HGB_2101 : General Biology 1

JMDR

CELL JUNCTIONS
Four Main Functions of Cell
Junctions

1. Connection/Channel
2. Seals
3. Adherens - permiting some
materials
4. Cell Recognition and
Signaling - Inform the cell

Four Major Types of Cell

Junctions

1. Zonula Occludens (Tight

Junction)
● Claudins vs Occludins 2. Nexus/Septate Junction
➔ Protein (Gap Junctions)
● Watertight Seal ● Connexons (Protein)
● Diffusion Barrier ● Connexins
● Restricts the passage
of water, electrolytes, - Can be found in Heart,
and other small Neuron, and Uterus
molecules occurs in - Cell communication
epithelial - Exchange of ions, second
messenger, and small
● Occurs in Intestine,
metabolites between
Kidney, and Bladder
adjacent cells.
Apical - Internal environment
Plasmodesmata
Basolateral - External
- refers to the channel or
Environment
bridges between two plants
- It serves as the gap junction
Zonula - Latin for Belt
in plants
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4. Zonula Adherens (
Adhering/s Junction)

3. Spot/Mocula Adherens ( ● Mechanical

Desmosomes) Attachment
● Keratin - sa hair - Series of
● Desmin - sa muscle Connection
● Cadherins (Protein)
1. Link the
Ca- Calcium Dependent cells
together
- Connect two cells together by
- Act like spot-welds that hold cadherins
together tissues that 2. And then
undergo considerable stress lock ni
- Can be found in Skin or catenin
Epithelial 3. Screw ni
Actin
Filaments
si Catenin
para hindi
gumalaw
4. Seal ng
Vinculins
‘yung
Catenin
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and Actin
Filaments
BIOMOLECULES
5. Undergo
ng Important Terms
placement
6. And then ● Molecular Biology
iho-hold - Study of structure and
together functioning of
ng alpha biological molecules
actenin
● Metabolism
● Cadherins (Proteins) - Sum total of all
● Catenin - para ma biochemical reactions
maintain ‘yung cells in the body

● Macromolecule
- “ Giant Molecule”

Molecules that are present in

living organisms

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipid
3. Protein
4. Nucleic Acid

Carbohydrates

● Most abundant molecules of

life
● Energy source
● Plants produce them in
abundance by
photosynthesis
● Consist of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen ( CHO)
● Pasta & Breads
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● Important sources of energy

( Fast source of energy)

Stored Fat
- ‘Yun ‘yung ginagamit sa mga
oras na hindi kumakain ang
isang tao

Borborygmi/borborygmus
- Crunching of tummy
➔ Fructose “ Fruit Sugar”
➔ Galactose “ Brain Sugar”
Glycosidic Linkages
- Use by the brain to
- the linkage formed between
function properly
two monosaccharide units
Aldose
through an oxygen atom by
- Double bonding is in the
the loss of a water molecule.
first carbon
Dehydration Synthesis
- The process of combination
of two molecules with the
elimination of water
molecules

Classification of Carbohydrates

1. Monosaccharides
● Simple carbohydrates
(simple sugars)
● Building block of more
complex
carbohydrates
molecule

➔ Glucose “ Blood Sugar” Ketose

- C6H12O6 - Double bonding is in the
second carbon
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Furanose
- Pentagon
- Used in cyclization of ketose
Pyranose
- Hexagon
- Used in cyclization of aldose

L- hydroxyl is in the Left

D- hydroxyl is in the right

Isomers
- Same chemical formula but
the placement is different

Symptoms of Diabetes

1. Always tired
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2. Always Hungry
3. Always Thirsty
4. Frequent Urination
5. Wounds won’t heal
6. Sudden weight loss
7. Sexual Problems
8. Vaginal Infections
9. Numb or tingling of feet
10. Blurry Vision

2. Disaccharides ( 2 sugars) 4. Polysaccharides ( Many)

● Two monosaccharides ● Complex carbohydrates rich
combined in vitamins, minerals, and
fiber
➔ Table Sugar: Sucrose ● Starch ( Plant Carbohydrates
➔ Milk Sugar: Lactose )
➔ Malt Sugar: Maltose ● Glycogen ( Animal Starch )
● Chitin ( Exo- skeleton of
insects and crustaceans)
● Cellulose ( Structural
component of plant cell
walls)

Monomer
- Building blocks
- The make up substances

3. Oligosaccharides ( few ) (3-10

sugar)
● Complex Carbohydrates
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Lipids

● Nuts, Eggyolk, Lard, Oils,

Butter, & Cream Cheese
● Largely hydrocarbons
● Dissolve in nonpolar
substances and have partial
or incomplete insolubility in
water

Monomer of lipids- Glycerol and

Fatty acid chains

Ester Linkages
- formed between the oxygen
molecules of glycerol and
the hydroxyl molecules of
fatty acids.

Groups
1. Triglycerides
2. Sphingolipids
3. Phospholipids
4. Steroids

Triglycerides

- Body’s main energy reservoir

- Made up of one glycerol backbone and
three fatty acids
- Fats and oils
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● Unsaturated fatty acids

molecules
● Liquid at room temperature
● Obtain from plant source

Difference between fats and

oils

Fats
● Saturated fatty acids
molecules
● Solid at room temperature
● Obtain from animal sources
➔ Liposuction
➔ Sphingolipids
- Complex lipids made
up of sphingosine
linked through a
complex polar head to
one long fatty acid
chain

Oils ➔ Phospholipids (
phosphatides )
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- Have a phosphate se - Primary androgen

groups replacing one hormone
of the fatty acids in a - Male sex hormone
triglyceride
- Form micelles when
dispersed in water to
form a bilayer, the
basis of the
phospholipid bilayer
of all biological
membranes

2. Estrogen
- Promote the
development and
maintenance of female
characteristic of the
body

➔ Steroids
- Have similar solubility
properties as lipids
but are not fatty acids
or esters
- Common basic
structure is the steroid
nucleus
3. Cortisone
- Release in response to
stress

1. Testerone
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Protein Synthesis
- Creation of multiple protein

G-C= C-G
A-T = T-A

Monomer for lipids

- Glycerol and fatty acid chain

4. Vitamin D
- Calcium absorption Dehydration synthesis
- Connection/combination of
two proteins by removing
the water molecules

Food high in protein

- Meat and fish, cheese, eggs

(egg
white),beans,bread,hummus,
nuts and seeds

Amino acids
- Building blocks of protein
- 20 standard amino acids
Proteins - 11 are non-essential amino
● Building blocks of life acids
● Consist of carbon, hydrogen, - 9 are essential amino acids
oxygen and nitrogen (CHON)
● Some with sulfur and ➔ Non-essential
phosphorus (CHONPS) - can be manufactured
by the body
Amino acids ➔ Essential
- Building blocks of protein - The body cannot
(monomer) synthesize/make it so
- Connected by peptide you need to eat food
bonds (Peptide linkages) to to have it
form long chains of protein
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- Compromise most of the

proteins in living cells
- Control rates of many
chemical reactions to bring
about certain metabolic
processes
- End in suffix - ase
- Functions of enzymes are
greatly influenced by the
chain structure of the
protein molecule
- We are using enzymes para
magkaroon ng reactions sa
body natin.
Ex.

➔ Lactose intolerant
- Person who can’t
digest milk
➔ Sugar in milk
- Lactose
➔ Lactase
- enzymes that is
missing in a person na
nagre-resulta ng hindi
pagdi-digest ng tama
ang lactose

Denaturation
- Change in chain structure
➔ Backbone of amino acids- by breaking of peptide
all the same (purple) bonds caused by heat,
➔ Subchains/substitutes- is pressure, and acidity
what makes them unique (
red,blue,green, and yellow) Factors affecting activity of
enzymes
Enzymes
- Form of protein ● Temperature
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- Frostbite
- Cold
- Hot

● Pressure
- Changes in shape

Metabolic Pathway
Enzyme
● Sequence of chemical
- Substrate complex-
reactions occurring in a cell
combination when the
● Enzymes work together
active site interacts with the
substrate active site-area
● Cofactor ( Metallic elements)
where they bond
➔ Substrate- Reactant
- Assist many enzymes for
➔ Active site- area itself
chemical
Ex.
Inhibition of enzyme activity
- Iron, Manganese, and zinc
➢ Hindi dapat gawa nang
gawa ng product dahil
● Coenzymes ( set of
pwedeng masira ‘yung
element/compound)
(nakalimutan ko ‘yung term)
sa body ng tao that is why
- Organic molecules acting as
may inhibitors
cofactors
Ex.
Enzyme Inhibitions
- NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine
- Preventing the enzymes &
Dinucleotide)
substrate in creating a
- FAD (Flavin Adenine
product
Dinucleotide)
- Nagbibigay ng signal to
stop creating a product
➢ Their function is to support
the enzymes
1. Normal Binding
- ‘Yung substrate
How enzymes work?
pupunta sa active site
and dahil compatible
sila sa isa’t isa,
magpo-produce sila
ng product
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Ex.
➔ Insulin 5. Semi-Competitive
- Blood sugar - ‘Yung inhibitor ay
regulation/reduce nakikisabay sa
blood sugar substrate na magbond
sa active site. So in
2. Competitive inhibition short, hindi
- Si inhibitor ay kikilos makakabuo ng
para unahan si product dahil sabay
substrate mag bond silang nagbobond
sa active site - Mahilig makisabay st
- Harap-harapan na sumiksik si inhibitor
pang-aagaw( uyy) kahit hindi naman siya
belong
3. Non-competitive Inhibitor
- Mag bond ‘yung inhibitor sa
allosteric side na
magreresult ng pagbabago
ng structure/itsura ng active
site and dahil nagbago na
‘yung site, hindi na magiging
compatible ‘yung substrate
and active site so in short,
hindi na sila magbobond at
makakagawa ng product Primary Structure
- List down all the amino
4. Uncompetitive acids
- Magbond ‘yung - Itemize all amino acids
inhibitor allosteric side - Para ma-identify ‘yung iba’t
pero walang changes ibang amino acids na meron
na nangyari sa site sa enzymes
pero hindi na
magpo-produce ng Secondary Structure
product since hindi na - Slowly getting shape/folding
nag bond together ng
maayos ‘yung Alpha- Helix
substrate and active Beta- Sheet
site because of the
presence of inhibitor Tertiary Structure
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- 3D structure ● blue prints for proteins, thus

ultimately controlling the life
Quaternary of a cell
- Tertiary combined
- Multiple enzymes Types of nucleic acids
1. DNA ( Deoxyribose nucleic
Two Metabolic Pathways Acid)
2. RNA ( Ribonucleic Acid)
1. Catabolic Pathways (
Catabolism) Nucleotides
- Breakdown/digestion ● building blocks of nucleic
of large molecules acids
- release energy ● chemical messengers,
energy carriers and
➔ Kumakain ng pagkain, subunits for nucleic acids
unti-unting dinudurog for and coenzymes
your body to absorb the
nutrients Consists of:
➔ Cellular respiration 1. Pentose sugar (Deoxyribose
➔ Malaking pagkain- durugin- or Ribose)
maliit-utilized the nutrients 2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen bases
2. Anabolic Pathway ( (Adenine-Thymine,
Anabolism) Guanine-Cytosine)
- Synthesis of larger
molecules by joining
smaller molecules
- Requires energy

➔ Smaller materials-
combined- to form- bigger
material ● DNA (Double Helix)
➔ Photosynthesis “Deoxyribonucleic acid”
- it is located in the
Nucleic Acid chromosomes in the
● informational molecules that nucleus with a little
carry the code of life found in the
mitochondria and in
chloroplasts
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- carry the genetic

message

● RNA (Mediator of
Translation) “Ribonucleic
Acid”
- provides mechanism
for translating DNA
language into the
language of protein
biosynthesis
- short-lived messenger
(messenger RNA) and
carrier (transfer RNA)
of amino acids to the
ribosomes
- ribosomal RNA
assembled in the
nucleus is transported
to the cytoplasm to
serve as the site of the
translation of the
mRNA to protein

● Transcription
- Making a copy/imitate
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Solute= Juice
● Translation Solvent=water
- Translate/Give
meaning Isotonic
- Equal number of molecules
means no movement or they
can freely go in and out

Hypotonic
- Mas marami solute sa loob
na nakakapag attract sa
solvent na pumasok that will
result of swelling or burst of
cell (Cytolysis)
Cell Transport ❖ Plant
- There’s a presence of cell
● Simple diffusion wall kaya hindi siya
- Requires no energy pumuputok
- Molecules move from
area of high to low Hypertonic
concentration - Mas marami ang solute sa
- Randomly gumagalaw labas that is why na-aattract
nito ang solvent na nag
➔ Movement result ng shrinking
- Concentration (Plasmolysis)
Gradient - Worm -salt-dehydrated
- Person-swimming in the
● Diffusion ocean-dehydration
- Is a passive process
which means no Three Forms of transport
energy is used across the membrane

1. Passive transport
● Osmosis - Doesn’t require energy

➔ Diffusion of water ● Simple diffusion

- Solute attracts solvent
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- Molecules moves from

higher concentration
to lower concentration

● Facilitated diffusion
- Uses a channel or
carrier to move from
higher concentration
to lower concentration
1. Channel Proteins
- Daanan/bridge

2. Carrier Proteins
- May sinasakyan (train) —--------------- END —-----------------

2. Active transport “ Who you are is defined by what

- Requires energy you’re willing to struggle for.”
- Low concentration to higher
concentration - Mark Manson
- 3 sodium, 2 potassium, and 1
phosphate

● Exocytosis
- Moving things out
- Transport vesicles

● Pinocytosis
- Drinking

Phagocytosis
- Eating

Pinocytosis
- Drinking

Receptor
- Mediated endocytosis