CHAPTER ONE: AN OVER VIEW ON THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

ESEARCH

Some people consider research as a voyage of discovery of new knowledge. It comprises the
creation of ideas and the generation of new knowledge that leads to new and improved insights
and the development of new materials, devices, products, and processes.

It should have the potential to produce sufficiently relevant results to increase and synthesize
existing knowledge or correct and integrate previous knowledge. Good reflective research
produces theories and hypotheses and benefits any intellectual attempt to analyze facts and
phenomena. The word ‘research’ perhaps originates from the old French word “recerchier”
which meant to ‘search again.’ It implicitly assumes that the earlier search was not exhaustive
and complete; hence, a repeated search is called for. In practice, ‘research’ refers to a scientific
process of generating an unexplored horizon of knowledge, aiming at discovering or establishing
facts, solving a problem, and reaching a decision. Keeping the above points in view, we arrive at
the following definition of research:

Research Definition
Research is a scientific approach to answering a research question, solving a research problem,
or generating new knowledge through a systematic and orderly collection, organization, and
analysis of data to make research findings useful in decision-making. When do we call research
scientific? Any research endeavor is said to be scientific if It is based on empirical and
measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning; It consists of systematic
observations, measurement, and experimentation; It relies on the application of the scientific
methods and harnessing of curiosity; It provides scientific information and theories for the
explanation of nature; It makes practical applications possible; and It ensures adequate analysis
of data employing rigorous statistical techniques. The chief characteristic which distinguishes the
scientific method from other methods of acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality
speak for itself, supporting a theory when a theory’s predictions are confirmed and challenging a
theory when its predictions prove false. Scientific research has multidimensional functions,
characteristics, and objectives.

Keeping these issues in view, we assert that research in any field or discipline: Attempts to solve
a research problem; Involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose; is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence;
Demands accurate observation and description; Employs carefully designed procedures and
rigorous analysis; attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great
pains to validate the methods employed; is a deliberate and unhurried activity that is directional
but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.

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1.1 Characteristics of Research

Keeping this in mind that research in any field of inquiry is undertaken to provide information to
support decision-making in its respective area, we summarize some desirable characteristics of
research:

1. The research should focus on priority problems.

2. The research should be systematic. It emphasizes that a researcher should employ a structured
procedure.

3. The research should be logical. Without manipulating ideas logically, the scientific researcher
cannot make much progress in any investigation.

4. The research should be reductive. This means that one researcher’s findings should be made
available to other researchers to prevent them from repeating the same research.

5. The research should be replicable. This asserts that there should be scope to confirm previous
research findings in a new environment and different settings with a new group of subjects or at
a different point in time.

6. The research should be generative. This is one of the valuable characteristics of research
because answering one question leads to generating many other new questions.

7. The research should be action-oriented. In other words, it should be aimed at solving to

implement its findings.

8. The research should follow an integrated multidisciplinary approach, i.e., research approaches
from more than one discipline are needed.

9. The research should be participatory, involving all parties concerned (from policymakers
down to community members) at all stages of the study.

10. The research must be relatively simple, timely, and time-bound, employing a comparatively
simple design.

11. The research must be as much cost-effective as possible.

12. The research results should be presented in formats most useful for administrators, decision-
makers, business managers, or community members.

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1.2 Selecting and Identifying the Research Problem

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Identification of research problem

Identification of research problem refers to the sense of awareness of a prevalent social problem,
a social phenomenon or a concept that is worth study – as it requires to be investigated to
understand it. The researcher identifies such a research problem through his observation,
knowledge, wisdom and skills.

“There are two factors in the selection of topic external and personal. External criteria involve
how the topic is important for the field, availability of both data and data collection methods and
the administration is cooperative or not. Personal Criteria means researcher own interest, time
and cost. Criteria for selection of research problem depends on the following characteristics”
(www.studylecturenotes.com).

Personal Inclination: The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the
personal inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would
select that problem for his research work (www.studylecturenotes.com).

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Resources Availability: During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If
these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection
place, then the selection of the problem is easy(www.studylecturenotes.com).

Relative Importance: The importance and the problem also play a vital role in the selection of
research problem. If the problem is relatively important, then the researcher tends towards the
selection of the problem (www.studylecturenotes.com).

Researcher Knowledge: The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the selection of
the research problem. The wisdom and experience of an investigator is required for well
collection of the research data. He can bitterly select a problem (www.studylecturenotes.com).

Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The practical usefulness of the
problem is the main motivation for a researcher to attend it(www.studylecturenotes.com).

Time-lines of the Problem: some problems take little time for its solution while others take
more time. So, it depends on the time in which he has to complete his research work
(www.studylecturenotes.com).

Data Availability: If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would be
selected (www.studylecturenotes.com).

Urgency: Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent problem
must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people
(www.studylecturenotes.com).

Feasibility: Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem. The
researcher qualification, training and experience should match the problem
(www.studylecturenotes.com).

Area Culture: The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also
responsible for the selection of research problem (www.studylecturenotes.com).

1.3 sources of research problem:

The following are some sources of research problem/topic

 Reading

 Academic Experience

 Daily Experience

 Exposure to field situations

 Consultations

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 Brainstorming

 Research

 Intuition

1.4 criteria for selecting a good research problem:

Once a problem is isolated, the researcher must be able to determine whether or not his problem
is worthwhile that is, significant for investigation. Whereas no standard procedure exist for
evaluating the suitability of a research problem (Ezejelue &Ogwo, 1990), certain criteria have
been found helpful for the selection of a problem. Indeed the researcher’s personal knowledge,
experience and interest as well as external circumstances generally determine the choice of a
problem (Webb, 1961; good, 1969 and Ary et al, 1979, pp.47-49).

Details of the aspects of these problem selection criteria may be itemized as follows:

 The problem must be significant in the sense that its solution should make a contribution
to the body of organized knowledge in the field represented. This implies that the
researcher should not be engaged in the study of trivial problem. Instead, the researcher
should demonstrate that the selected topic is likely to add information to existing
knowledge or at least to clarify some of the contradictory notions in previous research by
making more reliable knowledge available. Furthermore, the problem should have either
theoretical or practical implications or both.
 The problem should be a researchable. One. As explained earlier, there are many
problems that related to questions that can only be subjected to philosophic rather than
scientific investigation. For a researchable problem therefore, it must be concerned with
the relationships between two or more variables that can be defined a measured or
explained.
 The problem should be one that will lead to new problems and to further research. This
criterion implies that in so far as researchers often relate their problems to existing
knowledge in the field involved, attention should be given to the selection of a problem
whose solution is likely to raise a number of other questions for further research.

The problem must be suitable for the researcher in several respects namely:

 The problem should be one which arouses the researcher’s genuine interest and
intellectual curiosity. This criterion refers to the extent to which the solution of a selected
problem is personally important to the researcher in terms of the contribution it can make
to his own knowledge in the subject area or to the enhancement of his competence as a
social scientist. Thus, while interest sometimes develops with familiarity, the motivation
to complete a research project can be sustained only to the extent of the personal meaning
that the researcher attaches to the problem.

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  The problem should be in an area about which one has both knowledge and experience .
In other words, for a researcher to recognize a viable and worthwhile problem, he needs
to have a clear understanding of the theoretical, conceptual and practical aspects of the
area of interest. These may be derived from personal experience and through a review of
related literature. Closely related to the factor of knowledge and experience is the need
for researchers to have adequate skills and training capable of developing or validating
the instruments and of manipulating complex statistical analysis required in the research.

CHAPTER TWO: STEPS IN WRITING RESEARCH PAPER

2.1 Writing Back ground
BACKGROUND SECTION
 Initial review and introduction
 Relevant information
 History
 Foundation for scientific inquiry
 Research methodology
 Thorough, unbiased, strong Purpose is to introduce and support the validity of the
research study

Background Section Must Have

 Introductory thesis statement, research question, hypothesis

 Statement of relevance of study
 Specific aims and research objectives
 Summary of current research
 History of past research, noting problems with previous studies
 Key issues and significance of the research
 Conclusive statement

2.2 Writing Statement of the problem

How to Write a Problem Statement | Guide & Examples

After you have identified a research problem for your project, the next step is to write a problem
statement. An effective problem statement is concise and concrete. It should:

 Put the problem in context (what do we already know?

 Describe the precise issue that the research will address (what do we need to know?

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  Show the relevance of the problem (why do we need to know it?
 Set the objectives of the research (what will you do to find out?
When should you write a problem statement?
There are various situations in which you might have to write a problem statement.
In businesses and other organizations, writing a problem statement is an important step in
improvement projects. A clearly defined and well-understood problem is crucial to finding and
implementing effective solutions. In this case, the problem statement is usually a stand-alone
document.
In academic research, writing a problem statement can help you contextualize and understand the
significance of your research problem. A problem statement can be several paragraphs long and
serve as the basis for your research proposal, or it can be condensed into just a few sentences in
the introduction of your paper or thesis.

2.3 Writing the objectives of the research

The prime objectives of research are:

 to discover new facts

 to verify and test important facts
 to analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship
 to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific
and non-scientific problems
 to find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems and
 To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.
2.4 Writing the significance of research
Research is important both in scientific and non-scientific fields. In our life new problems,
events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions and
suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake
research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications. Precisely,
research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena. Some important avenues of
research are:

 A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific

community or an industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It

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 may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding
and possible solution.
 Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and
applications of them.
 It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving problems.
 Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on
the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the
needs helps a government to prepare a budget.
 It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to
improve the quality of products.
 Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the
problems in them.
 It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living
things, new stars, etc.
 Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel
phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been
discovered only through research.
 Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social
phenomena and seek solution to social problems.
 Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
2.5 Limitations during the research

Limitations of any particular study concern potential weaknesses that are usually out of the
researcher’s control, and are closely associated with the chosen research design, statistical model
constraints, funding constraints, or other factors. In this respect, a limitation is an ‘imposed’
restriction which is therefore essentially out of the researcher’s control. Still, it may affect the
study design, results and ultimately, conclusions and should therefore be acknowledged clearly
in the paper when submitted.

For example, when exploring participants’ responses to a survey, the researcher may be limited
to access only a small geographical area which would not provide an overall scope of responses.
Thus, in quantitative studies, that sample would not have been representative and when doing
qualitative research, data saturation would not have been achieved. With regards to
measurements and testing, the research tool itself may be a limiting factor by providing ‘narrow

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results’. For example, a set of good reliable scales would be perfect for weight measurements but
would provide only one of two essential parameters for estimating body mass index.

Time is another factor that may limit a study by distorting results. For example, a study on
dietary habits may limit the extent of the conclusions drawn, depending on the time of year data
were gathered. In addition, greater societal circumstances and financial trends that may coincide
with the study period should be acknowledged as such.

Data analysis methodology is another area of potential limitation. For example, most qualitative
methodologies cannot be truly replicated (as in controlled experimental conditions) and therefore
are unable to be verified per se. With regards to quantitative statistical analysis, most models can
easily determine correlation between two or more variables, but again, not causation per se.
Thus, all of the above limitations must be clearly stated so that results are not distorted and
misinterpreted by the wider readership. Unfortunately, when reporting results, ‘author
excitement’ may easily overlook this important aspect of conducting and reporting research.

2.6 Delimitation of the research

Delimitations are in essence the limitations consciously set by the authors themselves. They are
concerned with the definitions that the researchers decide to set as the boundaries or limits of
their work so that the study’s aims and objectives do not become impossible to achieve. In this
respect, it can be argued that delimitations are in the researcher’s control. Thus, delimitations are
mainly concerned with the study’s theoretical background, objectives, research questions,
variables under study and study sample. The alternatives to these and reasons for rejecting them,
e.g. the particular sampling technique chosen out of many available, should be clearly presented
so that the reader is fully informed. In a way, delimitations are not as much as “why I did this”
but rather “why I did not do it like this”. Reasons for rejecting a certain course of action during
the research process and the options available should also be cited. Then, a brief rationale should
be provided. Usual reasons for choosing a particular sampling technique for example are related
to available resources, local circumstances (practical access), ethical and permit considerations
or time constraints. In this light, delimitations are not positive or negative but rather a detailed
account of reasoning which enlightens the scope of the study’s core interest as it relates to the
research design and underpinning philosophical framework.

2.7 Review of related literature

A review of literature is a classification and evaluation of what accredited scholars and

researchers have written on a topic, organized according to a guiding concept such as a research
objective, thesis or the problem / issue to be addressed. It is the scholarly core of the dissertation.
It is an analysis and synthesis of the source materials, written in a specific style which flows
from broad to narrow and takes into account both the theoretical and empirical issues. The main
purpose of the review of literature is to report on original research or experimentation in order to
make such information available to the rest of the scholarly world.

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According to Best & Kahn (1989), Review of related literature is the summary of writings of
recognized authorities and of previous research provides evidence that the researcher is familiar
with what is already known and what is still unknown and untested. Since effective research is
based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate the duplication of what has been done
and provides useful hypotheses and helpful suggestions for significant investigation.

2.8 Designing the research methodology

2.8.1 Research Design

A research design is the ‘procedures for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and reporting data in
research studies’ (Creswell & Plano Clark 2007, p.58). It is the overall plan for connecting the
conceptual research problems with the pertinent (and achievable) empirical research. In other
words, the research design sets the procedure on the required data, the methods to be applied to
collect and analyze this data, and how all of this is going to answer the research question (Grey,
2014).
Leedy (1997:195) defines research design as a plan for a study, providing the overall framework
for collecting data. MacMillan and Schumacher (2001:166) define it as a plan for selecting
subjects, research sites, and data collection procedures to answer the research question(s). They
further indicate that the goal of a sound research design is to provide results that are judged to be
credible. For Durrheim (2004:29), research design is a strategic framework for action that serves
as a bridge between research questions and the execution, or implementation of the research
strategy.
2.8.2 Population of the study

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.

A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always
less than the total size of the population.

In research, a population doesn’t always refer to people. It can mean a group containing elements
of anything you want to study, such as objects, events, organizations, countries, species,
organisms, etc.

Sampling in market action research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. Let’s take a closer look at these two methods of sampling. . Probability sampling:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria
and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to
be a part of the sample with this selection parameter. . Non-probability sampling: In non-

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probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This sampling
method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a
population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.

Types of sampling: sampling methods sampling in market action research is of two types –
probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let’s take a closer look at these two methods
of sampling.

1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a

selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have
an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.

2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for

research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This
makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a
sample. In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods
that you can implement in any market research study.

Types of probability sampling with examples:

Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger
population using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers
every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed process. For example, in a
population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a
part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates sampling bias in the population and gives all
members a fair chance to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:
Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving
time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining
information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance.
Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample. For example,
in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building
activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each
of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it

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very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback. For example, if
the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the
Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida,
Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as
the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the
sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method
has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming. For
example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of
5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th
individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher
divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population.
While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group
separately. For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging
to different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family
income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc.
By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different
income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to
eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.
Types of non-probability sampling with examples
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based
on a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process.
In most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed
results, which may not represent the desired target population. But, there are situations such as
the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where
nonprobability sampling will be much more useful than the other type.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better
manner:

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Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience
sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the
subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done
based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used
when there is time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are
resource limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used. For
example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute
leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall
entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.
Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgmental or purposive samples are formed by the
discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the
understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the
thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria
will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No”
are excluded from the sample.
Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelter less
people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a
few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method
in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys
to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions.
Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to
get in touch with the victims and collect information.
Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique
happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specic
attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a
rapid method of collecting samples.
2.8.4 Tools of Data Gathering

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Now that we’ve explained the various techniques, let’s narrow our focus even further by looking
at some specific tools. For example, we mentioned interviews as a technique, but we can further
break that down into different interview types (or “tools”).
Word Association: The researcher gives the respondent a set of words and asks them what
comes to mind when they hear each word.
Sentence Completion: Researchers use sentence completion to understand what kind of ideas
the respondent has. This tool involves giving an incomplete sentence and seeing how the
interviewee finishes it.
Role-Playing: Respondents are presented with an imaginary situation and asked how they would
act or react if it was real.
In-Person Surveys: The researcher asks questions in person.
Online/Web Surveys: These surveys are easy to accomplish, but some users may be unwilling
to answer truthfully, if at all.
Mobile Surveys: These surveys take advantage of the increasing proliferation of mobile
technology. Mobile collection surveys rely on mobile devices like tablets or smartphones to
conduct surveys via SMS or mobile apps.
Phone Surveys: No researcher can call thousands of people at once, so they need a third party to
handle the chore. However, many people have call screening and won’t answer.
Observation: Sometimes, the simplest method is the best. Researchers who make direct
observations collect data quickly and easily, with little intrusion or third-party bias. Naturally,
it’s only effective in small-scale situations.
What is Data Analysis? Data analysis is described “as the process of bringing order, structure,
and meaning” to the collected data. The data analysis aims to unearth patterns or regularities by
observing, exploring, organizing, transforming, and modeling the collected data. It is a
methodical approach to apply statistical techniques for describing, exhibiting, and evaluating the
data. It helps in driving meaningful insights, form conclusions, and support the decisions making
process. This process of ordering, summarizing data is also to get answers to questions to test if
the hypothesis holds. Exploratory data analysis is a huge part of data analysis. It is to understand
and discover the relationships between the variables present within the data.

What is Data Interpretation?

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Once the data has been analyzed, the next progressive step is to interpret the data. Data
interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the processed and analyzed data. It enables
us to make informed and meaningful conclusions, implications, infer the signicance between the
relationships of variables and explain the patterns in the data. Explaining numerical data points
and categorical data points would require different methods; hence, the different nature of data
demands different data interpretation techniques. There are two primary techniques available to
understand and interpret the data:

1. Quantitative, and

2. Qualitative

Quantitative Methods
The quantitative data interpretation technique is applicable for the measurable or numerical type
of data. The numerical data is of two types:
Discrete: countable, finite quantities. Eg: the number of ice-creams
Continuous: not countable. Eg: height, weight, time, speed, humidity, and temperature
The numerical data is relatively easier to analyze using the statistical modeling methods,
including central tendency and dispersion measures. These can be visually depicted via charts
such as bar graphs, pie-chart, line graphs, line charts. Tables are also used in representing
complex information dissecting into categories.
There are two most commonly used quantitative data analysis methods are:
Descriptive Statistics: this field of statistics focuses on describing the data, its features. It
comprises of two categories: measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode, and measures
of dispersion or variability, which tell how much spread is there in the data or the data varies.
Inferential Statistics: this branch of statistics generalizes or infers how the larger data is, its
features based on the sample taken from this larger data.
Qualitative Methods
Qualitative methods are implemented to analyze the textual and the descriptive data called the
categorical data. Text data is usually unstructured. The qualitative data is subdivided further
based on their characteristics:
Nominal: The attributes have no ranking or order. Eg: Region, Gender, Classes in school
Ordinal: The attributes are ranked or ordered in a sequence. Eg: Grades

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Binary: It has only two categories. Either yes or no, Class 1 or 0
Unlike numerical data, categorical data cannot be directly analyzed as the data here is non-
statistical, and also, the machines understand only the language of the numbers.
So, the text data is first coded and converted into numerical data. There are different coding
approaches available based on the requirement. The text data is categorized into labels to be used
for modeling and interpretation.
What is the difference between Data Analysis and Interpretation?
Data analysis and interpretation transform the collected data into story points to drive insights.
There are differences between the two processes, which follows as:
Data Analysis Data Interpretation
Meaning Data analysis is the process of uncovering patterns and trends in the data whereas, data
interpretation: is the process of assigning meaning to the data. It involves explaining those
discovered patterns and trends in the data.
Chronology: Data analysis comes first, followed by data interpretation whereas, Data
interpretation is the next proceeding step after data analysis.
Types/Methods The five types of data analysis are Descriptive Analysis, Diagnostic Analysis,
Predictive Analysis, Prescriptive Analysis, and Cognitive Analysis whereas; the data
interpretation methods are Quantitative Methods and Qualitative Methods.
Why is it needed? To summarize, condense data in a comprehensible and usable form for
further advanced analytics and prediction whereas, Data interpretation is required because the
numbers cannot speak for themselves. It needs manual human intervention to understand what
the numbers are saying.
2.8.7 Writing the conclusion & recommendations

Summary of the findings Restate briefly the work carried out, the aims and hypotheses or
research questions. Highlight the most important findings whereas, Recommendations Give
specific suggestions for real-world actions to be taken on the basis of the research.

2.8.8 Writing Research Report

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete until the report has been presented and/or written. Writing of report is the

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last step in a research study and requires a set of skills. This task should be accomplished by the
researcher with greatest care.

Steps in Writing Report

The usual steps involved in writing report are:

1. logical analysis of the subject-matter

2. preparation of the final outline

3. preparation of the rough draft

4. rewriting and polishing

5. preparation of the final bibliography/reference; and

6. Writing the final draft

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter:

 It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There
are two ways in which to develop a subject:

a) logically and

b) Chronologically.

Logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the
one thing and another by means of analysis.

Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence.

1. Preparation of the final outline

Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.
2. Preparation of the rough draft
This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a
step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the
context of his research study.

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 3. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical
development or presentation. In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that
in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing
grammar, spelling and usage.
4. Preparation of the final bibliography
The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in some
way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the
researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically
5. Writing the final draft
The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language,
avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones. While writing
the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
Layout of the Research Report
The layout of the report means what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout
of the research report should comprise:
 Preliminary pages
 The main text; and
 The end matter
A. Preliminarypages
The preliminary part contains:
 Title Page
 Contents Page
 List of Illustrations
 Acknowledgements
 Abstract
1. Title Page
This contains the title of the report, the name of the researcher and the date of publication. If the
report is a dissertation or thesis, the title page will include details about the purpose of the report,
for example ‘A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Bachelor Degree of

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…………….in Hawassa University. If the research has been funded by a particular organization,
details of this may be included on the title page.
2. Contents Page
This section show or lists the contents of the report, either in chapter or section headings with
sub-headings, and their page numbers.
3. List of Illustrations
This section includes title and page number of all graphs, tables, illustrations, charts, etc.
4. Contents Page
This section show or lists the contents of the report, either in chapter or section headings with
sub-headings, and their page numbers.
5. List of Illustrations
This section includes title and page number of all graphs, tables, illustrations, charts, etc.
6. Acknowledgements
Some researchers may wish to acknowledge the help of their research participants, tutors,
employers, and/or funding body.
7. Abstract/ short Summary
This tends to be a one page summary or very short summary of the research, which contains its
purpose, methods, main findings, and conclusion.

B. Main Text (main body)

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Chapter One
(i) Introduction
 Statement of the problem
 Research objectives
 General objective
 Specific objectives
 Research questions
 Significance of the study
 Delimitation/scope/ of the study
 Limitation of the study
Chapter Two
(ii) Review of literature
Chapter Three
(iii) Methodology and Methods
 Data source
 Method of sampling
 Methods of data collection
 Methods of analysis
Chapter Four
(iv) The results ( analysis & findings )
Chapter Five
(v) Conclusion(The implications drawn from the results)
(vi) The summary
(vii) Recommendations

1. Introduction
This section introduces the research, setting out the aims and objectives, terms and definitions. It
includes a rationale for the research and a summary of the report structure. The purpose of
introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers.
2. Literature review
 Theoretical frame works
 Empirical literatures
 Conceptual frame works

3. Methodology and Methods

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This section contains the research methodology and research design including:

 Data sources
 Sampling methods
 Methods of data collection
 Methods of data analysis

4. Results (Findings/Analysis)

In this section are included your main findings. The content of this section will depend on your
chosen methodology and methods. If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section
may contain tables, graphs, pie charts and associated statistics.

5. Discussion (Implications of the results)

In this section you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to
other research or literature. Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely.

Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:

A. A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances.
B. The conditions of the present study, which may limit the extent of legitimate
generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.
C. The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study
along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.
6. Summary
It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, resting in
brief: the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions
drawn from the research results.
7. Conclusion
This part includes the general remarks of the study.

8. Recommendations

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This section could be the most important part of the report. This section is set out a list of clear
recommendations which have been developed from your research. Recommendation is a
potential solution to overcome the identified problems in the study.
End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as:
 Reference/Bibliography
 Appendix
References
There are various ways of referencing styles (APA, Chicago or MLA) in different disciplines and
institutions. However, usually the American Psychological Association (APA) method is used as
a common referencing style.
Find out which referencing system your college or university uses. A popular APA method
which lists:
 the authors’ surnames alphabetically
 followed by their initials
 date of publication
 title of book in italics or Underlined
 Place of publication and publisher
Examples of APA methods of reference writings

Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Guba, E. G. (1961, April). Elements of a proposal. Paper presented at the UCEA meeting,
Chapel Hill, NC.
Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. E. (1990). How to design and evaluate research in education. New
York: McGraw-Hill.

Bibliography

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Larger dissertations or theses will require both a reference section and a bibliography. The
reference section will include all those publications to which you have referred to in your report.
If, however, you have read other work in relation to your research but not actually referred to
them when writing up your report, you might wish to include them in a bibliography.
Appendices

 questionnaires

 Interview guidelines

 FGD guidelines, Mathematical derivations and the like ones, Letters

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