Mobile computing characteristics

1. **Portability:** Devices are small, lightweight, and easy to carry, enabling users to
access information and perform tasks on the go.

2. **Wireless Connectivity:** Mobile devices often rely on wireless connections like

Wi-Fi, cellular data, Bluetooth, and NFC for communication, allowing access to
networks and the internet without physical connections.

3. **Multitasking:** Users can perform multiple functions simultaneously on mobile

devices, such as browsing the web, sending messages, and running apps.

4. **Location Sensing:** Many mobile devices are equipped with GPS or other
location-based services, enabling applications to provide location-specific
information and services.

5. **Touch Interfaces:** Most mobile devices use touchscreens as the primary

interface, allowing intuitive interaction through gestures, taps, and swipes.

6. **Limited Resources:** Mobile devices typically have limited processing power,

memory, and battery life compared to desktop computers, which impacts the
complexity and duration of tasks they can handle.

Wired Network Wireless Network

“Wireless” means without wire, media

that is made up of electromagnetic
A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet
waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves.
or another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
Antennas or sensors will be present
on all wireless devices

Faster transmission speed Slow transmission speed

Propagation delay is Low Propagation delay is high

More Secure & hence Reliable Less Secure & hence less Reliable

Devices must be hard-wired Installation is Quick

Less Expensive More Expensive

N -TIRE ARCHITECTURE---
N-tier is also called multi-layer or multi-tier architecture. The N here represents a
number like 2,3,4,5… The most common one is the 3-tier architecture which separates
the presentation layer, logic layer, and data layer.

3-Tier Architecture
While the most widespread use of multi-tier architecture is 3-tier architecture, in the
book Domain Driven Design there are 4 layers which are the presentation layer, the
application layer, the business layer, and the data access layer.

The presentation layer means the layer of UI (user interface) or view layer. It may be
built with different technologies like Razor pages, Blazor, or modern web libraries and
frameworks like Angular, React, Vue, Svelte, etc.

The application layer is also known as the service layer or GRASP controller layer.
The business layer is also known as the business logic layer (BLL) or domain logic
layer. This is where the logical part of the application happens like calculations, CRUD
(create-read-update-delete) operations, data analysis, etc.

The data access layer is where the entities live and it is simply a model of the database
like in the Model-View-Controller pattern. This is actually the reason why we call it a
model since it is the model of the database.
Benefits of N-Tier Architecture
Scalability — You can separate tiers without affecting the other tiers and then scale
each one properly.
Data Integrity — Cascading effects are prevented, and maintenance becomes easier.
One may change the code without affecting the data.
Reusability — Different layers could be used in different projects or in the same
project you may use the same layer in different places. For instance, you might want to
write extensions to your projects and if you want to use them in another project
Secure— You can secure the layers without affecting the other layers.
Drawbacks of N-Tier Architecture
Increase in the effort — Brings burden to a developer rather than writing the software
in one tier or layer, developer needs to differentiate layers and give references to other
projects (your class libraries) accordingly.
Increase in complexity — If one wants to use N-Tier architecture you have to build your
project in the beginning according to n-tier layer logic. Building different layers bring
complexity since more layers are more things to think about it in the future.
Mobile Agents in Mobile Computing

In Mobile Computing, Mobile Agents are the composition of computer software and
data that can autonomously move from one computer to another computer and
continue its execution on the destination computer.
In other words, you can say that An Mobile Agent is an autonomous program that is
capable of moving from host to host in a network and interact with resources and
other agents. In this process, the chance of data loss is scarce because the state of
the running program is saved and then transported to the new hostMobile Agents are
also called as transportable agents. They are classified into two types:
o Mobile Agents with pre-defined path: They have a static migration path.
o Mobile Agents with undefined path i.e., Roamer: They have dynamic migration
paths. The mobile agents choose their path according to the present network
condition.

Advantages of Mobile Agents

The following are some advantages of mobile agents over conventional agents:
o Mobile Agents are autonomous and self-driven in nature.
o They are maintenance-friendly or easily maintainable.
o They provide less delay in the network.
Disadvantages of Mobile Agents
The following are some disadvantages of mobile agents:
o The most significant disadvantage of mobile agents is their security. They are
less secured
Applications of Mobile Agents
Mobile agents are used in the following applications:
o Mobile Agents are applied in a wide range of domains such as E-commerce,
traffic control, network management, robotics, data-intensive applications etc.
o They are also used in grid computing, parallel computing, distributed
computing and mobile computing etc.
What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which

multiple signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a
single communication/physical line.

Types of Multiplexing
There are Five types of Multiplexing :
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
4. Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
5. Space-division multiplexing (SDM):
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing :
Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the
bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.
2. Time Division Multiplexing :
Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead
of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is
shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.
There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :
1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous TDM :
Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input frame
already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into frames. One
frame consists of one cycle of time slots.
Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send, a
slot remains empty in the output frame.
In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the beginning of
each frame.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing :
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to
increase the capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a different wavelength.
4. Space-division multiplexing (SDM) :
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is a technique used in wireless communication
systems to increase the capacity of the system by exploiting the physical separation
of users.
5. Code-division multiplexing (CDM) :
Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique used in telecommunications to
allow multiple users to transmit data simultaneously over a single communication
channel. In CDM, each user is assigned a unique code that is used to modulate their
signal..
Modulation can be digital or analog. Input wave of analog scheme varies
continuously like a sine wave. Voice is sampled at some rate then compressed and
turned into a bit-stream then superimposed on the carrier signal, in digital
modulation. This all happens because the communication systems have used a
powerful and beautiful technique called Modulation.

Modulation:
A Modem is a device that performs both modulation and demodulation processes.
The various forms of modulation are designed to alter the characteristic of carrier
waves. The most commonly altered characteristics of modulation include amplitude,
frequency, and phase.
Carrier signal: The signals which contain no information but have a certain phase,
frequency, and amplitude are called carrier signals.

Modulated signals: The signals which are the combination of the carrier signals and
modulation signals are modulated signals. The modulated signal is obtained after
the modulation of the signals.

Types of modulation:
1. Amplitude modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the amplitude of
the carrier signal is varied to represent the data being added to the signals whereas
the phase and the frequency of the signal are kept unchanged.

2. Frequency modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the frequency of

the carrier signal is varied to represent the frequency of the data whereas the phase
and the amplitude of the signals are kept unchanged

3. Phase modulation: It is a type of modulation in which the phase of the carrier

signal is varied to represent the data being added to the signal. Different information
values are represented by different phases. For example: „1‟ may be represented by
0° while „0‟ by 180°.

Advantages of modulation:
 It reduces the size of the antenna.
 It reduces the cost of wires.
 It prohibits the mixing of signals.
 It increases the range of communication.

Disadvantages of modulation:
 The cost of the equipment is higher.
 The receiver and the transmitter are very complicated.
 For better communication, the antennas for the FM system must be kept closed.
 It is not efficient for large bandwidth.
 Power wastage takes place
SPEED SPECTRUM
The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due to limited
spectrum efficiency and multipath propagation. The use of spread spectrum
communication has simplified these problems. In the spread spectrum, signals from
different sources are combined to fit into larger bandwidth.
Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able to
share the medium without an interception and without being subject to jamming
from a malicious intruder.

Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are

modulated by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the
signal. At one moment signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the
subsequent moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies. The general block
diagram of FHSS is shown in the below figure.
A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some pattern
for each hopping period T h. The frequency corresponding to the pattern is used for
the hopping period and is passed to the frequency synthesizer. The synthesizer
generates a carrier signal of that frequency. The figure above shows the spread
signal via FHSS.

Advantages of FHSS:
 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.
 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.
Disadvantages of FHSS:
 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).
 Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different

technique. Here, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code
called chips, and the bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate. The chip rate is n
times the bit rate of the original signal. The below Figure shows the DSSS block
diagram.

Advantages of DSSS:
 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.
 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.
Disadvantages of DSSS:
 Processing Gain is lower than DSSS.
 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the transmitter and
receiver.
 Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA

Idea Segment Segments sending Segment the Spread the spectrum

spaced into time into disjoint time frequency band using orthogonal codes.
cells or slots demand driven into disjoint
sectors. or fixed patterns. subbands

Terminals Only one All terminals are Every terminal All terminals can be
terminal can be active for short has its own active at the same place
active in one periods of time on frequency at the same moment
cell or one same frequency. uninterrupted uninterrupted.
sector.

Signal Cell structure, Synchronization in Filtering in the Code plus special

separation directed time domain frequency receivers.
antennas domain.

Transmission Continuous Discontinuous Continuous Continuous

scheme

Cell capacity Depends on Limited Limited No absolute limit on

cell area channel capacity but it is
an interference limited
system

Advantages Very simple, Established fully Simple, Flexible, less frequency

increases digital, flexible established, planning needed, soft
capacity per robust handover

Disadvantages Inflexible, Guard space needed Inflexible, Complex receivers,

antennas (multipath frequencies are needs more complicated
typically fixed propagation), scarce resource power control for
synchronization senders
difficult

Comment Only in Standards in fixed Typically Still faces some

combination networks, together combined with problems, higher
with TDMA, with FDMA or SDMA TDMA and complexity, lowered
FDMA or CDMA used in many mobile SDMA expectations, will be
useful networks integrated with TDMA or
FDMA
BANDWIDTH ---is the maximum capacity of a wired or wireless communications link
to deliver data via a network connection in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is
typically defined as the number of bits, kilobits, megabits, or gigabits that may be
sent in one second.
Bandwidth and capacity are terms that are used interchangeably to describe the
pace at which data is delivered. It is a common misconception that bandwidth is a
measure of network speed. Throughput is what bandwidth is all about. Bandwidth in
networks refers to how much digital data we can send or receive through a link in a
given length of time. It‟s also referred to as the data transfer rate. The majority of the
time, bandwidth refers to maximum throughput, and the amount of data transferred
is measured in bits per second. A bit is the smallest unit of digital data, and it is
represented by a 1 or 0.
IEEE 802.11
standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications
of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio waves instead of
cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move
around within the area of network coverage.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows −

 Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are
connected to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types−
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers,
smartphones, etc.
 Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
 Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations
communicating at the physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories
depending upon the mode of operation−
o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices
through access points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer
basis in an ad hoc manner.
 Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
 Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS

How Mobile IP Works

Mobile IP enables routing of IP datagrams to mobile nodes. The home address of the
mobile node always identifies the mobile node regardless of where the mobile node is
attached. When away from home, a care-of address is associated with the mobile
node's home address. The care-of address provides information about the current
point of attachment of the mobile node. Mobile IP uses a registration mechanism to
register the care-of address with a home agent.

The home agent redirects datagrams from the home network to the care-of address.
The home agent constructs a new IP header that contains the care-of address of the
mobile node as the destination IP address. This new header encapsulates the original
IP datagram. Consequently, the home address of the mobile node has no effect on the
routing of the encapsulated datagram until the datagram arrives at the care-of
address. This type
Multiple Access Techniques
In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to
send information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while
receiving information from the base station to the mobile station.

A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be
able to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible
in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.

Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques
can be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of
FDMA are as follows.

 FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access

the network.
 If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other
users.
 .
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used
instead of FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.

 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users
makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
 different users by concatenating or reassigning time slot based on priority.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where
several transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its
features are as follows.

 In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted
by separate frequency.
 CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique
which is MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in
wireless and satellite communication. It has the following features.

 All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
 SDMA is completely free from interference.
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.

There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −

 Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
WAP
What is Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)?
WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-
browsers and it enables access to the internet in mobile devices. It uses the markup
language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML), WML is defined as
an XML 1.0 application. It enables the creation of web applications for mobile
devices. In 1998,
WAP Forum was founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet whose
aim was to standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols. WAP
protocol resulted from the joint efforts of the various members of WAP Forum. In
2002, WAP forum was merged with various other forums in the industry resulting in
the formation of
Open Mobile Alliance (OMA)

WAP Protocol stack

1. Application Layer: This layer contains the Wireless Application Environment

(WAE). It contains mobile device specifications and content development
programming languages like WML.
2. Session Layer: This layer contains Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). It provides
fast connection suspension and reconnection.
3. Transaction Layer: This layer contains Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). It
runs on top of UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and is a part of TCP/IP and offers
transaction support.
4. Security Layer: This layer contains Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS). It
offers data integrity, privacy and authentication.
5. Transport Layer: This layer contains Wireless Datagram Protocol. It presents
consistent data format to higher layers of WAP protocol stack.
Why Use WAP?
The following advantages for wireless network operators, content producers, and
end users were put out by WAP when it was first introduced in 1999:
Advantages of Wireless Application Protocol
The benefits of Wireless Application Protocol, or WAP, are listed below:
 WAP is a rapidly evolving technology.
 Wireless Application Protocol is an open source that is totally free of cost.
 WAP can be used over multiple platforms.
Disadvantages of Wireless Application Protocol
The following is a list of various Wireless Application Protocol, or WAP, drawbacks:
 WAP connection speed is slow and number of connections are less.
 At some places it is very difficult to access the Internet, and also at some places
it is totally impossible.
WLAN
stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a local area network that uses
radio communication to provide mobility to the network users while maintaining the
connectivity to the wired network. A WLAN basically, extends a wired local area
network. WLAN‟s are built by attaching a device called the access point(AP) to the
edge of the wired network. Clients communicate with the AP using a wireless
network adapter which is similar in function to an ethernet adapter. It is also called a
LAWN is a Local area wireless network.
The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks. The
coverage of WLAN is within a campus or building or that tech park. It is used in the
mobile propagation of wired networks. The standards of WLAN are HiperLAN, Wi-Fi,
and IEEE 802.11. It offers service to the desktop laptop, mobile application, and all
the devices that work on the Internet.
WLAN Architecture

Components in Wireless LAN architecture as per IEEE standards are as follows:

1. Stations: Stations consist of all the equipment that is used to connect all
wireless LANs. Each station has a wireless network controller.
2. Base Service Set(BSS): It is a group of stations communicating at the physical
layer.
3. Extended Service Set(ESS): It is a group of connected Base Service Set(BSS).
4. Distribution Service (DS): It connects all Extended Service Set(ESS).
Types of WLANs
As per IEEE standard WLAN is categorized into two basic modes, which are as
follows:
1. Infrastructure: In Infrastructure mode, all the endpoints are connected to a base
station and communicate through that; and this can also enable internet access.
A WLAN infrastructure can be set up with: a wireless router (base station) and an
endpoint (computer, mobile phone, etc). An office or home WiFi connection is an
example of Infrastructure mode.
2. Ad Hoc: In Ad Hoc mode WLAN connects devices without a base station, like a
computer workstation. An Ad Hoc WLAN is easy to set up it provides peer-to-
peer communication. It requires two or more endpoints with built-in radio
transmission.
Advantages of WLAN
1. Installation speed and simplicity.
2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Robustness.
Disadvantages of WLAN
1. Slower bandwidth.
2. Security for wireless LANs is the prime concern.
3. Less capacity.
4. Wireless networks cost four times more than wired network cards.
 Cellular Network Ad hoc Network

The network routing of cellular network are The network routing of adhoc network are
centralized, all the traffic goes through the base distributed, no centralized system such as
station. base station needed.

Circuit Switching are used. Packet Switching are used.

It has single hop type. It has multiple hopes

Star topology are used. Mesh topology are used.

It takes Higher cost and takes more time for It takes lower cost and does not take more
deployment. time for deployment.

It is used in Designed and developed for voice It is used in Designed to meet best effort data
traffic. traffic requirements.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

In-circuit switching has there are 3 phases:

i) Connection Establishment. In Packet switching directly data transfer
ii) Data Transfer. takes place.
iii) Connection Released.

In-circuit switching, each data unit knows the In Packet switching, each data unit just
entire path address which is provided by the knows the final destination address
source. intermediate path is decided by the routers.

In Packet switching, data is processed at all

In-Circuit switching, data is processed at the
intermediate nodes including the source
source system only
system.

The delay between data units in circuit switching The delay between data units in packet
is uniform. switching is not uniform.

Resource reservation is the feature of circuit

There is no resource reservation because
switching because the path is fixed for data
bandwidth is shared among users.
transmission.

Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable.

 DHCP__
DHCP helps in managing the entire process automatically and centrally. DHCP helps
in maintaining a unique IP Address for a host using the server. DHCP servers
maintain information on TCP/IP configuration and provide configuration of address
to DHCP-enabled clients in the form of a lease offer.
Components of DHCP
 DHCP Server: DHCP Server is basically a server that holds IP Addresses and
other information related to configuration.
 DHCP Client: It is basically a device that receives configuration information from
the server. It can be a mobile, laptop, computer, or any other electronic device
that requires a connection.
 DHCP Relay: DHCP relays basically work as a communication channel between
DHCP Client and Server.
 IP Address Pool: It is the pool or container of IP Addresses possessed by the
DHCP Server. It has a range of addresses that can be allocated to devices.
 Subnets: Subnets are smaller portions of the IP network partitioned to keep
networks under control.
 Lease: It is simply the time that how long the information received from the
server is valid, in case of expiration of the lease, the tenant must have to re-
assign the lease.
 DNS Servers: DHCP servers can also provide DNS (Domain Name System) server
information to DHCP clients, allowing them to resolve domain names to IP
addresses.
 Default Gateway: DHCP servers can also provide information about the default
gateway, which is the device that packets are sent to when the destination is
outside the local network.
 Options: DHCP servers can provide additional configuration options to clients,
such as the subnet mask, domain name, and time server information.
 Renewal: DHCP clients can request to renew their lease before it expires to
ensure that they continue to have a valid IP address and configuration
information.

IR (Infrared) Remote RF (Radio Frequency) Remote

upto 10 meters upto 50 meters at LOS

500 bps to 1 kbps upto 100 kbps

It has regulation limits as defined in ETSI/FCC.

There is need of compliance tests to be
No limitation conducted.

20 to 150 mA, this depends on LEDs and coverage

range 5 to 20 mA

Approx. 1 mA Approx. 5 mA in continuous receiving mode

 MMS
SMS

Short Messaging Service Multimedia Messaging Service

It is a method to send text messages It is a method to send text messages along with
over a cellular network. multimedia over a cellular network.

It does not support multimedia. It supports multimedia.

SMS is cheaper in comparison to MMS. MMS is three times costlier in comparison to SMS.

The user-base of SMS is large in

The user-base of MMS is small in comparison to SMS.
comparison to MMS.

160 characters 1600 characters

Client-side scripting Server-side scripting

Source code is not visible to the user because its output

Source code is visible to the user. of server-sideside is an HTML page.

Its main function is to provide the Its primary function is to manipulate and provide access
requested output to the end user. to the respective database as per the request.

In this any server-side technology can be used and it

It usually depends on the browser and does not
its version. depend on the client.

It runs on the user‟s computer. It runs on the webserver.

There are many advantages linked

The primary advantage is its ability to highly customize,
with this like faster.
response
response times, a more interactive
requirements, access rights based on user.
application.
MMS
stands for Multimedia Messaging Service. It is the standard way to send messages
from one device to another through a network.
As the name Multimedia, we can suggest from here that it is not only for sending
text messages, we can also send multimedia like images, audio clips and video
clips, and many more things.
It is the extension used for SMS(Short Message Service) where we send and receive
text messages only with the limitation of only 160 characters in one SMS.
Most of the smartphones support MMS messaging nowadays. Basically it is the
advanced version of the text messaging with the additional feature of multimedia.

Modes of sending MMS

There are basically six modes which are as follows:
 Sending messages to an MMS mobile phone via an MMS mobile phone.
It can be sent in the same way as we send SMS messages, except that MMS
messages include multimedia contents.
 Sending messages to a non-MMS mobile phone via an MMS mobile phone.
Since the non-MMS mobile phones can‟t receive a multimedia message, the MMS
system automatically forwards the messages to the receiver‟s corresponding
email box and then sends a notification to his mobile phone.
 Sending messages to email boxes via an MMS mobile phone Multimedia
messages can be sent via an MMS mobile phone to an email box, and the
receiver logs on the email box to read the messages. However, most email boxes
don‟t support multimedia messages yet.
 Sending messages to an MMS mobile phone via an email box.
A user logs on to his email box, selects multimedia messages to sent, inputs a
receiver‟s MMS mobile phone number, and send the messages as an attachment.
 Downloading multimedia messages from the internet to an MMS mobile phone.
A user can customize and order multimedia messages on websites that provide
MMSs and then send MMS to an MMS mobile phone.
Advantages
 We can easily send and deliver MMS messages.
 The MMS messages which we received, we can store them (save them) and also
we can forward messages.
 Image, video, and other media-rich content allows for better branding.
Disadvantages
 MMS service is not available on all mobile phones. So, we cannot use this
service in all the phones.
 Some multimedia content has some resolution issues due to the varied
display sizes of different phones.
GPRS

GPRS Full Form: General Packet Radio Service is the full form of GPRS. GPRS is a
new form of wireless communication used by mobile phones and other unique
mobile devices to transport data over a mobile network. It is a packet-switched
technology that allows information to be transmitted in small packets, allowing for a
more environmentally friendly use of network resources.
As an improvement to the current GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
community, which was primarily created for voice communication, GPRS was
initially presented in 2000. With the advent of GPRS, mobile phones and other
unique mobile devices should be able to send data over the same network, ushering
in a completely new era of mobile communication.
What is the Full Form of GPRS?
General Packet Radio Service is the full form of GPRS.
Features of GPRS
 GPRS is a wireless communication service that allows data to be transmitted
over a cellular network.
 GPRS uses packet-switching technology to transmit data, which means that data
is divided into small packets and sent over the network in a more efficient way.
 GPRS offers always-on connectivity, which means that a user can stay
connected to the network at all times, without having to establish a connection
every time they want to send or receive data.
 GPRS provides faster data transfer rates compared to the earlier generation of
cellular networks, such as GSM.
 GPRS enables new applications and services to be developed, such as mobile
internet browsing and email.
 GPRS is a precursor to modern cellular data technologies, such as 3G and 4G.
Function of GPRS
 A mobile generation called GPRS is used to talk information via mobile
networks.
 It allows clients to access the internet and different data services on their cell
gadgets.
 Due to its low prices and environmental friendliness, GPRS is a famous option
for consumers.
 Today, GPRS has in large part been changed through quicker and greater
superior technology including EDGE, 3G, and 4G, however, it stays an important
part of the history of cell communications.
Advantages of GPRS
 A high-speed data transfer cost is offered to mobile devices through General
Packet Radio Service or GPRS.
 Web browsing, email sending and receiving, and online shopping are just a few
of the online services that GPRS users can access while they are on the move.
GSM

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and
digital cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different
frequency bands of 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the
combination of FDMA and TDMA. This article includes all the concepts of GSM
architecture and how it works.
1. BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling
between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
components BTS and BSC.
2. NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core
network of GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for
mobile phone present in network. NSS have different components like VLR,
HLR and EIR.
3. OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the
network operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS.
1. MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software
needed for communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile
Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are
connected to tower and that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a
transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has two
performance of sending and receiving.
2. BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless
communication between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.
3. BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can
consider the BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and
multiple towers have BTS.
4. MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with
communication switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call
tracing, call forwarding all functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having
further components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.
 VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which
contains the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the
service area of MSC. If you are going from one state to another state then your
entry is marked into the database of VLR.
 HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing
pertinent data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you
purchase SIM card from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data
like your ID proof, which plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.
 AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile
subscriber that wants to connect in the network.
 EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps
the record of all allowed or banned in the network.
 PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects
with MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems.
5.OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain
the performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
1. Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS
and BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface
of ISDN.
2. Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
3. A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.
 What is Spread Spectrum?


The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due to limited
spectrum efficiency and multipath propagation. The use of spread spectrum
communication has simplified these problems. In the spread spectrum, signals from
different sources are combined to fit into larger bandwidth.
Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able to
share the medium without an interception and without being subject to jamming from
a malicious intruder. To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques add redundancy
means it uses extended bandwidth to accommodate signals in a protective envelope
so that more secure transmission is possible.

Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are

modulated by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal.
At one moment signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the subsequent
moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies. The general block diagram of FHSS
is shown in the below figure.
Advantages of FHSS:
 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.
 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.
Disadvantages of FHSS:
 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).
 Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different

technique. Here, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code
called chips, and the bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate. The chip rate is n times
the bit rate of the original signal. The below Figure shows the DSSS block diagram.

In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used. The original data is multiplied
by chips (spreading code) to get the spread signal. The required bandwidth of the
spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal.
Advantages of DSSS:
 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.
 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.
Disadvantages of DSSS:
 Processing Gain is lower than DSSS.
 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the transmitter and
receiver.
GENERATION OF MOBILE COMPUNICATION
0th Generation:
 Pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones some had
in cars before the arrival of cell phones.
 Communication was possible through voice only.
 These mobile telephones were usually mounted in cars or trucks.
1G (1st Generation):
 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.
 Low sound quality.
 Speed:- 2.4 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation) :
 Shifted from analog to digital.
 It supported voice and SMS both.
 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular, Mobile
Data, PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed:- 64 kbps.
2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also
introduced and mail services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in
providing services than 2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also
used edge connection.
3G (3rd Generation) :
 The Internet system was improved.
 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed:- 2mbps.
4G (4th Generation) :
 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed:-100mbps.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable
points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.
 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.