flows
through the circuit.
Effects of electric current in the • Heating Effect.
safety fuse-
Circumstances that cause high • Over loading.
electric current in a circuit - • Short circuit.
Over loading - • A circuit is said to be overloaded if the total power of
all the appliances connected to it is more than what the
circuit can withstand.
Short circuit - • If the positive and the negative terminals of a battery or
the two wires from the mains come into contact
without the presence of a resistance in between, they
are said to be short- circuited.
Fuse wire - • Alloy of tin and lead.
Features of Fuse wire - • Low melting.
• High conductivity.
Working of Fuse - • When the current that flows into the circuit exceeds the
permissible limit, the heat generated becomes
excessive. Because of it’s low melting point the fuse
wire melts and break the circuit.
Precautions to be taken, while • The ends of the fuse wire must be connected firmly at
connecting a fuse wire in a circuit. appropriate points.
‍- • The fuse wire should not project out of the carrier base.
• Use fuse wire of appropriate amperage.
• Fuse wire is connected in series.
Lighting effect of electric current

Incandescent lamps • In normal voltages, the filament becomes white hot and
gives out light. Such bulbs are the incandescent
(glowing with heat) lamps.

Filament - • ‍Tungsten.
Properties of Tungsten- • High resistivity.
• High melting point.
• high ductility.
• ability to emit white light in the white hot condition.
Bulb is evacuated - • To avoid oxidation of tungsten filament.
Bulb is filled with inert gas or • To reduce the vaporisation of the filament.
nitrogen at low pressure -

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Drawback - • A major part of the electrical energy supplied to an
incandescent lamp is lost as heat. Hence the efficiency
of these devices is less.

Discharge lamps‍- Discharge lamps are glass tubes fitted with two electrodes
• Sodium vapour lamp
• Arc lamp
• Fluorescent lamp
• CFL

Light is produced in • Discharge of electricity through the gases filled in tubes

discharge lamps by the -
Working - • When a high potential difference is applied the gas molecules get
excited. Excited atoms come back to their original states for
attaining stability. During this process the energy stored in them
will be radiated as light
• Depending on the difference in the energy levels lights of
different colours and other radiations are emitted.
Advantage - • Energy loss in the form of heat will be less.
Drawback - • Substance like mercury in it is harmful to the environment..

LED (Light emitting

diode) Bulbs‍-

• As there is no filament, there is no loss of energy in the form of

Advantages - heat.
• Since there is no mercury in it, it is not harmful to environment.
• Low power consumption.
• high efficiency.
• high longevity.
Parts of LED bulb
Base unit E22 - • Metallic part that connects the bulb to the holder.
Heat sink - • For absorbing heat.
Base plate - • Printed circuit board is fixed in it.
Back conductor Screws • Screws for fixing wires from LED drive to the base unit.
-
Power Supply board • To convert AC into DC and supply necessary output voltage.
(LED driver)
Printed Circuit Board • LEDs are fixed on this board.
(LED Chip Board)

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 Diffuser cup - • This is the part from which light comes out of the bulb.

Heating Coil Filament Fuse Wire

• Nichrome (Alloy of Nickel, • Tungsten. • Alloy of Tin and lead.
Chromium and Iron)
• High melting point. • High melting point. • Low melting point
• High resistivity. • High resistivity. • High conductivity.
• Ability to remain in red hot • Ability to emit • When excess current
condition for a long time white light in the flows through, it melts
without getting oxidised. white hot condition and break the circuit.
Laws / Principles
Laws Definition Use
Joule's Law • The heat generated (H) in a current • To calculate the heat
carrying conductor is directly produced in a current
proportional to the product of the carrying conductor..
square of the current (I) in the
conductor, the resistance of the
conductor (R) and the time (t) of
flow of current. (H α I2Rt)
Right Hand • Imagine you are holding a current • To find the direction of
Thumb Rule of carrying conductor with the right the magnetic field formed
James Clark hand in such a way, that the thumb around a current carrying
Maxwell. points in the direction of the current. conductor.
The direction in which the other
fingers encircle the conductor gives
the direction of the magnetic field.
Right Hand • If a right hand screw is rotated in • To find the direction of
Screw Rule of such a way that its tip advances the magnetic field formed
James Clark along the direction of the current in around a current carrying
Maxwell - the conductor, then the direction of conductor.
rotation of the screw gives the
direction of the magnetic field
around the conductor.
Motor Principle - • A conductor, which can move freely • For the working of electric
and which is kept in a magnetic motor.
field, experiences a force when
current passes through it and it
moves.
Fleming's Left • Hold the forefinger, the middle • To find the direction of
Hand Rule - finger and the thumb of the left hand motion (direction of force)
in mutually perpendicular directions of a current carrying
as shown in the figure. If the conductor, which is placed
forefinger indicates the direction of in a magnetic field.
the magnetic field and the middle
finger, the direction of the current,

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 then the thumb will indicate the
direction of motion of the conductor.
Fleming's right • Imagine a conductor moving • To find the direction of
hand rule - perpendicular to a magnetic field. induced current produced
Stretch the forefinger, middle finger by electromagnetic
and the thumb of the right hand in induction.
mutually perpendicular directions. If
the fore finger represents the
direction of the magnetic field, and
the thumb represents the direction of
motion of the conductor, then, the
middle finger represents the
direction of the induced current
Electromagnetic • Whenever there is a change in the
Induction - magnetic flux linked with a coil, an
emf is induced in the coil.

Electric devices. Main Parts Working Energy Change

Principle
DC motor • Field Magnet Motor Principle Electrical energy is converted
• Armature‍ to Mechanical Energy.
• Split Rings
DC Generator Electromagnetic Mechanical energy is
• Graphite Brushes Induction. converted to Electrical
energy.
Moving coil • Field Magnet. Motor Principle Electrical energy is converted
loudspeaker • Voice Coil to sound energy.
• Diaphragm.
• Soft iron core.
AC Generator • Field Magnet Electromagnetic Mechanical energy is
• Armature‍ Induction. converted to Electrical
• Slip Rings energy.
• Graphite Brushes‍
Moving Coil • Field Magnet. Electromagnetic Sound energy is converted to
Microphone • Voice Coil Induction. electrical energy.
• Diaphragm.
• Soft iron core.
Direction of magnetic field produced in a current carrying straight conductor.
Direction of current Above the conductor‍ Direction of motion of magnetic needle
/ Below the (Direction of magnetic field)
conductor
• South to North • Above • West to East.
• Below • East to West
• North to South • Above • East to West
• Below • West to East.

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 Magnetic field around a current carrying circular loop

• The end of the solenoid at which current • South pole

flows in the clockwise direction -
• The end at which current flows in the • North Pole
anticlockwise direction-

• To increase the strength of the • Increase the number of turns in the solenoid.
magnetic field produced in a • Increase the current.
current carrying solenoid- • Place a soft iron inside the solenoid as its core.
• Increase the area of cross section of the soft iron
core
• To increase the induced emf • Increase the number of turns in the solenoid.
produced in a coil by • Increase the strength of the magnet.
electromagnetic induction- • Increase the speed of motion.
• Factors influencing the direction • Direction of current.
of force experienced on a current • Direction of magnetic field.
carrying conductor, when it is
placed in a magnetic field -
• Factors influencing the direction • Direction of magnetic field.
of induced current produced in a • Direction of motion.
conductor by electromagnetic
induction -

Bar magnet Electro magnet

• The magnetism is permanent. • The magnetism is temporary.

• Polarity cannot be changed. • Polarity can be interchanged by
reversing the current.
• Magnetic strength cannot be increased • Magnetic strength can be increased or
beyond a limit. decreased.

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 Moving coil Loudspeaker Moving Coil Microphone

Working Principle - • Motor Principle. • Electromagnetic Induction.

Energy Change - • Electrical energy is converted • Sound energy is converted
to sound energy. to electrical energy.
Main Parts- • Field magnet. • Field magnet.
• Voice Coil. • Voice Coil.
• Diaphragm. • Diaphragm.
• Soft Iron Core. • Soft Iron Core.
Working - • The electrical pulses from a • The voice coil is situated in
microphone are strengthened a magnetic field. The
using an amplifier and sent diaphragm connected to the
through the voice coil of a voice coil vibrates in
loudspeaker. The voice coil, accordance with the sound
which is placed in the magnetic waves falling on it. As a
field, moves to and fro rapidly, result, electrical signals
in accordance with the corresponding to the sound
electrical pulses. These waves are generated in the
movements make the voice coil.
diaphragm vibrate, thereby
reproducing sound.

DC Motor‍& DC Generator

DC Motor DC Generator

Working • Motor Principle. • Electromagnetic Induction.

Principle -
Energy Change - • Electrical energy is converted • Mechanical energy is converted
to Mechanical Energy. to Electrical energy.
Main Parts- • Field Magnet. • Field Magnet.
• Armature‍. • Armature‍.
• Split Rings. • Split Rings.
• Graphite Brushes. • Graphite Brushes.

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Use of split ring • To change the direction of • To convert the AC produced in
commutator - current through the armature the armature coil to DC in the
after every half rotation. external circuit.
Working - • When electricity is passed • Rotates the armature, by using
through the armature of an mechanical energy. Magnetic flux
electric motor, a force is change is taking place, and an
experienced on the armature emf is induced on the armature
and it rotates its axis based on coil due to electromagnetic
Fleming’s left hand rule. induction. The electricity
produced on the armature coil,
reaches the external circuit
through the slip rings and brushes

Alternating current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

• Current that changes direction • A current that flows only in one direction
at regular intervals of time, is continuously is a direct current (DC)
an alternating current (AC)

AC from an AC generator From DC Generator From Battery

AC Generator‍& DC Generator

AC Generator DC Generator

Working Principle- • Electromagnetic Induction. • Electromagnetic Induction.

Energy Change - • Mechanical energy is • Mechanical energy is
converted to Electrical energy.. converted to Electrical
energy.
Main Parts- • Field Magnet. • Field Magnet.
• Armature‍. • Armature‍.
• Slip Rings. • Split Rings.
• Graphite Brushes. • Graphite Brushes.
Difference in • Slip rings are used instead of • Split rings are used instead
structure - split rings. of slip rings.
Difference in the • AC is obtained in armature and • AC is obtained in armature
electricity produced external circuit. and DC in external circuit.

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Difference in the • Magnet is the rotating part • Armature is the rotating part
working - (Rotor‍) and magnet is the stationary
part.
Graph of emf in the
external circuit -

Characteristics of electricity received from an AC generator, DC generator and a Battery.

• AC Generator • Direction changes continuously.

• emf increases and decreases.

• DC Generator • Direction doesn’t change.

• emf increases and decreases.

• Battery • Direction doesn’t change.

• Emf doesn’t change.

Mutual induction Self Induction

• Consider two coils of wire kept side by • The change in magnetic flux due to the
side. When the strength or direction of flow of an AC in a solenoid will generate
the current in one coil changes, the a back emf in the same solenoid in a
magnetic flux around it changes. As a direction opposite to that applied to it.
result, an emf is induced in the secondary This phenomenon is known as the self
coil. This phenomenon is the mutual induction
induction
• Working principle of transformer is • Working principle of inductor is self
mutual induction. induction.

➔ Transformer‍- is a device for increasing or decreasing the voltage of an AC without any

change in the electric power.

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 Step up transformer. Step down transformer.

Primary Secondary Primary Secondary

• Increase the AC Voltage. • Decrease the AC Voltage.

• Number of turns in the secondary coil is • Number of turns in the secondary coil is
more than primary coil. less than primary coil.
• Thick wires are used in the primary and • Thick wires are used in the secondary
thin wires are used in the secondary. and thin wires are used in the primary.
• Output voltage (secondary) is greater • Output voltage (secondary) is less than
than input (primary) voltage. input (primary) voltage
• Output current (secondary) is less than • Output current (secondary) is greater
input (primary) current. than input (primary) current.
• Power in the primary and secondary are • Power in the primary and secondary are
equal. equal.

• Relation between the number of turns • Vs / Vp = Ns / Np

and voltages in the primary and
secondary coils of a transformer -
• Relation between the voltage and current • Vp X Ip = Vs X Is
in the primary and secondary coils of a
transformer -

Inductor Resistor

• Inductors are coils used to oppose the • Resistors are conductors used to include
changes in electric current in a circuit‍. a particular resistance in a circuit.
• Working principle is self induction. • Works with the heating effect of electric
current.
• Works only in AC circuits. • Works on both AC and DC circuits.
• There is no energy loss in the form of • Energy is loss in the form of heat.
heat.

Power transmission and Distribution

• Power station - • Places where electricity is generated on a

large scale for distribution.
• Power transmission - • It is the movement of energy from its power
station to a location where it is applied to

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 perform useful work.
• Transmission loss - • When electricity is transmitted to distant
places, there is loss of energy in the
conductors in the form of heat.
• Major problems in power • Voltage drop and transmission loss.
transmission -
• How to reduce transmission loss - • The voltage is increased up to 220 kV at the
power station by using step up transformer.
As a result the current and loss of energy in
the form of heat decreases.
• Voltage of electricity produced in • 11 KV
the power station -
• Voltage at which, the power is • 220 KV
transmitted from the power station -
• Generator, used in the power station‍ • Three Phase AC generator.
-
• Transformer, used in the power • Step up transformer.
station‍-
• Transformer, used in the substations • Step down transformer.
-
• Distribution transformer - • Step down transformer.
• Input voltage of distribution • 11 KV
transformer -
• Output voltages of distribution • Between two phases‍- 400 V
transformer- • Between a phase and neutral‍- 230 V
• Voltage between phase and neutral - • 230 V
• Voltage between neutral and earth - • 0V

Household Electrification

• To which device is the • Watt -Hour Meter.

electric line reaching our
home connected first?
• Use of Watt -Hour Meter - • To measure electrical energy.

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 • Commercial unit of electric • kilowatt hour‍(KWh)
energy - • 1 unit electrical energy = 1 KWh
• 1 KWh = 1000 Watt hour
• 1 KWh = 3600000 J
• Equation to calculate energy • Energy in KWh,
in kilowatt hour - = (Power in watt × time in hour) / 1000
• Devices are connected in the • Parallel method.
household circuit -
• Advantages of connecting • All devices gets the supply voltage. (Same voltage)
devices in parallel- • All devices gets different current.
• Devices can be controlled using switches as per need.
• Devices work according to the marked power.
• Effective resistance is decreasing.

Safety measures in household electrification

• Safety Fuse. • Protects us and the appliances from danger when an excess
current flows through the circuit.
• Works making use of heating effect of electric current.
• MCB • Used in the place of a fuse wire branch circuits.
(Miniature • It is Automatic.
Circuit Breaker) • Works making use of heating and magnetic effects of electric
current.
• ELCB (Earth • ELCB helps to break the circuit automatically whenever there is a
leakage circuit current leak due to insulation failure or any other reason.
breaker) • Nowadays RCCB, which ensures more safety than ELCB is made
use of.
• Three pin Plug • Ensure safety in devices having metal body.
and Earthing

• Three pin Plug and Earthing

• Which line is connected to earth • Earth Line

pin?
• Which part of the instrument is • Metal body.
connected to the earth line?
• Features of Earth wire - • Thicker
• From where does the earth line • From the Earth.
start?
• Features of earth pin - • Thicker and longer.
• Earth pin and earth wire are made • To reduce the resistance in the earth circuit.
thicker-

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 • Earth pin is made longer than other • When the three pin introduced in the socket
pins - the earth pin comes into contact with the
circuit first. When the three pin is pulled out
of the socket, the earth pin will be the last to
break the contact. Hence complete safety is
ensured.

Devices working in AC Devices working in DC Devices working in both AC

and DC
• Fan. • Calculator. • Electric Iron.
• Motor. • Computer. • Bulb.
• Mixie. • Mobile Phone.
• Refrigerator • Radio.
• Washing Mechine • Television.

Precautions for • Never handle electric equipments or operate switches when the hands are
avoiding electric wet.
shock- • Insert plug pins into socket and withdraw them only after switching off.
• Wear rubber footwear while operating electric devices.
• Do not fly kites near electric lines.
• Do not use table fan to dry hair.
First aid to the • Raise the temperature of the body by massaging.
person, who gets • Give artificial respiration.
electric shock- • Massage the muscles and bring them to the original condition.
• Start first aid for the functioning of the heart. (Apply pressure on the
chest regularly)
• Take the person to the nearest hospital immediately.

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 Phenomenon of Light (unit, 4,5,6)
Reflection of light
➔ Light falling on the surface of an object comes back to the same medium.

Laws of reflection
➔ Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r) are equal.
➔ The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the surface are in the same plane.

Regular reflection Irregular reflection

 Happens in smooth surfaces.  Happens in rough surfaces.

 If incident rays are parallel, reflected  Reflected rays are not parallel.
rays are also parallel.
 Image is formed.  Image is not formed.
 Angle of incidence and angle of  Angle of incidence and angle of
reflection are equal. reflection are equal.

Multiple reflection and Number of images.

Number of images (n) = (360 / θ) – 1
θ = Angle between the mirror

Real Image Virtual Image

● Image is formed on the screen. ● Image is not formed on a screen.
● Inverted image. ● Erect image.
● Formed in front of the mirror. ● Formed behind the mirror.
● Image is formed at the point on which ● Image is formed at the point on which the
the reflected rays are actually met. reflected rays are appear to meet.
● Formed by concave mirror. ● Formed in convex mirror, concave mirror
and plane mirror.

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 Plane mirror Convex mirror Concave mirror

● Reflecting surface ● Reflecting surface is ● Reflecting surface is curved

is plane. curved outwards. inwards.
● The image is ● The image is always ● Magnified virtual image and
always virtual, virtual, erect and real images of same size as that
erect and is of the diminished. of the object, diminished and
same size as that of magnified are formed.
the object.
● Used for observing ● Used as rear view ● Used as shaving mirror, make
the face and used mirror in vehicles and up mirror, mirrors used by
in the optical reflector in street dentists.
instruments lights. ● Used as reflector in torch, head
Kaleidoscope and light of vehicles, street lights
Periscope. and search lights.
● Used in solar concentrators and
reflective telescope.

Optical density
➔ Optical density is a measure that shows how a medium influences the speed of light passing
through it
➔ As the optical density of a medium increases, the speed of light through it decreases.

Increasing order of speed of light

Diamond < Glass < Water < Air

Increasing order of Optical density

Air < Water < Glass < Diamond

Refraction of Light
➔ When a ray of light entering obliquely from one transparent medium to another, its path
undergoes a deviation at the surface of separation. This is refraction.
➔ Cause of refraction – Difference in the optical densities of media

● When light is incident obliquely, from a ● Refracted ray is deviated towards

medium of lower optical density to a medium the normal (Angle of incidence is
of greater optical density, greater than angle of refraction)

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 ● When light passes obliquely from a medium ● Refracted ray is deviated away from
of higher optical density to a medium of the normal (Angle of refraction is
lower optical density, greater than angle of incidence)

● When light ray falling normally on a medium, ● Refraction doesn’t taking place.

➔ When light passes through different pairs of media, the angle of refraction increases with the
angle of incidence

Laws of Refraction
➔ The angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the normal at the point of incidence on
the surface of separation of the two media will always be in the same plane.
➔ The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction (sine i /
sine r) will always be a constant (Refractive index) - Snell’s Law

Relative refractive index- The refractive index of one medium with respect to another is called
relative refractive index.

Absolute refractive index(n) – The refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum is called
absolute refractive index.
absolute refractive index (n) = sin i / sin r or n = c/v
c = speed of light in air/ vacuum (3 X108 m/s)
v = speed of light in medium

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 ● Refractive index of a medium, having high speed of light (low optical density), will be low.
● Refractive index of a medium, having low speed of light (high optical density), will be high.

Increasing order of refractive index

Air (1) < water (1.33) < Glass (1.5) < Diamond (2.4)

 Increasing order of speed of  Diamond < Glass < Water < Air
light.
 Increasing order of optical  Air < Water < Glass < Diamond
density.
 Increasing order of  Air (1) < Water (1.33) < Glass(1.5) < Diamond(2.4)
refractive index.

Critical angle.
➔ When a ray of light passes from a medium of greater optical density to that of lower optical
density, the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction becomes 900 is the critical
angle. The critical angle in water is 48.60.

Total internal reflection.

➔ When a ray of light passes from a medium of higher optical density to a medium of lower
optical density at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, the ray is reflected
back to the same medium without undergoing refraction. This phenomenon is known as total
internal reflection.

Practical applications of total internal reflection in our day to day life

➔ Medical field → Endoscope.
➔ In the field of telecommunications → Optical fibre cables.

Lens
A lens is a transparent medium having spherical surfaces.

➔ Optic centre is the midpoint of a lens (P).

➔ Centre of curvature (C) is the centre of the imaginary spheres of which the sides of the lens
are parts.
➔ Principal axis is the imaginary line that passes through the optic centre joining the two
centres of curvature.
➔ Light rays incident parallel and close to the principal axis after refraction converges to a
point on the principal axis of a convex lens. This point is the principal focus of a convex
lens.
➔ Light rays incident parallel and close to the principal axis diverge from one another after
refraction. These rays appear to originate from a point on the same side. This point is the
principal focus of a concave lens.

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 Concave lens Convex lens

 Thinner at its centre, than at its  Thicker at its centre, than at its edges.
edges.
 Image is always virtual, erect  Magnified virtual image and real images of same
and diminished. size as that of the object, diminished and
magnified are formed.
 Image is always formed at the  Virtual image is formed at the same side of the
same side of the object. object and real images are formed on the other
side of the lens.
 Image is formed at the point on  Real image is formed at the point on which the
which the refracted rays are refracted rays are actually met and virtual image is
appear to meet. formed at the point on which the refracted rays are
appear to meet.
 Virtual focus.  Real focus.
 Used for resolving the eye  Used in microscope, telescope, projector, camera,
defect myopia (Near- telescope etc.
sightedness)  Used as magnifying glass.
 Used for resolving the eye defects hypermetropia
(Long-sightedness) and presbyopia.
Images formed by a Concave mirror and a Convex Lens - Comparison

Concave mirror Convex Lens Features of the

image.
Position of the Position of the Position of the Position of the image
object image object
Infinity At F Infinity At F on the other side Real, inverted,
of the lens‍. diminished.
Beyond C Between C and Beyond 2 F Between 2F and F on Real, inverted,
F the other side of the diminished.
lens‍.
At C At C At 2F At 2F on the other side Real, inverted,
of the lens‍. same size as that
of the object.
Between C and F Beyond C Between 2F Beyond 2 F on the other Real, inverted,
and F side of the lens. magnified.
At F Infinity‍ At F Infinity Real, inverted,
magnified.
Between F and Behind the Between F and At the same side of the Virtual, erect,
mirror (P) mirror lens (O) object. magnified.

5 Joji George, HST, St. Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Ray diagrams of image formation by a convex lens
Object is at infinity

Object is beyond 2F

Object is at 2F

Object is between 2F and F

Object is at F

Object is between F and

lens.

6 Joji George, HST, St. Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Image formed by concave lens

New Cartesian Sign Convention

Mirror Lens
● Pole of the mirror is considered as the ● Optic centre is considered as the origin
origin (O). (O).
● All distances are measured from the ● All distances are measured from the
origin. origin.
● The incident ray is to be considered as ● The incident ray is to be considered as
travelling from left to right. travelling from left to right.
● Those measured to the right from O are ● Those measured to the right from O are
positive and those in the opposite positive and those in the opposite
direction are negative. direction are negative.
● Distances measured upwards from X ● Distances measured upwards from X
axis are positive and those downwards axis are positive and those downwards
are negative. are negative..

Plane Convex Concave mirror Convex lens Concave

mirror mirror lens
Distance to the Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative
object (u)
Distance to the Positive Positive Real image – Real image – Negative
image (v) Negative Positive
Virtual image- Virtual image-
Positive Negative
Focal length (f) Positive Negative Positive Negative
Height of object Positive Positive Positive Positive Positive
(ho)
Height of image Positive Positive Real image – Real image – Positive
(hi) Negative Negative
Virtual image- Virtual image-
Positive Positive

7 Joji George, HST, St. Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Mirrors Lenses
Mirror equation, 1/f = 1/u + 1/v Lens equation, 1/f = 1/v - 1/u
f = uv / u+v f = uv / u-v
v = uf / u- f v = uf / u+f
u = vf / v-f u = fv / f-v
magnification, m = hi / ho = - v / u magnification, m = hi / ho = v / u

Magnification
➔ Magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It shows how
many times the image is larger than the object.
➔ Magnification (m) = Height of image (hi) / Height of object (ho)

 If magnification is negative,  Image is real and inverted.

 If magnification is positive,  Image is virtual and erect.
 If magnification is 1,  Height of image and height of object are
equal.
 If magnification is less than 1,  Height of image is less than height of
object.
 If magnification is greater than 1,  Height of image is greater than height of
object.

Mirror / Lens Magnification

 Plane mirror.  +1
 Convex mirror.  Positive, less than 1.
 Concave mirror.  - 1, Negative (less than 1 or greater than
1), Positive (greater than 1)
 Convex lens.  - 1, Negative (less than 1 or greater than
1), Positive (greater than 1)
 Concave lens.  Positive, less than 1.

Power of a lens
➔ Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal length expressed in metres. (p=1/f)
➔ Unit of power is dioptre. It is represented by D
➔ Power of a Convex lens – Positive.
➔ Power of a Concave lens – Negative

8 Joji George, HST, St. Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Near point Far point
● Nearest point at which the objects can be ● Farthest point at which the objects can be
seen distinctly seen distinctly
● For healthy vision - 25 cm. ● For healthy vision - infinity

Power of accommodation.
➔ The ability of the eye to form an image on the retina by adjusting the focal length of the lens
in the eye, by varying the curvature of the lens, irrespective of the position of the object, is
the power of accommodation.

Look at nearer objects Looking at far objects

 Ciliary muscles are contracted.  Ciliary muscles are relaxed.
 Curvature of the lens increases.  Curvature of the lens decreases.
 Focal length decreases  Focal length increases.

Myopia or Near-sightedness Hypermetropia or Long-sightedness

● Can see nearby objects clearly. ● Can see distant objects clearly.
● Can’t see distant objects clearly. ● Can’t see nearby objects clearly.
● Near point is 25 cm, far point is not ● Far point is infinity, near point will be
infinity. greater than 25 cm.
● Image of distant object is formed in front ● Image of nearby object is formed behind
of the retina. the retina.
● Size of the eye ball may increased. ● Size of the eye ball may decreased.
● Power of the eye lens may increased. ● Power of the eye lens may decreased.
(focal length decreased). (focal length increased).
● Solve this defect by using concave lens ● Solve this defect by using convex lens of
of suitable focal length. suitable focal length.

9 Joji George, HST, St. Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Presbyopia
➔ For elderly people the distance to the near point is greater than 25 cm. This defect is
presbyopia.
➔ Reason – Due to the diminishing ability of the ciliary muscles, power of accommodation
will be less.
➔ Remedy - Using convex lens of suitable focal length.

● Any light that is ● Dispersion is the phenomenon ● The regular array of

composed of of splitting up of a composite colours formed by
more than one light into its constituent colours dispersion is the visible
colour is a spectrum.
composite light

Reason for dispersion

➔ Light undergoes refraction when it enters the prism obliquely and when it comes out of the
prism. The extent of deviation depends on the wavelength. Therefore waves undergo
deviation at different angles and get separated. This is the reason for dispersion.
➔ Light ray of shortest wavelength (Violet) - Deviated more.
➔ Light ray of longest wavelength (Red) - Deviated less.
➔ Order of colours from the base of the prism – Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange,
Red.

 Rainbow  Dispersion of light caused by the water

droplets in the atmosphere causes rainbow.

 Sunlight passes through the water droplets

in the atmosphere refracted twice, and has
one internal reflection also.

 Colour seen at the upper edge of the  Red

rainbow-
 Colour seen at the lower edge of the  Violet
rainbow-
 Rainbow is seen in the morning at -  West.
 Rainbow is seen in the evening at -  East.
 When viewing from an aeroplane  Circle.
rainbow is seen as a -

10 Joji George, HST, St. Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Persistence of vision  A torch rotated rapidly appears as an
● When an object is viewed by a illuminated
person, its image remains in the  circle.
retina of the eye for a time interval  Newton’s colour disc appears white, when it
of 0.0625s (1/16 s) after seeing it. rotated fast.
This phenomenon is called  Raindrops appears like glass rode.
persistence of vision.  A fan appears like a disc, when it rotated fast.

Scattering of light ● We get light in our classrooms and

● Scattering is the change in direction homes during daytime
brought out by the irregular and partial ● Sky appears in blue colour.
reflection of light when it hits the ● Blue colour of see.
particles of the medium.
● Colours of smallest wavelength- ● Scattered more.
● Colours of longest wavelength- ● Scattered less.
● As the size of the particle increases - ● Rate of scattering also increases.
● If the size of the particles is greater than ● scattering is same for all colours.
the wavelength of light -
● Sun appears red during sunset and ● During sunrise and sunset, light reaching
sunrise. us from the horizon has to travel long
distances through the atmosphere.
During this long journey, colours of
shorter wavelength would be almost
fully lost due to scattering. Then, the red
light which undergoes only less amount
of scattering decides the colour of the
horizon
● Red colour has been given to the tail ● Because of its high wavelength, red can
lamps of vehicles and signal lights. travel long distances without scattering.
● Sky appears in blue colour. ● Colours like violet, indigo and blue have
the smallest wavelengths in sunlight.
They undergo maximum scattering while
interacting with atmosphere particles.
● Sky in moon appears in dark colour- ● There is no atmosphere in moon. So
scattering of light doesn’t happens in
moon.

Tyndal Effect
➔ When rays of light pass through a colloidal fluid or suspension, the tiny particles get
illuminated due to scattering. Because of this, the path of light is made visible. This
phenomenon is Tyndal Effect

Light Pollution - The use of light in excess in a non - judicious manner is referred to
as light pollution

11 Joji George, HST, St. Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 Energy Management (Unit 7)

• Fuels - • Fuels are substances that release plenty

of heat energy on burning.
• Solid Fuels - • Fire Wood, Coal
• Liquid Fuels‍- • Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene.
• Gaseous Fuels‍- • Biogas, LPG, LNG, CNG

Complete combustion Partial combustion

• Fuels react intensively with • If sufficient oxygen is not
oxygen, producing carbon available, the rate of
dioxide, steam, heat and light. combustion decreases.

Conditions • The solid fuels must be dry.

favourable for the • Liquid fuels must evaporate
complete combustion easily.
- • The ignition temperature
should be attained.
• Sufficient oxygen must be
available for burning.
Features‍- (Merits / • Carbon monoxide is not formed. • Carbon monoxide is formed.
Demerits) • More heat is generated. • Soot and smoke are formed.
• Soot is not formed. • Rate of combustion is less.
• Less smoke is produced. • Atmospheric pollution.
• Fuel loss is less. •Loss of fuel.

Fossil fuels
➔ Fossil fuels are formed by the transformation of plants and animals that went under the
earth's crust millions of years ago. The transformation took place in the absence of air
under high pressure and high temperature.

Fossil fuels
Coal Petroleum Natural gas
• Most abundant fossil • Crude oil refined from • Obtained along with
fuel on the earth. the soil. petroleum.
• Main component is • Petrol, Diesel, • CNG (Compressed
carbon.‍ Kerosene, Naphtha Natural Gas) and LNG
• Based on the carbon and LPG are fuels (Liquefied Natural
content, coal is obtained from the Gas) are obtained from
classified into four petroleum by its Natural gas.
groups as peat, lignite, fractional distillation. • Main component is
anthracite and Methane.
bituminous coal.
• When coal is distilled in

1 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 the absence of air, the
substances obtained are
ammonia, coal gas,
coal tar, coke.

L.P.G (Liquefied Petroleum C.N.G (Compressed Natural L.N.G (Liquefied Natural

Gas) Gas) Gas)

• Obtained from • Obtained from Natural • Obtained from Natural

petroleum. gas. gas.
• Main component is • Main component is • Main component is
Butane. Methane. Methane.
• Used as fuels in Vehicles • Used as fuels in • Used as fuels in
and Cooking gas. vehicles, industries and vehicles, industries and
thermal power stations. thermal power stations.
• Transported in the liquid • It is in gaseous form. • Natural gas can be
form. liquefied and
• Colourless, odourless transported to distant
gas. places conveniently.
• Ethyl mercaptan is
added as an indicator to
detect gas leakage

L P G and Safety

• Expiry date of the • The expiry date of a cylinder is 2024 march 31, if it is
cylinder. marked as A24 on the top of the cylinder.
• To detect gas leakage - • Ethyl mercaptan is added
• Density of LPG - • Greater than air.
• BLEVE (Boiling • If there is a fire due to leakage of LPG then due to the heat
Liquid Expanding the cylinder/ tanker will also get heated. Owing to the
Vapour Explosion) excess heat, the LPG becomes gas increasing the pressure
inside. When LPG becomes gas, the container cannot
accommodate the entire gas. This increases the pressure to
a very high level causing a huge explosion.
• Precautions to be taken • Examine the rubber tube at regular intervals and ensure
to avoid accidents due that it does not have a leakage.
to LPG leakage‍- • Turn on the knob of stove only after the regulator is turned
on.
• Ensure that the expiry date of the cylinder is not over.
• If there is leakage of LPG, it is mandatory to open the
doors and windows (density of LPG is greater than air)
• Never switch on or switch off electricity when there is a
leakage of LPG (Sparking causes fire)

2 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 • If a gas leak is • Disconnect electricity from outside.
suspected - • Switch off the regulator and shift the cylinder to an empty
space.
• Keep the windows and doors open.
• Well trained rescue operators can put out the fire by covering
the top end of the cylinder with wet sack to prevent the contact
with oxygen.

Biomass Biogas
• Fuels are obtained from plants and • When bio waste is deposited in a biogas plant
animals are known as bio-waste or in the absence of oxygen, biogas is formed
biomass. by the action of bacteria.
• Firewood, Dried cow dung are • Main component of biogas is carbon dioxide
biomass. and methane.
• The burning of bio mass will be • Its calorific value is greater than biomass.
partial combustion • Atmospheric pollution will be less.
• Burning of it causes atmospheric • The slurry discharged from the biogas plant
pollution. is good manure.

• Calorific value - • The amount of heat liberated by the

complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel is
its calorific value
• Unit • kJ/kg (kilojoule per kilogram)
• Fuel having highest calorific value - • Hydrogen.

Hydrogen
• Advantage - • Calorific value is high.
• Burning doesn’t causes atmospheric pollution.
• Easily available.
• Disadvantages - • Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature. So it is
difficult to store and transport it.
• Used as - • Fuels in Rockets.
• In hydrogen fuel cell to produce electricity by combining
hydrogen and oxygen

• Properties of a • Should be easily available.

good fuel - • Should be of low cost.
• Should have a high calorific value.
• Should cause minimum atmospheric pollution on combustion.
• Should be easily storable

3 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

Hydro Electric Power Station Thermal Power Station Nuclear power station
• Water stored at a height • Fuels like coal, naphtha, • Using nuclear energy
is allowed to flow down lignite, etc., are ignited. water is converted to
through a pen stock The heat energy thus steam at a high
pipe. The energy of the liberated is used to temperature and
flowing water is used to convert water into steam pressure. The force of
rotate the turbine and at high temperature and steam is used to turn the
electricity is generated. pressure. The energy of turbines to generate
steam is used to rotate electrical energy.
the turbines to generate
electricity.
• Potential Energy – • Chemical Energy – Heat • Nuclear Energy - Heat
Kinetic Energy – Energy - Mechanical Energy - Mechanical
Mechanical Energy – Energy – Electrical Energy – Electrical
Electrical Energy Energy Energy
• Pallivasal, • Neyveli, Kayamkulam, • Tarapur, Kalpakkam,
Moolamattom, Kuttiadi, Ramagundam. Kota, Koodamkulam
Sabirigiri.

Electrical energy from solar energy

Solar cell - • Converting solar energy(light energy) into electrical energy.
• It is a PN junction diode.
• Electricity is produced in it by photo voltaic effect (When solar
energy falls on N side of a solar cell, a small electric current is
obtained due to the flow of electrons to P region from N region)
Solar panel‍- • Large number of solar cells are suitably assembled in it.
• It is used in lighting street lamps, artificial satellites, space
stations and remote forest areas.
Solar photo voltaic • Used solar panels in it.
power plants (SPV) - • The solar power plant at the International Airport in
Nedumbassery is an example of SPV.
Drawback- • Cannot be used at night and cloudy conditions.
• Battery is needed for storing electricity.

Heat energy from solar energy

Solar Cooker‍- • Used for cooking.
• The main parts are, a box with blackened interior (for absorbing
heat), a glass cover for the box (for transmitting light) and a mirror
outside the box (for reflecting light).
Solar Water Heater - • Hot water required for hospitals and hotels for cooking food, and
for washing vessels in houses etc., can be produced using solar
water heater.

Solar Thermal Power • Generates electricity using solar energy.

4 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

Plant - • Concave reflectors are used to focus the sun’s rays on the blackened
pipes filled with water. As a result, water boils and vaporises. The
steam rotates the steam turbine, so that the generator attached to the
turbine is activated.

Energy from wind- • Electricity is obtained by turning the turbine of generator using the
wind power.
Advantages - • It is renewable.
• Environment friendly.
• No recurring expenditure.
Limitations‍- • It can be established only at those places where wind is available for
most time of the year.
• The expense to establish a wind mill is very high.
• Require storage systems to use electricity when there is no wind.

Energy from sea

Tidal Energy - • During the time of high tide water is allowed to enter in to a tank
and water will flows to the sea during low tide. Using the energy
of this flowing water turbine is rotated and electricity is
produced.
Energy from waves - • Operate a generator by turning the turbine by using the power of
sea waves.
Ocean thermal energy - • The surface of ocean is relatively hot due to solar radiations. But
the temperature will be very low at the deep levels. Ocean
Thermal Energy Conversion Plants (OTEC) produce energy,
making use of this difference in temperature.

Geo thermal energy - • Magma, which is at a higher temperature, comes out of

the core of the earth through its softer regions. (Hot spots)
• Underground water at this place receives heat energy from
the hotspot and is converted into steam. This steam, which
is confined to the region between rocks, is brought out by
drilling pipes through the rocks. Using this steam, turbine
is rotated to produce electricity.

Energy from Nucleus

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
• Nuclear fission is the process by which the • Nuclear fusion is the process in which
nuclei of greater mass are split into lighter lighter nuclei are combined to form
nuclei, using neutrons. heavier ones.
• According to Einstein’s equation E = mc2, • According to Einstein’s equation E =

5 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 lost mass is converted to energy. mc2, lost mass is converted to energy.
• In nuclear reactors, energy is produced by • Energy is produced in stars and sun by
nuclear fission. nuclear fusion.
• Uncontrolled fission will end in a huge • Nuclear fusion is the principle used for
explosion. This is the process that takes making a hydrogen bomb.
place in an atom bomb
• Power stations to control fission reaction • The scientific world has not yet been
and produce electricity are Nuclear power able to produce energy commercially
stations. by controlled nuclear fusion.
• Nuclear reactor is a system that converts
nuclear energy into electrical energy.
• Enriched uranium and carbide are fuels
used in nuclear reactors.

• Nuclear Pollution - • The pollution caused by the presence of radioactive

substances and radiations in water, air and environment is
known as nuclear pollution.
• Natural nuclear • Cosmic rays from outer space.
hazards - • Radiations from radioactive materials on the Earth.
• Man made nuclear • The use of radioactive isotopes in the medical field.
hazards - • Wastes from nuclear reactors.
• Precautions to face • Shift out to safe places (Concrete buildings, buildings
nuclear hazards - constructed using bricks etc).
• Strictly follow the directions from the concerned authorities.
• Observe the symbols showing the nuclear radiations and
behave accordingly.
• Reduce the density of population in places likely to
experience nuclear hazards.

Renewable Sources of energy Non renewable sources of energy

• Those which replenish energy as it is • These are not replenished or renewed in
being used up are the renewable sources proportion to their consumption.
of energy.
• Sun light, Wind, Geo thermal energy • Fossil fuels (Petroleum, Natural gas,
Tidal energy, Wave energy, Biomass, Coal) and Nuclear fuels are Non
Biogas etc., are renewable sources of renewable source.
energy.

Green Energy Brown Energy

• Green energy is the energy produced • The energy produced from non
from natural sources that does not cause renewable sources such as petroleum and
environmental pollution. coal, and the nuclear energy are named

6 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara

 brown energy.
• Doesn’t cause environmental pollution. • Non renewable.
• Renewable source. • Cause environmental pollution.
• Cause global warming.
• Solar Energy • Fossil fuels (Petroleum, Natural gas,
• Wind Energy. Coal)
• Tidal Energy. • Nuclear Energy.
• Geo Thermal Energy.
• Bio mass.
• Biogas.
• Hydro Electric Power.
• Hydrogen.

Energy crisis - • Energy crisis is the consequence of increasing demand but

decreasing availability.
Reasons for energy crisis‍- • Energy is wasting.
• Excess usage of non renewable sources of energy.
• Industrialisation
• Population growth.
Solutions for energy crisis‍- • Judicious utilisation of energy.
• Maximum utilisation of solar energy.
• Making use of public transportation as far as possible.
• Timely maintenance of machines.
Devices used at home to • Hot box.
reduce energy consumption‍- • Pressure cooker.
• Energy efficient oven.

7 Joji George, HST, St Johns Syrian HSS Vadakara