Notes on

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

CAPT. A.K. PRASAD

TERRESTRIAL PARAMETERS

Earth It is spherical in shape but not a perfect sphere. The polar diameter is about
7900 miles and the equatorial diameter is about 7927 miles. Hence it is
considered to be a spheroid.
Axis Imaginary line passing through the centre of the Earth, about which the Earth
rotates in anti-clockwise (Easterly) direction, when viewed from the North pole.
Poles Two points where the axis of the Earth cuts the surface of the Earth. One of
them is called the North pole and the other the South pole.
Great circle Circle on the surface of the Earth, whose plane passes through the centre of the
Earth, and divides the Earth into two equal halves.
Small circle Any circle on the surface of the Earth, which is not a great circle.
Equator Great circle on surface of the Earth, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis.
Parallel of Small circle on the surface of the Earth, whose plane is parallel to the Equator.
Latitude Centre of each circle will lie on the axis.
Meridian Semi-great circle on the surface of the Earth, which passes through the poles,
and is perpendicular to the Equator and the parallels of Latitude.
Prime The meridian which passes through Greenwich in London, U.K.
Meridian
Latitude Arc of a meridian or angle at the centre of the Earth, contained between the
Equator and the parallel of Latitude passing through a place. It is measured
North or South of Equator, starting from 0 at the Equator upto 90 at the pole.
Longitude Arc of the Equator or angle at the pole, contained between the Prime meridian
and the meridian passing through a place. It is measured East or West of Prime
meridian, starting from 0 at the Prime meridian upto 180 in either direction.
Nautical Length of an arc of a meridian, which subtends an angle of 1’ at the centre of
Mile curvature of a place.
Knot Unit of speed i.e. nautical mile per hour.
SOLAR SYSTEM

Rotation Movement of the Earth or Moon about its own axis, in an anti-clockwise
(Easterly) direction, as seen from the North pole.
Revolution Movement of the Earth around the Sun or movement of the Moon around the
Earth, also in an anti-clockwise direction, as seen from the North pole.
Sun Central body of solar system around which all the planets, asteroids, comets
and meteors revolve. It is self-luminous i.e. it emits light and heat energy.
Planets • There are 9 planets namely Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune, Pluto and Xena (discovered very recently), in order of their
distance from the Sun.
• Only Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn can be seen by an observer on the
Earth, without using any instruments, and hence are used for navigation.
• Earth is also like a planet lying between Venus and Mars.
• None of them are self-luminous but become visible due to the reflected
light from the Sun.
• Orbit of each planet is of different shape and size. These are not coplanar
but lie close to each other.
• Orbits of Mercury and Venus are smaller than that of the Earth, and are
called “Inferior planets”. Other planets having orbits larger than that of the
Earth are called “Superior planets”.
Comets These also revolve around the Sun in very large orbits, but are different from
planets. They become visible to an observer only for short periods, after a
long time gap, when they come close to the Earth during their revolution.
Asteroids These are also called minor planets, located between Mars and Jupiter, and
not visible to an observer. They could be fragments of some planet which
existed long ago.
Meteors These are large pieces of rock revolving around the Sun. Sometimes they
come close to the Earth and get attracted by it. On entering the Earth’s
atmosphere they burn out due to heat generated by friction, and hence
sometimes become visible from the Earth for a very short duration, as
“Shooting stars”. Few larger ones have even reached the surface of the Earth
as “Meteorites”.
Moon Satellite revolving around the Earth, and carried along with the Earth when it
revolves around the Sun. It is also visible due to the reflected light of the Sun.
Other planets, except Mercury, Venus and Pluto, also have their own satellites
but these are not visible from the Earth.
Light year Distance traveled by light in one year at the rate of 3  105 Km. / Sec.
Geographical Position of a celestial body on the surface of the Earth where the line joining
Position the centers of the Earth and the celestial body meets the surface of the Earth.
Perihelion The closest position of the Earth from the Sun. About 92 million miles.
Aphelion The furthest position of the Earth from the Sun. About 95 million miles.
Perigee The closest position of the Moon from the Earth. About 220000 miles.
Apogee The furthest position of the Moon from the Earth. About 250000 miles.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN STAR AND PLANET

For an observer looking at the sky at night, stars and planets look identical as pinpoint lights.
However there are considerable differences between them as follows :

STAR PLANET
Self-luminous like the Sun Not self-luminous
Very far from the Earth. The closest star is Comparatively very close to the Earth.
about 2  1013 miles away. Some stars are
more than 100 light years away.
Each star has its own solar system. Each planet is part of our solar system.
Does not shift its position. Revolves around the Sun.
Twinkles due to the intermittent obstructions Does not twinkle as there are no celestial
caused by infinite number of celestial bodies bodies in between the planet and the Earth,
which move in between the star and the Earth. which could obstruct them.

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KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

• Every planet revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit in anti-clockwise (Easterly)
direction.
Ellipse is a geometrical figure formed by the locus of a point revolving around two fixed
points, such that the sum of the distances of the revolving point from the two fixed points
remains constant. The two fixed points are called Focii of the ellipse.

• Eccentricity of the orbit of each planet is different.

Eccentricity is the ratio of the major and minor axis of the ellipse.

• The Sun is located at one of the focii.

• From the above laws it is evident that the distance of the planet from the Sun continuously
changes during its revolution.
• During the revolution, the radius vector (line joining the centers of planet and Sun) sweeps
equal areas in equal intervals of time. From this law following conclusions can be drawn :
• Consider two equal areas in two different parts of the plane of the orbit, covered by the
planet in the same interval of time.
• It is seen from the figure that the radius vectors of these two areas are of different lengths.
• Hence, for the two areas to be equal, the length of the arc of the area having large radius
vector will be smaller than the arc of the area having small radius vector.
• In other words the planet has covered different lengths of arcs of the orbit in the same
interval of time i.e. the rate of revolution in different parts of the orbit is different.
• The final conclusion is that the rate of revolution of the planet is continuously changing.
The rate reduces as the distance of the planet from the Sun increases. It is minimum at
aphelion and maximum at perihelion.

• T2 / D3 is constant for every planet.

T is the time period of one revolution of a planet.
D is the average distance of the planet from the Sun.
From the above law it is concluded that a planet closer to the Sun has a greater angular
velocity during the revolution, than a planet further away from the Sun.

• All the above laws also apply to the revolution of the Moon around the Earth.

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REVOLUTION OF EARTH

• Earth rotates and revolves in anti-clockwise (Easterly) direction.

• Axis of the Earth, around which it rotates, is inclined at an angle of about 66.5 to the plane
of its orbit, or about 23.5 to the vertical to the plane of the orbit. This angle does not change.
• Period of revolution is about 365 days.

Position 1

• In this position the N-end of the axis is inclined towards the Sun.
• The latitude of the Geographical Position (GP) of the Sun will be about 23.5 N.
• The rays of the Sun will cover half the Earth which will experience day, while the remaining
half will experience night.
• The dividing circle between the day and night portions of the Earth is called “Circle of
Illumination”.
• It is observed from the figure that a smaller portion of the southern hemisphere will
experience day while a larger portion of the northern hemisphere will experience day.
• An observer in North latitude will move with the Earth as it rotates, and cover one full
rotation in 24 hours. He will experience Sunrise when he crosses the circle of illumination
and experience Sunset when he re-crosses this circle on the opposite side.
• From the figure it is obvious that he will experience day for more than 12 hours, and night
for less than 12 hours.
• If we consider another observer in higher North latitude, then it is obvious from the figure
that for him the period of day will be more than that for the observer in lower latitude.
• Hence we conclude that as the latitude of the observer in the northern hemisphere
increases, the period of day also increases.
• Furthermore it is seen from the figure that an observer in Latitude  66.5 N will experience
total daylight and no night.
• From the figure it is also obvious that an observer in the southern hemisphere will
experience shorter day and longer night and as the latitude of the observer increases the
period of day decreases.
• An observer in Latitude  66.5 S will experience total night and no daylight.

Position 3

• In this position the S-end of the axis is inclined towards the Sun.
• The latitude of the GP of the Sun will be about 23.5 S.
• Hence an observer in any latitude will experience opposite periods of day and night as
compared to the position 1.
• An observer in the northern hemisphere will experience shorter day and longer night,
and as his latitude increases the period of day decreases. In the southern hemisphere he
will experience longer day and shorter night and as his latitude increases the period of
day also increases.

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Positions 2 and 4

• In these positions the axis of the Earth remains inclined as before but the inclination is
neither towards nor away from the Sun.
• GP of the Sun will be at the Equator.
• Hence the circle of illumination will pass through the axis and divide both northern and
southern hemispheres equally.
• In other words all observers on the Earth will experience equal day and night.

General conclusions

• As Earth revolves round the Sun, the GP of the Sun shifts from maximum 23.5 N to 23.5 S.
• When GP of the Sun and latitude of the observer have same names, i.e. both are North or
both are South, then he will experience longer days and shorter nights. Furthermore as the
latitude of the observer increases the period of daylight will also increase.
• When GP of the Sun and latitude of the observer have opposite names, i.e. one is North and
the other is South, then he will experience shorter days and longer nights. Furthermore as the
latitude of the observer increases the period of daylight will decrease.
• As GP of the Sun shifts i.e. as the Earth revolves, the ratio of the periods of day and night
continuously changes.
• An observer on the Equator will always experience equal day and night.
• The final conclusion is that the period of daylight for any observer depends on the
following two factors :
• Latitude of the GP of the Sun.
• Latitude of the observer.

General data about each position

Position 1

• Called Summer Solstice.

• Occurs on 21st June.
• Longest day for any observer in the northern hemisphere and shortest day for any observer in
the southern hemisphere
• Total daylight for any observer in Latitude  66.5 N and total darkness for any observer in
Latitude  66.5 S.
• Latitude of the GP (Declination) of the Sun 23.5 N.

Position 2

• Called Autumnal Equinox.

• Occurs on 23rd September.
• Equal day and night for all observers.
• Latitude of the GP (Declination) of the Sun 0.

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Position 3

• Called Winter Solstice.

• Occurs on 22nd December.
• Longest day for any observer in the southern hemisphere and shortest day for any observer in
the northern hemisphere
• Total daylight for any observer in Latitude  66.5 S and total darkness for any observer in
Latitude  66.5 N.
• Latitude of the GP (Declination) of the Sun 23.5 S.

Position 4

• Called Vernal (Spring) Equinox.

• Occurs on 21st March.
• Equal day and night for all observers.
• Latitude of the GP (Declination) of the Sun 0.

Seasons

• Position 1 to 2 is called Summer season. Aphelion occurs in this season on 1st July.
• Position 2 to 3 is called Autumn season.
• Position 3 to 4 is called Winter season. Perihelion occurs in this season on 1st January.
• Position 4 to 1 is called Spring season.

Important latitudes and zones

• Latitude 23.5 N is called Tropic of Cancer.

• Latitude 23.5 S is called Tropic of Capricorn.
• Latitude 66.5 N is called Arctic Circle.
• Latitude 66.5 S is called Antarctic Circle.
• Region between the two tropics is called Torrid Zone.
• Regions from 23.5 N to 66.5 N and from 23.5 S to 66.5 S are called Temperate Zones.
• Regions North of Arctic circle and South of Antarctic circle are called Frigid Zones.

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DEFINITIONS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

Celestial Imaginary sphere around the Earth, of infinite radius, having its centre as the
Sphere centre of the Earth. All celestial bodies, including the Sun and Moon, are
projected to lie on this sphere.
Celestial Two points where the axis of the Earth when projected meets the celestial
Poles sphere. One of them is called the North pole and the other the South pole.
Equinoctial Great circle on the celestial sphere, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of
the Earth or the line joining the celestial poles.
Declination Small circle on the celestial sphere, whose plane is parallel to the Equinoctial.
Circle
Celestial Semi-great circle on the celestial sphere, whose plane passes through the
Meridian celestial poles, and is perpendicular to the Equinoctial and Declination circles.
DeclinationArc of a celestial meridian or angle at the centre of the celestial sphere,
contained between the Equinoctial and the Declination circle passing through a
body. It is measured North or South of the Equinoctial, starting from 0 at the
Equinoctial upto 90 at the celestial pole.
Hour Angle Arc of the Equinoctial or angle at the celestial pole, contained between any two
celestial meridians.
Prime 1. Greenwich meridian projected on the celestial sphere.
Meridians 2. Meridian of an observer projected on the celestial sphere.
3. Celestial meridian passing through the First Point of Aries.
Greenwich Arc of the Equinoctial or angle at the celestial pole, contained between the
Hour Angle celestial meridian of Greenwich and the celestial meridian of a body, measured
(GHA) from 0 to 360 westward (clockwise) from the Greenwich meridian.
Local Hour Same as GHA except that Greenwich is replaced by the Observer.
Angle

Sidereal Same as GHA except that Greenwich is replaced by the First Point of Aries.
Hour Angle

Polar Arc of a celestial meridian or angle at centre of the celestial sphere, contained
Distance between a celestial Pole and the Declination circle passing through a body.
(PD) If the body and the pole are in the same hemisphere, PD = 90 - Declination.
If the body and the pole are in opposite hemispheres, PD = 90 + Declination.
Right Arc of the Equinoctial or angle at the celestial pole, contained between the
Ascension celestial meridian of First Point of Aries and the celestial meridian of a body,
(RA) measured from zero to 24 hours eastward (anti-clockwise) from the meridian of
First Point of Aries. (RA = 360 - SHA)
Ecliptic Consider the Earth to be stationary and the Sun, projected on the celestial
sphere, is revolving round it in easterly direction. The path of the Sun will be a
great circle called Ecliptic.
Because the Poles of the Earth are inclined to the plane of the Earth’s orbit by
about 66.5, it can be said that the Earth’s orbit or the Ecliptic is inclined to the
celestial poles by about 66.5, OR the Ecliptic is inclined to the Equinoctial by

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 about 23.5.
Obliquity of Angle of about 23.5 between the Ecliptic and Equinoctial, as explained above.
Ecliptic
First Point The two great circles Equinoctial and Ecliptic will intersect at two points. The
of Aries point of intersection where the Sun’s Declination changes from South to North,
is called First Point of Aries.
First Point Point of intersection between Equinoctial and Ecliptic where the Sun’s
of Libra Declination changes from North to South.
Conjunction Two bodies in a line and on the same side of the Earth. (Elongation 0)
Opposition Two bodies in a line and on the opposite sides of the Earth. (Elongation 180)
Quadrature Two bodies subtend an angle of 90 at the centre of the Earth. (Elongation 90)
Elongation Angle subtended by two bodies at the centre of the Earth.

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DEFINITIONS REGARDING MEASUREMENT OF TIME

Solar Day Time interval between two consecutive meridian passages of the Sun over
the observer’s meridian. It is 24 hours.
Sidereal Day Time interval between two consecutive meridian passages of a distant star
over the observer’s meridian. It is equivalent to 23h 56m 04s of the Solar
day.
True Sun Sun visible to us, assumed to be revolving around the Earth, along the
(TS) Ecliptic, in an anti-clockwise (Easterly) direction, with its Declination
changing from maximum 23.5 N to 23.5 S. According to the Kepler’s
Laws its rate of revolution will vary from maximum at perihelion to
minimum at aphelion. Period of revolution is about 365 days.
Mean Sun Imaginary Sun, assumed to be revolving around Earth, along the Equinoctial,
(MS) in an anti-clockwise (Easterly) direction, at a constant rate which is the
average rate of revolution of the TS. Period of revolution is about 365 days.
Equation of Arc of the Equinoctial or angle at the celestial Pole, contained between the
Time (E) celestial meridians of the TS and MS. It is said to be +ve when the MS is
ahead of the TS, and –ve when the MS is behind the TS.
Dynamical Imaginary Sun, assumed to be revolving around the Earth, along the Ecliptic,
Mean Sun in an anti-clockwise (Easterly) direction, at a constant rate which is the
average rate of revolution of the TS. Period of revolution is about 365 days.
It has one property of the TS i.e. both revolve along the Ecliptic.
It also has one property of the MS i.e. both revolve at constant speed.
Anti-meridian Celestial meridian opposite to the meridian of Greenwich or observer. It is
also called “Inferior meridian”.
Greenwich Arc of the Equinoctial or angle at the celestial pole, contained between the
Mean Time celestial anti-meridian of Greenwich and the celestial meridian of Mean Sun,
(GMT) measured from zero to 24 hours westward from the Greenwich anti-
meridian.
GMT ~ GHA (Mean Sun) = 180.
Local Mean Same as GMT except that Greenwich is replaced by the observer.
Time (LMT) LMT ~ LHA (Mean Sun) = 180.
Greenwich Same as GMT except that Mean Sun is replaced by the True Sun.
Apparent GAT ~ GHA (True Sun) = 180.
Time (GAT)
Local Same as GMT except that Greenwich and Mean Sun are replaced by the
Apparent observer and True Sun respectively. LAT ~ LHA (True Sun) = 180.
Time (LAT)
Greenwich Arc of the Equinoctial or angle at the celestial pole, contained between the
Sidereal Time celestial meridian of Greenwich and the celestial meridian of First Point of
(GST) Aries, measured from zero to 24 hours westward from the Greenwich
meridian.
GST = GHA (First Point of Aries).
Local Sidereal Same as GST except that Greenwich is replaced by the observer.
Time (LST) LST = LHA (First Point of Aries).

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SOLAR DAY AND SIDEREAL DAY

• Consider the Sun and a distant star to be over the observer’s meridian.
• The Earth rotates and at the same time it also revolves in an anti-clockwise direction.
• After the Earth has completed one rotation of 360 i.e. one day is completed, it would have
shifted in its orbit by about 1, because the Earth revolves 360 in about 365 days i.e. about
1 in one day.
• Hence, as seen from the figure, the Sun will not be on the meridian of the observer, but the
star, which is very far away, will be on the meridian.
• For the Sun to come on the meridian of the observer, the Earth will have to rotate further 1.
In other words the Earth has to actually rotate about 361 for completing a Solar day.
• However, the distant star will be on the meridian of the observer after the Earth has rotated
360 i.e. the sidereal day is completed after exact 360 rotation of the Earth.
• Sun governs the working life of everyone on the Earth, hence we have to keep time with
respect to the Sun.
• To do so, the Solar day is divided into 24 hours, even though the actual rotation of the Earth
is 361 as stated above.
• Calculations prove that the Sidereal day is shorter than Solar day by about 4 min. i.e.
Sidereal day is equivalent to 23h 56m 04s of the Solar day, OR the star comes on the
meridian of the observer about 4 min. earlier every day.

EQUATION OF TIME

• As explained above, Sun again comes on the meridian of the observer after the Earth has
rotated by about 361. This extra 1 is due to the revolution of the Earth during the time
interval of one rotation.
• As per Kepler’s Laws the rate of revolution of the Earth is not constant. It is maximum at
perihelion and minimum at aphelion.
• Hence this extra 1 of revolution/rotation will not be constant. It will be slightly more at
perihelion and slightly less at aphelion.
• Hence period of Solar day will fluctuate every day as the Earth revolves. This will make it
difficult to manufacture a watch which will show correct time with respect to True Sun (TS).
• To solve the above problem, Mean Sun (MS) is invented. Any watch will show the correct
time if it is set with respect to MS because it revolves at a constant rate. However we cannot
see the MS to set the watch. To do so, the following procedure is adopted :
• Consider both TS and MS to be on the observer’s meridian on the day of perihelion. TS
will be revolving slightly faster than the MS. Hence, on the next meridian passage, when
the MS again comes on the observer’s meridian, TS would have already crossed the
meridian and will be slightly ahead.
• By the same reasoning, at aphelion, when the MS again comes on the meridian of the
observer, TS will be slightly behind the MS.
• The time difference between the TS and MS is called Equation of Time (E).
• If we know the value of E on any given day, we will observe the TS on the meridian but
set our watch with respect to the MS, depending on whether the MS is ahead or behind
the TS. Once it is set, the watch will continue to show correct time with respect to MS.

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• Value of E is given in the Nautical Almanac for every 12 hours.
• To calculate E, astronomers could not directly compare the positions of TS and MS because
TS revolves along the Ecliptic at variable speed while MS revolves along the Equinoctial at
constant speed. So to make this comparison they invented the Dynamical Mean Sun (DMS).
First they calculated the daily time difference between TS and DMS, and then the daily time
difference between DMS and MS. Both these differences were added or subtracted
algebraically to obtain the final daily value of E.
• E is said to be +ve when the MS is ahead of the TS, and –ve when the MS is behind the TS.
It becomes zero 4 times in a year in about middle April, middle June, early September and
late December. It reaches peak values in about middle February (+ve), middle May (-ve), late
July (+ve) and early November (-ve). However all the peak values are not the same.
Maximum E is about +14 min. in middle February and about –16 min. in early November.

TIME KEEPING

• Greenwich Apparent Time (GAT) and Local Apparent Time (LAT) are only used for
calculations but not for time keeping.
• Greenwich Sidereal Time (GST) and Local Sidereal Time (LST) are only used by
astronomers for their calculations but not by mariners for navigation or time keeping.
• Local Mean Time (LMT) is measured with respect to the celestial anti-meridian of the
observer and the meridian of the Mean Sun. Hence it will change with the Longitude of the
observer even if the observer shifts his position by few miles East or West. If every observer
maintains LMT, then no two observers will have the same time, and hence it will result in
utter confusion.
• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is measured with respect to the celestial anti-meridian of the
Greenwich and the meridian of Mean Sun. Consider two observers far apart and maintaining
GMT. If one observer experiences sunrise, then at the same time the other observer may find
the Sun on his meridian or he may experience sunset. Hence every observer cannot maintain
GMT. However it is universally used to maintain records of all events.
• Zone time is adopted as a compromise between GMT and LMT as follows :
• The world is divided into 24 zones of 15 D’long each.
• The first zone extends from 7.5 E to 7.5 W where everyone keeps GMT.
• In the next zone from 7.5 E to 22.5 E, everyone keeps (GMT + 1 hour).
• Similarly in the zone from 7.5 W to 22.5 W, everyone keeps (GMT - 1 hour).
• All persons in each zone keep the same time according to the above calculation.
• A person traveling long distance has to change his time when he crosses into the next
zone. When traveling eastward he will advance his watch by 1 hour and when traveling
westward he will retard his watch by 1 hour.

• Standard Time is adopted by each country in accordance with the zone in which it lies.
However a country may geographically extend over two adjacent zones. In such a case it may
adopt a mean of the two zone times so that its citizens will not have to change time when
traveling from one end of the country to the other. That is why in India we adopted Standard
time as (GMT + 5.5 hours).

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• Ship’s time is different from all the times stated above. Normally as the ship moves, it will
maintain the zone time. But most of the time it is not possible to do so for following reasons :
• If the ship crosses a zone in daytime, changing the time will disturb the working schedule
on board and lead to inconvenience. Hence the time is changed at night even if the zone
is crossed in day.
• The time should be changed by 1 hour on crossing a zone. This will mean an extra hour
of watch-keeping for one of the officers. To avoid this hardship, the clocks are altered 20
min. at a time, for each duty watch.
• Changing of time has to be done in such a way that the ship will always maintain the
Standard times of the port of departure and arrival. The total time difference between the
standard times of the two ports and the period of the voyage are ascertained, and the
clocks are suitable adjusted daily so that the ship will be keeping the standard time of the
port of arrival.
• Clocks are always adjusted during the night in such a way that the meridian passage of
the Sun occurs at about 1200 hr. on the next day, as per ship’s time.

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

• Consider a ship starting on a voyage from Greenwich in eastward direction. It will have to
advance clocks 1 hour for every 15 of change in longitude. By the time it returns back to
Greenwich, it would have changed longitude by 360 and would have advanced clocks by 24
hours. Hence on the ship the date will be 1 day ahead of the local date at Greenwich.
• Similarly a ship traveling westward would retard clocks by 24 hours by the time it returns
back to Greenwich and so the date on the ship will be 1 day behind the local date.
• To avoid this anomaly, following steps are taken :
• When a ship traveling eastward reaches the longitude of 180 and has advanced the
clocks by 12 hours, he is told to put the calendar back by one day, or in other words he
will retard the clocks by 24 hours. Thus on crossing the 180 Longitude he would be 12
hours behind GMT. As he travels further eastward he will continue to advance the clocks
by 1 hour for every 15 change in longitude. Finally on reaching Greenwich he would be
keeping the same time and date as per the local clock.
• Similarly when a ship traveling westward reaches the longitude of 180 and has retarded
the clocks by 12 hours, he is told to put the calendar ahead by one day, or in other words
he will advance the clocks by 24 hours. Thus on crossing the 180 Longitude he would be
12 hours ahead of GMT. As he travels further westward he will continue to retard the
clocks by 1 hour for every 15 change in longitude. Finally on reaching Greenwich he
also would be keeping the same time and date as per the local clock.
• This 180 longitude lies in the Pacific Ocean and happens to pass in-between some
islands belonging to different nationalities. To avoid the inconvenience of changing the
date when traveling from one island to another of the same country, this 180 line is bent
in such a way that the islands of one country lie on one side of the line. This crooked line
is called the International Date Line. All ships change their date when crossing this line.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF YEARS

A year is period of revolution of the Earth around the Sun. To measure this period a reference
point in space has to be selected. For different applications different reference points have been
used and the years so obtained are named as follows :
• Sidereal year is the time period of revolution of the Earth, starting from a position in line
with the Sun and a distant star, back to the same position in line with the Sun and the same
star. The period is 365d 6h 9m 13s. It is the true period of revolution.
• Tropical year is the time period of revolution of the Earth, starting from a position in line
with the Sun and the First Point of Aries, back to the same position in line with the Sun and
the First Point of Aries. The period is 365d 5h 48m 46s. This year is shorter than the Sidereal
year because the First Point of Aries shifts slowly westwards due to precession of the
Equinoxes, while the Earth revolves eastwards. It is also called the Civil year because the
calendar is based on it.
• Anomalistic year is the time period of revolution of the Earth, starting from the point when
the Sun is at Perihelion, back to the same point at Perihelion. This period is 365d 6h 13h 49s.
It is longer than the Sidereal year due to the slow shift of Perihelion point in the easterly
direction. It has no significance for the mariners.
• Leap year consists of 366 days while all the other years have 365 days. It is done to adjust
the calendar so as to bring it in line with the Tropical year. Leap year is selected as follows :
• Every year divisible by 4.
• Every century year divisible by 400.
• Other century years which are not divisible by 400 are not Leap years even though they
are divisible by 4.

14
DEFINITIONS FOR ALTITUDE CALCULATION

Zenith It is a point on the celestial sphere vertically above the observer, where a
line drawn from the centre of the Earth and passing through the observer,
meets the celestial sphere.
Nadir It is a point on the celestial sphere vertically below the observer and
diametrically opposite to the Zenith.
Rational It is a great circle on the celestial sphere, plane of which is perpendicular to
Horizon (RH) the line joining the Zenith and Nadir. Every point on the RH will be 90°
away from the Zenith.
Vertical circle It is a great circle on the celestial sphere passing through the Zenith and
Nadir. All such circles are perpendicular to the RH.
Prime Vertical It is a vertical circle passing through the East and West points of the RH.
Sensible It is a small circle on the celestial sphere, which is parallel to the RH, and
Horizon (SH) passing through the observer’s eye.
Visible Horizon If infinite number of tangents are drawn from the observer’s eye to the
(VH) surface of the Earth, all the points of contact together will form a small
circle on the surface of the Earth, called Visible Horizon. This horizon
limits the view of the observer on the surface of the Earth. Its size varies
with the height of eye of the observer.
Sextant It is the angle at the observer’s eye contained between the VH and the line
Altitude (SA) joining the observer’s eye and the celestial body.
Observed OA = SA ± Index Error (I.E.) of Sextant
Altitude (OA) If I.E. is off the arc, it is to be added; If I.E. is on the arc, it is subtracted. Its
value has to be ascertained by the observer.
Apparent It is the angle at the observer’s eye contained between the SH and the line
Altitude (AA) joining the observer’s eye and the celestial body. AA = OA – Dip
Dip It is the angle at the observer’s eye contained between the SH and the VH.
Its value varies with the height of eye of the observer. It is obtained from the
table titled “Dip” on the front cover page of the Nautical Almanac.
True Altitude It is the angle at the centre of the Earth or the arc of the vertical circle
(TA) passing through the celestial body, contained between the RH and the line
joining the centre of the Earth and the centre of the body. It is obtained after
applying the corrections for Refraction, Semi-Diameter and Parallax to the
AA, as explained below.
Refraction A ray of light coming from a celestial body towards the observer, passes
through layers of atmosphere of increasing density, and so it steadily bends
towards the normal according to the Laws of Refraction of light. Due to this
effect the observer views the celestial body with his sextant at a slightly
higher altitude than it really is.
This correction has to be subtracted from AA. Its value varies inversely with
the altitude. It is given in the Nories Tables for standard atmospheric
temperature and pressure. If the actual values of atmospheric temperature
and pressure are different from the standard values, then an additional
correction has to be applied, which is also given in the Nories Tables. The
maximum value of Refraction is about 34’ when the AA is 0°, i.e. body is

15
 on the SH, and it is zero when the AA is 90°, i.e. body is at the Zenith.
Semi-Diameter It is the angle at the centre of the Earth contained between the centre of the
(SD) Sun or Moon and the upper or lower limb of the body. It is not applicable
for other celestial bodies.
When observing the Sun or Moon, it is not possible to measure the SA from
the centre of the body, and so it is normally measured from the upper or
lower limb of the body. Hence this correction has to be applied.
If Upper Limb is used for observation, then the correction is subtracted from
the AA. If Lower Limb is used, then it is added to the AA.
Its value varies inversely with the distance of the body from the Earth. For
Sun the value ranges from 15.8’ to 16.3’ and for Moon it ranges from 14.8’
to 16.7’. It is given at the bottom of the daily pages of Nautical Almanac.
Augmentation SD of the Moon increases with increase in its AA during the day. The value
of Moon’s SD given for each day in the Nautical Almanac is for AA 0°. So an additional
correction called “Augmentation” has to be obtained from the Nories Tables
and added to the SD as obtained from the Nautical Almanac. It is not
applicable for the Sun because it is far away.
Parallax It is the angle contained at the centre of the celestial body between the
observer and the centre of the Earth. For the Sun and Moon it is calculated
by formula --- Parallax = HP × Cos (AA).
For Mars and Venus it is obtained from a table titled “Additional
Correction” on the front cover page of the Nautical Almanac.
This correction is added to the AA.
It is not applicable for other celestial bodies because they are very far away.
Horizontal It is the angle contained at the centre of the Sun or Moon, between the
Parallax (HP) observer and the centre of the Earth, when the body is at the SH, i.e. when
the AA is 0°. Its value varies inversely with distance of the body from the
Earth. For the Sun an average constant value is taken to be 0.2’. For the
Moon it is given in the Nautical Almanac for every hour of GMT.
Reduction of Earth is not a perfect sphere. Its Equatorial radius is more than its Polar
HP of Moon radius. Hence the HP of the Moon will be maximum if the observer is at the
Equator and minimum when he is at the Pole. In other words the HP of the
Moon varies inversely with the Latitude of the observer. It is given in the
Nautical Almanac for an observer at the Equator. Hence for other Latitudes
an additional correction called “Reduction” has to be obtained from the
Nories Tables and subtracted from the HP obtained from the Nautical
Almanac. It is not applicable for the Sun because it is far away.
True Zenith It is the angle at the centre of the Earth or the arc of the vertical circle
Distance (TZD) passing through the celestial body, contained between the Zenith and the
line joining the centre of the Earth and the centre of the body.
TZD = 90° - TA

16
DETAILED PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING ALTITUDE

Stars, Jupiter, Mars, Sun Moon

Saturn Venus
SA SA SA SA
± IE ± IE ± IE ± IE
OA OA OA OA
- Dip - Dip - Dip - Dip
AA AA AA AA
- Ref. - Ref. - Ref. - Ref.
TA AA AA AA
- 90° + Par. ± SD ± Corr. SD *
TZD TA AA AA
- 90° + Par. * + Par. **
TZD TA TA
- 90° - 90°
TZD TZD
* Par. = 0.2’ × Cos (AA) * Corr. SD = SD + Aug.
** Corr. HP = HP – Red.
Par. = Corr. HP × Cos (AA)

SHORT PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING ALTITUDE

This procedure has following advantages :

• Calculations are done fast.
• Final answer is reasonably accurate.
• Nories table, which is normally very old, is not used at all, and all corrections are obtained
from Nautical Almanac itself, which is published every year.

Stars, Jupiter, Mars, Venus Sun Moon

Saturn
SA SA SA SA
± IE ± IE ± IE ± IE
OA OA OA OA
- Dip - Dip - Dip - Dip
AA AA AA AA
- TC * - TC * ± TC *** + 1st Corr. 
TA AA TA + 2nd Corr. 
- 90° + A. Corr. ** - 90° - 30’ 
TZD TA TZD TA
- 90° - 90°
TZD TZD

* TC is obtained from the table titled “Stars and Planets” on the front cover page of the
Nautical Almanac.

17
** A. Corr. is obtained from the table titled “Additional Correction” on the front cover page of
the Nautical Almanac.
*** TC is obtained from the table titled “Sun” on the front cover page of Nautical Almanac. It is
+ ve if lower limb is used, and – ve if upper limb is used.
 1st correction is obtained from the upper part of the table on the back cover page of the
Nautical Almanac. 2nd correction is obtained from the lower part of the same table.
 30’ is subtracted only if upper limb is used.

DEFINITIONS FOR EARTH AND MOON SYSTEM

Sidereal Period of revolution of the Moon, from a position in line with the Earth and a
Period distant star, back to the same position in line with same star. 27d 07h 43m 12s.
Synodic Period of revolution of the Moon, from a position in line with the Earth and Sun,
Period back to the same position in line with the Sun. 29d 12h 44m 03s. It is also called
“Lunation” or “Lunar Month”
Ascending Point of intersection of the Ecliptic and the Moon’s orbit, when the Moon is
Node traveling in the Northerly direction.
Descending Point of intersection of the Ecliptic and the Moon’s orbit, when the Moon is
Node traveling in the Southerly direction.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIDEREAL AND SYNODIC PERIODS OF MOON

• Consider the Earth, Moon and Sun in one line. After one complete revolution of 360 i.e. one
Sidereal period of about 27 days, the Moon will come back to the same position.
• However the Earth also will revolve by an angle of about 27 (calculated at 360 of
revolution in about 365 days). Hence the Earth, Moon and Sun will not be in a line.
• To bring them in line the Moon will have to revolve a further 27 which will take about 2
extra days (calculated at 360 of revolution in about 27 days).
• Hence the Synodic period is about 2 days longer than the Sidereal period.

VISIBLE FACE OF MOON

• Period of rotation of the Moon is the same as its Sidereal period and the direction of rotation
is anti-clockwise.
• Hence an observer on Earth will always see the same half of the Moon which is facing him.
• However, based on Kepler’s laws, the rate of revolution is not constant. It is maximum at
perigee and minimum at apogee; while the rate of rotation is constant.
• Based on the above difference, following observations are made :
• Near about perigee, in a given time interval, the Moon will revolve by a greater angle
than it will rotate. Hence a little extra portion of the Eastern side of the Moon will
become visible to the observer.
• Similarly, near about apogee, in a given time interval, the Moon will revolve by a lesser
angle than it will rotate. Hence a little extra portion of the Western side of the Moon will
become visible to the observer.
• This phenomena is called “Liberation of Moon in Longitude”.

18
• The axis of rotation of the Moon is inclined to the vertical to its orbit by about 6.5.
• Hence, during its revolution, when the North-end of the axis is inclined towards the Earth, a
slightly more area of the Northern region of the Moon will be visible from the Earth.
Similarly, when the South-end of the axis is inclined towards the Earth, a slightly more area
of the Southern region of the Moon will be visible from the Earth.
• This phenomena is called “Liberation of Moon in Latitude”
• Taking both the above factors into consideration it has been observed that nearly 59% of the
Moon has been sighted from the Earth and the balance 41% has never been seen.

MERIDIAN PASSAGE OF MOON

• Consider Moon on the observer’s meridian.

• After 24 hours i.e. 1 day, when the Earth has rotated by 360, the observer will not find the
Moon on his meridian because it would have revolved in the Easterly direction by about 14
(calculated at 360 of revolution in about 27 days).
• Hence the Earth has to rotate a further 14 to have the Moon on the observer’s meridian. This
would take about 50 min. of time (calculate at 360 of rotation in 24 hours).
• Hence we say that the Moon comes on the observer’s meridian about 50 min. later every day.
Actually this delay is about 40 min. when the Moon is at perigee and about 60 min. when the
Moon is at perigee. This is due to the variation of the rate of revolution of the Moon at
perigee and apogee.

CHANGE IN MAXIMUM DECLINATION OF MOON

• Moon’s orbit is inclined to the Ecliptic by about 5.25. Intersection points of these two great
circles are called “Nodes”.
• Due to precession of the Moon’s axis, the Moon’s orbit rotates around the Ecliptic and
completes one rotation of 360 in about 18.6 years i.e. at the rate of about 19 / year.
• At one stage, when the Moon’s orbit is fully outside the Ecliptic, the Moon will reach a
maximum declination of about 28.75 N or S (23.5 + 5.25).
• After about 9.3 years the Moon’s orbit will lie between the Ecliptic and Equinoctial. Then its
maximum declination will only be about 18.75 N or S (23.5 - 5.25).
• Hence the Moon’s maximum declination changes from 28.75 to 18.75 in a period of about
9.3 years. In other words at every revolution Moon reaches a different maximum declination.

PHASES OF MOON

Position 1

• It is called New Moon day.

• Sun and Moon are in conjunction i.e. Elongation is 0.
• Illuminated part of the Moon is away from the Earth, hence nothing is visible.

19
Position 5

• It is called Full Moon day.

• Sun and Moon are in opposition i.e. Elongation is 180.
• Illuminated part of the Moon is towards the Earth, hence full disc is visible.

Positions 3 & 7

• It is called Half Moon day.

• Sun and Moon are in quadrature i.e. Elongation is 90.
• Only half the disc of the Moon, facing towards the Earth, is visible.

Positions 2 & 8

• It is called Crescent Moon.

• It lies anywhere between the New Moon and Half Moon days.
• Only a small portion of the disc, facing towards the Earth, is visible.
• The outer curvature always points towards the Sun.

Positions 4 & 6

• It is called Gibbous Moon.

• It lies anywhere between the Full Moon and Half Moon days.
• More than half the portion of the disc, facing towards the Earth, is visible.
• The outer curvature always points towards the Sun.

Quarters

• New Moon to Half Moon is called 1st quarter.

• Half Moon to Full Moon is called 2nd quarter.
• Full Moon to Half Moon is called 3rd quarter.
• Half Moon to New Moon is called 4th quarter.
• From New Moon to Full Moon positions, the Moon is said to be “Waxing”.
• From Full Moon to New Moon positions, the Moon is said to be “Waning”.
• In 1st quarter following observations are made :
• Moon will rise after the Sun. So it will not be visible in the morning.
• Moon will set after the Sun. So it will be visible in the evening, after sunset, in the
western sky, with its outer curvature pointing downwards towards the horizon and the
Sun, which has set.

• In 4th quarter following observations are made :

• Moon will rise before the Sun. So it will be visible in the morning, before sunrise, in the
eastern sky, with its outer curvature pointing downwards towards the horizon and the
Sun, which is yet to rise.
• Moon will set before the Sun. So it will not be visible in the evening.

20
SOLAR ECLIPSE

• Conditions for this eclipse are as follows :

• It occurs on New Moon day i.e. at conjunction, when the Moon obstructs the Sun’s light
from reaching the Earth.
• Declinations of Sun and Moon are of same name and value.
• Sun and Moon are at the same Node i.e. either at Ascending or at Descending node.
• True altitudes of Sun and Moon are the same.
• True azimuth, and hence the meridians, GHA and SHA of Sun and Moon are the same.

• Because of the above conditions, this eclipse does not occur on every New Moon day.
• Shadow cone of the Moon, formed by the external common tangents of the Sun and Moon, is
called “Umbra”.
• The inverted shadow cone of the Moon, formed by the internal common tangents of the Sun
and Moon, is called “Penumbra”.

Total Eclipse

• When the Moon is nearly at Perigee, the tip of the Umbra will reach the surface of the Earth,
and all observers who come within it will not see the Sun at all.
• In this situation the Semi-diameter of Moon  Semi-diameter of Sun.

Annular Eclipse

• When the Moon is nearly at Apogee, the tip of the Umbra will not reach the surface of the
Earth. It will convert into a small inverted cone called “Divided Umbra”.
• All observers who come within it will see a thin ring of light around a dark portion.
• In this situation the Semi-diameter of Moon < Semi-diameter of Sun.

Partial Eclipse

• It is visible to all observers in the Penumbra region.

• It could occur even if the Total or Annular eclipse does not occur, when the declinations of
the Sun and Moon are slightly different.

General observations

• Looking at the size of the Umbra, it is obvious that its tip covers a very small portion of the
Earth, and hence very few persons will get a chance to see this eclipse.
• As seen from the figure, the Sun and Moon are revolving in opposite directions, and hence
the duration of this eclipse is very short.
• During this duration, as the Earth rotates, the tip of the Umbra will travel on a narrow path
for a short distance on the surface of the Earth. It is called “Path of the Eclipse”.
• From the above data it is obvious that very few persons will get a chance to see any kind of
Solar eclipse.

21
LUNAR ECLIPSE

• Conditions for this eclipse are as follows :

• It occurs on Full Moon day i.e. at opposition, when the Earth obstructs the Sun’s light
from reaching the Moon.
• Declinations of Sun and Moon are of same value but opposite names.
• Sun and Moon are at opposite Nodes i.e. one is at Ascending node and the other is at
Descending node.
• Moon will be above the horizon but the Sun would have set.
• True azimuth, and hence the meridians, GHA and SHA of Sun and Moon are 180 apart.

• Because of the above conditions, this eclipse does not occur on every Full Moon day.
• Umbra is formed by the external common tangents of the Sun and Earth.
• Penumbra is formed by the internal common tangents of the Sun and Earth.

Total Eclipse

• It occurs when the Moon comes within the Umbra region.

• Perigee or Apogee positions do not matter except that the duration of the eclipse at perigee is
longer than at apogee.

Partial Eclipse

• It occurs when the Moon lies on the border of Umbra and Penumbra i.e. part of the Moon is
in Umbra and part in Penumbra.
• It could occur even if the Total eclipse does not occur, when the declinations of the Sun and
Moon are slightly different.

Penumbral Eclipse

• It occurs when the Moon comes within the Penumbra region.

• In this situation the Earth obstructs only part of Sun’s rays from reaching the Moon. Hence
the observers will see the full Moon but its intensity will be reduced, as if it is covered by a
thin layer of cloud.
• It could occur even if the Total or Partial eclipse does not occur, when the declinations of the
Sun and Moon are different.

General observations

• Looking at the areas on the surface of the Earth covered by Umbra and Penumbra, it is
obvious that many persons will get a chance to see this eclipse.
• As seen from the figure, the Sun and Moon are revolving in the same direction. Hence the
duration of this eclipse is comparatively longer than Solar eclipse.
• From the above data it is obvious that large number of persons will get a chance to see some
kind of Lunar eclipse.

22
NUMBER OF ECLIPSES

• Calculations have proved that the number of eclipses which could occur in a year, are as
follows :
• Solar eclipses --- 2 to 5
• Lunar eclipses --- 0 to 3
• All kinds of eclipses --- 2 to 7

• From the above numbers it is obvious that in any year the number of Solar eclipses are more
than Lunar eclipses. However, even then, as explained above, more persons get to see Lunar
eclipse than Solar eclipse.

APPARENT MOTION OF VENUS

Venus is called an “Inferior” planet because its orbit is smaller than that of the Earth. For
understanding its apparent motion, as visible to an observer, consider that the Earth is stationary
and Venus is revolving around the Sun in anti-clockwise (Easterly) direction.

Position 1
• Venus lies between the Earth and Sun. This position is called “Inferior Conjunction”.
• Elongation is 0.
• As the Earth rotates, Venus will rise and set with the Sun, hence it will not be visible.

Position 2
• Venus will rise before the Sun.
• Elongation has increased.
• It will be visible in the morning before sunrise, in the Eastern sky.
• During the day it will remain West of Sun but it will not be visible due to brightness of Sun.
• It will set before the Sun.
• Hence Venus will be visible only for a short duration in the morning.

Position 3
• Same conditions as for position 2 apply.
• The line joining the Venus and Earth is tangential to the orbit of Venus.
• The Elongation is maximum and so this position is called “Maximum Elongation West”. Its
value is about 47.
• It will be visible for a maximum duration of about 3 hours before sunrise i.e. approximately
from about 0300 hr. to about 0600 hr.

Position 4
• Same as position 2 except that Elongation will become less than 47.

Position 5
• Sun lies between the Earth and Venus. This position is called “Superior Conjunction”.
• Elongation is again 0.

23
• Venus will rise and set with the Sun, hence it will not be visible.

Position 6
• Venus will rise after the Sun.
• Elongation will again increase.
• During the day it will remain East of Sun but it will not be visible due to brightness of Sun.
• It will set after the Sun.
• Hence it will be visible only for a short duration in the evening.

Position 7
• Same conditions as for position 6 apply.
• The line joining the Venus and Earth is tangential to the orbit of Venus.
• The Elongation is maximum and so this position is called “Maximum Elongation East”. Its
value is about 47.
• It will be visible for a maximum duration of about 3 hours after sunset i.e. approximately
from about 1800 hr. to about 2100 hr.

Position 8
• Same as position 6.

Summary

• Venus is never in “Opposition”, and it has two “Conjunction” positions.

• It reaches a maximum elongation of about 47.
• It is visible for a maximum duration of about 3 hours either in the morning before sunrise or
in the evening after sunset. Hence it is called “Morning / Evening star”.
• It can never be seen near about midnight.

DIRECT AND RETROGRADE MOTION OF VENUS

• Consider the same 8 positions of Venus as stated above, during its revolution around the Sun,
with the Earth assumed to be stationary.
• All these positions are projected on the celestial sphere.
• It is observed that from position 3 (Maximum Elongation West) to position 7 (Maximum
Elongation East) Venus appears to move on the celestial sphere in anti-clockwise direction,
which is its normal motion. Hence this is called “Direct Motion”.
• It is also observed that from position 7 to position 3, Venus appears to move in clockwise
direction, which is not its normal motion. Hence this is called “Retrograde Motion”.
• If we assume First point of Aries to be located at any position on the celestial sphere, then it
will be observed that the SHA of Venus, measured westerly from Aries, will continuously
decrease during its Direct motion, while the SHA will increase during its Retrograde motion.
Hence the SHA of Venus sometimes increases and sometimes decreases.

24
DIRECT AND RETROGRADE MOTION OF JUPITER

Jupiter is called a “Superior” planet because its orbit is larger than that of the Earth. For
understanding its apparent motion, as visible to an observer, consider that the Jupiter is stationary
and Earth is revolving around the Sun in anti-clockwise (Easterly) direction. Each position of the
Earth is used to project Jupiter on the celestial sphere.

Position 1
• Jupiter is in Opposition and Elongation is 180.
• It will rise after sunset and hence will be visible only throughout the night.

Position 2
• Elongation has reduced.
• It will be visible during the evening twilight after sunset and also during part of the night.

Position 3
• The line joining the Earth and Jupiter is tangential to the orbit of the Earth.
• Elongation is 90 and this position is called “Quadrature”.

Position 4
• Same as position 2.

Position 5
• It is in Conjunction and Elongation is 0.
• It will rise and set with the Sun and hence will not be visible.

Position 6
• Elongation has increased.
• It will be visible during part of the night and also during the morning twilight before sunrise.

Position 7
• Same as position 3.

Position 8
• Same as position 6.

Summary

• As seen from the positions of Jupiter on the celestial sphere, from position 3 to 7 i.e. from
one Quadrature to the next Quadrature via Conjunction, Jupiter appears to move in anti-
clockwise direction, and is hence said to be in “Direct Motion”.
• Similarly from position 7 to 3 i.e. from one Quadrature to next Quadrature via Opposition,
Jupiter appears to move in clockwise direction, and is hence in “Retrograde Motion”.
• As stated for Venus, the SHA of Jupiter will also decrease during its Direct motion and
increase during its Retrograde motion.

25
MAGNITUDE OF STAR

All stars emit their own light of certain magnitude like the Sun in our Solar system. However the
amount of light received on the Earth depends on the distance of each star from the Earth. This is
called the Apparent Magnitude of the star. For reference purposes, the star which appears to be
dimmest as seen from the Earth is said to be of magnitude 6, and the star which appears to be
100 times brighter than the dimmest star is said to be of magnitude 1. Hence a star of lower
magnitude number is said to be brighter than a star of higher magnitude number. This number is
given for certain important stars on pages 268 to 273 of the Nautical Almanac, which remains
constant as the distance of every star from the Earth remains constant.

100 = 2.515 = 2.51(6-1)

From the above we conclude that ---

Star of magnitude 2 is 2.51(4-2) = 2.512 times brighter than star of magnitude 4.
Star of magnitude (-1) is 2.51(2+1) = 2.513 times brighter than star of magnitude 2.
Star of magnitude (-2.3) is 2.51(1.4+2.3) = 2.513.7 times brighter than star of magnitude 1.4.
Star of magnitude (-3.2) is 2.51(-2.1+3.2) = 2.511.1 times brighter than star of magnitude (-2.1).

MAGNITUDE OF PLANET

The apparent magnitude of a planet is measured as stated above for stars. However planets
reflect the light from the Sun, and the amount of light received on the Earth keeps changing as
their distance from the Sun as well as from the Earth keeps changing. Hence the magnitude
number of the planet changes periodically, which is given on the daily pages of the Nautical
Almanac.

IDENTIFICATION OF STARS

Certain important stars can be identified with the help of Constellations in which these are
present. This can only be done at night when the full Constellation is visible. During twilight
only bright stars of any Constellation may be visible which will make it difficult to identify
them. For this purpose Star Chart should be used with the help of instructions provided.
In absence of the star chart, a visible star can be identified by calculating its approximate Decl.
and SHA as follows :

Obtain GMT, DR Lat. and Long., True Azimuth of star from ship’s compass, its True Altitude
and LHA (Aries).
Using the above data draw the appropriate PZX triangle.
Identify value of angle Z in the triangle.

Cos PX = Cos Z × Cos Lat. × Cos Alt. + Sin Lat. × Sin Alt.

If PX < 90°, Decl. = 90° - PX having same sign as Lat.

If PX > 90°, Decl. = PX - 90° having opposite sign as Lat.

26
 Sin Alt. ± Sin Lat. × Sin Decl.
Cos P = ---------------------------------------
Cos Lat. × Cos Decl.

If Lat. and Decl. are same name, sign is –ve. ; If Lat. and Decl. are different names, sign is +ve.

If star is East of observer, LHA (Star) = 360° - P ; If star is West of observer, LHA (Star) = P.

SHA (Star) = LHA (Star) – LHA (Aries) ; If LHA (Star) < LHA (Aries), add 360° to LHA (Star).

27