Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions - A Comparison

©Prof. Philip Pennance1 -Version: February 4, 2021

1. Definition. Z 1 √
π=2 1 − x2 dx
−1

2. Exercise.

Let A : [−1, 1] → [0, π] given by Let Ah : [1, ∞] → [0, ∞) be given by

p Z 1√
2
A(ξ) = ξ 1 − ξ + 2 1 − x2 dx p Z ξ√
ξ Ah (ξ) = ξ ξ2 − 1 − 2 x2 − 1dx
1
Show that:
−1 Show that:
(a) A′ (ξ) = p
1− ξ2 1
(a) A′h (ξ) = p
(b) A(−1) = π 2
ξ −1
(c) A(0) = π/2 (b) Ah (1) = 0
(d) A(1) = 0
(c) Ah is a bijection.
(e) A is a bijection.

3. Geometric interpretation.

A(ξ) is the area of the double sector of the Ah (ξ) is the area of the double sector of
unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1, determined by the the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 1, determined by
point (ξ, η). the point (ξ, η).

(ξ, η) (ξ, η)

4. Inverse functions.

A−1
h : R → [1, ∞]
A−1 : [0, π] → [−1, 1]
is called the hyperbolic cosine function.
is called the cosine function.
cos = A−1 cosh = A−1
h

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 5. Definition.

The sine function is defined by The hyperbolic sine function is defined by

p p
sin t = 1 − cos2 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π sinh t = cosh2 −1, 0 ≤ t

6. Derivatives.

cos′ = − sin cosh′ = sinh

Proof.

A(cos t) = t Ah (cosh t) =t
⇒ A′ (cos t) cos′ t = 1 ⇒ Ah (cosh t) cosh′ t
′
=1
1 1
⇒ √ cos′ t = 1 ⇒ p cosh′ t = 1
1 − cos2 t cosh2 t − 1
⇒ cos′ t = − sin t ⇒ cosh′ t = sinh t

7.
sin′ t = cos t sinh′ t = cosh t
Proof Proof
p ′ p ′
sin′ t = 1 − cos2 t sinh′ t = cosh2 t − 1
cos t sin t cosh t sinh t
=√ =p
1 − cos2 t cosh2 t − 1
= cos t = cosh t

8. Extensions.

The domains of cos and sin are extended to The domains of cosh and sinh is extended to
all of R by declaring cos to be even and sin all of R by declaring cosh to be even and sinh
to be odd on [−π, π] and both to be periodic to be odd.
on R with period 2π

9. Exercise. Using integration by substitution show that:

Z p p Z p
2 1 − x2 dx = x 1 − x2 + sin−1 x 2 x2 − 1 dx =
p h p i
x x2 − 1 − ln x + x2 − 1

10. Exercise. Show that:

h i
π
+ sin−1 (−ξ)
p
A(ξ) = 2 Ah (ξ) = ln ξ + ξ 2 − 1

11. Exercise. Deduce from (??) that

et + e−t
cosh t = .
2

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 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Philip Pennance2 Version: – February 2019.

1. cosh : (0, ∞) → (1, ∞) is a bijection 3. Similarly, sinh : R → R is a bijection

and hence has an inverse cosh−1 which and hence has an inverse sinh−1 which
satisfies satisfies
ex + e−x ex − e−x
y= y=
2 2
⇐⇒ x = cosh−1 y ⇐⇒ x = sinh−1 y

2. Claim. 4. Claim.
 p   p 
cosh−1 = ln y + 1 − y 2 sinh−1 = ln y + 1 + y 2

Proof. Proof.
ex + e−x ex − e−x
y= y=
2 2
⇐⇒ ex + e−x = 2y ⇐⇒ ex − e−x = 2y
⇐⇒ e2x + 1 = 2yex ⇐⇒ e2x − 1 = 2yex
⇐⇒ (ex )2 + 2yex + 1 = 0 ⇐⇒ (ex )2 − 2yex − 1 = 0
⇐⇒ (ex − y)2 − y 2 + 1 = 0 ⇐⇒ (ex − y)2 − y 2 − 1 = 0
p p
⇐⇒ ex = y + y 2 − 1 ⇐⇒ ex = y + y 2 + 1
 p   p 
⇐⇒ y = ln y + y 2 − 1 . ⇐⇒ y = ln y + y 2 + 1 .

Hence Hence
 p   p 
cosh−1 y = ln y + y 2 − 1 sinh−1 y = ln y + y 2 + 1

5. Claim.

sinh(x + y) = sinh x · cosh y + cosh x · sinh y.

cosh(x + y) = cosh x · cosh y + sinh x · sinh y.

Proof.

4 sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y = (ex − e−x )(ey + e−y ) + (ex + e−x )(ey − e−y )
= 2ex ey − 2e−x e−y
= 2 ex+y − ex−y

= 4 sinh(x + y),

The second formula is proven in a similar manner. A large number of corollaries follow
from these addition formulae:

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 6. Corollary. 11. Claim.

cosh 2x = cosh2 + sinh2 There is a unique function f : C → C

such that for all z, w ∈ C
= 2 cosh2 −1
(a) f (z + w) = f (z)f (w)
= 1 + 2 sinh2 x.
(b) f ′ = f
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x.
(c) f restricted to the real numbers is
the real exponential function.
7. Definition.
This function is denoted ez and is given
The hyperbolic tangent function tanh :
by
R → (−1, 1) is defined by
ez = ex (cos y + i sin y)
sinh x where z = x + iy.
tanh x =
cosh x Since complex differentiation is beyond
the scope of this course the proof will
8. Corollary. be omitted.
tanh x + tanh y 12. Corollary (Euler’s Formula)
tanh(x + y) = .
1 + tanh x · tanh y eit = cos t + i sin t
2 tanh x e−it = cos t − i sin t
tanh 2x = .
1 + tanh2 x from which follows:
eit + e−it
9. Definition. cos t =
2
(a) Hyperbolic cotangent e − e−it
it
sin t =
2i
ex + e−x
coth x = motivating the following definition:
ex − e−x
13. Definition.
(b) Hyperbolic secant eiz + e−iz
cos z =
2
2 e − e−iz
iz
sech x = sin z =
ex + e−x 2i

(c) Hyperbolic cosecant 14. Corollary.

cosh x = cos ix
2
csch x = x sinh x = −i sinh ix
e − e−x
15. Corollary (Osborn’s rule)
10. Claim. A trigonometric identity involving only
integer powers of sin and cos can be
cosh2 x − sin2 x = 1
converted into a hyperbolic identity by
1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x changing every sin to sinh and cos to
coth2 x − 1 = csch2 x cosh and switching the sign of every
term containing a product of 2, 6, 10, . . .
sin’s.

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 Graphs – Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Prof. Philip Pennance3 -Version: January 16, 2017
√
1. (a) sinh−1 (x) = ln x + x2 + 1
 
4 tanh
cosh
sinh
2
√
(b) cosh−1 (x) = ln x + x2 − 1
 

−2 −1 1 2

−2
 
−1 1+x
(c) tanh (x) = ln −4
1−x

π cos−1 cosh−1
sin−1 4 sinh−1
tan−1 tanh−1
2

−2 −1 1 2 −4 −2 2 4
−2
−π/2
2. −4

π/2 cot−1 6 coth−1

−10 −5 5 10
−4 −2 2
−2

−4
−π/2
−6

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 Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Integrals
Philip Pennance4 Version: – February 2019.

−1
Z Z
1
√ dx = cos −1
x + c, |x| < 1 √ dx = cosh−1 x + c, x > 1
Z 1 − x2 Z x 2 − 1
1 1
√ dx = sin−1 x + c, |x| < 1 √ dx = sinh−1 x + c, x ∈ R
2
Z 1−x 1 + x 2
Z
1 1
dx = tan−1 x + c, x∈R dx = tanh−1 x + c, |x| < 1
1 + x2 1−x 2

−1
Z Z
1
dx = cot−1 x + c, x∈R dx = coth−1 x + c, |x| > 1
1 + x2 1 − x2

Z √
cos−1 x dx = x cos−1 (x) − 1 − x2 + c Z √
√ cosh−1 x dx = x cosh−1 (x) − x2 − 1 + c
Z
sin−1 x dx = x sin−1 (x) + 1 − x2 + c Z √
sinh−1 x dx = x sinh−1 (x) + 1 − x2 + c
Z
tan−1 x dx = x tan−1 (x) Z
1 tanh−1 x dx = x tanh−1 (x)
− log(x2 + 1) + c
2 1
+ log(1 − x2 ) + c
2

Z Z
cos x dx = sin x + c cosh x dx = sinh x + c
Z Z
sin x dx = − cosh x + c sinh x dx = cosh x + c
Z Z
tan x dx = − log | cos x| + c tanh x dx = log | cosh x| + c
Z Z
cot x dx = log | sin x| + c coth x dx = log | sinh x| + c
Z Z
sec x dx = log(sec(x) + tan(x)) + c sech x dx = tan−1 (sinh x) + c
Z Z   x 
csc x dx = − log(cot(x) + csc(x)) + c csch x dx = log tanh +c
2
Z Z
sec2 x dx = tan x + c sech2 x dx = tanh x + c

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 The Substitutions t = tan(x/2) and t = tanh(x/2)
Philip Pennance5 Version: – February 5, 2022.

1. Claim. 3. Claim.
If If
x x
t = tan , t = tanh ,
2 2
then then
2 2
dx = dt dx = dt
1 + t2 1 − t2
1 − t2 1 + t2
cos x = (1) cosh x = (4)
1 + t2 1 − t2
2t 2t
sin x = (2) sinh x = (5)
1 + t2 1 − t2
2t 2t
tan x = . (3) tanh x = . (6)
1 − t2 1 + t2
Proof of (??) . Proof of (??) .
Since x = 2 tan−1 (t) Since x = 2 tanh−1 (t)
 x  x
cos x = cos 2 · cosh x = cosh 2 ·
 2  2
2 x 2 x
= 2 cos −1 = 2 cosh −1
2 2
2 2
=
−1 =
−1
sec x2
2 sech2 x2
2 2
= −1 = −1
1 + t2 1 − t2
1 − t2 1 + t2
= . = .
1 + t2 1 − t2

2. Proof of (??) . 4. Proof of (??) .

2 sin x2 · cos x2 2 sinh x2 cosh x2

sin x = sinh x =
cos2 x + sin2 x cosh2 x − sinh2 x
x x
2 tan 2 tanh
= 2 = 2
x x
1 + tan2 1 − tanh2
2 2

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5. Examples
Z Z
Evaluate sec x dx Evaluate sech x dx
The substitution t = tan x2 The substitution t = tanh x2
yields yields
Z Z
2 Z Z
sec x dx = dt 2
1 − t2 sech x dx = dt
1 + t2
= 2 tanh−1 (t)
= 2 tan−1 (t)
x
= 2 tanh−1 (tan ) + C x
2 = 2 tan−1 (tanh ) + C
2
6. Example
Z Z
1 1
Evaluate dx Evaluate dx
1 + sin x 1 + sinh x
Let t = tan(x/2). Then
Let t = tanh(x/2). Then
Z Z
1 1 2 dt
dx =  ·
1 + sin x 2t 1 + t2
Z Z
1 1 2 dt
1+ dx = ·
1 + t2

1 + sinh x 2t 1 − t2
Z 1+
2 dt 1 − t2
=
1 + 2t + t2
Z
2 dt
Z
2 dt =
= 1 + 2t − t2
(1 + t)2
Z
2 dt
−2 =−
= +C (t − 1)2 − 2
1+t √
 
−1 t−1
−2 = 2 tanh √ +C
= +C 2
tan (x/2) + 1 √
 
−1 tanh(x/2) − 1
= 2 tanh √ +C
2

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7. Geometric Interpretation. yields:
x
If t = tan , then 1 − t2
2 cos x =
1 + t2
2t
2 sin x =
dx = dt 1 + t2
1 − t2
2t
1 + t2 tan x =
cos x = (7) 1 − t2
1 + t2
2t
sin x = (8)
1 + t2 and so all trigonometric functions can
2t
tan x = . (9) be written in terms of t.
1 + t2
8. Remark.
Geometric Proof:
The substitution t = tan(x/2) is re-
lated to a rational parameterization of
the unit circle, used by Euclid, to gener-
ate Pythagorean triples. In this formu-
P
z = a + bi lation, the point z is restricted to lattice
points. Further details will be provided
x/2 in a future document.
x/2 x/2
9. Remark.
S O Q
By Proposition 20 of Euclid’s Elements
Book III, the arc QP of the unit cir-
cle subtends an angle x/2 at the point
S = (−1, 0) (see diagram). It follows
(exercise) that
Let z = a + bi with b ̸= 0. (see di-
agram above). If arg z = x/2. Then x sin x
tan =
t = tan(x/2) = b/a. Since squaring a 2 1 + cos x
complex number doubles the argument, 1 − cos x
=
z2 sin x
the point P = 2 lies on the unit circle
|z |
at an angle x. Hence y

P = cos x + i sin x
z2 1
= 2
|z | x
a2 − b2 + 2abi Q
= 1
a2 + b 2
1 − t2 + 2ti y = sec−1 (x)
=
1 + t2 y = sec(x)
y = sec(x)
Equating the real and imaginary parts 10.

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 Exercises
6
Prof. Philip Pennance Version: – February 2019.

1. Discuss carefully how the hyperbolic co- (a) sinh x (d) csch x
sine and sine function may be defined
(b) cosh x (e) sech x
by considering the area of a suitable
“hyperbolic sector” Hence show that (c) tanh x (f) coth x
et + e−t
cosh(t) =
2 5. Prove formulae for:
You may assume that
Z √ (a) cosh−1 x (c) tanh−1 x
x2 − 1 dx =
√ √ (b) sinh−1 x
1 2 − 1 − 1 log(x +
2
x x 2
x2 − 1)
2. Find a parametrization of the left 6. Prove the identities:
branch of the rectangular hyperbola
(a) cosh x − sinh x = e−x
x2 − y 2 = 1 1 + tanh x
(b) = e2x
where x ≤ 1. 1 − tanh x
Hint: α(t) = (cosh t, sinh t) is a 7. Differentiate:
parametrization of the right branch
(a) cosh(ln x)
(shown below).
y (b) sinh(1 + x2 )
s→∞
(c) cosh−1 (3x + 5)
(d) sinh−1 (4x2 − 5)
x 3
(e) tanh−1 (e2x )
Z sinh x
2
(f) ex dx
0
3. Prove the following identities:
8. Find the integrals:
(a) sinh(−x) = − sinh x Z
(b) cosh(−x) = − cosh x (a) cosh(3x + 4) dx

(c) cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1

Z
(b) tanh(5x − 7) dx
(d) 1 − tanh2 (x) = sech2 (x)
Z
(e) sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh(y) + cosh x
(c) dx
cosh x sinh(y) 3 + sinh x
Z
(f) cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh(y) + 1
(d) √ dx
sinh x sinh(y) 9 + x2
Z
4. Prove formulae for the derivatives of sinh πx
(e) dx
each of the following functions: cosh πx
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