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Scheme of Work
WEEK 1 REVISION/ SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
WEEK 2 DISEASE AND IMMUNITY
WEEK 3 INHERITANCE
WEEK 4 VARIATION
WEEK 5 ADAPTIVE FEATURES AND SELECTION
WEEK 6 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT-
FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
WEEK 7 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT-
NUTRIENT CYCLING AND POPULATION
WEEK 8 MID TERM BREAK
WEEK 9 HUMAN INFLUENCE ON ECOSYSTEMS-
FOOD SUPPLY AND DESTRUCTION OF HABITAT
WEEK 10 HUMAN INFLUENCE ON ECOSYSTEMS-
POLLUTION AND CONSERVATION.
WEEK 11 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC MODIFICATION
WEEK 12 REVISION
WEEK 13 EXAMINATION
WEEK 14 EXAMINATION

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
INFECTIONS
A sexually transmitted infection is an infection that is transmitted via body fluids through
sexual contact. Common examples include Chlamydia, Gonorrhoea, Syphilis etc.

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Table 1: Examples of Sexually transmitted infections

AIDS and HIV

The initials of AIDS stand for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). (A syndrome is a
pattern of symptoms associated with a particular disease.) The virus that causes AIDS is the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is a pathogen that causes an STI.

There is a range of blood tests designed to detect HIV infection. These tests do not detect the
virus but do indicate whether antibodies to the virus are in the blood. If HIV antibodies are
present, the person is said to be HIV positive.

Transmission of HIV
i. HIV is transmitted by direct infection of the blood. Drug users who share needles
contaminated with infected blood run a high risk of the disease.
ii. It can also be transmitted sexually, between both men and women if they are infected
and have sex without using condoms. HIV is therefore an STI.
iii. Babies born to HIV carriers may become infected with HIV. This can happen in the
uterus, during birth or from the mother’s milk.

Controlling the spread of HIV

1. Education and Awareness:
 Promote comprehensive sex education in schools and communities to ensure that people
are aware of the risks and methods of prevention.

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 Educate individuals about the importance of regular STI testing, symptoms, and
treatment options.
2. Safe Sex Practices:
 Encourage the consistent and correct use of barrier methods such as condoms during
sexual activity to reduce the risk of STI transmission.
 Promote communication between sexual partners about STI testing and prevention.
3. Regular Testing:
 Encourage routine STI testing, especially for individuals with multiple sexual partners
or those engaging in high-risk behaviours.
 Make testing easily accessible and reduce stigma associated with seeking testing and
treatment.
4. Vaccination:
 Promote and provide vaccinations for preventable STIs, such as human papillomavirus
(HPV) and hepatitis B.
5. Partner Notification and Treatment:
 Encourage individuals diagnosed with an STI to inform their sexual partners so that they
can also seek testing and treatment.
 Ensure that those diagnosed with an STI receive prompt and appropriate treatment.

INHERITANCE
Inheritance is controlled my genetic materials usually found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
These genetic materials are packed as Chromosomes into the nucleus. Chromosomes are made
up of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) which have special porting on them called genes which
control the expression of various characters.
Each chromosome has specific characteristics when it is ready to divide: it makes a copy (there
are two chromatids), joined at one point called a centromere. A gene is a length of DNA that
codes for a protein. An allele is an alternative form of a gene.

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Figure 1: Structure of a chromosome
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Inheritance of sex in humans

The pair of chromosomes called the sex chromosomes controls whether you are a male or
female. In females, the two sex chromosomes, called the X chromosomes, are the same size as
each other. In males, the two sex chromosomes are of different sizes. One corresponds to the
female sex chromosomes and is called the X chromosome. The other is smaller and is called the
Y chromosome. So the female cells contain XX and male cells contain XY.

A human body cell nucleus contains 46 chromosomes. Each chromosome occurs in pairs which
match each other. Your 46 chromosomes consist of 23 from your mother and 23 from your
father.
The chromosomes, of each pair are called homologous chromosomes.

Sex cells or gametes are haploid cells while cells founds everywhere else in the body are
diploid cells. A haploid nucleus contains a single set of chromosomes while a diploid nucleus
contains two sets of chromosomes. In a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome
and in a human diploid cell, there are 23 pairs.

Figure 2: Gamete formation in males Figure 3: Gamete formation in females

The manufacture of proteins in cells

The chemical reactions that take place in a cell define what sort of a cell it is and what its
functions are. These chemical reactions are, in turn, controlled by enzymes. Enzymes are
proteins. So, the genetic code of DNA determines which proteins, particularly enzymes, are

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produced in a cell. It also determines the cell’s structure and function. In this way, the genes
determine the structure and function of the whole organism.

Most body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but many genes in a particular cell are
not expressed because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs. DNA molecules
remain in the nucleus, but the proteins they code for are needed in other parts of the cell. To
make a protein:

i. A molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to transfer the information from the
nucleus. mRNA molecules contain slightly different bases (A, C, G and U). Base U is
uracil. It attaches to the DNA base A.

ii. To pass on the protein code, the double helix of DNA unwinds to expose the chain of
bases. One strand acts as template. A messenger RNA molecule is formed along part of
this strand n a process known as transcription.

iii. The mRNA molecule carrying the protein code then passes out of the nucleus. Once in
the cytoplasm, it attaches itself to a ribosome.

iv. Ribosomes make proteins. The mRNA molecule instructs the ribosome to put together a
chain of amino acids in a specific sequence to make a protein in a process known as
translation.
v. On the mRNA molecule each amino acid is coded by a sequence of three bases (a
triplet codon), insulin is a chain of 51 amino acids so the mRNA molecule coding for
insulin will contain 153 bases.

vi. Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to protein molecules.

Figure 5: Protein synthesis

Figure54: DNA transcription to mRNA
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Mitosis
Mitosis is nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells.

Role of mitosis
i. Cells have a limited life; they wear out or become damaged, so they need to be replaced
constantly. The processes of repair and replacement of worn out cells all depend on
mitosis.
ii. Organisms that reproduce asexually also use mitosis to make more cells.
iii. The process of mitosis is important in growth. We all started off as a single cell (a
zygote). That cell divided into two cells, then four and so on, to create the organism we
are now, made up of millions of cells.
Process of mitosis
i. Before cell division by mitosis begins, exact copies of all the chromosomes are made,
each forming two parallel strands called replicas.
ii. During mitosis, the copies of the chromosomes separate, maintaining the chromosome
number in each daughter cell that is formed.
iii. So, mitosis of a human cell with 46 chromosomes will result in the formation of two
identical daughter cells, each with 46 chromosomes.
iv. Both daughter cells may divide again, but usually one of the cells grows and changes its
shape and structure to become a specialized cell.

Figure 6: Cell division and specialisation

Stem cells
Cells that keep the ability to divide are sometimes called stem cells. Recent developments in
tissue culture have involved stem cells. Examples are the basal cells of the skin which keep

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dividing to make new skin cells, and cells in the red bone marrow, which constantly divide to
produce the
whole range of blood cells.

Meiosis
Meiosis is a reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to
haploid, resulting in genetically different cells. Meiosis takes place in the testes and ovaries of
mammals, and the anthers and ovules of flowering plants. The cells formed are gametes (sperm
and egg cell in
mammals; ovule and pollen grain nuclei in flowering plants). Gametes are different from other
cells because they have half the normal number of chromosomes (they are haploid).

Table 2: Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Monohybrid inheritance
It is very important to be familiar with the terms associated with inheritance.

Key definitions
i. Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.
ii. Genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present.
iii. Phenotype is the observable features of an organism.
iv. Homozygous means having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Also known as
true breed.
v. Heterozygous means having two different alleles of a particular gene.
vi. Dominant describes an allele that is expressed if it is present in the genotype.

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vii. Recessive describes an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of
the gene present in the genotype.

Interpreting pedigree diagrams for the inheritance

Pedigree diagrams are like family trees and can be used to show how genetic diseases can be
inherited. They include symbols to show whether individuals are male or female and what their
genotype is for a certain genetic characteristic.

One genetic condition is called cystic fibrosis. The symptoms of cystic fibrosis are the
production of very sticky mucus in the lungs. The genotype for Cystic fibrosis are as follows:
i. A person with cystic fibrosis has received two recessive alleles (cc); one from each
parent.
ii. A carrier of the condition has one normal allele and one recessive allele (Cc)
iii. A healthy person has two normal alleles (CC).

The pedigree diagram shows the inheritance of cystic fibrosis in a family.

Figure 7: Pedigree diagram to show the inheritance of cystic fibrosis in

i. Parents Raj and Alisha are married and both are cystic fibrosis carriers. However,
because carriers have no symptoms of the disease, they may be unaware that they
have defective alleles for cystic fibrosis.
ii. They go on to have four children; one normal boy, a boy and a girl who are carriers,
and one sick girl (Saloni)
iii. Three of these children eventually get married and have children of their own.
iv. The pedigree diagram shows that Saloni does not get married and has no children.
v. Zara who is a carrier of cystic fibrosis, marries another carrier and give birth to two
healthy and two sick children.

Monohybrid crosses
The result of a mating between a true-breeding (homozygous) black mouse (BB) and a true-
breeding (homozygous) brown mouse (bb) is shown below in Figure 8. However, Figure 9
shows what happens when these heterozygous, F1 black mice are mated together to produce
what is called the F2 generation.

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Figure 8: F2 generation
Figure 9: Inheritance of coat colour in mice
showing F1 generation.

Using Punnett squares

When working out the results of a genetic cross it is useful to display the outcomes in a Punnett
square. This a box divided into four compartments. The two boxes along the top are labelled
with the genotypes of the gametes of one parent and circled. The same is done on the left side
for the other parent.

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In this example, two heterozygous tall organisms (Tt) are the parents. The genotypes of the
offspring are TT, Tt, tT and tt. We know that the allele T is dominant because the parents are
tall, although they carry both tall and dwarf alleles. So, the phenotypes of the offspring will be
three tall to one dwarf.

Figure 10: Using a Punnett square to predict

the outcomes of a genetic

The test-cross (back-cross)

A test cross is a cross between an individual with an unknown genotype with a homozygous
recessive genotype. For example, a black mouse could have either the BB or the Bb genotype.
One way to find out the genotype is to cross the black mouse with a known homozygous
recessive mouse, bb.

Figure 11: Test-cross (back-cross)

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Co-dominance (in man)

Co-dominance is a situation in which both alleles in heterozygous organisms contribute to the
phenotype. The inheritance of the human ABO blood groups is an example of co-dominance. In
the ABO system, there are four phenotypic blood groups, A, B, AB and O. The alleles for
groups A and B are co-dominant. If a person inherits alleles for group A and group B, his or her
red bloods cells will carry both antigen A and antigen B.

However, the alleles for groups A and B are both completely dominant to the allele for group O.
(Group O people have neither A nor B antigens on their red blood cells.) Since the alleles for
groups A and B are dominant to that for group O, a group A person could have the genotype AA
or AO. Similarly, a group B person could be BB or BO. There are no alternative genotypes for
groups AB and O.

Table 3: The ABO blood groups

Co-dominance (in plants)

Some plants show co-dominance with petal colour. For example, with the gene for flower
colour in the geranium, the alleles are CR (red) and CW (white). The capital letter ‘C’ has been
chosen to represent colour. Pure-breeding (homozygous) flowers may be red (CRCR) or white
(CWCW). If these are cross-pollinated, all the first filial (F1) generation will be heterozygous
(CRCW) and they
are pink because both alleles have an effect on the phenotype.

Inheritance of blood group O

Blood group O can be inherited even though neither parent shows this phenotype. Two parents
have the groups A and B. The father is AO and the mother is BO.

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Figure 12: Inheritance of blood group O

Sex linkage
i. A sex-linked characteristic is a feature in which the gene responsible is located on a sex
chromosome, which makes it more common in one sex than in the other.
ii. Also, they carry genes that control other characteristics. These are usually on the X-
chromosome, which has longer arms to the chromatids.
iii. Even if the allele is recessive, because there is no corresponding allele on the Y-
chromosome, it is certain to be expressed in a male (XY).
iv. There is less chance of a recessive allele being expressed in a female (XX) because the
other X chromosome may carry the dominant form of the allele.
One example of this is a form of colour blindness (Figure 13). In the following case, the
mother is a carrier of colour blindness (XCXc). This means she shows no symptoms of colour
blindness but the recessive allele causing colour blindness is present on one of her X
chromosomes. The father has healthy colour vision (XCY).

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Figure 13: Inheritance of colour blindness

VARIATION AND SELECTION

The term variation refers to observable differences within a species. There are genetic and
physical variations.
i. Genetic variations are those which are controlled by genes and can be inherited.
ii. Phenotypic variations may be produced by genes but can also be caused by the
environment, or a combination of both genes and the environment.
For example, some fair-skinned people never go brown in the Sun, they only become
sunburned. They have not inherited the genes for producing the extra brown pigment in their
skin. A fair-skinned person with the genes for producing pigment will only go brown if he or
she exposes themselves to sunlight. So, the tan is a result of both inherited and acquired
characteristics.
A cat with a skin disease may have bald patches in its coat. These conditions cannot be
inherited. They are caused by environmental effects.

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Variation could also be continuous or discontinuous.

Continuous variation
a) Continuous variation is influenced by a combination of both genetic and environmental
factors.
b) They have no distinct categories, resulting in a range of phenotypes between two
extremes; examples include body length and body mass, height, counter-shading on a
red-green apple fruit.
c) Continuously variable characteristics are strongly influenced by the environment. A
person may inherit genes for tallness but they may not get enough food to grow tall.

Discontinuous variation
a) This variations take the form of distinct, alternative phenotypes with no intermediates
b) Discontinuous variation cannot usually be altered by the environment.
c) Examples include blood group, eye colour, gender, seed shape in peas and seed colour
in peas

Mutations
A mutation is a spontaneous genetic change and the way new alleles are formed. Gene mutation
is a random change in the base sequence of DNA. Mutations could result from:
i. one or more genes not being copied correctly.
ii. the loss of part of a chromosome, or damage to it, during mitosis or meiosis.
iii. the gain of an extra chromosome, as in Down’s syndrome
A sudden change in a gene or chromosome is likely to result in a faulty enzyme and will usually
upset the complex reactions in the cells. So, most mutations are harmful to the organism.

Causes of increases in the rate of mutation

i. Substances, such as some chemical substances in tobacco smoke, like tar, are mutagens.
Exposure to them increases the rate of mutation.
ii. Ionising radiation from X-rays and radioactive compounds, and ultraviolet radiation
from sunlight can increase the mutation rate.

Sources of genetic variation in populations

Genetic variation may be the result of mutations. In addition, meiosis, random mating and new
combinations of genes in the zygote through random fertilisation are all sources of genetic
variation in populations.

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ADAPTIVE FEATURES
An adaptive feature is an inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in
its environment. For example, it is logical to assume that the long, hair-fringed hind legs of a
water beetle are adaptations to locomotion in water when compared with the hind legs of a
land-living relative.

Figure 14: Adaptation to locomotion in water and on land

Adaptive features of hydrophytes and xerophytes to their

environments
Hydrophytes are plants which have a watery habitat e.g. Canna lily and Water lettuce.
Xerophytes are organisms which have a very dry habitat with extreme temperatures e.g.
Camels, cactuses, pine trees.

Adaptive features of camels

(a) Closable nostrils and long eyelashes, which help keep out wind-blown sand
(b) Their feet are broad and splay out under pressure. This reduces the amount they sink
into the sand.
(c) Thick fur insulates the body against heat gain in the intense sunlight.
(d) A camel can survive without water for 6–8 days. Its stomach can hold a lot of water.
(e) The humps are important in water conservation and contain fat, so they are an important
reserve of energy-giving food
Adaptive features of polar bears
Its ears are small to reduces heat loss.

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They have long hairs which are oily and water-repellent to be able to shake off water after it
has been swimming.
Thermal insulation comes from a 10 cm layer of fat (blubber) beneath the skin.
Adaptive features of pine trees
The pine tree (Pinus) is an evergreen tree that survives in cold climates. It has small, compact,
needle-like leaves.
a) The small surface area of these leaves allows high winds to blow through them without
causing damage and reducing water loss during transpiration.
b) Sunken stomata create high humidity and reduce transpiration.
c) A thick waxy cuticle is present on the epidermis to prevent evaporation from the surface
of the leaf.
Adaptive features of Cacti
a) Often they have no leaves or the leaves are reduced to spines. This reduces the surface
area for transpiration and acts as a defence against herbivores
b) Cacti are succulent, i.e. they store water in their fleshy tissues and use this store for
photosynthesis.
c) The stomata of many cacti are closed during the day when temperatures are high, and
open at night when evaporation is low. Closure of the stomata in the daytime greatly
reduces water loss.
Adaptive features of hydrophytes
(a) The leaves of water lily (Nymphaea) contain large air spaces to make them buoyant, so
they float on or near the surface to gain light for photosynthesis.
(b) There are no stomata on the lower epidermis to prevent water entering the air spaces,
while stomata are present on the upper epidermis for gas exchange.
(c) The roots of hydrophytes, which can be poorly developed, also contain air spaces.
(d) Stems are quite weak as they do not need to support the plant; the water they are
surrounded by provides buoyancy for the plant.

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SELECTION
Selection, in biology is the preferential survival and reproduction or preferential elimination of
individuals with certain genotypes, by means of natural or artificial controlling factors.

Natural selection
The theory of evolution by natural selection as postulated by Charles Darwin states that:
i. Individuals within a population of a species are all slightly different from each other.
These differences are called variations.
ii. If the climate or food supply changes, individuals with some of these variations may be
more able to survive than others
iii. If one variety lives longer than others, it is also likely to leave behind more offspring.
iv. If some of the offspring inherit alleles responsible for the variation that helped the
parent survive better, they will also live longer and have more offspring.
v. In time, this particular variety will outnumber and finally replace the original variety.
This is also called survival of the fittest.
Darwin observed that animals and plants produce far more offspring than can possibly survive
to maturity and he concluded that there must be a struggle for survival. There will be
competition between members of the species population. Only the healthiest, most active, most
fertile and well-adapted individuals will survive and breed. This is natural selection; the better
adapted varieties are selected by the pressures of the environment.

For natural selection to be effective, the variations must be heritable. Variations that are not
heritable are of no value in natural selection.

Natural selection leading to antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Antibiotics are drugs used to treat infections caused by bacteria. Bacterial cells reproduce very
rapidly, which can be every 20 minutes. So, even if a mutation only occurs rarely, it is likely to
appear in a large population of bacteria.
If a population of bacteria containing one or two drug-resistant mutants is subjected to that
particular drug, the non-resistant bacteria will be killed but the drug-resistant mutants survive.
Mutant genes are inherited in the same way as normal genes so, when the surviving
mutant bacteria reproduce, all their offspring will be resistant to the drug.

Selective breeding (artificial selection)

The process of selective breeding involves humans choosing individuals with desirable
features. These individuals are then cross-bred to produce the next generation. Offspring with
the most desirable features are chosen to continue the breeding programme and the process is
repeated over several generations.

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Advantages
(a) Selective breeding allows for the development of plants and animals with desirable
characteristics, such as higher crop yields, faster growth rates, or increased
resistance to diseases.
(b) Selective breeding can help develop strains of plants or animals that are better adapted
to specific environmental conditions, such as drought-resistant crops or cold-tolerant
livestock.
(c) In the case of pets and ornamental plants, selective breeding allows for the
development of specific aesthetic traits, such as coat colour, flower size, or other
visual characteristics.
Disadvantages
(a) Selective breeding in farm stock can be slow and expensive because the animals often
have small numbers of offspring and breed only once a year.
(b) A long-term disadvantage of selective breeding is the loss of variability. By removing
all the offspring that do not have the desired characteristics, many genes are lost from
the population
(c) Selective breeding for resistance to pests or diseases can lead to the development of
resistant strains, necessitating the use of stronger pesticides or alternative control
methods.
Differences between natural and artificial selection

Natural selection Artificial selection

1. Agent of selection The environment and its pressures Human intervention
2. Selection Criteria Organism's survival and reproduction Desirable for humans
in a given environment
3. Timing and Occurs continuously in nature Under human control.
Control
4. Outcome Leads to adaptations in populations Changes in the traits of
over time populations that align with
human preferences or goals
5. Risk Does not put a species at risk of Puts a species at risk of
extinction extinction

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ORGANISMS AND THEIR

ENVIRONMENT
Dependence on sunlight
Nearly all living things depend on the Sun to provide energy. This is harnessed by
photosynthesising plants and the energy is then passed through food chains. A few examples of
our own dependence on photosynthesis are given below.

Figure 15: Human dependence on sunlight

The best way of trapping and storing energy from sunlight is to grow plants and make use of
their products. These include starch, sugar, oil and wood, for food or as energy sources. For
example, sugar from sugar cane can be fermented to alcohol and used as a motor fuel instead of
petrol. Eventually, through one process or another, all the chemical energy in organisms is
passed to the environment.

Food chains and food webs

Key definitions
i. A food chain shows the transfer of energy (food) from one organism to the next,
beginning with a producer.
ii. A food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
iii. A producer is an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy
from sunlight, through photosynthesis.
iv. A herbivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating plants.
v. A carnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.
vi. A consumer is an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms.
vii. A trophic level is the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or ecological
pyramid.

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Food chain and food pyramid

There are usually large numbers of organisms at the beginning of a food chain while the
animals at the end of the chain are often larger and fewer in number. In an aquatic habitat, for
example, There will be millions of microscopic, single-celled algae in a lake which will be
eaten by the larger but less numerous water fleas and other crustaceans which in turn will
become the food of fish like small carp. The hundreds of carp may be able to provide enough
food for only four or five large
carnivores, like catfish.

The organisms at the base of the food pyramids are plants. Plants produce food through
photosynthesis so they are called producers. The animals that eat the plants (herbivores) are
called primary consumers (e.g. mice).Animals that prey on the plant-eaters (carnivores) are
called secondary consumers (e.g. snakes) and these may be eaten by tertiary consumers (e.g.
a mongoose or hawk).

Figure 16: Examples of food pyramids (pyramids of numbers)

Pyramids of numbers
The width of the bands in Figure 16 is meant to represent the relative number of organisms at
each trophic level. So, the diagrams are sometimes called pyramids of numbers. However,
sometimes a pyramid of numbers would not show the same effect. For example, a single lime
tree may provide food for thousands of aphids (greenfly). One box tree may feed hundreds of
caterpillars. In these cases, the pyramid of numbers is upside-down, as shown in Figure17.

Figure 17: An inverted pyramid of numbers

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Pyramids of biomass
Biomass is the term used when the mass of living organisms is being considered, and pyramids
of biomass can be constructed as in Figure 18. A pyramid of biomass is nearly always the
correct pyramid shape because the width of the horizontal bands is proportional to the masses
(dry weight) of the organisms in a shallow pond.

Figure 18: Pyramid of biomass

Advantage of pyramid of biomass over pyramid of number

i. Unlike a pyramid of numbers, a pyramid of biomass accounts for the differences in
the size of individuals. Larger organisms generally have more biomass, and by
representing biomass, the pyramid provides a more accurate depiction of the actual
amount of living material at each trophic level.
ii. Pyramids of numbers may sometimes exhibit an inverted structure, especially when
there are large numbers of small-sized organisms. Pyramids of biomass are less prone
to inversion because they consider the mass of organisms

Pyramid of energy
An energy pyramid is a model that shows the flow of energy from one trophic, or feeding,
level to the next in an ecosystem. The model is a diagram that compares the energy used by
organisms at each trophic level. The energy in an energy pyramid is measured in units of
kilocalories (kcal).
Advantage of pyramid of energy over pyramid of biomass or number
i. Reflects Energy Flow: Unlike pyramids of numbers or biomass, which focus on the
quantity of organisms, a pyramid of energy emphasizes the flow of energy through the
ecosystem. This provides a more accurate representation of the actual energy available
for consumption and transfer between trophic levels.
ii. Considers Life Span and Growth Rates: Fast-growing and short-lived organisms may
have high biomass or numerical values, but their contribution to energy flow may be
lower than slower-growing, long-lived organisms.

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iii. Useful for Environmental Impact Studies: Pyramid of energy helps evaluate how
changes in one trophic level may affect the overall energy flow and stability of the
ecosystem.

Figure 19: Pyramid of energy

A pyramid of energy is like a chart that shows how energy moves through animals and plants in
nature. It helps us see how much energy starts with plants (producers) and goes to animals that
eat plants (consumers). The chart is usually shaped like a pyramid because there is less and less
energy available as you go up the food chain. Plants get the most energy from the sun, but not
all of it goes to animals when they eat the plants. Some energy is lost as heat or used by the
plants for their own growth.

Food webs
Food chains are not as straightforward as described above. Most animals eat more than one type
of food. Food webs will also change with the seasons when the food supply changes.

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Figure 20: A food web

Figure 21: Complex food web

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The effects of overharvesting

Overharvesting refers to the excessive removal or exploitation of a natural resource, often to the
point where the population of the harvested species cannot replenish itself at a sustainable rate,
leading to such a species becoming endangered or extinct. As a result, biodiversity is affected.
Examples include the following.

i. In parts of Africa, bush meat is used widely as a source of food. Bush meat is the flesh
of primates, such as monkeys. However, hunting these animals is not always regulated
or controlled and rare species can be threatened as a result of indiscriminate killing.
ii. Moreover, whaling has reduced the population of many whale species to worrying
levels.
iii. Overfishing can reduce the populations of fish species and can also do great damage to
the environment where they live.

Introducing foreign species to a habitat

Pirates or whalers in the 17th or 18th centuries introduced rats to the Galapagos Islands. The
rats had no natural predators and there was a lot of food. They fed on the eggs of birds, reptiles
and tortoises, along with young animals. The Galapagos Islands provide a habitat for many rare
species. These became endangered because of the rats.

Energy transfer
To try and estimate just how much life the Earth can support, it is necessary to examine how
efficiently the Sun’s energy is used.

i. When the Sun’s energy falls onto grassland, only about 1% is used in photosynthesis for
making new organic matter in the leaves of the plants.

Figure 22: Absorption of Sun’s energy by plants

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ii. On land, primary consumers only eat a small proportion of the vegetation that is
available. Less than 10% of the plant material is converted into new animal tissue to
contribute to growth.

Figure 23: Energy transfer from plants to animals

iii. The transfer of energy from primary to secondary consumers is probably more efficient,
because a larger proportion of the animal food is digested and absorbed compared to plant
material.

iv. It is very unusual for food chains to have more than five trophic levels because, on
average, about 90% of the energy is lost at each level. As a result, very little of the energy
entering the chain through the producer is available to the top consumer.

Energy transfer in agriculture

In human communities, the use of plant products to feed animals that provide meat, eggs and
dairy products is wasteful. This is because only 10% of the plant material is converted to
animal products.

It is more economical to eat bread made from the wheat than to feed the wheat to hens and then
consume the eggs and chicken meat. This is because eating the wheat as bread avoids using any
part of its energy to keep the chickens alive and active.

NUTRIENT CYCLING
Nutrient cycling, also known as biogeochemical cycling, refers to the movement and exchange
of essential elements and compounds, known as nutrients, between living organisms and their
environment. These nutrients include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and other elements
that are crucial for the growth and development of organisms.

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The carbon cycle

Carbon is an element that occurs in all the compounds that make up living organisms. Plants
get their carbon from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and animals get their carbon from
plants. So, the carbon cycle is mainly concerned with what happens to carbon dioxide.

Figure 24: The Carbon cycle

The nitrogen cycle

The continuous movement of nitrogen between the bodies of organisms and the environment
involve the following:
Processing that add nitrates to the soil.
i. Decomposition of plant and animal protein to ammonium ions: When a plant or
animal dies its tissues decompose, partly as a result of the action of saprophytic bacteria,
producing Ammonia (NH3). Ammonia dissolves readily in water to form Ammonium
ions (NH4+) which is washed into the soil.
ii. Nitrification: Nitrifying bacteria living in the soil,can convert ammonia in the sol to
nitrates
(a) The nitrite bacteria oxidise ammonium compounds to nitrites (NH4+ → NO2-)
(b) Nitrate bacteria oxidise nitrites to nitrates (NO2– → NO3–).
iii. Nitrogen fixation by bacteria: This is a special group of nitrifying bacteria that can
absorb nitrogen as a gas from the air spaces in the soil and build it into compounds of
ammonia. which can easily be changed to nitrates by other nitrifying bacteria.
iv. Nitrogen fixation by lightning: The high temperature of lightning discharge causes
some of the nitrogen and oxygen in the air to combine and form oxides of nitrogen.

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These dissolve in the rain and are washed into the soil as weak acids, where they form
nitrates.

Processes that remove nitrates from the soil

i. Absorption of nitrate ions by plants: Plant roots absorb nitrates from the soil and
combine them with carbohydrates to make amino acids, which are built up into proteins
which are then available to animals, which feed on the plants and digest the proteins in
them.
ii. Deamination: The excretory products of animals contain nitrogenous waste products
like ammonia, urea and uric acid. Urea is formed in the liver of humans as a result of
deamination.
iii. Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria obtain their energy by breaking down nitrates to
nitrogen gas, which then escapes from the soil into the atmosphere. This process is
called denitrification.
iv. Leaching: Nitrates are very soluble and as rainwater passes through the soil it dissolves
the nitrates and carries them away in the run-off or to deeper layers of the soil. This is
called leaching.

Figure 25: The Nitrogen cycle

POPULATIONS
Key definitions
i. A population is a group of organisms of one species, living and interacting in the same
area, at the same time.
ii. A community is all the populations of different species in an ecosystem.
iii. An ecosystem is a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment,
interacting together.

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Figure 26: Components of an ecosystem

Factors affecting population growth (limiting factors)

i. Food supply: Food supply is essential for a population to grow and reproduce. Food
shortage which could happen when food source has all been eaten, has died out, or has
completed its growing season could lead to decline in the population.
ii. Competition: This is the struggle for scarce resources such as food, water or mates. The
scarcer the resources, the fiercer the competition. Only the fittest organisms survive
while the weaker ones die off.
iii. Predator–prey relationships: In a habitat there are likely to be predators. If heavy
predation
iv. of a population happens, the rate of breeding may be unable to produce enough
organisms to replace those eaten, so the population will drop in numbers.
v. Disease: Disease can be a special problem in large populations because it can spread
easily from one individual to another. Epidemics can reduce population sizes very
rapidly.

Sigmoid population growth curves (and limiting factors)

In the simplest case, where a single species is allowed to grow in laboratory conditions, the
population may develop as shown in Figure 27 There are four phases to the graph, which has a
sigmoid shape.

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Figure 27: Sigmoid growth curve

SS2 SECOND TERM BIOLOGY NOTE OTOTE O.O

A – lag phase, where growth of the population is slow.

B – exponential (log) phase, where the population is increasing rapidly. However, when a
population of four doubles, it is not likely to strain the resources of the habitat, but when a
population of 1 024 doubles there is likely to be far more competition for food and space, and
so the growth rate starts to slow down.
C – stationary phase, where the size of the population remains the same size. At this stage,
limiting factors come into play. The food supply may limit further expansion of the population,
diseases may start to spread through the dense population and overcrowding may lead to a fall
in reproduction rate.
D – death phase, where population numbers drop.

Interpreting graphs and diagrams of population growth

Figure 28: The effect of competition is evident in the graph

above. Paramecium aurelia and P. caudatum eat the same
food but P. aurelia can capture and ingest it faster than P.
caudatum.

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Figure 29: An increase in the hare population allowed the predators to increase.
Eventually the increasing numbers of lynxes caused a reduction in the hare
population.
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HUMAN INFLUENCES ON
ECOSYSTEMS
Food supply
A few thousand years ago, most of the humans on the Earth obtained their food by gathering
leaves, fruits or roots, and by hunting animals. The population was limited by the amount of
food that could be collected in this way. Once agriculture had been developed, it was possible
to support much larger populations. The balance between humans and their environment was
upset through the following practices:

1. Intensification of agriculture: Larger vehicles like tractors and combine harvesters

can then be used in the fields to speed up the farming processes. However, studies have
shown that repeated ploughing of a pasture reduces the number of species in the soil.
2. The use of chemical fertilisers to improve yield: Artificial fertilisers increase the yield
of crops from agricultural land, but they are not good for maintaining a good soil
structure because they contain no organic matter. In some cases their use results in the
pollution of rivers and streams.
3. Pesticides: insecticides and herbicides: The trouble with most pesticides is that they
kill randomly. Insecticides, for example, kill not only harmful insects but the harmless
and useful ones, like bees, which pollinate flowering plants, and ladybirds, which eat
aphids.
4. Selective breeding: A long-term disadvantage of selective breeding is the loss of
variability. By removing all the offspring who do not have the desired characteristics,
many genes are lost from the population.
5. Monoculture: In a monoculture, the aim is to remove organisms that feed on, compete
with or infect the crop plant.
Advantages of monoculture
a) Monocultures are often more efficient to manage on a large scale. They allow for
mechanization, simplifying planting, harvesting, and other agricultural practices.
b) Farmers specializing in monocultures can develop expertise in the cultivation of a
particular crop, leading to improved efficiency and productivity.
c) The use of specialized equipment and practices in monocultures can lead to reduced
production costs per unit.
Disadvantages of monoculture
a) Monocultures can lead to a reduction in biodiversity, as they do not support diverse
ecosystems.
b) A pathogen that affects one plant can quickly spread across the entire crop, leading to
widespread losses.

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c) Continuous cultivation of the same crop can deplete specific nutrients from the soil.
6. Intensive livestock production: Intensive livestock production is also known as factory
farming.
Advantages of intensive livestock production
a) Yield is very high. Many of the systems required to rear the animals can be automated,
which is cheaper and less labour intensive.
Disadvantages of intensive livestock production
a) The evacuation of large amounts of animal wastes into nearby water bodies could lead
to eutrophication of the water system.
b) Overgrazing can lead to loss of soil structure and soil erosion.
c) When large numbers of animals are kept in close confinement, the animals may be
more vulnerable to disease.

Habitat destruction
Biodiversity is the number of different species that live in an area. The reasons for habitat
destruction include the following:
(a) Increased area for housing, crop plant production and livestock production: The
development of towns and cities (urbanisation) makes a big demand on land, destroying natural
habitats. Intensive agriculture has also destroyed many of these habitats leading to populations
of butterflies, flowers and birds falling.
(b) Extraction of natural resources: Fossil fuels like coal can be mined, but this can
permanently damage habitats. For example:
i. Oil spillages around oil wells are extremely toxic. Once the oil seeps into the soil and
water systems, habitats are destroyed
ii. Spoil heaps created from waste rock can contain toxic metals, which prevent re-
colonisation of the land.
iii. Water can become contaminated with toxic metals from the mining site, damaging
aquatic habitats.
(c) Freshwater and marine pollution: Many industrial processes produce poisonous waste
products. Electroplating, for example, produces waste containing copper and cyanide. If these
chemicals are released into rivers, they poison the animals and plants and could poison humans
who drink the water.

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Figure 30: Bioaccumulation of chemicals up a food chain

Altering food webs and food chains

Any form of habitat destruction by humans, even where a single species is wiped out, can have
an impact on food chains and food webs. This is because other organisms who use that species
as a food source, might struggle to find an alternative without success, causing their numbers to
decline.
If the species that has disappeared is a predator and was controlling the numbers of other
species, the other species will no longer be controlled.

The undesirable effects of deforestation on the environment

i. Animals living in the forest lose their homes and sources of food;
ii. Species of plant become extinct as the land is used for other purposes.
iii. Soil erosion is more likely to happen as there are no roots to hold the soil in place.
iv. Flooding becomes more frequent as there is no soil to absorb and hold rainwater.
v. Carbon dioxide builds up in the atmosphere as there are fewer trees to photosynthesise,
increasing global warming.

Trees protect the soil on a hillside

Trees can grow on hillsides even when the soil layer is quite thin. However, when the trees are
cut down and the soil is ploughed, there is less protection from the wind and rain. Heavy
rainfall washes the soil off the hillsides into the rivers. The hillsides are left bare and useless.
The rivers become choked up with mud and silt, which can cause floods.

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Figure 31: The causes of soil erosion

Pollution
Pollution refers to the introduction of contaminants or substances into the environment that
cause adverse effects mostly due to human activities. Humans are polluting the environment in
some of the following ways.
Sewage treatment
Diseases like typhoid and cholera are caused by certain bacteria when they get into the human
intestine. The faeces passed by people suffering from these diseases will contain the harmful
bacteria. If the bacteria get into drinking water, they may spread the disease to hundreds of
other people. For this reason, among others, untreated sewage must not be emptied into rivers.
It is treated at the sewage works so that all the solids are removed. The human waste is broken
down by bacteria and made harmless (free from harmful bacteria and poisonous chemicals).
However, the breakdown products include phosphates and nitrates. When the water from the
sewage treatment is discharged into rivers it contains large quantities of phosphate and nitrate,
which allow the microscopic plant life to grow very rapidly.
Fertilisers usage
When nitrates and phosphates from farmland and sewage escape into water they cause
excessive growth of microscopic green plants. This may result in eutrophication where there is
a serious oxygen shortage in the water, resulting in the death of aquatic animals.
It is possible to reduce eutrophication by using
i. detergents with less phosphates

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ii. agricultural fertilisers that do not dissolve so easily

iii. animal wastes on the land instead of letting them reach rivers.

Figure 32: The process of eutrophication

Use of plastics
Plastics are not biodegradable and are not broken down by decomposers when dumped in
landfill sites or left as litter. As a result:
a) They remain in the environment taking up valuable space or causing visual pollution.
b) Discarded plastic bottles can trap small animals.
c) As the plastics in water gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces. These are
eaten by fish and birds, making them ill.
Enhanced greenhouse effect and climate change
Levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are influenced by natural processes and by human
activities such as:
a) cutting down forests (deforestation) – less photosynthesis
b) combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
c) increasing numbers of animals (including humans) – they all respire.

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An increase in levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is thought to contribute to global

warming. Carbon dioxide forms a layer in the atmosphere, which traps heat radiation from the
Sun.
Methane also acts as a greenhouse gas. its effects on global warming are much greater than
carbon dioxide. It is produced by
(a) the decay of organic matter in anaerobic conditions, for example, in wet rice fields,
(b) in the stomachs of animals, such as cattle and termites,
(c) it is also released from the ground during the extraction of oil and coal.
The build-up of greenhouse gases causes a gradual increase in the atmospheric temperature,
known as the enhanced greenhouse effect. This can:
a) melt polar ice caps, causing flooding of low-lying land
b) change weather conditions in some countries, increasing flooding or reducing rainfall
c) cause the extinction of some species that cannot survive in raised temperatures.

Conservation
A sustainable resource is one that is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the environment
so that it does not run out. Some resources called sustainable resources, like forests and fish
stocks, can be maintained with careful management.
Conservation of forests
There are several ways of sustaining the numbers of key species of trees. These include:
a) Education: Local communities need to be educated about conservation so they
understand why it is important. People are then more likely to care for the environment
they live in and protect the species in it.
b) Protected areas: Areas where rare species of trees grow need to be protected to prevent
them being felled for timber or to clear the land for other purposes. Conservation areas
can be set up by governments where rare endangered species are protected by tree
preservation orders (TPOs). A TPO prohibits any damage being done to the protected
trees.
c) Legal quotas: In Britain it is illegal to cut down trees without permission. The Forestry
Commission issues licences for tree-felling.
d) Replanting: This is being done to try to recover large areas of rainforest that have been
deforested for agricultural purposes.
e) Recycling paper: Waste paper can be pulped and used again, mainly for making paper
and cardboard. Newspapers are de-inked and used again for newsprint. One tonne of
waste paper is equivalent to about 17 trees.

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Conservation of fish stocks

a) Education: Education helps the fishermen understand the effects of their methods. They
know that if they protect the environment, the fish can survive, grow well, breed and
provide them with a living for the future.
b) Closed seasons: Marine protected areas are clearly defined geographical spaces. They
are managed (often legally enforced) to achieve the long-term conservation of nature in
that space. They are a way of preventing the capture and removal of fish so that fish
stocks can rebuild.
c) Control of net types and mesh size: Fishing net types and mesh sizes are closely
regulated in some parts of the world to ensure that fish are not caught randomly, and
that undersized fish can escape capture.
d) Legal quotas: Quotas are not universally popular because fishermen who catch too
many fish, or species of fish not included in their quota, are not allowed to sell them.
The surplus fish are thrown back but are already dead, so the fish population has been
reduced anyway.
e) Monitoring: Many countries use fisheries patrol vessels to make sure that fishing boats
are licensed, not fishing in protected areas, using the correct equipment, and are keeping
to their quotas.

Endangering species and causing their extinction

Anything that reduces the population of a species endangers it (puts it at risk of extinction).
Factors that endanger species include habitat destruction, the introduction of other species,
hunting, over harvesting and pollution. Climate change can also put species at risk of
extinction.

Conservation of species
Habitats can be conserved in several ways:
i. Using laws to protect the habitat.
ii. Using wardens to protect the habitat.
iii. Reducing or controlling public access to the habitat.
iv. Controlling factors like water drainage and grazing, which may otherwise help to
destroy the habitat.
v. captive breeding programmes
vi. seed banks
Conservation programmes are set up for several reasons:
i. maintaining or increasing biodiversity,

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ii. reducing extinction,

iii. protecting vulnerable ecosystems,
iv. maintaining ecosystem functions.
Use of AI and IVF in captive breeding programmes
Artificial insemination (AI) and in vitro fertilisation (IVF) are techniques used to improve
fertility rates in captive breeding programmes.
Artificial insemination (AI)
Sometimes animals are reluctant to mate in captivity. Artificial insemination involves collecting
sperm samples from the male animal then artificially introducing them into a female’s
reproductive system to fertilise her eggs. The sperm can be used immediately, or be frozen and
stored.
The female may be given fertility drugs, which cause her ovaries to release several mature ova
at the same time. These ova are then collected by laparoscopy. The ova are then mixed with the
male’s seminal fluid and watched under the microscope to see if cell division takes place. One
or more of the dividing zygotes are then introduced to the female’s uterus by means of a tube
inserted through the cervix.

Risks to a species of decreasing population size

The population of a species may decrease in size because of an increase in predation, disease,
shortage of food, or because of emigration. A small population would be affected because the
genetic variation in the gene pool would be reduced. This would affect the ability of the species
to cope with environmental change and put it at greater risk of extinction.

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC

MODIFICATION
Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to
manufacturing and service industries. Genetic modification involves the transfer of genes from
one organism to (usually) an unrelated species.

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Both processes often make use of bacteria because they can make complex molecules (proteins,
for example) and have a rapid reproduction rate.

Use of bacteria in biotechnology and genetic

modification
Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification because:
i. They can be grown and manipulated without raising ethical concerns.
ii. They are especially useful because they multiply so fast (up to three times an hour).
iii. the presence of plasmids.

Biotechnology
1. Role of anaerobic respiration in yeast
Production of ethanol for biofuels
Yeast ethanol (alcohol) can be produced from fermented sugar or spare grain. The anaerobic
respiration of glucose to alcohol by yeast could replace, or at least supplement, petrol.
However, biofuels are not yet economical to produce.
Making bread
Yeast is the microorganism used in bread-making, but the only fermentation product needed is
carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes bubbles in the bread dough. These bubbles make the
bread light in texture.

2. Use of pectinase in fruit juice production

Pectinases are enzymes used to separate the juices from fruit like apples. The enzymes can be
extracted from fungi (e.g. Aspergillus niger). They work by breaking down pectin, the jelly-like
substance that sticks plant cell walls to each other. The enzymes can also be used to make fruit
juice more transparent.

3. Use of biological washing powders that contain enzymes

Protein-digesting enzymes (proteases) and fat-digesting enzymes (lipases) when combined in
washing powders, remove stains in clothes caused by proteins (e.g. blood or egg) and fats (e.g.
grease and oil). Protein and fat molecules tend to be large and insoluble. When they have been
digested the products are small, soluble molecules, which can pass out of the cloth.

4. Use of lactase to produce lactose-free milk

Lactose is a type of disaccharide sugar found in milk and dairy products. Some people have
problems with lactose intolerance. However, lactose-free milk is now produced using the
enzyme lactase produced on a large scale by fermenting yeasts.
Lactose-free milk is made by adding lactase to milk. The enzyme breaks down lactose sugar
into two monosaccharide sugars: glucose and galactose. Both can be absorbed by the intestine.

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5. Production of antibiotics
The production of antibiotics by microbes is a natural defence mechanism that helps these
microorganisms compete for resources in their environment. This ability can be harnessed to
produce antibiotics on a large scale. For example, One of the richest sources of antibiotics is
Actinomycetes bacteria. The actinomycete Streptomyces produces the antibiotic streptomycin.
Penicillin, which is produced by the mould fungus Penicillium.

6. Commercial production of insulin

Insulin production by bacteria involves genetic engineering, where the human insulin gene is
inserted into Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria. The bacteria act as "factories," producing
human insulin through transcription and translation. After cultivation and harvesting, insulin is
purified, and proinsulin is converted into the active form.

7. Production of mycoprotein
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich meat substitute extracted from fungi. The filamentous fungus,
Fusarium venenatum, is found in soil. Mycoprotein is becoming more popular because it
contains no cholesterol and is lower in saturated fats than protein in meat products. It is suitable
as part of a vegan diet (which contains no animal products), partly because of its high protein
content.

Conditions that need to be controlled in a fermenter

Table 4: Conditions that need to be controlled in a fermenter.

Genetic modification
Genetic modification is changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing or
inserting individual genes.
The process of genetic modification using bacterial production of a human protein as an

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example, involves the following processes:

i. isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using restriction enzymes, forming
sticky ends
ii. cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction enzymes, forming
complementary sticky ends
iii. insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using DNA ligase to form a
recombinant plasmid
iv. insertion of recombinant plasmids into bacteria (specific details are not required)
v. multiplication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids
vi. expression in bacteria of the human gene to make the human protein

Figure 33: The principle of genetic modification

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Examples of genetic modification

a) The insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce human proteins,
b) the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to herbicides,
c) the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests,
d) the insertion of genes into crop plants to improve nutritional qualities.

Advantages and disadvantages of genetically modifying crops

Advantages
i. GM crops can be engineered to express traits that enhance yield, such as resistance to
pests and diseases. This can contribute to higher productivity and more efficient use of
resources.
ii. Genetic modifications can confer resistance to certain pests and diseases, reducing the
need for chemical pesticides.
iii. Genetic modifications can be used to enhance the nutritional content of crops. A gene
for beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, can be inserted into plants such as rice to
lessen this widespread deficiency.
iv. Genetic engineering can help create crops that are more tolerant to environmental
stressors, such as drought and high salinity.
v. Some GM crops are designed to be resistant to certain herbicides, allowing for more
effective weed control without harming the crop.

Disadvantages
i. The cultivation of GM crops raises environmental concerns, including the potential
for unintended effects on non-target organisms, disruption of ecosystems, and the
development of resistant pest populations.
ii. The widespread adoption of a few GM crop varieties may lead to a reduction in crop
biodiversity, as farmers increasingly plant a limited number of genetically modified
cultivars.
iii. There is ongoing debate and research regarding the long-term effects of consuming GM
crops on human health and the environment. Some argue that potential risks may not
be fully understood.

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