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68 views32 pagesChap No 3
Uploaded by
Afifa AzamCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Available Formats
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/ 32
Data and Signals
One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in the form of electro-
magnetic signals across a transmission medium. Whether you are collecting numerical
statistics from another computer, sending animated pictures from a design workstation,
or causing a bell to ring at a distant control center, you are working with the transmis-
sion ofdata across network connections.
Generally, the data usable to a person or application are not in a form that can be
‘transmitted over a network. For example, a photograph must first be changed to aform
that transmission media can accept. Transmission media work by conducting energy
along a physical path.
To be transinitted, data must be transformed to dectromagnetic signals.
3.1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Roth dats and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital in form.
Analog and Digital Data
Datacan be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is contin-
uous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Forexample, an analog
clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous form:
the movements of the hands are continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock that
reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
‘Analog data, sich as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values.
‘When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by 2
microphone and converted to an analog sigral or sampled and converied to 2 digital
signal.
Digital data take on discrete values. For example, dsta are stored in computer
‘memory in the form of Os and 1s They can be converted to a digital signal or modu-
lated into an analog signal for transmission across a medium sa
CHAPTER3 DATA AND SIGNALS
Dats can be analog ordigital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.
Digital dats have discrete states and takediscrete values.
Analog and Digital Signals
Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog signal
has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from
value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its
path. A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined
values. Although each value can be any number, itis often as simple as and 0,
The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular
axes. The vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal. The horizontal axis
represents time. Figure 3.1 illustrates an analog signal and a digital signal. The curve
representing the analog signal pssses through an infinite number of points. The vertical
lines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that the signal makes
from value to value.
Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of
‘values in a range: digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
Figure 3.1 Comparison ofanalog and digital dgrals
a fl Time [] ume
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic
Gometimes refer to as aperiodic, because the prefix a in Greek means "non")
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a
period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of
cone full pattern is called a cycle. A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pal-
ternorcyele that repeats over time.
Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or nonperiodic. In data comm
cations, we commonly use periodic analog signals (because they need less bandwidth, SECTION32 PERIODICANALOGSIGNALS 59
as we will see in Chapter 5) and nonperiodic digital signals (because they can represent
Variation in data, as we will see in Chapter 6).
In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals,
3.2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic
analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
Sine Wave
‘The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When we
visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course ofa cycle is smooth
and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow. Figure 3.2 shows a sine wave. Each cycle
consists of a single arc above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.
Figure 32_A sine wave
Vaie
Time
We discuss 2 mathematical approach to sine wavesin Appendix C.
A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the fre-
quency, and the phase. These three parameters fully describe a sine wave.
Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, propor-
tional to the energy it carries. For dectric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured
in vols. Figure 3.3 shows two signals and their peak amplitudes.
Example 3.1
‘The power in your house can be represented by a sine wave witha peak ampliude of 155 w 170,
However, its common knowledge dhat the voltage of the power in US. homes is 110 120¥, 60 CHAPTER 3. DATA AND SIGNALS
Figure 33. Two signals with the same phase andijrequency, but dfforent amplitudes
‘Ampitude
2k ample
Time
1 Asignal with hgh peak anplands
Ampiuce
‘Sh agnal with lw peak ample
‘This discrepancy is due w the fact that these are root mean square (fms) values. The signal is
‘squared and thea the average amplitude is calculaed. The peak value is equal to 2"? x rms
value,
Example 3.2
‘The voliage ofbattery is @ constant; this constant value can be considered a sine wave, as we will
see later. For example, the peak value ofan AA tattery is nomnally 1.5.
Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in I Note that period and frequency are just,
‘one characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency
is the inverse of period, as the following formulas show.
Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.
rat esaienapanmacere SECTION3.2. PERIODICANALOGSIGNALS 61
ee
Figure 34 Two signals with the same amplitude ondphase, but different jrequencies
‘Anplinde
12 periods in > Foquonay i 12
is
ss Aagnal witha frequency O11
periods in| —> equeney # 6H
F
ead:
Raia wire Wayecey oTS RE
a
Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in
Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second. Units of period and fiequency are shown in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Units ofperiod andfrequency
Unit ‘Bjuivatent Unie Epoivalent
‘Seconds @) ts Herz G2) THe
illiseconds (ms) 10-35) ‘Kilohert (kHz) 10 He
‘Microseeonds (1s) 10-68 Magahertz (MHz) 1H
‘Nanoseconds (ns) 107s Gigaher2 (Giz) 10? He
Picosevonds (7s) 0-2 ‘Terahertz (TH2) to Hz
Example 33
‘The pover we use athome hns a frequency of 60 Hz (60 Hz in Earope). The period of this sine
wave oan be determined as fellows:
1
= eh = 00166 s = 00166 x 10° ms =166u1s
‘This means that the period of the power for our lights at home is 00116 s or 16.6 ms. Our
eyes ate not ensitive enough to distinguish these rapid changes in amplitude. o
CHAPTER3 DATAAND SIGNALS
Example 34
Express a periodof 100 ms in microseconds.
Solution
From Table 3.1 ve fl the equivalents of 1 ms (I ms is 10-s) and 1 (1 sis 106 is). We make
the flowing sbetinstions:
00 ms = 100 x 102 g = 100 102 x 10% ps = 10° 10-3 x 10 ps = 10° us
Example 35
‘The period of a signal is 100 ms. Whats its frequency in kilobertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms ‘o seconds, and then we calculate the frequency fiom the period (1 Hz =
103 Hz),
100ms = 100x 103 s=10-!s
1
gi Hes 10H2
T 707
0X 10? kHz =107 kHz
More About Frequency
We already know that frequency is the relationship ofa signal to time and thatthe frequency
ofa wave is the number ofevcles it completes in 1s. But another way to look at frequency
is as « measurement of the rate of change. Electromagnetic signals are oscillating wave-
forms; that is, they fluctuate continuously and predictably above and below a mean energy
level. A 40-Hz signal has one-half the frequency of an 80-H2 signal; it completes 1 cycle in
twice the time of the 80-Hz signal, so each cycle also takes twice as long to change from its
Jowest to ts highest voltage levels. Frequency, therefore, though describedin cycles per sec-
ond (hertz), isa general measurertent of the rate of change of a signal with respectto time.
Freaw
-yis the rate of change with menectto time, Change in a short span of time
‘means high frequency. Change over long span of time means low frequency,
If the value of a signal changes over a very short span of time, its frequency is
high. If it change: over a long span oftime, its frequency is low.
Two Extiemes
What if a signal does not change at al? What ITit maintains a constant voltage level fer the
entize time itis active? In such a case, its frequency is zero. Conceptually, this idea is a sm-
ple one. (fa signal does not change at all itnever completes a cycle, so its frequency is AHz.
But whet if a signal changes instantsneously? What if it jumps from one level to
another in no time? Then its frequency is infinite. In other words, when a signal changes
instantaneously, its period is zero; since frequency is the iaverse of period, in this case,
the frequency is 1/0, or infinite (unbounded). SECIION32 PERIODICANALOGSIGNALS 63
Ifa signal does not change at all, its frequency is zer
Ifa signal change: instantaneously, its frequency is infinite
Phase
The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. If we think of
the wave as something that can be shifted hnckward or forward along the ‘ime axis,
phase describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the status of the first cycle.
Phace describes the prsition ofthe waveform relative to time 0.
Phase is measuredin degrees or radians [300° is 2nd; 1° is 2r/360rad, and \rad
is 360/(2n)]. A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase
shift of 180° corresponds to a shiftof one-half of a period; and a phase shift of 90° cor-
responds to a shift of one-quarter of a period (see Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude andfrequency,
Afferent phases
A.
© 180degrees
Looking at Figure 3, we can say that
1. A sine wave with a phase of O° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The
amplitude is increasing.
2. A-sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time O with a peak amplitude. The
amplitude is decreasing. ao
CHAPTER 3 DATA AND SIGNALS
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts al time 0 with a 2er0 amplitude. The
amplitude i decreasing,
Another way to look at the phase is in terms of shift or offset. We can say that
1. A sine wave with phase of 0° is not shifted.
2. Aine wave with « phase of 90° is shifted tothe left by | cycle. However, note
that the signal does not really exist before time 0.
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180? is shifted to the left by ! cycle. However, note
that the signal does not wally exist before time 0
Example 3.6
A sine waves oflset cycle with respect to time 0 What is is phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
Weknow that | complete cycleis 30°. Therefore, ! gle i
60s; 60% 2 tacts: M tad 1046 rad
6 se 3
Wavelength
Wavelength is another characteristic of « signal waveling through a transmission
medium, Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium (see Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period
While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength
depends on both the frequency and the medium. Wavelength is a property of any type
of signal. In data communications, we often use wavelength to describe the transmis
sion oflight in an optical fber. The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel
in one period.
‘Wavelength can be calculated ifone is given the propagation speed (the speed of
light) and the period of the signal. However, since period and frequency are related 10
each other, if we represent wavelength by A, propagation speed by c (speed of light), and
frequency by/. we get
praggention spced
Weveengih=propaitfon speed pefed = Psgasntion SECTION32 PERIODICANALOG SIGNALS 68
‘The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on
the frequency of the signal. For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed
of x 10° mls, That speed is lower in air end even lower in cable.
‘The wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (microns) instead of meters.
For example, the wavelength of red light (frequency =4 x 10" in airis
=f 2 3x10"
F 20.25 x 108m = 0.75 pm
ax 10
In a coaxial or fiber-optic cable, however, the wavelength is shorter (0.5 jum) because the
propagation speed in the cable is decreased.
Time and Frequency Domains
A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. We
have been showing a sine wave by using what is called a time-domain plot. The
time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is an
amplituée-versus-time plot). Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.
To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we can use what is
called a frequency-domain plot. A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the
peak value and the frequency. Changes of amplitude during one period are not shown.
Figure 37 shows a signal in both the time and frequency domains
Figure 37 The time-domain andfrequency-domain plots oft sine wave
Ampliede
Props? 6 He
Tine
°
2A sinewaveln the Une domain (peak vale’ V,equancy: GHD
ampuide
wl
THE
WThcaamesing we ne Fequeny Boma aka’ 5 Viequeney GF 06
CHAPTER 3. DATA AND SIGNALS
It & obvious that the frequency domain is easy to plot and conveys the information
that one can find in a time domain plot. The advantage of the frequency domain is that
we can immediately see the values of the frequency and peak amplitude. A complete
sine wave is represented by one spike. The position of the spike shows the frequency:
its height shows the peak amplitude
‘Accomplete sine wave in the time domain can be represented
‘by one single spike in the frequency domain,
Example 3.7
‘The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing with more than one sine
wave. For cumple, Figure 38 shows three sine waves, each with different amplitude and fie-
quemy. All can be represented by three spikes in the frequency domain.
Figure3.8 The ime demain andirequency domain ofthree sine waves
porns —
wd
oH. ANA AA AA ||
VUV VV oS oe
a
Saag tane ee
Composite Signals
So far, we have focused on simple sine waves. Simple sine waves have many applica.
tions in daily life. We can send a single sine wave to carry electric energy from one
place to another. For example, the power company sends a single sine wave with a fre-
quency of 60 Hz to distribute electric energy to houses and businesses. As another
example, we can use a single sine wave to send an alarm to a security center when a
‘burglar opens a door or window in the house. In the first case, the sine wave is carrying
energy; in the second, the sine wave is a signal of danger.
If we had only one single sine wave to convey a conversation over the phone, it
would make no sense and carry no information. We would just hear a buzz. As we will
see in Chapters 4 and 5, we need to send a composite signal to communicate data. A
composite signal is made of many simple sine waves.
A.single‘frequency sine wave is notuseful in data communications;
we need to senda composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves. SECTIONS2 PERIODICANALOG SIGNALS 67
In the carly 1900s, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier showed that
any composite signal is actually a combination of simple sine waves with different fre-
quencies, amplitudes, and phases. Fourier analysis is discussed in Appendix C; for our
purposes, we just present the concept.
According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
Fourier analysis is discussed in Appendix C.
A composite signal can be periodic or nonperiadic. A periodic composite signal
can be decomposed into a series of simple sine waves with discrete frequencies-
frequencies that have integer values (1, 2, 3, and so on). A nonperiodic composite sig-
nal can be decomposed into a combination of an infinite number of simple sine waves
with continuous frequencies, frequencies that have real values.
Ie composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with
discrete frequencies; if the composite signal is noapericdic, the decomposition
gives a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
Example 3.8
Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with frequency f This type of signal is not typical
of those found in data commuications We can considerit © be three alarm systems, each with a
different frequency. The analysis of this signal ean give us a good understanding of how to
decompose signals.
Figure 39 composite periodic signal
Itis very difficult to manually decompose this signal into a series of simple sine vaves.
However, there are tools, bo:h hardware and software, that can help us do thejob. We are not con-
cemed about how it is done: we are only interested in the result. Figure 3.10 shows the result of
decomposing the dove signal inboth the time and frequency domains.
‘Te amplitude of the sine wave with frequency f is almost the same as the peak amplitude of
the composite signal. The amplitude of the sine wave with frequency fis one-third of that of the
first, and the amplitude of the sine save with frequency Of one-ninth of he fist. The frequency cy
CHAPTER3 DATAAND SIGNALS
Figure 3.10 Decomposition ofa composite periodic signal in the time and frequency demains
‘Aap Feqemy
Frequemy J
regency #
bb equensy-domuin ecompositon of fe composite ial
ofthe sine wave with fequency fis the same a the fequency of the composite signal; itis called
the fundzmental frequency, orfirs harmonic. The sine wave with frequency 3fhas a frequency
of 3 me: the fundamental frequency; it is called the third hammonic. Te third sine wave with fe-
quency 9fhas a frequency of 9 times the fundamental frequency: it is called the ninth harmonic.
‘Note that the frequency decomposition of the signal is discrete: it has frequenciesf. 3f, and
9f Because fis an integral amber. 3fand 9fare also integral mimbers. There are no frequencies
such ac 1 2for2.6f The frequency domain of a periodic composite signal is always made of dis-
crete pikes.
Example 39
Figure 3.11 shows a aonpesiodic composite signal. Itcan bethe signal createdby a microphone ora
telephone set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the composite signal ainnot be peti=
dic, because that implies that weare mpeating the same word or words with exacily thesame tone.
Figure 3.11 The ume andjrequency domates ofa nonperiodic agnat
‘Ample ‘Aplin
Ample for sine
wae ef equency J
|| ZN
Y qi Tite Famuncy SECTION32 PERIODICANALOG SIGNALS 69
In atime-domain representation ofthis composite signal, there are an infinite num-
ber of simple sine frequencies. Although the number of frequencies in a human voice is
infinite, the range is limited, A normal humsn being can creste a continuous range of
frequencies between 0 and 4 kHz.
‘Note that the frequency decomposition of the signal yields s continuous curve.
There are an infinite number of frequencies between 0.0 and 40000 (real values). To find
the amplitude related to frequency, we draw a vertical line atfto intersect the envelope
curve. The height ofthe vertical line is the amplitude of the comesponding frequency.
Bandwidth
‘The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The band-
width is normelly a difference between two numbers. Forexample, if a composite signal
contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000- 1000, or 4000,
‘The tandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
Figure 3.12 shows the concept of bandwidth. The figure depicts two composite
signals, one periodic and the other nonperiodic. The bandwidth of the periodic signal
contains all integer frequencies between 1000 snd 5000 (1000, 1001, 1002, ...} ‘The band-
‘width of the nonperiodic signals has the same range, but the frequencies are continuous,
Figure 3.12 The bandwidth ofperiodic andnonperiodic composite signals
ll Uo
“oo ‘000 Requuney
_———Haniwidtn= 5000. 1000 = 4000 Hy
4
‘avpiade
‘Bandwidth ofa periodic signal
Fagus
ee
1000 "000 Frequuney
| Baxddth =5000- 1000. 400 Hs i
{b Randwilth ofa nonporiode sip 70
CHAPTER 3 DATA AND SGNALS
Example 3.10
fa periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 He, what is ie bandwidth? Draw the pectrum, assuming all components have a maxi-
‘mum amplitude of 10V.
Solution
Letfhbe the lighestfequercy, fthe lowest frequency, and Bhe bandwidth. Then
B=fh- f= 900- 100=800 Hz
‘The spectrum has oaly five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13 The bandwidthfor Example 3.10
Amplitude
305070 60D Prquecy
Bundnids =900- 10D=ON0 He
Example 3.11
A pesiodic signal bas a bandwidth of 20 Hz, The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowes:
frequency? Daw ue spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of ie same amplitude.
Solution
LLetfh be the highest frequency fe the lowest frequeacy, and B the bandwidth. Then
Boh fi = 20=60- fi = ff =60- 20-4012
‘The sectrumeoatains all ineger frequencies. We show this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14 The bendwidth for Example 3.1!
WL ETE EL
ei,
Example 3.12
Annonperiodic composite signal has a bandwid:h of 200 kHz, with a middle ftequency of
140 KHla and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an amplitade of 0. Draw
the frequency damain of the signal. SECT/ON33 DIGITALSIGNALS 71
Solution
‘The lowest frequency must be at AO KHz and the highest at 240 LHe. Figure 315 shows the fe.
qeacy domain and the bandwidth
Figure 3.15 The bandwidthfor Example 312
Amplinde
rr okie 2a Kee
Example 3.8
‘An example of a romeriodic composite signal isthe signal propagated by an AM radio station, In
the United Sates, each AM radio station is assigned a 10-kHz bandwidth Tae total bandwidth ded.
jcated to AM radio ranges from 530 to 1700 lBiz. We will show the rationale behind this 0-H.
bandwidth in Caapter5.
Example 3S
‘Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal propagated by an FM sadio sta-
tion. In the United Staies, each FM radio station is assigned a 20)-kHz bandwidth. The total
bandwidth dedicated to FM radio rnges from 88 to 108 MHz. We will show the mticnale behind
this 200-KHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.
Example 3/5
Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal seceived by an ok/-fashioned
analog black-and-white TY. A TV screen is aude up of pixels (picture elements) with each pixel
being either white cr black. The screen is scanned 30 times per second. (Scanning is actually
(60 times per second, but odd fines are scanned in one sound and even lines in the next and then
interleaved.) If we assume a esolution of 525 x 700 (525 vertical Ines and 700 horizontal lines),
hich is a mtio of3:4, we have 367,500 pixels per screen If we scan the screen 30 times per sec:
nd, this is 367,500 x 30 = 11,025,000 pixels per second. The worst-case scenario is akernating
‘lack and white pixels. In this case, we need to represent ane color by the minimum amplitude
and the other color by the maximum amplitude. We can send 2 pixels per cycle. Therefore, we
need 11,025,000/2=5512,500 cycles per second, or Hz. The bandwidth needed ix 55124 MHz
‘This worst-case scenario tas such a low probability of occurrence that the accumption iz that we
need caly 70 percent ofthis bandwidth, which ie 2.85 MHz. Since axlio and synchronization s
als are also needed, a 4-MHz handwidils has been set aside for each black and white TV chan-
rel. An analog color TV Gannel lus 1 ¢MH2 tundwidth,
3.3. DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, infarmation can also be repre-
sented by a digital signal. For example, a I can be encoded as a positive voltage and a0
1s zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can n
CHAPTER3 DATAAND SIGNALS
send more than 1 bit for each level. Figure 3.16 shows two signals, one with two levels,
and the other with four,
Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels andthe other withfour signal kvels
‘Apne biasetin
‘tee
Peoritrsorererie
Lavell tod
se i i i
i i i i { i i Vs Time
* Kagialagalsinwobwe
apie
16¥e en»
‘ener
ww pny m @
Lawl a
uaa | i
ore I Tine
level i i { 1
Adiga aigal wah bur vals
‘We send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level in part b of the
figure. In general, if a signal has 1 levels, each level needs log? bits.
‘Appendix C reviews information zbout exponential and logarithmic functions.
Example 3.16
‘A dgital signal has eight levels. How many tits are needed per level? We calealate the number
of bits from the formula
‘Number of tits per level = log? 8 = 3
Each signal levelis cepresemied by 3 bts.
Example 3.17
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level We calculate the number of
bits by using the formula. Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However, this answer is
not realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of ?. For
this example, 4 hits can represent one level SECTION3.3 DIGITAL SIGNALS B
Bit Rate
‘Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropri-
ate characieristics. Another term-bit rate (instead ofjrequency)-is used to describe
digital signals. The bit rate is the number of bits sent in Is, expressed in bits per
second (bps). Figure 3.16 shows the bit rate for two signals.
Example 2.18
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute. What is the
required bitrate of the channel?
Solution
‘A age is an erage of 24 lines with 80 characters in each Iie, If we assume that one character
requires 8 bits, the bit nite is
100 x24 x 80x 8=1,636,000 bps=1.636 Mbps
Example 3.19
A digitized voice chanel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth
‘malog voice sgnal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (wo samples
perhertz). We assume that each sample equires 8 bits. What isthe required bit rate?
Solution
‘The bit ate can be calculated as
2x 4000 x 8 64,000 bps 64 knps
Example 2.20
‘What is the bitrate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?
tal sgnals to broadcasthigh quality video digaals. The HDTV Scren is normally
aa mntio of 15:9 (in contrast t» 4:3 for mgular TV), which means the screen is wider. There are
1920by 1080 pixels per screen, and the scrven is mnewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four its
represents one solor pixel. We can calculate the bitrate as
1920x 1080Xx 30 x 24 = 1,492,992,0000r 15 Gaps
‘The TV sations duce this rate t 20 to 40 Mbps through compressicn
Bit Length
We discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance one cycle
‘occupies on the transmission medium. We can define something similar for a digital
signal: the bit length. The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmis
sion medium.
Bit length= propagation speed x bit duration ”
CHAPTER 3. DATA AND SIGNALS
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signs}. The bandwidth
is infinite, as you moy bave guessed. Wecan intuitively corne up with this concept when
‘ve consider a digital signal. A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected
vertical and horizontal line segmeats. A vertical line in the time domain means a fre-
quency ofinfinity (sudden change in time); a horizontal line in the time domain means &
frequency of zero (no change in time). Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of
infinity (and vice versa) implies all frequencies in between are pirtof the domain
Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal. Ifthe digital signal is
periodic, which is rare in data communications, the decomposed signal has a frequency-
domain representation with aa infinite bandwidth and discrete frequencies. Ifthe digital
signal is noaperiodie, the decomposed signal still has an infinite bandwidth, but the fre-
quencies are continuous. Figure 3.17 shows a periodic and a nonperiodic digital signal
and their bandwidths.
Figure 3.17 The time andfrequency domains afperiodic and ronperiodic dgital signals
{| |_. Lyy yy ym
| Tne SF ty Beem
2 Time and equancy amin ofpeviodle@igial Spal
a)
‘Time and nquancy mains ol ponpariodic gia sipal
Note that both bandwidths are infinite, but the periodie signal has discrete frequen-
cies while the neaperiodic signal has continuous frequencies.
Transmission of Digital Signals
‘The previous discussion asserts that a digital signal, periodic or nonperiodic, is a com-
posite anslog signal with fequencies between zero and infinity. For the remsinder of
the discussion, let us consider the case of nonperiodic digital signal, similar to the
‘ones we encounter in data communications. The fundamental question is, How can we
send a digital signal from point to point B? We can transmit s digital signal by using
one of two different approaches: baseband transmission or broadband transmission
(using modulation). SECTION33 DIGITALSIGNALS 75
Baseband Transmission
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal overa channel without changing
the digital signal to an analog signal, Figure 3.18 stows baseband transmission,
Figure 3.18 sasebond ransmission
—— :
- eae
A digital signal is a compositeanalog signal with an infinite bandwidth.
Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel, a channel with a
bandwidth that starts from zero, This is the case if we have a dedicated medium with a
bandwidth constituting only one channel. For example, the entire bandwidth of a cable
connecting two computers is one single channel. As another example, we may connect
several computers to a bus, but not allow more than two stations to communicate at a
time. Again we have a low-pass channel, and we can use it for baseband communication.
Figure 3.19 shows two low-pass channels: one with a narrow bandwidth and the other
with a wide bandwidth. We need to remember that a low-pass channel with infinite band
width is ideal, but we cannot have such a chanrel in real life. However, we can get close.
Figure
19 Handwidths oftwo low-pass channels
o
Low piss Gane, waetangwane
°
[Low pass hanna) arrow bandwith
Let.us study two cases of a baseband communication: a low-pass channel with 2
wide bandwidth and one with a limited bandwidth. 76 CHAPTER3 DATA AND SIGNALS
Case 1: Low-Pass Channel with Wide Bandwidth
If we want to preserve the exact form of a nonperiodic digital signal with vertical seg-
‘ments vertical and horizontal segments horizontal, we need to send the entire spectrum,
the continuous range of frequencies between zero and infinity. This is possible if we
have a dedicated medium with an infinite bandwidth between the sender and receiver
that preserves the exact amplitude of each component of the composite signal.
Although this may be possible inside a computer (e.g., between CPU and memory), it
is not possible between two devices. Fortunately, the amplitudes of the frequencies at
the border of the bandwidth are so small that they can be ignored. This means that if we
have a medium, such as a coaxial cable or fiber optic, with a very wide bandwidth, two
stations can communicate by using digital signals with very good accuracy, as shown in
Figure 320. Note that! is close to zero, andh is very high.
Figure 3.20 Beseband ransmission wing a dedicated medium
Iapatsignalbontwis
as $S.3
Although the output signal is not an exact replica of the original signal, the data
can still be deduced from the received signal. Note that although some of the frequen-
cies are blocked by the medium, they are not critical.
Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the shape of the digital signal is
possible only if we have 2 low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth.
Example 3.21
‘An exampleof a dedicated channel where the entire bandwidth of the medium is used as one single
channel is a LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated chaanel for two stations com-
smanicating with each other. In a bus topology LAN with mulkipoiat comections, only two stations
cancommunicate with each other ateach moment in time (timesharing); the other sations need to
refrain from seoding data. Ia a star topology LAN, the entire chanael between each sation aad the
nub is used for communication between these two entities. We sudy LANs in Chapter 14,
Case 2: Low-Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth
In a low-pass channel with limited bandwidth, we approximate the digital signal with
an analog signal. The level of approximation depends on the bandwidth available.
Rough Approximation Letus assume that we have a digital signal ofbitrate N. If we
want to send analog signals wo roughly simulate this signal, we need to consider the worst
case, a maximum number of changes in the digital signal. This happens when the signal ame
SECTION33 DIGITALSIGNALS 17
carries the sequence 01010101 ... or the sequence 10101010- ... To simulate these two
cases, we need an analog signal af frequency f= N12. Let 1 be the posttive peak vahie and
‘Obe the negative peak value. We send 2 bits in each cycle; the frequency of the analog
Signal is one-half ofthe bit rate, or N12. However, just this one frequency cannot make all
patterns; we need more components. The maximum frequency is NZ. As an example of
this concept, let us see how a digital signal with 23-bit pattern can be simulated by using
analog signals. Figure 321 shows the idea. The two similar cases (000 and 111) sre simu-
ated with a signal with frequency f =0 and a phase of 180° for 000 and a phase of for
111. The two worst cases (010 and 101) are simulated with an analog signal with fre-
quency f =NI2 and phases of 180° and 0°. The other four cases can only be simulated with
an analog signal with f = NI4 and phases of 180°, 270°, 90°, and O°. In other words, we
need a channel that can handle frequencies 0, Ni, and M2. This rough approximation is
referred to using the first harmonic (NB) frequency. The required bandwidth is
Figure 321 Rough approsimation ofa digital signal using the first harmonicfor worst case
ies
mandwictn =
Digital: bteate A Disa biceate
[it
Aaegi p= 100 malegi—Np~ 160 Anogi=—N p= 0
Digi: cate gia bt te Digtal: ieee N
Lis Oyon on aye,
Anabesf=NH
Better Approximation To make the shape of the analog signal look more like that
of a digital signal, we need to add more harmonics of the frequencies. We need to
increase the bandwidth. We can increase the handwidth to 3NI2, 5VI2, 7NI2, and so cn.
Figure 3.22 shows the effect of this increase for one of the worst cases, the pattern 010. 78 CHAPTER3. DATA AND SIGNALS
Figure 3.22 Simulating « digital signal with three first harmonics
‘Anpiale w
Note that we have shown only the highest frequency for each hannonic. We use the first,
third, end fifth hannonics. The required bandwidth is now 5NJ2, the difference betweenthe
lowest frequency 0 and the highest frequency SN/2. As we emphasized before, we need
to remember that the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate.
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit mte;
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.
By using this method, Table 3.2 shows how much bandwidth we need to send data
at different rates.
Table 3.2 Bandwidth requirements
Bit Harmonic Harmonics ‘Harmonies
Rate 1 1,3 13,5
n= kbps B=500Hz Boiskiz | B=2.5kHz
n= lWkbpe | BoS a Bo 1skHz | #—25kHe
n= lookep: | B= S0KHZ Ba ts0kHz | = 250KHZ
Example 3.22
What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we need to send 1 Mbps by using base-
band ransmistion? aay
SECTION33 DIGITAL SIGNALS 79
Solution
‘The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
The minimum tandwidth, a ugh approximation, is B = bit mte 2, or 50012, We nerd
low-pass channel with frequencies between 0 and 500 kilz
Abetter result canbe achieved by using te first and tbe third harmonics with the quired
Jundwidth B= 3 x 500 kHz = 15 MHz.
‘Sulla better result can be achieved by using the first, third, and fifth harmonics with
B=5x 500 kHz =25 MHz,
Frample 3.23
‘We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz. What is the maximum bit rate of this
channel?
Solution
‘The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first harmonic. The bit mte is 2 times the
available bandwidth, e200 Kbps.
Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)
Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog
signal for transmission. Modulation allows us to use abenépass channel-a channel with
2 bandwidth that does not start from zero. This type of channel is more available than a
low-psss channel. Figure 323 shows a bandpass channel.
SS
Figure 323 Bandwidth ofa bandpass channel
—eae—_—e_r_O—
‘Amplinde
SSS ey
Note that a low-pass channel can be considered a bandpass channel with the bwer
frequency starting at zex0.
Figure 3.24 shows the modulation of a digital signal. Inthe figure, a digital signal is
Converted to a composite analog signal. We have used a single-frequency analog signal
(called a carrier; the amplitude of the carrier has been changed to look like the digital
‘Sgnal. The result, however, is not a single-frequency signal; it is a composite signal, at
‘we will see in Chapter 5. At the receiver, the received analog signal is converted to digital,
and the result is a replica of what has been sent.
‘fthe available channels a bandpass channel, we cannot send the digital signal directly to
the channel: we need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal before transmission. CHAPTER 3 DATA AND SIGNALS
Figure 3.24 Modulation ofa digital signalfor transmission on a bandpass channel
& : _
np itl signal Quip gal inal
Example 3.24
‘An example of broadband eansmission using nodulation is the sending of compucer daca trough
avlepbone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to the central telephone office. Taese
lines, installed many years ago, are designed to carry voice (analog sgnal) with a imited band-
‘width (fequencies between 0 and 4 KHz). Although this channel can be used as a low-pass chan
rel, itis normally considered a bandpass channel. One reason is that the bandwidth is so narrow
(4 Kdlz) that if we treat the channel as low-pass and use itfor baseband transmission, the maximum,
bit ate can be only 8 kbps. The solution is to consider the channel a bandpass channel, convert the
