COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
TRANSISTOR AND ITS APPLICATION
A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE
OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
Prepared by:
Group name Id number
1. Ayenachew Worku aku1202918
2. Abebaw Bazezew aku1202597
3. Muluye Getnet aku1201692

Instructor’s Name: chernet (Msc.)

Jun 2015 EC.

Bonga, Ethiopia
Abbreviation and symbols

BJT- Bipolar Junction Transistor

FET - Field effect transistor

MOSFET -metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor

JFET-junction field effect transistor

NPN -negative -positive-negative

PNP -positive-negative-positive

E- Emitter

B- Base

C- Collector
Acknowledgement

First and for most I would like to thanks our almighty God who made all thing possible.
Next I would like to express heartfelt thanks to our instructor’s chernet for her valuable and
relentless support and comments until the completion of the project finally yet importantly, our
appreciate and every special thanks for our friends
Abstract

Transistor is an active component & that is establishing in all over electronic circuits .they are
used as amplifiers & switching apparatus. As the amplifiers they are used in high & low level
frequency stage oscillators, modulators, detectors &in any circuit need to perform a function. In
digital circuits they are used as switches. They are a huge number of manufactures
approximately the world who produce semiconductors (transistor are numbers of this family of
apparatus. So there are exactly thousands of different types. There is low, medium& high power
transistor for functioning with high & low frequencies, for functioning with very high current or
high voltage. This project paper gives overview of what is transistor, different types of transistor
&its application
Table of content
 CHAPTER-ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY
Transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power. Transistor is short for transfer resistors. Since transistors are three-terminal devices one
electrode must remain common to both the input and output. It is composed of semiconductor
material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or
current applied to one pair of the transistor’s terminals controls the current through another pair
of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input)
power, a transistor can amplify a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of
modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic system.i
It is a kind of semiconductor device that is short for transfer resistance regulates or controls the
electrical signal like current or voltage. On 23 December 1947, it is developed by three
American physicists William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen. Generally, it is a
switching device or miniature device used to transfer a weak signal from a short resistance
circuit to a high resistance circuit. It is a component that is made up of semiconductors. ii
It is the key active component in practically all modern electronics, and is considered by many to
be one of the greatest inventions of the twentieth century. Its importance in today's society rests
on its ability to be mass produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device
fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs.
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling
appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and
write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical
control function.iii
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This
property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is,
it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a
circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other
circuit elements.iv The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at
the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much
larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the
terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current
between source and drain.v

1.2 Objectives of the study

1.2.1 General objective
The main objective of this study will be to assess the study of the working principles of transistor
and its application in electronics devices.

1.2.2 Specific objectives

1. To explain transistor and its classification
2. To illustrate the application of transistor as switch and amplification.
3. To state the relation among the terminal currents and classification of its configuration.
4. To describe the characteristics curves of BJT and DC load line curves.

1.3 Significance of the study

Transistors are used in our day-to-day life in many forms, which we are aware of as amplifiers
and switching apparatuses. As amplifiers, they are being used in various oscillators, modulators,
detectors and nearly any circuit to perform a function. In a digital circuit, transistors are used as
switches.
1.4 Limitation of the study
Doing research is not as such easy task; rather there are a lot of ups and downs. Some of the
problems faced are:-
 Shortage of Internet service
 Shortage of reference materials and related literature in the library.
 Lack of experience about conducting research.
 No sufficient experimental observation in the laboratory.
 Budget constraint
 Time constraint
 CHAPTER-TWO
LITERATURES REVIEW
2.1 Transistor
A transistor is a kind of semiconductor that is used as a conductor and insulation of electric
current or voltage. In simpler terms, a transistor is basically a regulator of the flow of electric
signals Transistors are powerful devices because of their ability to control the current flowing
through a circuit (current controlling device), which is generated by the flow of electrons and
holes. There are two types: NPN (negative -positive-negative) and PNP (positive-negative-
positive).The most widely used transistors are NPN transistors as the majority of charge carriers
are electrons that are better mobile charge particles with less mass due to which they can easily
accelerate. It is a semiconductor device that acts as a switch and an amplifier. Transistors can
operate on a low-voltage supply for greater safety which means they yield higher efficiency and
very long life. The transistors use semiconductor junctions instead of heating electrodes but
perform the same function as a vacuum triode. The transistors can control the flow of current
through one channel by changing the intensity of a small amount of current flowing via a second
channel. That's why they are called the current controlling device.vi
A transistor consists of three terminals: input, output, and controlling switching. The name of the
three terminals contained by the transistor is the emitter, base, and collector. These terminal
names are specified on the basis of the common terminal of the transistor. It is widely embedded
into integrated circuits or found in circuit boards as discrete parts. For modern electronic devices,
it is the important structure block. Doping, a chemical process used to create transistors, in which
an extra positive charge (P-type) or extra negative charge (N-type) is gained by the semi
conductive material. The PNP or NPN are two configurations for this, with middle material that
function as the base or flow control. Through the whole component, a large amount of electricity
flowing when a little change in the voltage or current in the middle base layer, which can be led
to use as an amplifier.vii
The four transistor operation modes are:
Saturation is the transistor acts like a short circuit. Current freely flows from collector to emitter.
Cut-off is the transistor acts like an open circuit. No current flows from collector to emitter.
Active is the current from collector to emitter is proportional to the current flowing into the base.
Reverse-Active Like active mode, the current is proportional to the base current, but it flows in
reverse. Current flows from emitter to collector (not, exactly, the purpose transistors were
designed for).viii

2.2 types of Biasing

Forward Biasing and Reverse Biasing
The external voltage which is applied across the PN-diode for reducing the potential barrier to
constitute the easy flow of current through it is called forward bias.
The positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type semiconductor of the device and
the negative terminal is connected to N-type semiconductor

Fig .1 a Forward Biasing

The external voltage which is applied to the PN junction for strengthening the potential barrier
and prevents the flow of current through it is called reverse bias.
The negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-region and the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to N-type semiconductor.ix

Fig .1 b Reverse Biasing

2.3 Transistor terminals

A transistor is a combination of three terminals made of semiconducting materials that help in
making a connection to an external circuit and allow current to flow. The three terminals are
Emitter: The section that supplies the large section of majority charge carrier is called emitter.
The emitter is always connected in forward biased with respect to the base so that it supplies the
majority charge carrier to the base. The emitter-base junction injects a large amount of majority
charge carrier into the base because it is heavily doped and moderate in size.
Collector: The section which collects the major portion of the majority charge carrier supplied
by the emitter is called a collector. The collector-base junction is always in reverse bias. Its main
function is to remove the majority charges from its junction with the base. The collector section
of the transistor is moderately doped, but larger in size so that it can collect most of the charge
carrier supplied by the emitter.
Base: The middle section of the transistor is known as the base. The base forms two circuits, the
input circuit with the emitter and the output circuit with the collector. The emitter-base circuit is
in forward biased and offered the low resistance to the circuit. The collector-base junction is in
reverse bias and offers the higher resistance to the circuit. The base of the transistor is lightly
doped and very thin due to which it offers the majority charge carrier to the base.x

2.4 Types of Transistors

2.4.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority
carriers. The bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is
a combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n-p-n transistor), or a thin
layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p-n-p
transistor). This construction produces two p-n junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–
collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two
junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not
make a transistor).
The BJT has three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor - an emitter, a
base, and a collector. It is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector
are controllable by a relatively small base current." In an NPN transistor operating in the active
region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the
junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of
these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move
away from the junction) base-collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-
hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the
base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of
electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Collector current is approximately β (common-
emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal
transistors, but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.xi

2.4.2 Field-effect transistor

Field effect transistor is a three-terminal electronic device that functions as a voltage-controlled
switch. The field effect transistor (FET) is the three terminals device similar to the bipolar
junction transistor. The FET, however, is a unipolar device that depends on only one type of
charge carrier, either free electrons or holes. There are basically two types of FETs: the junction
field effect transistor (JFET) and metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET).
Unlike bipolar transistors, which are current controlled devices, FETs are voltage control
devices, i.e. an input voltage-control an output current. The input impedance is extremely high
(of the order of me ohms) for FETs and therefore they require very little power from the deriving
source. Their high input impedance is one reason that FETs are sometimes preferred over
bipolar transistors. The construction of an n-channel JFET is four leads: the drain, source, and
two gates. The area between the source and drain terminals is called the channel. Because n-type
semiconductor material is used for the channel, the device is called an n-channel JFET.
Embedded on each side of the n-channel are two smaller p-type regions. Each p region is called
agate. When the manufacturer connects a separate lead to each gate, the device is called a dual-
gate JFET.xii

2.5 Characteristics of a Transistor:

The characteristic shows the connection between this and voltage of the transistor. There are two
kinds of characteristics:
Input characteristics: This shows the modification in input current with variable Output current
once the output voltage is constant.
Output characteristics: This graph shows a plot of adjusting output current with reference to a
modification in output voltage once the input current is constant. xiii

2.6 Configurations of Transistors

Three configurations for these transistors are possible known as common base, common emitter
and the common collector. Each configuration has its own significance in terms of gain.
 In the common base configuration there is no current gain but the gain in terms of the
voltage is present.
 In the common collector there is current gain but there will be no voltage gain.
 The common emitter is the configuration in which both current and the voltage gains are
present.

2.6.1 Common Base Configuration

As the name suggests the configuration is of the common terminal base this remains common for
both the input and the output circuit connections. The voltage is applied at the junction of the
emitter and the base. Here the emitter and the base are referred to as the input side and the
collector is known for the output side of the circuit connection.The value of the current flowing
from the terminal base to the emitter is must be of the higher value. This indicates the current
value at the collector is less than the value of the current flowing through the emitter. The
characteristic of the input is based on the voltage applied at the terminals base and the emitter
and the current at the emitter terminal. The output characteristic for this configuration is based on
the parameters of the voltage applied at the terminals of the base and the collector and the current
generated at the collector terminal.
The value of the current gain in this case is either equal or considered to be less than the unit
value. The signals of the input and the output that are generated will remain in-phase. This kind
of configuration has the highest value of the impedance rather than output. The characteristics of
the output signals are showcase the similarities as of diode working in forward biased manner.xiv

Fig.2 a Common Base Configuration

Input Characteristics
The input characteristics for this type of configuration is measured by the variation at the voltage
value at the terminals of the emitter and the base at different points by keeping the voltage value
at the collector and the base as constant. From this the input value of the current that is at emitter
is measured. Based on which the graph is plotted.

Fig 2 b Common Base Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics
The graph is plotted between the voltage at the output and the current by keeping the input value
of the current at the constant gives the output characteristics for this configuration.
 Fig 2 c Common Base Input Characteristics

2.6.2 Common Collector Configuration

This is the configuration in which the collector terminal is made common for both the input and
the output connections of the circuit. In this the voltage at the terminal emitter follows the
voltage of the base terminal. Hence this circuit is referred to as the emitter following circuit. This
kind of the circuitry is helpful in the applications as buffer.
 Fig 3 a Common Collector Configuration
The input value of the impedance is high. Hence these are applicable during the matching of the
impedance techniques. The considered input signals are applied in between the terminals of the
collector and the base. The output is to be taken or considered in between the terminals of the
collector and the emitter. The generated input and the output signals remains in-phase. The input
parameters are the voltage between terminals base and the collector and the current at the
terminal base. The output parameters are the collector current and the voltage at the terminals
emitter and the collector

Input Characteristics
The characteristics for this type of configuration are very different in comparison with other
configurations. Here the voltage at the collector and the base terminal is determined by the level
of the voltage at the emitter and the collector.
 Fig 3 b Common Collector Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics
As the collector configuration is known to follow the emitter configuration the operation of the
output is similar to that of the emitter configuration. In this configuration if there is no voltage is
applied at the base terminal there will be no amount of current flow is evident in the circuitry.

Fig 3 c Common Collector Output Characteristics

The graph is plotted between the emitter current and the voltage at the terminals of the collector
and the emitter by maintaining the value at the base current at constant.xv

2.6.3 Common Emitter Configuration

This is the most widely used configuration because of the gain in both voltage and the currents
increments the gain value of the power. In this the voltage of the input is applied in between the
terminals of the emitter and the base. The output is taken across the terminals of emitter and the
collector. Hence this circuit of inverting type.

Fig 4 a Common Emitter Configuration

The parameters of the input for this type of configuration are the voltage at the base and the
emitter and the current at the base terminal. The parameters based on which the output signals
characterized are the voltage at the terminals of the collector and the emitter as well as the
current at the terminal collector.

It is the most widely utilized configurations in comparison with the other configurations in the
amplifier circuitry. The value of the current at the terminal emitter is the sum of the individual
currents at the base and the collector. The impedance at the input as well as the output are of
minimum value. This makes the configuration more efficient.

The gain between the ratio of current at the collector terminal and the emitter terminal is
measured in terms of alpha. The gain for the ratio between the currents of the collector terminal
and the base is measured in terms of beta. The generated output signal has the shifting in phase
about 180 degrees that represents the input and the output signals are inversely related in terms
of phases.xvi

Input characteristics
The graph is plotted between the current at the base and the voltage value at the terminals of base
and the emitter.

Fig 4 b Common Emitter Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics
The graph is plotted between the values of the collector current and the voltage value of the
terminals of collector and the emitter.
 Fig 4 c Common Emitter Output Characteristics

Configurations of Transistors Summary

The table which gives the main characteristics of a transistor in the three configurations is given
above. The transistors have mainly three types of configurations. They are common-emitter,
common-base and common-collector configurations. Among all these three configurations
common-emitter configuration is mostly used type. These three have different characteristics
corresponding to both input and output signals. And also these three configurations have few
similarities.
 CHAPTER-THREE
3. Application of Transistors
Transistors are found in a variety of electronic devices, and they have a wide range of
applications.

3.1. Amplifier Circuits

Amplification is the process by virtue of which the strength of a weak signal can be raised to a
certain level. Most amplifier circuits make use of transistors as their prime component to
increase the strength of the input signal while maintaining the integrity of the information or the
data possessed by it at the same time. A transistor is an electronic device that commonly
functions as an amplifier when a DC bias voltage is applied across its emitter-base junction. The
DC bias voltage tends to maintain the forward bias condition of the transistor irrespective of the
negative or the positive polarity of the input signal. Due to the high input and low output
resistance of the circuit, the emitter current and the collector current tend to flow through the
load resistor and lead to a large magnitude voltage drop across the load resistor. This means even
a small variation in the input signal causes a significantly large change in the output signal,
thereby amplifying the input signal.xvii

3.2. Electronic Switch

One of the most prominent applications of transistors is switching. A transistor basically has four
regions of operation, i.e., namely active, saturation, cut off, and forward active. For a transistor
to act like a switch, the saturation and cut off region of operations of a transistor are generally
used. This is because when the transistor is operated in the saturated region, the current value is
maximum and the voltage level is equal to zero. Similarly, when the transistor is operated in the
cut-off region, the value of current is zero and the value of voltage is maximum. The operation of
a transistor in the saturation and cut off region resembles the working of a closed and open
switch respectively. A transistor operating as a switch tends to produce no noise and the rate of
the switching operation provided by the transistor is quite high. Also, transistor switches do not
have mechanical parts; hence there exist fewer chances of device failure due to wear and tear.
Other advantages of using transistors as switches include compact size, lightweight, low cost of
manufacturing, minimum maintenance cost, etc.

3.3 Microphones
Microphones are a classic example of daily use devices that make use of transistors for their
basic operation. Various microphones such as a condenser microphone typically make use of an
electronic circuit that tends to perform impedance modification by converting mechanical waves
into an electrical signal. For this purpose, usually, field-effect transistors are embedded in the
internal circuitry of the microphones. The capsule of a condenser microphone generally acts as a
transducer that picks up sound waves as an input signal, passes it through the processor and
produces an output signal that is electrically amplified and processed audio signal. High
impedance is one main characteristic of the output audio signal communicated by the condenser
capsule that causes a significantly low amount of current to flow through the circuit. To balance
this, FETs or field-effect transistors are connected on the output side of the microphones. The
gates of a field-effect transistor have an extremely high impedance value, while the impedance at
the drain of field-effect transistors is comparatively low. This is the reason why the current
flowing in the circuit tends to pass through the drain of the transistor. The high impedance signal
from the condenser microphone capsule that reaches the input terminal of the FET suffers a
significant reduction in the impedance value and is used to modulate the low impedance signal at
its output. Finally, the signal output from the field-effect transistor is fed to the output circuit of
the microphone. The signal passes through the mic cable to a microphone preamplifier and
produces an amplified output sound signal.xviii

3.4 Oscillator Circuits

The main purpose of oscillatory circuits is to produce continuous, periodic, and undamped output
signals. In other words, an oscillator circuit basically converts the unidirectional current flow
from a direct current source into an alternating signal. The frequency of the alternating signal
generated by the oscillator typically depends on the value of the electronic components
embedded in the circuit. A transistor can be designed to produce continuous undamped
oscillations of a particular frequency by properly connecting it to a tank and feedback circuit;
hence oscillator circuits are yet another example of applications that make use of transistors xix
 CHAPTER-FOUR
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
4.1 Conclusion

As we have seen, a transistor can be used as a switch in a circuit. When the base voltage is high,
the transistor is turned on and current can flow from the collector to the emitter. When the base
voltage is low, the transistor is turned off and no current can flow. This switching action can be
used to control larger currents in a circuit. For example, a small base current can be used to
control a much larger collector-emitter current. This is how transistors are used in digital circuits
such as computers. By controlling the flow of current with transistors, we can create all kinds of
logic gates that perform Boolean operations on digital signals
Transistors are so small in size so that the size of modern IC reduced and we got benefited. They
are uses in some aerospace applications also. So by the one line, we can say, because of the
invention of transistor modern electronics is possible. hope you understand the applications of
the transistor in daily life and everyday uses of the transistor.
4.2 RECOMMEDATION
Electronic devices have a great impact on economy and environment due to the widespread use
in many industrial and non-industrial applications. More efficient power devices can provide cost
effective and environment friendly tools for higher energy efficiency that is a required solution
factor for the global issues. BJT technology is better suited for analog applications, due to its
high speed. Therefore, I strongly recommend all stake holders; like researchers, governments,
higher education lectures should take part in this site
 To give motivations and awareness for society how they use this modern electronics
devices in their daily activity.
 Especially during doping materials, it needs some financial.
 So that they can conduct an experiments on transistor to supply it with significant size
and with capability of handling significant current and voltages.
 So that research have to see on npn type of bipolar junction transistor because npn is
preferred to pnp BJTs due to higher electron mobility compared to hole mobility.
 To fabricate bipolar junction transistor higher reliability and greater physical
ruggedness.

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