Teaching English to Non Native Speakers

By Dave Hopkins
English Language Specialist
US State Dept.

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Table of Contents

Introduction 3
Behaviors, Choreographies & Principles 6
Language learning and language acquisition 8
The basic paradigm 10
Warmers 13
Context & contextualization 18
Core materials 26
Controlled practice 31
Listening practice 34
Reading practice 39
Extensive reading 42
Writing 46
Vocabulary expansion 50
Communicative activities 56
Lesson frames 61
Appropriate language 74
Chants & Songs 77
Theater techniques 80
Noticing errors 85
Highlighting grammar 91
Classroom management 93
Evaluating textbooks 103
Adapting course books 106
Content based instruction 111
Cultural awareness 117
Testing 126
Lessons planning 130
The role of grammar in language teaching 139

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Introduction to Basic Smooth Moves

Basic Smooth Moves is a condensed version of the more complete Smooth Moves used
in the TEFL International TESOL Certificate course. It is primarily aimed at teaching
beginners, roughly middle school through young adults. It is assumed that these
students are currently in school, or, have recently completed schooling where they study
English as part of the curriculum. The teaching techniques elaborated here are
applicable, with appropriate adaptations, at all levels for communicative language
learning. However, the examples of activities and core materials are aimed specifically
at students who are in the beginning stages of developing communicative “dialogue” –
i.e. person to person – communication skills. The goal of this text has been to provide
new teachers with just enough to get them into the classroom, but not so many details
that it inhibits their desire to learn and innovate.

A professional lifetime of teaching English to non-native-speakers and training

teachers for TESOL has provided a few insights that are worth sharing at this point.
First, teaching requires very good people skills. This not only means being a nice
person in the classroom, but being a sympathetic collaborator with students - a teacher
who understands their role as a mentor, not the source of the learning. It means a
teacher who can feel what the students feel. – i.e. the frustrations and the excitement of
learning. It also means a teacher who is a valued colleague and collaborator with their
fellow teachers. Teachers are not individual sources of learning, but collaborators in a
learning community. Think of teaching like a wiki – a network of individuals (both
teachers and learners) who are connecting and developing through a synthesis of their
ideas.

A second insight has come from contacts with schools recruiting English teachers. A
recruiter for a leading group of TESOL schools said that what he looked for first in
potential teachers was commitment. Thomas Friedman in The World Is Flat puts it
another way. He says that what will be needed for individuals to survive in the flat
world will be PQ + CQ = passion quotient + curiosity quotient. That sums up
commitment pretty well. What does this passion quotient mean? It means teachers who
are excited about what they are doing. Who go into the classroom every day charged up
about teaching and helping their students learn. The teacher is the energizer rabbit.
Your students will be exactly as charged up about learning as you are about teaching.
That’s motivation in a nutshell!

What about the curiosity quotient? Read and study. A teacher who is not curious, not
reading, studying and learning more about language and teaching has stopped
developing as a teacher. Most of us are locked up in our classrooms and our lives with
minimal chances to exchange ideas with others. Experience without further learning and
careful reflection leads no where. A part of this is what Donald Freeman calls the
teacher-researcher working at the hyphen. All teachers should have the curiosity to
reflect upon what they are doing in the classroom, analyze it critically, and take
intelligent action based upon these reflections. One of the things that is sadly lacking in
teaching is a data base of the connections between teaching and learning. This will only
develop as teachers begin to take responsibility for examining their ideas through

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classroom based research, rather than a priori conclusions based on it was a lot of fun,
or I really enjoyed that.

Once again, the need to read is critical. Language learners need input. Likewise,
language teachers need input, to stir up ideas, formulate new ideas, and, question
traditional practices. The developments in linguistics, cognitive psychology,
chaos/complexity theory, and, biogenetics over the last 20 years, and more recently
during the last five years, are awesome, and provide a quantum shift in our knowledge
base for teaching and learning. Even pure linguists, who in the past denied any
connection to learning or what happens in the classroom, are starting to come around.
Mark Baker, professor of linguistics at Rutgers University, has published a paper on
line called, Mapping the Terrain of Language Learning, that suggests that the
theoretical field of linguistic typology (the classification of language features and
forms), and, learning in the classroom, should not be separated, but should complement
each other. He goes on to show how research in the parameters of language – cross
linguistic patterns of language forms – may provide critical clues for how learning takes
place. Teachers with a high CQ will be able to use these insights and others to further
develop and refine their teaching practices.

In a webased, flat world, any teacher with a connection to the web has no excuse for not
reading and researching. It’s all there, from complete post graduate texts in language
syntax, to current research papers from the leading minds in the fields mentioned above,
and it’s getting better. With Google and Yahoo battling it out with Microsoft to see who
can open up the most knowledge to the world first, the opportunity to read and discover
is greater than anyone ever imagined even a few years ago. Anyone wishing to own the
texts can have them delivered to their door in a week to 10 days, and, Google Scholar at
http://scholar.google.com/ will take you further than most of us are able to go. There is
no excuse for the teacher who is not reading unless it is a failure of PQ or CQ. The
bottom line is, be passionate and be curious.

The third insight is the suggestion that teachers need to be patient and persistent.
Perseverance is well recognized by experienced teachers as a critical factor in the
learning equation. Language learning takes time. After all, first language learners with
nothing much else to do except to attend to basic biological functions, spend 3-4 years
solely focused on developing the basic patterns of their first language. How can we
expect our students in part-time language study, usually without access to the second
language environment, with considerably greater distractions, to make rapid leaps in
their language competence? Perseverance also requires that teachers relax a bit. It has
become obvious over the years that intense people don’t usually make very good
language teachers. They seem to expect too much, too soon, and wear themselves and
their students out trying to satisfy some notion of progress. I think it comes back to a
statement by Diane Larsen-Freeman, (Teaching Language,2003),…we know that
teaching does not cause learning… What I find so powerful about this comment is that
it is not a chapter heading or a major point in her argument, but is off-handed, we know!
Intense teachers may not have gotten their head around this idea that we (teachers)
don’t make it (learning) happen. It’s all about the student learning. The teacher is in the
“value added” business – i.e. taking advantage of the learner’s curiosity and innate
ability to learn language to provide learning opportunities.

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To sum up these insights I would like to share an idea about teaching and learning
language offered by Donald Freeman at the Thai TESOL Conference in 2004. He used
the proverb Between a rock and a hard place to sum up the position of the teacher in
the language learning process. The rock is the fact that hundreds of thousands of people
out there in the world learn language every day without teachers, books, grammars or
classrooms. We know this happens and that these people learn language effectively and
exactly to the degree that they need them to meet the needs of their everyday existence.
The hard place is the classroom, and the teacher’s job is, how do we bring into the
classroom what happens so effectively out there?

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Behaviors, Choreographies and Principles
This book is about “doing” things. Specifically, the things you “do” to facilitate
language acquisition with students who do not speak English as their first language. As
Donald Freeman says, “Good teachers know what to do.” Basic Smooth Moves will
present the behaviors and choreographies that can be employed in a classroom to
facilitate language learning. It provides the behaviors for effective teaching, and when
linked together in lesson frameworks, the choreographies to facilitate learning. The
comparison to dancing is more than a cute metaphor. Like dancing, teaching requires
that you learn some body movements and choreographies that are not natural for most.
Learning these behaviors and choreographies requires the same neural-motor skills as
dancing. The only thing missing is the “music” that is provided by the interplay
between students, teacher and text that constitutes the real teaching-learning situation.
While anyone can learn to perform the steps, dancing to the music may take some time
and experience in classrooms with real students. The goal of the Basic Smooth Moves
is to get you into the classroom with the “moves” you need to work with. The rest is up
to you and a lifelong learning experience called teaching.

What about methodology, techniques and approaches to language learning? It is evident

that talking about language and grammar rules is not a sufficient or even necessary
condition for learning language. Equally, talking about language teaching ideas and
methods seems an unlikely condition for learning to teach. Put another way, good
teachers know what to do. It is not necessarily true that they know why they do certain
things, or what makes them effective. Basic Smooth Moves will present “what to do”
based upon things that work most of the time with most classes for most teachers. These
“moves” are based upon principles of language learning and teaching that are found in
“communicative language learning” classrooms. While every teacher might not agree
with the specification of the principles below, most would agree that they represent
strong trends in the Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
community.

• Language is most likely to be acquired when it is presented in a real life context

– i.e. a communication situation known to the learner.
• Language learning is an innate process based upon internal processing of
comprehensible input (understandable listening and reading)
• Language teaching focuses on “process” not “product.” Teachers are in the
value added business – adding value to the learning process that the student
naturally employs.
• Error is a natural part of the learning process and indicates that learning is taking
place. Error analysis looks at what the student is doing right so that we may
highlight language form that the student may attend to.
• Visual and auditory input are critical to the learning process, whereas practice
and production (particularly speaking), are more related to reinforcement,
comfort and control with the language.
• Language has to be “modeled” for meaning and form before the learner can be
expected to use the language. Competent production may lag considerably
behind comprehensible input.

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 • Affective factors, like risk taking, put severe limitations on spoken language
performance. Students need to develop their affective competence.
• Peer practice is more effective than teacher to student practice because of time
available, the reduced risk of dealing with peers, and, “scaffolding” – output
processing through comparison of forms.
• A collaborative learning atmosphere is more productive that a competitive one
to reduce affective risk, to encourage language use and to build positive
reinforcement.
• Meaningful repetition of language forms within an understandable context is a
necessary condition for learning. This means that target language needs to be
modeled in a variety of modes – listening, and reading co texts – as it is learned.
• Language is most likely to be learned in a context where the focus is upon the
message rather than the language itself. Language learners learn best when they
forget they are learning language.
• Personalization is a key element in learning. This means identification with
lesson contexts, and “choices” about what and how language is to be learned.
• The emotional engagement of the learner is critical for personalization of
language learning contexts.
• Creating felt needs for language learning in a supportive environment is the job
of the teacher. Teachers who blame students for poor motivation have missed
the point.
• Grammatical form and accuracy are essential to clear communication and
learning, but should not be the sole focus of language lessons.
• Noticing grammar, looking at form, usage and function, may be a useful
strategy for learners
• Understanding is a combination of context, co text and the degree to which the
learner is emotionally engaged in the learning process.
• Language needs to be presented in “chewable” bites, appropriate in amount and
content to the learner’s needs. Enough to challenge, but not so much as to
overwhelm. Krashen’s I + 1.
• Target language for learners needs to be ‘practical’ – of use to the learner,
‘predictable’ – where the meaning is transparent from the context in which it is
presented, and, ‘personal’ – involve the emotional intentions of the individual
learner.

http://eslinfusion.oise.utoronto.ca/principles.asp A good short summary of simple

principles for teaching
http://www.usingenglish.com/amazon/us/0194355748.html Review and reference for
Campbell, Larsen-Freeman and Rutherford text on this topic
http://www.usingenglish.com/amazon/us/0130282839.html Review and reference for
H. Douglas Brown book on this topic .

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Language Learning and Language Acquisition
The distinction between “language learning” and “language acquisition” has been
brought to us by researchers in linguistics, psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology
– notably by Steve Krashen, Noam Chomsky, Steven Pinker and others – and through
studies of both first and second language learning. More significantly, the majority of
people who learn another language do so without teachers, books or classroom study.
They do it by being exposed to comprehensible input that is for some reason important
to their lives – trading, traveling, studying or working. They do it not by thinking about
learning language, but by using new sounds and systems to communicate something of
importance to them. We might do well to look at this phenomenon since these “non-
students” are relatively more successful in their task than the majority of formal
language students. The critical difference is the focus on the “message” rather than the
form of the language used to transmit the message. To summarize:

Acquisition Learning

! Similar to the process of learning L1 ! Learning process is not like learning L1

(first or native language) ! Conscious process
! An intuitive process ! Explicit knowledge
! Implicit knowledge ! Thinking before speaking
! Speaking without thinking about it ! Formal teaching helps
! Formal teaching does not help much ! Not as dependant upon affective factors
! Strongly influenced by affective ! Teachers or parental figures are more
factors important than peers
! Peers have a more important ! Language is often de-contextualized for
influence than teachers or parental drills and exercises
figures ! There is no attention to what is known
! Language is acquired in a “context” about the sequence of learning different
that is understandable to the learner linguistic features
! There is a discernable, but as yet
incomplete ordering of the sequence
of acquisition of linguistic features

Another way of looking at this distinction may be the following. Native speakers have a
built in “feel” for what is right or wrong in language.

I love to swim.
*I enjoy to swim.

While the second sentence is a logical extension of the first, native English speakers
know it isn’t right.

TASK
Why do native speakers know the second sentence is wrong? What does this tell us
about “acquisition” versus “learning?”

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 It is an underlying principle of this text to bring language teaching closer to the “natural
acquisition” of language characterized by first language learning (L1), and to reduce the
type of “learning” practiced in many classrooms where second languages are taught. To
do this there will be a strong emphasis upon,

1. Language context and modeling of language

2. Natural language as it occurs in real life
3. Encouraging learners to participate, initiate and make choices about their learning
4. Learning grammar and vocabulary in context
5. Repeated and varied language models for accuracy, rather than correction
6. Maximizing peer interaction to allow students to observe, hypothesize, experiment
7. peer scaffolding as output processing for language development
8. Focus on the “message” rather than the “language”
9. Emphasizing the emotional engagement of the learner
10. Giving the student time to digest input before requiring production

http://www.usingenglish.com/amazon/us/0130282839.html A great article by Steven

Pinker on how language is acquired.
http://www.usingenglish.com/amazon/us/0130282839.html A quick thumbnail sketch
of the idea of “acquisition” and why it is so important.
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/slabib.html A very comprehensive bibliography
of second language acquisition.
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html A brief introduction to Steve Krashen’s ideas about
second language acquisition in English and Portuguese.
http://www.eslminiconf.net/ An index of the ESL Mini-conference Online articles. This
is an excellent discussion between Krashen, O’Neil and Bill Van Patten about language
acquisition theory.

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 The Basic Paradigm
The lesson frameworks presented in this book are structures to build on. They will work
as stand-alone lessons, but serve best as a basis for adaptation to the needs of the
students, the teacher and the curriculum being taught. The series of activities in each
framework builds up gradually and logically from modeling to practice of the target
language. Remember, these series are “frameworks to build on”, and are not intended to
be rigid prescriptions for teaching. They are basic dance steps and choreographies ready
for improvisation. They all subscribe to a paradigm of teaching - learning that might be
expressed as follows,

Warmers Context Core Controlled Vocabulary Communicative

[10] [10] Materials Practice Expansion Practice
Getting To begin [10-20] [10-20] [10] [10]
students focusing A core of Opportunities Additional This means using
comfortable, on material – to use the vocabulary the language to
interacting predictable dialogue, target added by “do” something –
and used to concepts reading, language the teacher i.e. play a game,
basic and listening with lots of or the find out
routines language. or other supportive students to something, or
to build cues from the build on and solve a problem.
on teacher, expand the The message is the
board, core focus rather than
pictures, etc. material. the language at
this lesson stage.
*Time estimates in [brackets] are approximate

The activities that constitute each step are not strictly prescribed and will depend upon
the level, the students, the teacher and the curriculum. The sequence, with the possible
exception of the vocabulary expansion, is pretty much logically determined. In other
words, you can’t very well practice language until it has been introduced and modeled,
and it is fairly predictable that communicative practice will follow the other steps. It is
possible that some of the steps might be omitted or self-accessed by the learner, but the
paradigm remains. Were it all so simple, it would be truly boring. Fortunately, there are
two additional factors that considerably liven up this process.

1. Natural speech continually introduces new concepts and ideas that require modeling.
For example:

A/ WHAT’S THE MATTER? (This requires context setting and some modeling.)
And the response,
B/ I HAVE A HEADACHE. (Requiring further modeling)

This means that as the lesson progresses, the new concepts and ideas will require
modeling, thereby providing breaks, challenges and variations in the lesson
sequence.

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2. The human ‘disposition towards variance’ – i.e. a natural tendency towards variation in
expression - requires language to be modeled and practiced in different mediums and
skills. This shows up in two ways at least.
a. Language that has been modeled as a spoken dialogue might also be modeled as a
listening activity, a reading and then practiced in writing and speaking. These might
also be seen as a review steps, although the idea of remodeling seems more
descriptive. There is no doubt that in practice teachers realize the importance of an
integrated skills approach – speaking, listening, reading and writing - for developing
language competence. The order of skills in practice activities is refreshingly
variable, including,

" Listening>>Speaking>>Reading>>Writing
" Reading>>Writing>>Listening>>Speaking
" Writing>>Speaking>>Listening>>Reading
" Reading>>Speaking>>Listening>>Writing

or any other combination. In fact, effective teachers and textbooks, vary these
combinations continuously to keep the learners attention.

b. Speech patterns, as well, seem to obey a ‘variance disposition’ as we

seldom repeat ourselves, except when we rescript language for the classroom. The
following questions would be better suited to the police station than the English
classroom.

Where do you want to go?

What do you want to do?
When do you want to go?

More likely this dialogue would include variations such as,

Where do you want to go?

What are you going to do there?
When would you like to go?

This natural variance helps to suggest how to make language in the classroom more
natural, and keep things lively with alternatives in both the activity and the target
language.

In sum, there is a basic logical paradigm within any effective language lesson.

LANGUAGE MODELS LANGUAGE PRACTICE

Language is modeled and then it is practiced. However, the modeling and practice of
various language items often overlaps. In other words, as we are practicing one bit of
the target language, other bits may be presented in a modeling stage. Thus, defining the
modeling and the practice stages varies depending upon what bit of language we are
referring to.

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http://www.ihworld.com/ihjournal/implementing_a_task_based_%20approach_pete%2
0_moor.doc An article from Peter Moore at International House London on the Task
Based approach, which is compatible to what is outlined above
http://www.teacherdevelopment.net/Books/learning-teaching.htm Web source and
quick description of James Scrivener’s Learning Teaching, Heinemann

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 Warmers

These are short 5-10 minute activities at the start of the lesson intended to:

" Get the students talking and interacting

" Build rapport with the students
" Develop confidence through the practice of “known” language
" Review previous materials
" Focus on the topic of the lesson
" Introduce behaviors and choreographies to be used during the lesson
" Let the teacher get a feel for the class

Getting the students “activated”, focused and interacting might be another way to
describe this lesson stage. The absence of a warmer will often be felt later in the lesson
when the teacher expects the students to talk with each other using more challenging
language. The inability of the students to talk with each other at later stages may reflect
the fact that they have not been introduced to the idea of peer language practice. Thus, it
is critical that the warmer be ‘known’ language – i.e. something they can be expected to
know since it is much easier than the current lesson, something that is often used in
class, or a review of basic language from a previous lesson. The idea is to give the
students “success.” The warmer should not be used to ‘test’ the students. The warmer
should relax the students and give them satisfaction of understanding and responding to
language they are familiar with. Occasionally, teachers express concern that warmers –
like,

A/ HI. MY NAME’S DAVE. WHAT’S YOUR NAME?

B/ MY NAMES …..
A/ NICE TO MEET YOU.
B/ NICE TO MEET YOU TOO.

are too easy and boring for the learners. This could be true, but is often more a
reflection of the teacher’s tedium with using the same language. For a class of teenage
high school students, the above warmer is one of the few extended exchanges that is
possible, doable and likely to offer some feeling of satisfaction during initial class
meetings. Warmers have the rather onerous task of trying to loosen up the students (get
them to interact comfortably and with minimal risk), provide a focus for the coming
lesson, and, set processes (behaviors and choreographies) that they will be used to when
faced with more challenging language practice. Thus, be careful not to make them too
brief or unplanned.

At the same time, a warmer is not an excuse for excess teacher talk or ‘prefacing – e.g.

Today we’re going to talk about things we do at the bus station. I remember one time
when I was at the bus station ….

It is important to get right into the lesson, or warmer stage at this point with a T/T
model (several times) followed by T/S>>S/T>>S/S question and answers. It is true that

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not all warmers are dialogues, but there should be some variation in the pattern of
exchange between students and teacher.

Choosing a proper dialogue for a lesson warmer is important. It needs to be ‘known’ but
also needs to focus the lesson. This requires knowing the students well enough to
predict what language they will be able to handle easily in the warmer, but will also
begin to focus the lesson. For example, if the upcoming lesson is about My
Neighborhood, the warmer might be, Where do you live? If the lesson was about Jobs
in the future the warmer might be, What do you do? It should not be What do you want
to do? Since this would presuppose the language of the core lesson. In other words, the
language used in the warmer will be related to the idea of the lesson, but not
“presuppose” the target language by expecting the students to produce the language
before it has been modeled and practiced.

With beginning students you might ask, DO YOU LIKE SWIMMING? But, the
question, WHAT SPORTS DO YOU PLAY AFTER SCHOOL? might presuppose the
lesson.

Some warmer activity possibilities

Name games
• Simple dialogue exchange T/S>>S/T>>S/S choreography with greetings as
described above. Best done with new students when you and the students are getting
to know each other.
• Throw the ball (a virtual ball is good here) around the circle. Really a choreographic
variation that allows students to chose who they want to talk with. Make sure
students actually use the dialogue that the teacher has modeled, and it doesn’t
become a dodge ball game.
• Memory games. T/S, S/T and S/S questions but with a short-term memory element
to make it more challenging. For example,
o The teacher begins by asking students what they do for exercise
o Then the teacher changes the question so that students have to remember
what some other student has said. WHAT DOES NING DO FOR
EXERCISE?

• Songs & chants – (see “songs & Chants” section) An excellent warm up activity,
but make sure that the song or chant is simple, and focuses on language functions
that will be used in the lesson, such as those found in Carolyn Graham’s Small Talk.
Also, be careful that it warms up the students, but does not over excite them or just
provide entertainment and distraction.

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• Word families, maps & trees

Students work in groups of 4-5 to add words and ideas to poster paper. This is
particularly useful at the post beginner stages when students can collectively
generate much of the language to be used in the lesson. It’s alright if much of the
group talk is in the 1st language, as long as they produce a poster in English that can
be shared with other students and provides a resource for vocabulary expansion.
Studies on the effectiveness of group work in all L2 of a combination of L1 and L2
show little difference.

• Imaging – Imagine that you are…in a restaurant, waking up, arguing with your
brother, meeting a friend, etc
• Whispers – Students whisper a message student to student through a line. The last
person in the line writes the ‘message’ on the board. With two or more lines this can
be a contest.
• Pretend - that you are 10-feet tall, tired, blind, waking up, scared, etc.
• Name that sound – pairs or groups try to guess the origin or contexts of sounds
played on tape
• Living sentences – Teacher passes out word cards and students arrange themselves
into sentences.
• Charades. Students act out what the teacher or another student says.

More ideas on warmers from Marc Helgesen.

1. This is for you

Preparation: get a few soft

objects that are easy to throw
and catch. I prefer medium
sized stuffed animals. They
don’t bounce away like balls do.
You’ll want 3-4 per groups of
10-15 students).

What to do:
1. On the board, write, This is for you, (name). Thank you, (name).
2. Students stand in circles of 10-15. Start by going around the circle. Everyone
introduces themselves.

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3. Give a stuffed animal to one student. She reintroduces herself (I’m Mai.). Then
she says, This is for you, (name) and throws it to that student.
4. That student says, Thank you, Mai. I’m Emi. This is for you, (name). and throws it to
another student.
* It is a good idea to have them make sure everyone has gotten the animal once before
there are repetitions. There will be times they don’t know someone’s name. They just
look at that student and gesture that they need help with the name. That person says her
name.
5. Once everyone has received and thrown the stuff animal once, the fun begins. Ask
them to follow the trail – they throw it to the same person. Introduce the second and
third stuffed animal. Leave a few seconds delay between each one. They continue to
say, This is for you, (name). Thank you, (name). each time they throw it.
6. Suggest a bit of silence. They continue to throw the animals but the only think about
the names. They don’t say them. This silent period really helps them concentrate on the
names.

Variation. At this point, make it a free for all. They see how many names they
remember. They call out the names and try to get that person’s attention (Mai! This is
for you!) When they do, they toss the animal to that person. The animals no longer
follow a trail. Creative chaos!
* At the end, give everyone a minute or two to look around the circle and see how
many people’s names they know.

2. All tangled up.

Preparation: You’ll need the same 3-4 stuff animals you used in This is for you.

What to do:
• Repeat This is for you (but don’t do the variation) with only one animal. Ask
everyone to remember whom they got it from and whom they threw it to.
• After a few minutes, stop the activity. The circles put away the animals and just
mingle with group members for a minute or so. They can say hello, check on names,
etc. It is important that they move to different positions.
• Then, ask everyone to freeze. They look around to spot the person they got the
animal from and the person they threw it to. Moving as little as possible, they take
the right hand of the person who threw it to them with their left hand. They take the
left hand of the person they threw it to with their right hand. You should have a
mess of bodies intertwined with their hands.
• Let the fun begin. They have to sort out their circle and get back to a normal circle
where they are standing holding hands. And they have to get there without letting
go of hands. Some people (and pairs) will have to step over other or under other
people’s hands and arms. People will be moving in and out. At times it will be
frustrating (try substituting the work challenging.) but it will work.
• At the end, give them time to look around the group to see whose name they
remember. If there are people whose names they don’t know, they ask. (RB)

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3. Circle action game
This is a variation on
something you’ve probably
been doing for years. Check
out the pantomime gesture
aspect. It makes it a lot
stronger.
Preparation: (Optional)
One soft object (like the
stuffed animals above)
for each group of 8-12.

What to do:

• 1. On the board, write I’m (name). I like .

You’re (name). You like .
• Students work in groups of 8-12. Give the animal to one person. He introduces
himself and says something he likes. (I’m Young Jae. I like skiing.) As he says what
he likes, he makes a gesture demonstrating it. For example, he moves his body as if
he were skiing, or he uses two fingers flying down a mountain to represent a skier.
Then he throws the object to the next speaker. (If there is no object, he just points to
the next speaker.)
• The next speaker must repeat the first speaker’s information and do the gesture
before adding her own information and gesture. (You’re Young Jae. You like skiing.
I’m Hee Soon. I like listening to hip-hop.) She adds a gesture such as a hip-hop
dance movement or something to show listening to music. She throws the object to
the next person who has to remember and repeat both Young Jae’s information and
Hee Soon’s.
• The game continues. Everyone has to remember each person’s information and do
each gesture: #2 remembers #1. #3 remembers #1 and #2. #4 knows #1, #2 and #3.
#4 knows 1-2-3-4, etc. If someone forgets (no problem. It will happen.), the person
gives a hint by showing the gesture. That is often enough to help the speaker
remember the name as well as the thing he likes. If not, the person can give the
information, either by speaking aloud or by mouthing the information silently (like
lip-reading).

Can you think of any other warm up activities that involve communication?

http://www.eltnews.com/features/thinktank/016_mh.shtml More Marc Helgesen ideas

on using guided visualization for warmers or other stages in the lesson.
http://www.onestopenglish.com/tefl_esl_warmers/index.htm One Stop English
webpage warmers site. This is a great source for lots of neat teaching stuff.

17
 Context and Contextualization
Context means the scene which surrounds a communication situation and,

Contextualization means creating a communication situation that is so clear in the

student’s mind that he or she knows exactly what is said in that situation, just not in
English. It is a picture that the learner can see him/herself in, or imagine her/himself
being part of.

Context means personalization. Asking questions which allow students to express

their interests to the teacher and each other

WHAT SPORTS DO YOU LIKE?

WHEN DO YOU GET UP?
WHAT DO YOU DO AFTER SCHOOL?
WHERE DID YOU GO LAST WEEKEND?
WHO IS YOUR FAVORITE PERSON?

It means that lessons will predict student’s interests by including things that are familiar
and relevant to their lives.

Context means localization. One place to start is with student–made maps. Students
work together to draw maps of the school, nearby locations, their neighborhood, the
downtown, the mall, and the region. Lesson material uses local place names,
landmarks, modes of transport, names, foods, etc. What do people do there, how do you
get there, what should you do there? This does not mean that you shouldn’t introduce
new things, but do so with caution under the conditions that:

" The new things are relevant to the student’s lives

" You start with where the students are, and them bring them to new things

For example, a teacher in Thailand once asked about teaching a lesson using a picnic at
Yellowstone Park as a context. She was anxious to impart some knowledge about her
own culture and interests. The problem is, in rural Thailand, bears are not common,
geysers are unknown and the landscape and scenery of Wyoming a bit hard to imagine.
It was suggested that she utilize the fact that the local beach was a prime picnic spot,
and target her lesson on a beach picnic. This is an example of “localization,” and is not
meant to say that there is never a time to teach about one’s own culture and interests.
However, start with where the students are, and move slowly into new areas as
indicated by the learners’ interests. Too often teachers - because of texts, out of a false
sense of being cultural missionaries, or, just loneliness - teach irrelevant context and
target language.

Context means natural language that is not re-scripted to make a grammatical point –
e.g. consistent, but unnatural use of some grammatical feature.

A: Where is he going?
B: He is going to the store.

18
 A: What is he wearing?
B: He is wearing a suit.*

*Unless, of course, we are spying upon him.

The grammar in a conversation is directed by the “context” and not by the intent of the
teacher to illustrate grammar. It is; thus, more understandable since meaning is heavily
dependant upon context.

Context has some definition in time and place. For example,

AT THE CLINIC

A/ WHAT’S THE MATTER?

B/ I HAVE A SORE THROAT AND A HEADACHE?
A/ HOW’S YOUR STOMACH?
B/ IT’S OK.
A/ LET’S TAKE A LOOK AT YOUR THROAT………

It is very predictable what will be said in this situation as it is well contained in time
and place. That is not to say that all converations must be defined in this way, but it
helps! Look at the following picture.

So. What did

you do last
weekend?

This picture helps to narrow down the possibilities of what might be discussed between
two schoolmates, but a number of topics are possible. The speech bubble is needed to
narrow down the context language, and the ‘thought’ bubble suggests further
possibilities. It is not necessary that context modeling suggest all the possible language
that might occur. As a matter of fact, it is sometimes important to be ambiguous with
models to allow the learner to speculate about the meaning. For example, to model a
“Street Scene” it would be better to have people posed in a manner that could be
interpreted in a variety of ways. Thus, in answer to the question, What is she doing?
The student could offer his or her own interpretation. It would be illogical to ask the
19
question if there were only one possible answer. Picture “A” might be better than
picture “B” since there could be various interpretations for What he is doing?

A. B.

TASK.
What contexts could the picture below suggest?

Modeling the context – GOING TO THE MALL

a. Write the context on the board to get students to focus on

the topic

b. Elicit to the blackboard the names of local malls as examples

c. Have the students design the floor plan and stores in a local mall or their own
“perfect” mall.

d. Do a mime charade of the teacher walking through a mall

e. Play audio or videotape of mall sounds and sights

20
 f. Draw or show pictures of malls and stores

Any combination of the above is possible. In modeling context, it is important to

involve the students, and not just make it a teacher show. Once the initial concept is
established by example, get the students to draw and provide further contextual clues.
Care must be taken to provide samples of language form, and not to expect students to
know what hasn’t been modeled and practiced yet. In other words, elicit the names of
places in the mall that are known in English, but supply the words or phrases in English
when needed.

Be careful not to ask questions like, “What’s this?” or “What’s a store?” unless you
expect students to know the answer. This presupposes the lesson you are about to teach.
Also, remember that students know what a “store” is, they just don’t know the form
(sounds and script) for “store” in English. The trick is to bring the students right to
the point where they know exactly what you are trying to say, and then saying it,
so that they get the “form” of the language. In other words, setting the scene so well
that “the students know exactly what the language is in that situation, they just don’t
know it in English.”

EXAMPLE
In modeling the context for NEIGHBORHOOD the teacher might use the following
steps.
1. Write the word in the board - NEIGHBORHOOD
2. Ask the students to close their eyes and take a mental trip around the neighborhood
while the teacher narrates. (Imaging or imagining)
3. Pass out poster paper and pens to groups of 3-5 students
4. The poster paper would show a neighborhood familiar to the students – i.e. around the
school, downtown, a main road

Bus
Station School <Next
<Across> to>
Shop
from Clinic

5. This models the place names and the concept of the locations, but to model the
location words the teacher needs to,
6. Give students cards with the names of the places, and have them arrange themselves
according to the map – a “people map”, or lay the cards out on a table in this
manner.
7. Then, the teacher models, NEXT TO, ACROSS FROM, BETWEEN, etc as,

The clinic is ACROSS FROM the school. The shop is NEXT TO the school. Etc.

21
Context modeling does not only come at the beginning of a lesson. In the above
example of Neighborhood, the initial poster work begins to set the place names and the
locations.
This might be followed by conversation practice focusing on,

A/ IS THERE A BUS STATION AROUND HERE.

B/ YES. THERE IS.
A/ AND, ARE THERE ANY SHOPS NEARBY?
B/ YES. THERE ARE.

Modeling and practice for the locations in this conversation will be covered in the next
section. It is important to note that the poster work is followed by conversation work,
which is then followed by more modeling to set the concepts of location in the “people
map” – i.e. NEXT TO, ACROSS FROM.

To review, modeling in context will be necessary whenever a new concept comes up in

the lesson. Notice that it is “modeling in context.” While NEXT TO and ACROSS
FROM can be modeled by having students notice the position of others students in the
classroom as designated by the teacher, the context here is In the Classroom. To assure
understanding of the location prepositions In the Neighborhood context it is best to
model the locations on the map since it seem highly likely that this is the way we
remember them.

The Neighborhood example can be extended to other contexts, and we might go further
to bring in associations, which will add to the specification of the context. Specifically,
we want to involve as many ‘senses’ as we can in the definition of the context – sights,
colors, sounds, smells, feelings, hot/cold, what clothing, time of day, time of the year,
place, with who and, including the emotional engagement of the learner in that
situation. The mind and the body are collectively involved in our memory process and
the more associations we can specify the better. Of course, this is different for every
person, but no matter, since this is also part of the personalization process

For example, RESTAURANT...

Imagine Colors? Smells?
Sounds? Feelings?
Clothing? Time?
People? Mood?
Transport? Later?
Etc.

The amount of English used and produced here depends upon the learners. The
learner’s response can be one word, pointing to appropriate picture models, or drawing
pictures. Through guided elicitation, the teacher can assist the learners to recognize the
language forms in English.

The teacher tries to get the learners to connect with these feelings throughout the
learning process, but it is extremely critical in the context setting stage since this allows
the learner to ‘invest’ in the process.

22
Marc Helgesen builds on this idea with Inner Voice. The idea being the variety of sub
text that goes on when a dialogue occurs between two people.

A: Where are you going?

(Meaning: Why aren’t you staying here with me.)
B: I’m going out.
(Meaning: I’m leaving and I hope this bothers you.)
A: Well, like when are you coming back?
(Meaning: I really don’t want you to go)
B: I don’t know.
(Meaning: Good. You’re worried and that’s what I intended.)

When building context with dialogues, the teacher can,

" Have students practice the dialogue silently, acting out the roles
" Use mime instead of the words to develop the ‘feel’ for the context without the risk
of making mistakes.
See more on this by using your browser – Marc Helgesen inner voice
http://www.mgu.ac.jp/~ic/helgesen2/paper2.htm

TASK: How would you model the following to get across the meaning?

1. I’m sorry I’m late.

2. What’s the matter?

3. I’m sorry. We don’t have any.

4. Tea bags are on the top shelf in aisle 3.

5. What’s your favorite movie?

6. My hero.

7. What did you do last weekend?

What could you model with the following pictures?

23
Sounds for Modeling
A collection of sounds can brighten up modeling and add interest.

EXAMPLES
Nature Machines People Places Outside
• rain • cars • sniffing " classroom " dog
• the sea • motor • laughing " street scene barking
• crickets cycle • crying " restaurant " cock
• thunder • computer • sneezing " supermarket crowing
• birds typing • coughing • department " traffic
• wind • buses • ouch!!! store " ice cream
• hot day • mobile • burp " internet cafe man
phone " traffic " walking
• wet day • Hey!
• motorcycle " bus station " running
• A KISS! " skipping
starting " market
• car starting " playing
children
• fan
• cash register

Sound models are underused and not hard to make. A small cassette recorder taken to
real locales is an obvious start, and there are many sounds available off the web. Alan
Maley’s Sounds Intriguing available from Cambridge University Press is another good
resource for more elaborate background sounds from old movies.

Summary

The focus of this section on modeling has been to explore specific ways that a teacher
can model language. It starts with setting the context, or background for the situation,
and then modeling concepts as they occur within the communication situation. Let us
review briefly.

Context is setting the stage from which learners can begin to predict meaning. Context
is modeled through pictures, symbols, gestures, charades, sounds or some combination
there of. Written script is simply a convention that a language group agrees on to model
the range of ideas possible in human communication. It is important here to realize,
however, that words, in and of themselves, have no meaning (!) Neither do words exist
in the brain, unless we consciously project them there. Thus, written or spoken words
24
are only models of language “form.” Models for meaning must come from the
conceptual level of thinking found in pictures or other things that we associate with
things or ideas to give them meaning. Models are the ways that we try to ‘get the idea
across,’ and, modeling is the dance step that characterizes the process.

Modeling ideas and concepts is indeed one of the most demanding challenges that a
teacher faces. The challenge is most obvious with beginning students and young
learners since they have insufficient latent “traces” of the target language to call on.
“Traces” are marks left by earlier exposure to language that have undeveloped
connections with both the conceptual associations, and language form or manner of
production. Using elicitation to develop a corpus of language and ideas is common with
teachers and classes above the beginning level – i.e. asking the class, “Name some
foods you eat at the beach?” The fact that this will actually work, and produce answers,
is proof enough that the “traces” are there. This leads to the mistaken idea among some
teachers, that it’s only necessary to ask the right question. The logic, however, is pretty
obvious, if the students can say it, they must already have learned it. Put another way,
models and modeling is the process by which we get students to predict meaning, and
connect it to preexisting concepts. A further step is needed before they will be able use
this language to communicate. Through using the language in natural situations they
will experiment and refine their usage and form of language to express intended
meaning

In classroom terms, the context is a situation, preferably specified in time and space,
which allows learners to begin to predict language concepts that will follow. For
example, At The Clinic suggests things like doctor, medicine, nurse, and white coat.
Further models of concepts and form like, What’s the matter? will be needed to bring
the language to the learner. Expanding this language and vocabulary will require further
modeling of ideas like, sore throat, headache, skin rash, and cough to develop useful
language practice in this context. The co text is the collocation (comparative location)
of words and phrases in the body of language, which communicates the language
situation – i.e. a conversation, dialogue, or reading selection – for example, as
previously suggested: What’s the matter? Asked by a person in a white coat in a
location that is clearly a doctors office, suggests that what will follow will be an ailment
like, I have a stomachache.

http://www.eltnews.com/features/thinktank/025_1mh.shtml Using different senses in

language learning by Marc Helgesen. Very useful in setting context.

25
Core Materials
Core material is the target language of a lesson. It is a source for expansion and
manipulation that is appropriate to the learners’ level and interests. There may be one,
or more than one, “core” sources in a lesson. At the beginning level, it is likely to be a
dialogue. Texts often have a number of core “conversations,” “listening activities,” and
“readings” in each unit. The core language, its context and sub language concepts
(meaning) need to be communicated to the students by illustration, demonstration or
examples. The students should be able to predict from the modeling, the key ideas to
help them understand the language “forms” – i.e. sounds or writing as presented in
English. For example, we might show a picture of a doctor and a patient, and then
model,

A/ WHAT’S WRONG?
B/ I HAVE A STOMACH ACHE. (While the teacher rubs his stomach and grimaces)

It’s fairly predictable that the student will understand the language being used.

At the modeling stage it is not expected that the learner will be able to produce the
language perfectly. In fact it is quite important that the learner is not ‘forced’ to mimic
exact copies of the language during the controlled practice in the presentation of the
core language. This would ignore what we know about the significance of
“interlanguage” – i.e. intermediate forms – that are the result of internal rule hypothesis.
Thus, choral repetitions are not recommended at this stage. The accuracy of production
should increase as we move from modeling, to controlled practice, and then to more
communicative practice. The degree of accuracy achieved will vary from learner to
learner depending a variety of factors in the acquisition process.

Core Dialogues
There are various ways to model dialogues in front of a class. The ‘teacher to teacher’
role-play shown could also be done with puppets, a hand sock puppet, by changing hats,
or with masks, but the basic idea remains the same.
Teacher to teacher (T/T) charade.
The teacher speaks the first line(s), and then changes to the position of the other speaker
and speaks their line(s).

Picture cards are useful in supporting the

modeling here. While the teacher should continue
to face the imaginary other person, the cards must
face the class.

26
To do this convincingly, the teacher must mime the actions and expressions of the two
speakers, and face the imaginary other person as if they were there. Looking at the class
will make the charade less natural. As well, facing towards the students increases
anxiety, and decreases the input value. Equally, it is important to keep intonation and
stress natural and consistent. The T/T charade works best with relatively short dialogues
at beginning to lower intermediate levels. Do not slow or over enunciate the lines. Clear
voice projection is important so that the class can hear the modeled language. The
teacher should do at least 3-4 T/T models before going on to the teacher to student,
student-to-teacher and student-to-student models covered below.

One-sided tape (Tape/T) charade.

This is a useful variation that will draw student interest and can be used with longer
dialogues and higher levels. The teacher records the “A” portion of the conversation on
tape with sufficient blank space for the teacher to respond. In making the tape always
make the tape the “A” role, and silently and slowly respond twice to leave adequate
blank space for the responses. Again, do not slow or over enunciate the lines. The dance
step looks like this. Once again, picture cards are useful here to strengthen the model.

A/tape
player

Once the teacher gets used to talking to the tape player, this procedure makes the
dialogue modeling much more realistic and natural. This supposes that the tape is clear,
loud enough to be heard clearly in the classroom, and has sufficient pauses to allow
‘spaced’ but natural responses. As above, 3-4 Tape to teacher models are needed before
going on.

Note that context setting is also an optional extra here. A one-sided tape that starts with,
Wrrroooommm! Wwwrrroooommm! (motorcycle engine being revved) And then goes
to the following conversation with the cycle engine rumbling in the background.

A/ WHERE’RE YOU GOING?

B/ I’M GOING TO THE MARKET.
A/ HOW’RE YOU GOING TO GET THERE?
B/ I’M GOING TO GET A MOTORCYCLE TAXI.
A/ WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO?
B/ I’M GOING TO BUY SOME FRUIT.

In a place where motorcycle taxis are the norm, the context is quite clear as the student
can imagine him or herself in this situation.

TASK
How could you set the context in a place where “taxis” were the most common choice
of transport?

Controlled Practice-Modeling
27
Teacher/ student (T/S) to student/teacher(S/T) to student/student(S/S) questions –
T/S>>S/T>>S/S Qs. This is the beginning of “controlled practice” activity following
T/T models. The teacher should choose the students who are most ready and able to
speak, be patient with partial or delayed responses, and move on to other students
smoothly, if a student is unable to respond or initiate. The dance steps are important
here as the teacher starts by asking individual students (T/S), then asks students to
initiate the question (S/T), and then, asks students to ask each other S/S). The sequence
is important since initiating the question is usually harder than answering with a
statement. Thus, the teacher goes first, then the student initiates to model and practice,
and finally, two students model (allowing them to choose who will be the initiator).
This is important as natural human discourse allows us to choose who will initiate.
Body position is important, with the teacher roughly 45 degrees to the student rather
than facing the student since this is less intimidating. As well, it allows the teacher to
monitor the rest of the class, and ask for peer help. Getting other students to assist in the
response can be helpful, and encourage collaboration, but care must be taken not to
embarrass further the student on the spot. Move on to another student or remodel if the
response is not forthcoming in a reasonable time.

The number of times for T/S, S/T and S/S will vary depending upon class size and
level, but should be somewhere between 3-8 times. If students are unable to respond or
initiate:

a. Look encouraging and back off a bit.

b. Ask other students to help
c. Go on to another student or remodel T/T

Remember that this is practice for the students participating, but modeling for the rest
of the class. Thus, make sure that the class can see and hear what’s going on

Eliciting to the black board.

This should follow the steps above. It is important for the students to develop an aural
model before seeing the script. This aids discrimination of the sound patterns, and avoid
confusion from 1st or 2nd language script. The key idea here is to elicit word-by-word.
This is the point where you catch up those students who are not getting the models or
making errors. Literally, get students to say each word, leaving blanks for missing
words or error. Then the teacher can go back and input the needed models. Don’t choral
off the board – i.e. have students respond in unison. Get individual students to offer
words by calling on them, or initiate a general elicit indicating that students may call
out answers.

28
 WHERE…ARE…YOU…GOIN
G?

(Individual students, not chorals)

Scrambled sentences.
Another fun way to model conversational dialogues is to cut them up into separate
sentences, or phrases to make it more difficult, and have groups of students reassemble
the dialogue. Somewhat more advanced students can do this using the shared
knowledge of the group. Beginning students will need to hear a tape several times to
assist them. Once again, set the context first and then,
• Pass out scrambles sentences in envelopes to groups
• Play the tape>>check groups>>replay tape
• Groups reassemble sentences
• Teacher coaches and mentors the groups
• Students practice the lines of the dialogue

For example,

GOING? YOU WHERE ARE

Grids
These can be used to generate either conversational material, or writing materials. They
are appropriate from beginning to more advanced levels as long as the grid is supported
with pictures and text. Pairs or groups generate the language into the boxes either by
sharing their knowledge, or from teacher’s cues. Once they have developed some
language choices in each box, the teacher models the basic dialogue as above in T/T.

29
 A/ WHAT DID YOU DO ON SATURDAY/SUNDAY?
B/ I……….
A/ WHAT DID YOU HAVE TO DO ON SATURDAY/SUNDAY?
B/ I HAD TO…

SATURDAY SUNDAY

DID

HAD TO DO…

Summary
Think of the core materials as the critical mass of language sample that the learners will
work with. It is “input” language – i.e. listening or reading materials. This input must be
“comprehensible” to the learners in terms of their own life and interests. It must be
“personalized” for them so that they can make it their own, and begin to initiate using
the language for their own intentions. A “core” of language might be built up by
brainstorming to combine the ideas and interests of students in a class. Starting with
drawings by the teacher and the students would be needed at beginning levels. Idea
mapping is another powerful tool here. It is critical that the learners initiate as much as
possible in this process.

30
Controlled Practice
Controlled practice is student-to-student speaking opportunities with strong supporting
cues – blackboard, pictures, charades or other. It is important in controlled practice that
the students have the chance to say/listen to the same thing with few vocabulary
variables, and to speak to different people. Controlled practice follows sufficient
modeling for students to understand and develop confidence to speak, but is a fluency
exercise where accuracy is not stressed. In this type of activity there will be significant
error in the early stages, and often the teacher will have to return to model the target
language. As the practice continues, however, there should be a noticeable increase in
competence and confidence.

Double-lines.
• Count off the students 1-2 and line them up facing each other.
• Model the switch – i.e. take a student from one line at the end, and move to the
other end. All students then move one place and have a new partner
• Start them talking and back away. This is important to show the students that they
should talk, and to ‘get out of the way.’
• Signal for a switch when pairs have had sufficient time to finish the conversation.
• Monitor closely, but do not interfere.

B
o
T
a
r
d

It is important for the teacher to monitor closely, but not interfere. If students are unable
to talk at this point, it usually means that there has been insufficient modeling of the
core language, and T/S>>S/T>>S/S practice. The target language may also be on the
board for supporting reference. The teacher may have to move the students to the front
of the room, or even into the hallway, but the lines (//’s) can be done standing between
the rows in a traditional classroom arrangement.

The Horseshoe.
Similar to the above,
• Arrange the student in a large U shape
• Count off 1-2
• Ask the “1’s” or “2’s” to step forward, and turn around
• They should now be facing a partner
• Model the “switch” by moving students clockwise or counterclockwise at a signal.

31
 T

Double circles.
This is similar to double lines, but with two circles moving in opposite directions.
Finding pairs is not really a problem as students can work out what to do. It works well
if the circles can be big with contexts - where people are ‘meeting on the street.’– Hey.
Where’re you going? The teacher should monitor closely not participate unless it is a
very well focused group.

T
This is the
odd person
out when
numbers
are unequal

These are basic choreographies to get students talking to each other. The activities
should stress fluency rather than accuracy. In general, the teacher should not intervene
since this will usually stop the flow of dialogue between students. There will be some
use of 1st language, but if the students have enough modeling and support, they should
be able to practice and experiment in these activities.

Triple lines.
This is the same as the double lines above, but with three lines. This is a nice activity
for a ‘confirmation’ exchange. It adds clarifying statements to the practice, and offers
one student the listener role.

A/ WHERE ARE YOU GOING?

B/ I’M GOING TO THE MARKET.
C/ WHAT DID HE SAY?
32
 B/ HE SAID HE’S GOING TO THE MARKET.

Pairs, Trios and Quintets.

Pair work has been the standard for student practice for years. The instruction, “Look
at the dialogue and talk to your partner using the same language,“ or some variation
thereof, is common to many textbooks. Nothing wrong with this activity, except it can
be pretty limiting at the beginning levels. A conversation like exchanging greetings can
take only a few seconds. Then, the students are left to just repeat the exchange or start
fooling around. Trios and Quintets offer some interesting variations and possibilities.
In three’s and five’s at least one of the students is offered a silent observer role. This is
not only natural, but allows some choice about who is going to speak first. This allows a
more cautious student a chance to listen first, and then participate, as they feel ready to
do so. More students also means more input as students can share language that they
know during practice.

Pairs Trios Quintets

Back-to-back
This is a variation on the double lines that can be used to simulate a telephone
conversation. Sometimes it is easier for students to start talking when they don’t have to
face each other. They can also use written and picture card cues more easily in this
choreography.

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/methodology/mixed_ability.shtml An article
about controlled practice activities and the web page for British Council and BBC
teaching English with lots of interesting links.

33
Listening Practice
Listening activities are basically re-modeling of the target language and practice in a
different medium – i.e. sound input. It is important to prepare the students for the
listening by setting the context, introducing vocabulary and ideas and helping the
learners predict what they will hear in the listening. The role of prediction in
understanding cannot be overemphasized. Most communication situations are highly
predictable – i.e. the ‘gist’ of what is going to be said is usually understood to some
degree. The expression “non-sequitor” refers to exactly that situation where something
is said that does not follow what has been previously said, or is, in other words,
unpredicted. The point in listening activities is to make the listening as predictable as
possible before playing the listening tape. Yes, give the students the answers. Tell them
what they are going to hear, before they hear it. This means using pictures, elicitation,
input and examples to help prepare them for the conversation, or narrative that they will
listen to.

Core Listening Materials

Most texts offer this option, as the conversations in the book are usually available on
cassette or CD. The important thing here is to focus the listening, and not presuppose
the lesson by asking ‘testing’ questions after the tape is played. The dance steps go like
this. Referring to the dialogue.

(RRRROOOMMM, RRRROOOOMMM!!)
A/ WHERE’RE YOU GOING?
B/ I’M GOING TO THE MARKET.
A/ HOW’RE YOU GOING TO GET THERE?
B/ I’M GOING TO GET A MOTORCYCLE TAXI.
A/ WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO?
B/ I’M GOING TO BUY SOME FRUIT.

• 1st Focus question – What do you hear?

• Play tape
• Focus question again – What do you hear?
• Students talk to each other
• Elicit to the board

• 2nd focus question – Where’s he going?

• Play tape
• Focus question again – Where’s he going?
• Students talk to each other
• Elicit to the board

• 3rd focus question – How’s he going to get there?

• Play the tape
• Focus question again – How’s he going to get there?
34
 • Students talk to each other
• Elicit to the board

• 4th focus question – What’s he going to do?

• Play the tape
• Focus question again – What’s he going to do?
• Students talk to each other
• Elicit to the board

The answers are likely to be single words – market, motorcycle, …fruit – and that’s OK.
We’re not expecting students to reproduce the whole dialogue here. Just to show some
understanding of the key ideas and words. The responses can be facilitated with picture
cards for beginning students.

The focused listening process is as follows.

1. Picture preview – use a picture to show>>tell>>elicit concepts and words – set the
context
2. Listening Procedure – Focused Listening
a. Ask Pre Question and put on the board (BB) – This is very important to focus
the listening
b. Play tape
c. Ask Pre Question and tell Ss to discuss in pairs
d. Re-cue tape
e. Ask Pre Question again eliciting a response to the BB
f. Ask next Pre Question…
3. Play the tape at least 3-5 times with a separate focusing Pre-Q
4. Point to pictures, charts or BB to clarify answers
5. Use the listening for a post-listening task such as:
a. Practicing the dialogue in pairs
b. Pairs role play in front of class
c. Writing and practicing personalized dialogues
d. Conducting a survey using similar language
e. Making tapes for practice listening or presentation to class

Group Listening Worksheets

Below is a worksheet template that can be used in any communicative lesson context.
The key elements in setting up the worksheets are:
" Make the blanks for “names” and other expanded vocabulary
" Do not just randomly make blanks
" The number of “roles” in the dialogue should equal the number of students in each
group
" This type of listening is featured in the “Extended Lesson Model”

The procedure is:

" Break the class in to groups of 4-5
" Give each group one copy of the handout
" Play the tape, teacher checks groups and assists, then replay tape (4-6 times)
35
" Elicit to the board the correct answers

A/ WHAT’S MOST IMPORTANT TO YOU NOI?

B/ WELL. _______________IS.
A/ WHY’S THAT?
B/ BECAUSE______________________.
HOW ABOUT YOU SU

C/ ________________ MOST IMPORTANT TO ME.

B/ WHY’S THAT?
C/ BECAUSE_______________________
HOW ABOUT YOU JAIME?

D/ _________________MOST IMPORTANT TO ME.

C/ WHY’S THAT?
D/ BECAUSE_______________________
WHAT ABOUT YOU ATSUKO?

E/ _________________MOST IMPORTANT TO ME.

D/ WHY’S THAT?
E/ BECAUSE________________________
WHAT ABOUT YOU MARIE?

A/ _________________MOST IMPORTANT TO ME.

E/ WHY’S THAT?
A/ BECAUSE

Intermediate Listening activities.

Listening activities may be a conversation, or more narrative in nature. In addition to
setting the context with pictures, it will be helpful to get the students into groups to
discuss focus questions. For example, low-intermediate students preparing for a
listening narrative on The Mediterranean Diet from the Quest series, are asked to
brainstorm in groups:
• What are the countries of the Mediterranean?
• What are typical food ingredients?
• Is the Mediterranean diet healthy?
• Why?

36
The teacher will monitor and coach this activity, and have the groups share their ideas
on poster paper, or in the book if available.

In another example, students preparing to listen to a tape about the “The Problems of
Being Green,” brainstorm in groups:
• What does Being Green mean?
• What do you do that’s Green?
• What do you do that’s not so Green?
• Why isn’t it easy Being Green?

At this point the students might do a class survey, or even a school survey, using the
questions above. Core listening materials will be more common at the high
beginner/low intermediate and higher levels.

Further activities might include:

• A survey – i.e. going around the class to complete a questionnaire like
“Green” and “Un-green” things that students do
• Groups presenting their posters to the class
• A dramatized role play

Remember. The first problem in listening is building learner confidence. You want the
students to get it right, so give them cues for the language before you play the tape.
Encourage students to take notes during listening, even at a beginning level. The
teacher writes notes on the BB to model and help students get the notes down in
English. An alternative is for beginning students to draw pictures to represent what they
hear.

More About Listening

The variety of listening based inputs and practice is endless. This medium lends itself
well to “authentic” – i.e. language samples from real life – for example, radio or TV
broadcasts, recorded conversations (as opposed to dialogues produced for textbooks),
announcements in a bus or train station, etc. The main point to remember are:

• Set the context clearly so that students can begin to “picture” the situation
• Model language using pictures, gestures and charades
• Get the students engaged by having them model with pictures, charades or
examples of their own
• Focus the listening by asking cue questions that students are likely to be able to
answer
• Play the listening repeatedly (4-6 times) in its entirety so that students listen to
the language within the context and co text that will provide meaning.
• Follow the listening activity with something that encourages the students to
“use” what they have heard – e.g. make their own dialogues, announcements, or
skits
37
Web sources for listening
http://www.mgu.ac.jp/~ic/helgesen/marc.article2.htm Some Marc Helgesen insights for
listening.
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/listen.shtml British Council/BBC links for
articles on listening activities.
http://www.eltforum.com/lib_list.html Great resource from Person’s/Longman’s with
bibliography and links on listening from the best.

38
Reading Practice
Reading is also a type of controlled practice activity. The focused approach to reading
is very much like the focused listening approach described above. It emphasizes pre-
reading activity, task-based reading, and post-reading projects rather than
comprehension questions. Look at the process below and the steps involved.

Core Reading Activities

Many texts leave readings until the end of the unit, and there is an unfounded belief that
reading should follow speaking and listening activities. Except at very young or low
levels where literacy is a question, there is no reason why reading cannot precede
speaking and listening. It is true, that reading activities at a beginning level might not be
as engaging as dialogues, although children’s stories would certainly run counter to this.

Reading is much like a listening activity in that the key is to set context and prep the
students so that they can begin to predict what they will read. This is known as “task
based reading” which simply means set the task first before exposing the learners to the
core input.

Let’s get specific. From the Matters Intermediate Unit 6 – Are These People Criminals?
The article in the book talks about the things a family does that are not environmentally
friendly. A series of steps to prepare for this reading might include:

• Groups brainstorm – Green things you do? Un-green things you do?
• Lists on poster paper
• A class survey to find the most and the least green people in the class
• Look at the pictures in the textbook. What do they mean?
• Find the paragraph that talks about each picture

Once again the core modeling flows into practice with the materials – the reading text is
approached and manipulated in a variety of ways to practice with the target language

Focused Reading
1. Look at the pictures and discuss in pairs/groups. Make a word/idea map around each
one.

39
 • Discuss the following questions and make notes.

What can you do? Why is it difficult?

RECYCLING

AUTO
POLLUTION

• Survey four of your classmates. Assign topic – e.g. "Recycling" or "Auto Pollution"

NAME What can you do? Why is it hard?

4. Groups: List solutions and problems.

5. Report to the class
6. READING: Pre-Questions to be discussed in pairs or groups

" What are the two biggest issues in saving our environment?
" What can we do to recycle?
" Why isn't it easy to recycle?
" What can we do to reduce air pollution?
" Why isn't it easy to stop using cars and busses?
40
 SAMPLE READING
Recycling and auto pollution are two of the biggest issues (problems) in saving our
environment. We need to recycle glass, paper, plastic, aluminum and other non-
biodegradable things, (things that won't disappear). Auto pollution is one of the most
obvious and serious threats to the air we breath. We can all do something about these
critical issues, but it isn't easy.

Collecting bottles, cans, and plastic is something that everyone can do, but getting them
recycled isn't always that easy. First, all the items must be separated carefully and
sometimes even cleaned before a recycling center will accept them. Next just getting
them to a recycling center may be a problem. And finally, there just isn't much reward
or incentive to go to all this work. The fact is, it just doesn't pay.

Auto pollution is easy to reduce. Just don't drive or ride in gas-driven vehicles. Of
course, this isn't really possible since everyone has to take cars, buses or taxis some of
the time, but even cutting down can be hard. How can a student who takes a bus to
school "cut down?" (Stop using the bus.) Can the businessman give up the flexibility
and independence of using a car? Unfortunately, auto pollution requires large and
expensive solutions such as mass transport systems and city traffic regulations.

Recycling and auto pollution are two of the biggest challenges we face if we want to
save our environment, but the answers are not easy. We will have to sacrifice time,
work and some convenience if we want to save our world. It has never been easy for
people to work together and give up immediate gains and comfort for future benefits,
but we must. What choice do we have?

7. POST READING TASK. Choose one of the two topics below. Work in groups to
develop solutions to the problems. Write a report and present to the class.
" How to make recycling easier?
" How to encourage people to use public transportation?

Some Final Thoughts

"Comprehension Questions"
and the whole issue of checking understanding.
Most textbooks limit reading tasks to answering a few questions. There is
no emphasis on reading for pleasure, the reason that most of us read
magazines and books. Also important is the nature of the questions.
They're usually limited to literal comprehension. That's a problem since
they don't teach English -- they only test. And they actually don't test
much. Try this. Read the sentence below. Then, answer the
comprehension questions.

41
Extensive Reading

This is reading for the sake of reading with little intervention on the part of the teacher.
This is contrasted with “intensive reading” where short readings are analyzed for
meaning and form.
This activity is designed to get students to read for fun. The basic rules for students are:

1. READ, READ, READ

2. Read what you want to read
3. Read at your own level - things that you can complete in 1-2 class periods
4. Read for the sake of reading
5. Share your reading with others
6. NO dictionaries

Lets take the rules one at a time.

1. READ, READ, READ. The idea is for the students to read as much as they can
during the 12-13 class periods devoted to this component. Not only does this
“extensive” reading help to develop better reading skills, it also develops better
listening, speaking and writing skills. The more the better, as long as the student is
focused.
2. Read what you want to read. There will be a selection of graded and un-graded
reading materials – books and other – available. Students should be allowed to
choose what they wish to read. They may start and stop reading several times before
they find something they like. This is OK as long as they are reading.
3. Read at your own level. There are graded readers available at a range of levels. The
rule of thumb is that a student should not choose anything they can’t finish in 1 or 2
class periods. The teacher should keep track of how many books each student reads,
but there is no requirement except to keep reading.
4. Read for the sake of reading. No quizzes or teacher assignments are made other than
the student sharing through student-student reviews, and the “literary reviews.”
5. Share your reading. Students can be asked to share reading in a number of fashions.
(Includes various ideas suggested by Marc Helgesen)
a. Informal discussions – Since there are multiple copies of reading available,
it is encouraged that student read from the same books and share their ideas
and understanding through discussions and pictures.

b. Instant Book Report

Walk into class and write the following on the board:

I read a book called ______________.

It's a _______________

mystery, science fiction book, love story, detective story

42
It's about ______________.

In the story, there was a problem. ____________.

The main characters are ____________.

I liked/didn't like it because ___________.

In class, students work in pairs. They simply talk about what they are
reading. The sentences on the board give them enough support to be able to
talk about a book. You may want to require partners to ask two or three
follow-up questions (e.g. ³Why did she go there?² When did that happen?²)
to encourage interaction and to make sure the partner is really paying
attention. Although no preparation time is required, it can be useful to give
the students one or two minutes to mentally prepare. One way to do this is to
have them close their eyes and, in a gentle, relaxed voice, ask questions and
give the sentence forms (e.g., You're going to talk about a book. What's the
title of the book? "I read a book called (blank)." What kind of story was it?
A mystery? Science fiction? etc.). This preparation time lets them think
about what they want to say and how they will say it. It can make their
instant book reports go more smoothly.

c. Draw a Picture

Many students are very good at drawing. Communication about books can
be as simple as asking the students to draw a picture. They think of any book
they've read. Give them five minutes to draw a picture of a scene from the
story. Then, in pairs or small groups they show the picture and explain it. It's
interesting to notice that pictures often get students to go beyond the level of
literal comprehension to make responses at higher emotional and affective
levels. Hint: If your students are good at drawing, they may take too long to
draw. This is English class, not art class. Forbid erasers. Once they draw a
line, it is there to stay. This forces the artists to work faster. They don't have
the option of redoing a line until it's perfect.

d. How Many Questions?

How Many Questions? is another art related activity, but one based on the
illustrations in the books the students have been reading. Students bring to
class a book they have read. They each select one picture from their book.
Learners work in groups of three. One person shows the chosen picture and
explains it. Partners listen and ask as many questions as possible (What's this
person's name? Where is she? Why did she go there? etc.). The goal is to ask
as many questions as possible in a given period of time (usually about three
minutes per book). To do this as a game or to introduce competition to
encourage reluctant speakers, students get one point for each question they
ask.

43
 e. Story Telling Sticks

Story Telling Sticks is an unusual but very effective follow-up activity.

Teachers familiar with the Silent Way, Islamabad, and other Cuisenaire rod
(Algebricks) techniques will recognize the idea behind it: If you have
something to manipulate as you tell a story, your listeners have something to
look at. They aren't looking at you so you don't get nervous. Also, the rods
serve as manipulables, which make the story more concrete. "Story telling
sticks" could be done with rods, but in large classes having to buy several
sets of Cuisenaire rods is expensive. Instead, use toothpicks. Begin by telling
the student that, although these look like toothpicks, they are actually
storytelling sticks. The sticks will help them retell any story they have read.
To help the students understand what to do, start with an OHP and a few
toothpicks (actually, for the OHP, you might want to use pieces of
disposable chopsticks as they're more visible). Create a kind of shadow play
using the OHP light to tell a story, using the sticks to represent the people,
places, etc. Short sticks are for children and small animals, longer sticks for
adults. Sticks can also represent anything from houses to mountains. The
key is that they are watching the sticks (symbols) rather than the storyteller.
If you (or some of the students) are shy, this is a refreshing change of pace
for a speaking activity. After you've told your story, divide the class into
groups of two or three. Give each group about 10 toothpicks. Learners tell
the story from a book they recently read. A useful follow-up is to have the
listeners see how much they can remember about each stick.

f. Literary Review.

Students work individually or in groups to produce the literary review,

which they will take away with them at the end of the course. It is a
collection of reviews written by students, for students. The students should
take a part of a class to decide:
• Format of the review – Qs from above or other
• Submissions – when and how
• Production – getting it no the computer and printed.

6. No dictionaries. The teacher will control dictionaries and not hand them out for
individual use. The teacher should be ready to coach and consult at all times.

Other resources
• Story Cards – Nazradin Hodja or other story cards (see
www.proliguaassociates.com) which might be used as a warmer. Students read their
cards and then tell the stories to another student and switch cards. Trios might be
good here.
• Readings on tape – as available. Students listen as they read, or, listen then read.
Focus task can T/F questions before reading, main idea questions, detail questions,
or, writing questions.

44
• Reading on the web: Sources
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/
http://www.bangkokpost.net/education/
http://www.extensivereading.net
http://www.literacynet.org/cnnsf/
http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej13/int.html for more web sources

• Guidelines for web readers:

o 2 students per class (or discussion trios*)
o Students use only the websites listed
o Users complete a “source reports for web readers”

Source Reports for Web Readers

1. Website address:

2. Name of reviewer

3. Length of reading time

4. Why I would/would not recommend this site to others:

*”Discussions trios” means that 3 students agree to use the computer together, and
complete the “Sources” reviews.

http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/may/one.html Extensive reading

Marc's program description
http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/may/shr_helgesen.html Tasks for
extensive reading
http://extensivereading.net/ The Extensive reading pages
http://www.extensivereading.net/er/whatis2.html Links to articles about extensive
reading

45
Writing
An important insight to writing comes from the title to Mary Lawrence’s book, Writing
as a Thinking Process. Thinking is definitely required before writing can happen, and
may in fact be the most difficult part of the task. Process is also a key word in that
writing is mostly about the “process” of doing it, and in one sense, it is not a task that is
ever complete. The importance of treating writing as a process, rather than a product,
can’t be overemphasized. The process of thinking, writing, rethinking and rewriting is
really a dialogue between the individual and himself. Thinking, thinking about
thoughts, and recording them, is the process of writing, and as such, is one of the most
distinctly human attributes.

What does this mean at the practical classroom level? Once again we come back to
context. Basic precepts for a writing activity are:
1. Establish and develop the context
2. Personally involve the learner
3. Generate and share ideas and vocabulary
4. Get the student writing in class
5. Include opportunities for collaboration and sharing writing products
6. Process the writing products

Look at the following writing activity

Writing Activity [False Beginner level]

1. Pairs – talk about,
" Do you like dogs?
" What kind of dogs?
2. List “good” things and “bad” things about having a dog.
3. Come to a conclusion in agreement with your partner. (WRITE)
4. Make a 1-2 minute presentation to the class.

5. Reading – Low-Intermediate Level

What do you think about dogs in Thailand? People have written that Thailand is a “dog
challenged” society. Stray dogs and even dog packs litter the streets of Bangkok by day,
and roam unhindered at night. It is hard to walk down any street without stepping
gingerly around sleeping dogs, or the refuse they leave behind. Tourists from Koh
Samui to Chiang Mai complain about the ever-present mangy dogs with running sores
that beg balefully around outdoor restaurants and beaches. Combined with the threat to
the economic well-being of the country, the health risks are appalling. Since rabies
inoculation is impossible with the large numbers of strays, the threat from this
incurable disease is daunting. As well, there are innumerable other diseases that are
spread by dogs, or their parasites, from worms to flea and tick-transmitted viruses. In
sum, something must be done. Despite Thailand’s Buddhist traditions, a solution is
needed for both the economic and social welfare of Thailand.

6. Writing Task - Groups

• Discuss the above reading.
46
 • Define the problem
• Develop three alternative solutions.
• Choose one and write how it would improve the situation. Remember that you
must consider the values of the culture.
• Present your solution

Writing as a thinking process.

Think about how the “precepts” are applied in the activity above.

1. Establish the context. This can be done through pictures, discussion, reading,
drawing, video, charades, sound sequences and most effectively by a combination of
these. The topic should be of interest to the students on an emotional level – i.e.
something they have an opinion about. The importance of choosing the right topic can’t
be overemphasized, and getting the student involved in choosing topics through group
brainstorming can be very helpful in this regard. Take time here and don’t rush this
step. When available, one or more class periods can be spent on this stage. A possible
sequence might be:
• Students look at pictures in groups and brainstorm ideas and words onto poster
paper.
• Each group then acts out a role play or presentation based on the picture and
their own posters
• Teacher introduces a reading with appropriate content and level
• Groups generate a list of questions based upon the reading and topic
• Students begin writing

2. Personally involve the learner. The important thing is to get each person involved
through engaging his or her likes and dislikes, or, agreement or disagreement with the
topic. The learner-writer has to care about the topic and expressing his/her opinion.
Nothing fails so dismally as asking students to write about flowers, if they really don’t
care about flowers, no matter how much the teacher thinks they should! Then the
teacher’s task becomes getting the students to care!

3. Generate and share ideas and vocabulary. The important thing is that the ideas and
vocabulary brainstormed must be recorded somehow and accessible to the individual
students for writing. Poster paper is one medium, but individual notes, or notes to the
blackboard are other possibilities. Collaborative activity in pairs, trios or groups is
important here. At lower levels, collaborative writing is a good option – i.e. a group
works together to produce the writing task. A number of devices can be employed here
including:
• Poster displays and walk around viewing
• Presentations to the class
• Fishbowl discussions – putting a small group in the middle to discuss a topic
while others watch and listen. The outer circle may question or comment after
the inner group has finished.
• Role plays and skits
• Debates – either formal or informal
• Collage-building – combination of pictures and words

47
 • Idea maps – similar to the above but including arrows to indicate the “flow” of
ideas

7. Get the students writing in class. Students can get started while the teacher is there to
coach and advise. One way to facilitate this is for the teacher to sit at a table off to the
side where students can come for advice on their writing. It is critical for the teacher to
be encouraging and helpful so that the students will voluntarily come up looking for
help and advice. An important consideration here from a colleague, Mark Rodell, is
being careful that you don’t “colonize” your writing students. In other words, don’t tell
them what to write, write for them, or tell them what you think they are trying to say on
paper. Writing is one of the most intimate person forms of expression and it is essential
that students feel that the writing is their own, and what they want to say. Indicating the
need for rethinking and correction with a simple marking system works quite well.

An underline indicates something that needs revision.

^ Arrows can show where words are missing.

Circling words or phrases to suggesting rethinking or different forms.

These may be enough to get students to rethink and rewrite what they are doing.
However, try not to interrupt the “flow” of the writer’s ideas. If the student is ‘on a roll’
and developing ideas, it may be better to hang back and let revisions wait until later.
This has to be a teacher “call” but it is an important decision. Having the students come
up for coaching when they are ready may take care of some of this. Do make sure to be
there to assist; don’t intervene unnecessarily.

5. Include opportunities for collaboration. This means having student share and
compare while their writing is in progress. Most writers like to show off what they are
doing, and they should be encouraged to do so before they have produced a final edition
of the paper. This will help them to:
1. Rethink their ideas
2. Autocorrect as they write
3. Add ideas that others may suggest
4. Develop coherence and cohesion
5. Refine the flow of the writing

Ways to do this might include:

• Pairs/trios/groups reading papers aloud to each other

• Pairs/trios telling each other what they are writing while the other read their
paper
• Reading the paper in progress onto a tape and listening – this can be very
effective for auto correction
• Email exchanges with peers, although there should be a “process” defined for
doing this – e.g. getting the respondent to retell the paper in his/her own words
to assess clarity, or, having the respondent ask a series of questions that might
clarify ideas in the writing.

48
6. Process the writing. This often means “writing for a reason.” Writing is usually not
an end in itself, but a means to something else – reporting or communicating ideas for
pleasure or information. Producing writing for inclusion in a literary review or poster
board is a possibility here. Reading stories aloud to the class is another, or just
exchanging stories for fun. Teacher correction is the traditional “processing” step, but
further thinking might be:

• A student literary website with writing reviews

• Letters to the editor, or an “opinion board”
• May be less than satisfying from the students’ point of view. Some ideas to catalyze
International email exchanges with a class in another country
• Posting papers to a “Writing Board”
• Publishing a newspaper or magazine
• Writing children’s stories or comic books

All of the above are larger projects, which would involve many intermediary steps from
brainstorming the initial ideas in groups to, production of final projects. Getting
students involved in different phases of the project is an interesting option here. Not
everyone has to be a copywriter. There can be editors, proof readers, data entry, layout,
illustration and other roles depending upon the project. Roles can be rotated so that
everyone gets a chance to write, but keep in mind that other roles may contribute
significantly to the development of writing skills.

Writing Mechanics
Capitalization, spelling, punctuation, notation and other writing conventions are an
essential part of learning to write. They should be covered through focused models and
examples as students write, but as a separate step after they have focused on
communicating meaning. The mechanics are part of communicating meaning, and students
should learn their role in developing meaning in written language. Many English for
Academic Purposes texts like Interactions, Mosaic and Quest do this by inserting
‘mechanics’ suggestions, examples and activities throughout the text as part of the
development of writing skills.

Writers teaching writing

To be a good writing teacher, the teacher needs to write. The teacher does not need to
be a brilliant writer, but a competent one. Most important, the teacher needs to be
involved in the same process of thinking and writing that is being asked of the students.
Often a teacher can model writing on the board as students are writing in class. Having
the teacher’s example to compare with in the discussion of writing papers is an obvious
plus.

49
Vocabulary Expansion
Warmers Context Core Controlled Vocabulary Communicative
Getting To begin Materials Practice Expansion Practice
students focusing A core of Opportunities Additional This means using
comfortable, on material – to use the vocabulary the language to
interacting predictable dialogue, target added by “do” something –
and used to concepts reading, language the teacher i.e. play a game,
basic and listening with lots of or the find out
routines language. or other supportive students to something, or
to build cues from the build on and solve a problem.
on teacher, expand the The message is the
board, core focus rather than
pictures, etc. material. the language at
this lesson stage.

Vocabulary Expansion Cards and Handoff (HO).

Make picture cards to model vocabulary expansion items that fit into the core dialogue
structures that you have presented. Look at the example below for the underlined
expansion slots.

A/ WHERE’RE YOU GOING?

B/ I’M GOING TO THE MARKET.
A/ HOW’RE YOU GOING TO GET THERE?
B/ I’M GOING TO GET A MOTORCYCLE.
A/ WHAT’RE YOU GOING TO DO?
B/ I’M GOING TO GET SOME FRUIT.

The substitution slots should be nouns or phrases, which answer the questions in the
core dialogue.

For most classes the cards should be A4 size, and nine is just about the right number of
variables to add in beginning classes. As the level goes up more variables are possible,
but rather than add teacher cards, we can get students to develop their own alternatives
(more on this in a bit).

(front) (back)
Bangkok
--------
Go
Shopping

50
Using the above dialogue
Hand off dance steps.
Where are 1. Blank the spaces on the core dialogue on the
board where the vocab items will fit.
you going?
2. Model each of the cards by having students
hold them up in front of the class while the
teacher “talks through” the dialogue.
3. S asks teacher the Q, and T answers (S/T)
4. Teacher asks student (T/S)
5. Teacher directs student to ask another students
and handoff the card.
6. S/T>>T/S>>HO
7. Teacher continues to handoff cards as students
practice and handoff.
8. Once all the cards are out teacher monitors and
coaches
9. Teacher seats SS and re-collects the cards S/T
or T/S to check competence.

Cards can be produced using clip art as above, hand drawings or magazine cut outs. It
takes only scrap paper with one good side, and a transparent sleeve folder to make them
durable handout cards. Alternatives would be:

• Students make their own picture cards to represent alternative vocabulary

• Posters, although posters are best used with groups with students sitting around the
poster using it as a cue for questions and answers.

• More advanced students can generally brainstorm vocabulary expansion in groups

as long as there are some models available from the teacher. This will be covered in
more detail in the “Expanded model” in the next section. The teacher coaches the
students group by group, helping them to express what they want to say in English
through translation, pictures, mime or usually a combination of shared modeling.

Blank Cards.

51
The hand off activity above can be supplemented by using one or more blank cards to
get students to input their own ideas. Using the abbreviations we have started above, the
dance steps would be T/T to model the input of different ideas, followed by
T/S>>S/T>>S/S activity around the classroom. This activity can be used together with
the picture card handoff, or following the handoff.

Posters.
Wrapping paper and marker pens are used to create large-scale visuals. These can be
prepared in advance by the teacher, or, done as a group brainstorming activity by
students. The format can be a free collage of words and images.

The teacher may also set the format in part, as in the above. Students and teacher add
words. Clip art offers lots of possibilities.

Word Families.

Add words or pictures associated with the word/symbol

Memory Maps. Students add words that fit the categories.

52
 shells
towels

At the Beach

swim
coke

Pictures. Students look at pictures [A] and [B] and write down any words or ideas that
occur to them. Encourage them to think of sounds, smells, temperature, light and even
tastes as well as things you can see. What about emotions?
[A]

[B]

53
 Vocabulary Practice Ideas
• Discussions, communicative activities and role plays using the words
• Using the vocabulary in written tasks
• Matching pictures and words
• Classifying items into lists
• Mnemonic exercises – rhyming, contrasting, or any other memory aid device
• Filling in crosswords or grids
• Instant board scrabble – write a word on the board and students have to write as many
‘cross’ words as possible in 3 minutes

More Vocabulary Building Ideas

• Back to the Board - One student is seated back to the board. Teacher writes a word on
the board while others mime or say related words. Team game when points are awarded
for guessing the word within a time limit.
• Category List - Teacher gives a list and students have to give a title, or visa versa.
• Stealing words - Teacher reads a passage and gives a category for student to listen for.
Students “steal” the words by writing down the words in the category - e.g. CARS –
gasoline, tires, traffic; FOOD – delicious, spicy, pasta, restaurant; FREE TIME –
sports, TV, internet; etc.
• Word cues - Teacher gives students a list of “cue” words - boy, marmalade, spoon,
afternoon, cupboard, table, spilled, mother, shirt, angry - from which they must
construct a story. For example,
The boy took the marmalade out of the cupboard in the afternoon after school.
When his mother came home later she was very angry because he had spilled
marmalade all over his shirt.
• Pictionary – A student draws something on the board or paper that will help another
student guess the word.
• Filling in gaps in sentences

54
 Mary hurried home _____________she had a date that night. She was in such a
_____________that she forgot to take the letter from her boss off __________desk.
Unfortunately the letter contained some confidential __________, and was seen by
several of ___________ coworkers. They __________ the letter and posted it on
the________________. Her boss saw the letter as he was leaving and….
• Complete the Story would be a writing and vocabulary activity to follow up on the gap
filling activity.

55
 Communicative Activities
Warmers Context Core Controlled Vocabulary Communicative
Getting To begin Material Practice Expansion Activities
students focusing A core of Opportunitie Additional This means using
comfortable on material s to use the vocabulary the language to
, interacting predictable – target added by the “do” something –
and used to concepts dialogue, language teacher or i.e. play a game,
basic and reading, with lots of the students find out
routines language. listening supportive to build on something, or
or other cues from the and expand solve a problem.
to build teacher, the core The message is
on board, material. the focus rather
pictures, etc. than the language
at this lesson
stage.

1. Exchange previously unknown information, or at least, variables of real interest.

2. Involve at least two people with both parties initiating - dialogue
3. Usually involve personal information or ideas
4. Be engaging – i.e. of real interest to the learner
5. Focus on “fluency”
6. Have a context

Walkabouts.
This is an activity that allows the students to mix more freely and talk with whom they
choose. Usually the activity is structured along the lines of one of the formats below. It
can be either a “controlled practice” or a more “communicative practice” depending
upon how much supporting language cues are provided to the students – e.g. the
dialogue is written on the board, on a piece of paper, or in a book. The nice thing about
the activity is that it offers some choice both about whom the student chooses to talk to,
and often the responses can be more varied. The variations below will be provided
again under “communicative activities,” but here it is assumed that the question and
answers have been thoroughly modeled, and supporting language cues are readily
available.

• 3 slips of paper – Students write down the answers to a question supplied by the
teacher on small slips of paper. The papers slips are then crumpled up and put in a
bag. Each student takes three of the crumpled slips. If a student gets his own, it is
returned to the bag in exchange for another. Students then walkabout asking other
students if they wrote the information on the slip. For example at a very beginning
level,

A/ IS YOUR BROTHER’S NAME DENG? My brother’s name is

B/ YES. IT IS or NO. IT ISN’T Deng.

56
 The students walk around asking the questions generated by the statements on the
slips of paper until they find the right person. They then write the name of the
person on the slip, and go on to look for who wrote the other slips they have. At the
end, each person tells the class what they found out about others in the class.

• Surveys - Involve going around the class to get information. This is a “Find
someone who…?” type activity with students going around the class asking
questions modeled during core lesson stage and clearly supported with Q & A
cues on the board, in the book or on handouts. Look as samples below.

1. FIND SOMEONE WHO…

• GETS UP AT 6:00AM
• EATS RICE FOR BREAKFAST
• CAN RIDE A MOTORCYCLE
• HAS A CAT
• ETC.
2. WHAT’S YOUR FAVORITE…(see sample handout forms below)
• FOOD
• DRINK
• MOVIE
• MUSIC
• ETC.

WHAT’S YOUR FAVORITE….?

FAVORITE (Name #1) (Name #2) (Name #3) (Name #4)

Music

Movie

Food

Dream

3. WHAT DO YOU DO THAT’S “GREEN/UNGREEN” (ENVIRONMENTALLY

FRIENDLY)?

Name Green Things Un green Things

57
Situational Role Plays
Students get a card showing a situation, and they have to write out a dialogue and then
act it out. This can also be fun as a pyramid activity – i.e. each group develops and
practices its role play, and then joins another group to present skits. Then, these two
groups join two other groups until the whole class is involved. The advantage of
“pyramiding” is that the role plays are done more than once to increasingly larger
audiences.

BUYING SOMETHING AT THE MARKET

ORDERING FOOD AT A RESTAURANT
GETTING A BUS TICKET
SENDING AN E-MAIL
PREPARING YOUR FAVORITE DISH
EXCHANGING WEEKEND PLANS
DISCUSSING MOVIES
PLANNING A VACATION
GETTING TRAVEL ADVICE
WINNING THE LOTTERY

Information Gaps - What’s the cost of ...... in .....

One Student looks at the information on the “Student A” chart, while the other looks at
the info on the “Student B” chart. Their conversation involves a staged ‘information
gap’ since student A does not know what is on the Student B chart, and visa-versa.
These info gap activities are often found in textbooks and formatted by having the
Student A and B info on different pages. While it is a bit “staged” and assumes that
Students A and B actually care what the information is, it does meet the basis criteria
for communication – exchanging previously unknown information.

Student A
New York Tokyo Bangkok
Coffee $2.25
Bus $0.08
Hotel $250 $350

58
Student B
New York Tokyo Bangkok
Coffee $8.00 $.27
Bus $1.00 $1.50
Hotel $27

Tic-Tac-Toe
Students on each team ask and answer the question. Correct answers get an X or O. You
choreograph this activity as follows.

1. Split class into two teams – X and O

2. Teacher elicits the answers to the grid – What did you do last weekend?
3. Decide which team goes first – flip coin or rock, paper, scissors
4. Two student from same team ask and answer question
5. If they get the Q & A correct in a timely fashion, they get the box for X
or O.

A/ WHAT DID YOU DO LAST WEEKEND?

B/ I PLAYED FOOTBALL.

WASHED DISHES WENT FISHING USED A COMPUTER

EXERCISED PLAYED FOOTBALL WASHED CLOTHES

CLEANED THE HOUSE ATE PIZZA RODE A BICYCLE

Index Card Games

There is a great variety of index card games. Most involve using the card as a cue to
exchange information in some context – for example personal information, famous
people, country statistics, etc. This is usually done as a random walkabout with students
talking with others students at will. Cards can be exchanged, and a variation involves
gathering information from each of the people the student talks to. Reading cards as
published by Prolingua Associates is another interesting activity where students retell
stoires on their cards and exchange with other students. For further information, see
www.proliguaassociates.com

Comparing Pictures
Two students or two teams each get a similar picture with “differences” to be
compared. Students must sit so that they cannot see the other picture and ask questions
like,
59
A/ What is in the big picture?
B/ There are some people and books.
B/ What’s in your big picture?
A/ There are some people and a tree.

A/ B/

Drama Techniques
There a great number of possibilities here from the practice and production of real play
scripts, to student produced scripts. There are also many theater technique activities
designed to provide communicative practice and the opportunity to act out language
roles. See the Theater Techniques section of this book for more examples.

In Conclusion
The goal of classroom language teaching is to get the learners using the language in real
communicative situations. Any device, choreography or activity that does this must
recreate as much as possible situations where the learner is likely to use the language
for some real and personal purpose, other than language practice. While ideal, this
objective is not easy to realize. That is not to say the “communicative classroom
activities” are useless, or a waste of time - quite the opposite. These are the activities
that give teachers and students the best feedback on what is actually being learned.
“Imagining” can be a powerful reality, and thus, the role of drama activities should be
emphasized here. Content-based learning is another significant step towards moving
towards communication of real ideas. See the following link to a Marc Helgesen
handout for more ideas. http://www.mgu.ac.jp/~ic/helgesen/marc.article3.htm

60
Lesson Frameworks
Lesson frameworks are lesson sequences that can be built on and modified as
appropriate for different classes. They are a sequence of behaviors and choreographies
that work as a stand-alone lesson, although they are not intended as a prescription. They
are intended to meet the following criteria:

• Language presented in contexts meaningful to the students

• Modeling to controlled practice to more communicative practice activity
• Variation in the modeling and practice activity
• Remodeling target language in different modes – spoken dialogues, listening,
reading
• Building on core materials – i.e. minimal vocabulary initially, expanded as the
lesson progresses
• Maximizing student to student interaction
• Modeling language first as audio input and then as reading
• Integrated skills development – listening, speaking, reading & writing
• Grammar in context as focus upon form, or highlighting grammatical features

While the Basic Framework does not include a specific step for student input, this is
always an option – for example, getting students into groups to brainstorm additional
vocabulary items (see Vocabulary Expansion section). Other frameworks specifically
include this step.

Lesson frameworks are hardly a new idea, and are basically what are found in most
classroom texts. Textbooks contain a sequence of activities in each unit that the author
suggests as a possible way of teaching the lesson. Most authors would agree that the
sequence in the text is just one of numerous possible sequences that might be followed
in teaching the lesson. Most texts reflect this by varying the sequence of activities from
unit to unit. Likewise, the frameworks are a suggestion, but a suggestion inviting
modification and adaptation to meet the needs of the teacher, the students and the
curriculum in any given situation.

To some extent, lesson frameworks plus the lesson contexts found in this book are an
alternative to a textbook. It would be possible for the teacher, and possibly the students,
to construct their own text choosing the contexts and frameworks that best suited their
purposes. This not a novel idea, and might provide a feasible alternative for classes who
find commercial texts difficult to adapt to their needs.

The frameworks are presented as a minimal lesson plan that includes a column for the
“target language,” and a column for “process.

Language Process

This column will define the target Process will be a brief sequence of steps
language either as written or as a for teaching the target language. These
reference to a page in a text. Obviously, are suggested steps and might be varied
the target language is a ‘sample’ to make or modified according to the teacher’s
61
the lesson sequence and process clear. and the students’ needs.
The teacher must substitute the
appropriate language for their students

These are not a complete lesson plans, and would need timing estimates, more detail on
student activities, and attention to possible problems, to constitute a final plan. To do
this the teacher would have to consider the level of the students, curriculum objectives,
and student interests and motivation.

The first framework contains all the stages of the teaching-learning paradigm in a
logically sequenced process. It is not the most elementary, or the easiest. It is simply a
good starting point to develop classroom behaviors and choreographies. The framework
presumes that there is a meaningful lesson context – i.e. a personalized and localized
communication situation that is engaging for the learners. It is also specifically aimed at
beginning levels and younger, high school age learners. It is a functional framework for
higher-level students and adults, although above the intermediate level, it is more likely
that a teacher would choose one of the other frameworks.

The framework is laid out below in a chart format. Please note the abbreviations for the
teacher and student interactions, or “dance steps” used earlier – i.e. teacher to teacher
(T/T), teacher to student (T/S), and student to teacher (S/T), student to student S/S),
double lines (//’s) ad elicit to the board (>>BB)

62
Framework One – Level: Teens to Adults at the beginning to intermediate level.

Language Process

A/ HI. MY NAME’S DAVE. WHAT’S I. WARMER

YOUR NAME? • Communicative practice with
B/ MY NAME’S DA..DA...DA..DA known language
A/ NICE TO MEET YOU. • T/S>>S/T>>S/S>>//’s
B/ NICE TO MEET YOU TO.

ORDERING IN A RESTAURANT II. CORE DIALOGUE

• Set context – drawing &
A/ WHAT WILL YOU HAVE? charades
B/ I’D LIKE THE CHICKEN WITH • Cards or poster –
RICE. show>>tell>>elicit
A/ SOMETHING TO DRINK? • T/T model with a picture card
B/ JUST WATER PLEASE. (see p. 10) 3-4 times
A/ ANYTHING ELSE? • T/T 6 lines, then 2 lines at a
B/ I’D LIKE A SALAD, PLEASE. time
• T/S>>S/T>>S/S (5-8 times
each)
• Build up 2 + 2 + 2 lines
repeating the above
• Elicit to BB after each 2 lines

III. VOCABULARY EXPANSION –

a. Picture card preview –
show>>tell>>elicit
• S/T>>T/S>>HO
• Picture cards for modeling and
practice

IV. LISTENING ACTIVITY

• 2-sided tape with blanks for
variables
• Groups of 3-5 listen and fill in
blanks
• T elicits the answers to the BB

V. GAME
• TIC-TAC-TOE or other game
adapted for communicative
practice – i.e. game gets SS
using the TL

63
Framework Two - Expanded Lesson

The “expanded” lesson model allows more student input, and incorporates group work.
It works best at post-beginner levels, but can be used at any level with sufficient teacher
coaching.
Language Process

A/ MY NAME’S DAVE. I LIKE I. WARMER

FOOTBALL. • Communicative practice with
B/ MY NAME’S ____. I LIKE FOOD. known language
C/ MY NAME’S ____. I LIKE MUSIC. • T/S>>S/T>>S/S>>//’s
(The language here is going to be tailored • OR
to the context of the lesson – i.e. • Students and teacher throwing a
something that will get student thinking ball around a circle.
about the lesson focus, without requiring
production of the upcoming target
language)

WHAT’S IMPORTANT TO YOU? II. CORE DIALOGUE

• Set context – draw & charade
A/ WHAT’S IMPORTANT TO YOU? • Picture preview – show>>tell
B/ WELL. MONEY IS. • T/T model with a picture card
A/ WHY’S THAT? (see p. 10) 3-4 times
B/ BECAUSE I LIKE TO BUY THINGS. • T/T 4 lines, then 2 lines at a
time
• T/S>>S/T>>S/S (5-8 times
each)
• Build up 2 + 2 lines repeating
the above
• Elicit to BB after each 2 lines

MONEY – BUY THINGS III. VOCABULARY EXPANSION –

FUN – BE HAPPY • Picture preview – show>>tell
FAMILY – BE TOGETHER • S/T>>T/S>>HO
FRIENDS – PLAY TOGETHER • Picture cards for modeling and
SCHOOL – GET A GOOD JOB practice

(Tape includes language from core IV. LISTENING ACTIVITY

dialogue and vocab expansion. With post • 2-sided tape with blanks for
beginning levels, other “known” language variables
might be included as long as the teacher • Groups of 3-5 listen and fill in
can predict that the language will be blanks
understood by some of the students.)

V. GROUP WORK
64
 • T models dialogue with group
" Group develops a similar
dialogue on poster paper
" Group practice
• Sitting
• Standing
• Standing w.o. poster

VI. ROLE PLAYS/PRESENTATIONS

" Groups role play their dialogues

Notes

1. It is critical to model the group work clearly, and to indicate that the dialogue
developed should include all members of the group in a group conversation –
i.e. A>B>A>B then B>C>B>C then C>D>C>D then D>A>D>A for a group of
four students.

2. The picture cards or other supports must be available for the students to support
their dialogue writing.

3. Students should be encouraged to add vocabulary ideas of their own. This can
be done using the “blank card.”

4. The “group practice” step above is critical. The teacher must monitor and coach
the groups to encourage practice, and get the students to use the dialogue
without relying on the poster

65
Framework Three – A Text-based Lesson

There are a number of possible frameworks for text based lessons. The following was
adapted from New Interchange Book 1, Unit 5 What Are You Doing?p.28

Language Process
(Telephone rings…) I. WARMER
A/ HELLO. • T/T model with picture card
B/ HELLO • T/S>>S/T>>S/S
A/ WHAT ARE YOU DOING? • T/T model variable vocab
B/ I’M SLEEPING/GETTING UP. • T/S>>S/T>>S/S
A/ WHAT TIME IS IT? • //’s
B/ IT’S 3:00 AM./6:00 AM.
A/ OH. I’M SORRY. GOODBYE.
B/ GOODBYE.

II. BRIDGE DIALOGUE

(See P. 30, Conversation) • show picture of Mom and son –
A/ WHAT TIME IS IT? show>>tell key words and concepts
B/ IT’S 2:00 A.M. • T/T model with picture – 2 or more
A/ WHAT ARE YOU DOING? lines at a time depending upon the
B/ I’M COOKING. level of the students
A/ WHY? • T/S>>S/T>>S/S practice – usually 2
B/ I’M REALLY HUNGRY. lines at a time
• elicit each 2 lines to the BB after
practice
• building up dialogue 2+2+2 or 2+4+6
• //’s or horseshoe practice when
dialogue complete*
*optional

66
 III. CONVERSATION (LISTENING)
• Picture preview of Steve and Mom –
show>>tell>>elicit
• Focused listening
o PreQ
o Play tape
o Ask Q again
o Rewind & SS talk
o Ask Q again
o Elicit answer to BB
• Pair practice
o Model UP/DOWN
reading from text
o T/S model UP/DOWN
Dialogue practice
o S/S practice
o S/S(c) – pairs in front
of class

– Activity 11, p33, New Interchange IV. READING

INTRO • Context setting and previewing the
TL with drawings and narrative on
the BB
• Match pictures and text from cut-
out page
• T/F questions(6) from the text
• “spot” questions (6) from the text –
run ‘n read is an option here
• Activity “A” from the text
• Activity “B” from the book
A/ HELLO. WHERE ARE YOU?
B/ I’M IN …. V. COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITY
A/ WHAT TIME IS IT THERE?
B/ IT’S …. • P. IC-8 Interchange 5 – Time Zones
A/ SO, WHAT ARE YOU DOING? • Work in groups
B/ I’M … • Use the Time Zone chart
Make a cell phone call to your friend
using the dialogue shown opposite

TASK
Look at Unit 5 in Interchange, or another textbook, and make a different lesson
framework that would suit a class of students you know.

67
Framework 4 – A content-based lesson.

The following is an intermediate level lesson based upon Unit 6, p. 44-45 in the
Intermediate MATTERS text by Longman’s. It is content-based because it uses
“authentic” materials – i.e. from real English language sources – and is a context
relevant to everyday life, the environment.

Language Process

A/ WHAT’S “BEING GREEN” MEAN TO I. WARMER

YOU?
B/ IT MEANS… • Ask students to talk about the question
• Elicit to the board, or, have students
come and write on the board.
• Tell class that they will be talking
about “Being Green” meaning
environmentally friendly

II. GROUP WORK A

• Put students into groups of 4-5

• Ask groups to talk about what “Being
A/ WHAT DO YOU DO THAT’S Green”, environmentally means
GREEN/UNGREEN? • Write notes and ideas on poster paper
B/ I…. • Tell students to make two lists:
Green Things//Un green Things that
people in the group do

III. SURVEY

• Students interview 4-6 people from

other groups and write down – Green
Things and Un green Things
• Student display posters to decide
which is the most Green or Un green
group

Intermediate MATTERS, p. 44, Are These IV. PRE-READING

People Criminals?
• In groups/pairs, look at the pictures
A/ WHAT’S WRONG HERE? and guess, WHAT’S WRONG HERE?
B/ ….. • Students ask each other if they do
A/ DO YOU DO THAT? these things.
68
B/…..

Intermediate MATTERS, p. 44, Are These V. READING

People Criminals?
• Match the pictures with the paragraph
in the reading
• Flash reading – 20-30 seconds, close
book – for definitions of:

Ozone layer
Acid rain
Battery farms
CFCs

Intermediate MATTERS, Unit 6 p. 43 VI. POST READING

• Activity 3 – What do the words in

italics
Mean
a] By using it … (paragraph 1)
b] Which helps protect us …
(paragraph 1)
c] That eat up the ozone gas
(paragraph 1)
d] This means that…(paragraph 2)
e} Which are not treated with
(paragraph 3)
f] This traps the sun’s
heat…(paragraph 5)
g] To recycle them …(paragraph 7)
h] Many of which are packed …
(paragraph 9)
• Activity 4 – List the things, which
according to the article, are bad for the
environment.

VII. PRE-LISTENING ACTIVITY

• Groups – Why isn’t it easy to be

green?
• Look at the things mentioned in the
reading and list reasons why being
green isn’t easy on poster paper

69
Intermediate MATTERS, Unit 6, p. 43 VIII. LISTENING
listening 6.1
• Listening focus question – Do you
think Mrs. Moore is a Criminal? Why?
• Detail questions – What are the things
she finds difficult? Do you agree with
her?
• Make notes under the headings
Shopping, Food, Recycling, Transport

IX. POST LISTENING

• Prepare a group report on How Being

Green Can Be Easier.
• Present to class, video or hand in as
homework

A content-based lesson at the intermediate level could take many forms. The above
framework tries to:
• Focus the reading and listening tasks with group discussion to predict ideas,
vocabulary and concepts that will occur in the inputs
• Allow for the exchange of personalized information and ideas
• Vary the skill focus from speaking to reading to listening to writing
• Utilize the text material without blindly following the book

70
Framework 5 – A Focused One-to-One Lesson

Language Process

A/ WHAT (KIND OF) FOOD DO YOU I. WARMER

LIKE?
B/ I LIKE _____________. • Model the language T/T using pictures
A/ (IS THERE) ANYTHING ELSE YOU of appropriate food items
LIKE? • Practice the dialogues T/S and S/T
B/ WELL. I LIKE _______________. using the pictures as support
• Make a list of the things the student
A/ IS THERE ANYTHING YOU DON’T “likes” and “dislikes” perhaps
LIKE? compared to what the teacher “likes”
B/ I DON’T LIKE _____________. and “dislikes.”

A/ WHAT DO YOU LIKE TO DRINK?

B/ I LIKE ______________
A/ (IS THERE) ANYTHING YOU DON’T
LIKE?
B/ I DON’T LIKE _______________.

AT A RESTAURANT WITH A FRIEND (or II. CORE DIALOGUE

modified appropriately for waiter and
customer) • Role play T/T – 2 lines at a time
• Practice and then role play with the
A/ WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO HAVE? student
B/ I’M GOING TO HAVE THE CHICKEN • Tape the role play and review
AND RICE.
A/ ANYTHING ELSE?
B/ I’LL HAVE A SALD.
A/ WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO HAVE
TO DRINK?
B/ COKE.

• Chicken – rice – Pepsi III. VOCABULARY EXPANSION

• Fried rice – French fries – Coke
• Fish – tofu soup – water • Student writes their own dialogue
• Spaghetti - chicken wings - orange plugging in variables
juice • Practice dialogue with teacher using
• Curry soup – fruit salad – lemonade different items - put items on pieces of
• Beef noodles – garlic toast – beer paper – T and S draw items and
• Pizza – vegetables – iced tea practice dialogue
• Steak – potatoes – coffee • Make a menu based on the variables.
• Fish & chips – bread – 7-Up This might be done before the other
practice activities and used as the
supporting material.

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A/ MAY I TAKE YOUR ORDER? IV. LISTENING ACTIVITY
B/ YES. I’LL HAVE THE [STEAK].
A/ ANYTHING ELSE? • Handout sheet with blanks for the
B/ SOME [FRENCH FRIES) PLEASE. underlined words
A/ AND YOU SIR? • Play tape, pause, reply as needed
C/ I’LL HAVE THE [ FRIED RICE]. • Coach student as needed
A/ WITH CHICKEN OR PORK? • Elicit the answers
C/ [CHICKEN] PLEASE. • Practice the dialogue with the student
A/ AND SOMETHING TO DRINK?
C/WE’LL HAVE [COKE].

(same language as above) V. COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITY

A/ WHAT WOULD YOU LIKE TO EAT? • Elicit the foods into the X/O grid
B/ I’D LIKE ________________ • Play T/S and S/T
• To make it more difficult add drinks
A/ WHAT WOULD YOU LIKE TO and “anything else” to make the
DRINK? required dialogue longer, but DO NOT
B/ I’D LIKE ________________ write in the X/O grid.

(Teacher option) VI. SONG

• Play song, students lip-synch

• Students whisper choral
• A and B groups alternate lines
• Students sing with music

A/ HOW DO YOU MAKE FRIED RICE? VII. OPERATIONS ACTIVITY

B/ FIRST, MAKE SOME RICE.
A/ OK, MAKE SOME RICE. 1. Start by drawing pictures and put in
B/ THEN, STIR FRY VEGETABLES. order
A/ OK. THEN, STIR FRY VEGETABLES. 2. Add and model language two lines at a
B/ NEXT, STIR IN AND FRY MEAT OR time.
EGGS. 3. Charade the activity as you model
A/ RIGHT, NEXT STIR IN AND FRY 4. Student charades as you practice
MEAT OR EGGS. 5. Record on audio or video tape
B/ FINALLY, ADD THE RICE AND STIR
FRY.
A/ RIGHT. ADD THE RICE AND STIRS
FRY.

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The focused one-to-one (1-2-1) lesson plan is an adaptation of the classroom plan
frameworks preceding it. Teaching 1-2-1 is not as different from classroom teaching as
is sometimes imagined or practiced. While it could be just a conversation between
student and teacher where the objective is just practice of existing skills, if language
development is expected the same modeling through communicative practice steps will
be needed. Developing 1-2-1 lessons also assumes that the teacher:

1. Establishes a sympathetic rapport with the learner – i.e. a feeling for the student’s
life, interests and reasons for learning English.

2. Develops and revises a “student profile” including the learner’s life, perspectives,
likes, dislikes, hopes and aspirations so as to utilize contexts meaningful to the
learner.

3. Emotionally engages the “whole learner” in the language learning process through
personalized contexts, and learner-centered activities.

4. Provides feedback that will allow the learner to measure language competence
against expectations and needs.

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Appropriate Language
How much language is enough? Too much is overload; not enough is boring. This is
another way of expressing the idea of “appropriate language.” This unit covers what
and how much language to give the student in instructions and core target material.
Consider the following two different instructions.

Scene A. Why don't you pick a partner and get into pairs, and talk about what you can
buy in a supermarket. (No further instructions given.)

Scene B. *Drawing from Shortcuts, James Mentel, McGraw-Hill

1. Get into pairs (Teacher indicates pairs by gesture).

2. Look at the picture.
3. T/T model –

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 A/ What can you get in a supermarket?
B/ You can get…
4. T/S>>S/T>>S/S model/practice and elicited to the board
5. Pairs/trios make a list of things by asking the Q&A and using the picture

TASK
1. What is the difference between instruction in scene “A” and “B”?
2. In what class situations can you imagine yourself using each one?

Look at two dialogues.

1.
A/ WHERE ARE YOU GOING?
B/ I’M GOING TO THE SUPERMARKET.
A/ HOW ARE YOU GOING TO GET THERE?
B/ I’M GOING TO GET A TAXI?
A/ WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO?
B/ I’M GOING TO BUY SOME FRUIT.
2.
A/ HEY! WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT GOING TO THE MALL TO LOOK
AT CLOTHES?
B/ YEAH. SOUNDS GOOD. YOU LOOKING FOR ANYTHING IN
PARTICULAR?
A/ I DON'T KNOW. I HAVE BEEN TRYING TO FIND SOME DECENT
JEANS, BUT I DON'T LIKE WHAT I'VE SEEN LATELY. KNOW ANY GOOD
JEANS STORES?
B/ WHY DON'T WE TRY THE GAP? THEY HAVE PRETTY GOOD STUFF,
AND IT'S CHEAPER THAN BRAND NAMES.

TASK
1. What's the difference between the dialogues?
2. What makes the second one more difficult?
3. Describe the class where you might use each one.

Appropriate Language is defined as language that is easy enough for the student to gain
meaning and learn from. This may be in the form of instructions, or target language to
be learned. The objective is to use language for instructions that is understandable, and,
to present new target language that is just a bit beyond the student's current
communicative competence. It is a delicate balancing act between giving the student
too much, and they shut down in frustration, or, giving them too little and they tune out
from boredom. The teacher’s ability to predict an “appropriate” level of language input
is a significant skill refined through practice. It helps if we look at some of key factors.

Refer to the above dialogues to see how they apply.

EASY
" Short
" Repetitive words and structures
" High frequency words and phrases (see Collins COBUILD) Dictionary)
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" Predictable Q & A pattern – e.g. dialogue #1
" Contextualized
" Narrow language focus - i.e. minimal divergent content
" Lots of supporting models - i.e. pictures, sounds and actions

DIFFICULT
" Longer sentences, more words
" Greater diversity of words and phrases
" Lower frequency words and phrases
" Complex or random Q&A patterns – dialogue #2
" Lack of situational context
" No supporting models - i.e. pictures, actions or sounds to aid understanding
" Sub text – i.e. meanings that are not clear from literal meaning of the words

TASK
1. Write a 6-line dialogue for a beginning class of high school students. Keep in mind
the factors of difficulty mentioned above. Try to keep the language natural.

2. Write a 6-line dialogue using the same lesson context for intermediate adult
learners.

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Chants & Songs

Chants
A chant is a rhythmic expression of English as it occurs in context. Chants allow the
learner to not only learn and practice common English expressions, but also to learn and
feel the rhythm, stress and intonation patterns that go with that language. In English,
we often stretch, shorten, blend and even drop sounds. Such features can be difficult
for the non-native speaker to comprehend. Chants can help illustrate the difference
between written and spoken English and help the learner become a better listener and a
more natural speaker.

When practicing chants, it is very important for the students to clap or snap their fingers
to keep the rhythm of the chant. It is even possible for students to “act out” a chant to
emphasize the emotion that goes with it and/or to do role-plays in which they can
practice the language from the chants.

The most famous writer of chants is Carolyn Graham, whose books include Small Talk,
Jazz Chants, Grammar Chants, Jazz Chants for Children and Jazz Chant Fairy Tales.

A Homegrown Example

WHERE, HOW, WHAT

WHERE, HOW, WHAT
WHERE, HOW, WHAT
WHERE, HOW, WHAT (2X)
(Da Da Da DA Da Da)

I’M GOING TO THE MARKET

I’M GOING TO GET A MOTORCYCLE
WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO?
I’M GOING TO BUY FRUIT (2X)

Procedure

• Listen and clap

• Chorals w/T – w/o tape
• Chorals w/T – w/ reading
• Group reps – w/ tape & reading
• Group reps – w/ tape w/o reading
• Alternate group chorals

Published chants are available, most notably Carolyn Graham’s books, but any target
language can be made into a chant with a little imagination.

TASK. Write a chant for the following two lines of dialogue.

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 A/ WHAT TIME DOES THE BUS TO BANGKOK LEAVE?
B/ IT LEAVES AT 12:30.

Songs & Looney Tunes

Songs can be an effective and high-interest addition to language instruction. Songs can
be used in many ways, including:

1. To teach vocabulary
2. To teach rhythm and stress patterns (The Drunken Sailor, Michael Row the Boat
Ashore, Rock A My Soul)
3. To work on listening skills
4. To encourage discussions
5. To increase cultural and historical knowledge
6. To highlight grammar

Types of activities include:

1. Listening and putting pictures in order

2. Cutting up a song, and then listening and putting the song in order
3. Listening and filling in the blanks
4. Reading or listening comprehension
5. Working with rhythm, stress and intonation – hand clapping, hands raised,
standing/sitting, etc.
6. Discussing vocabulary
7. Discussing the meaning of a song
8. Watching videos
9. Learning songs
10. Composing songs
11. Acting out songs
12. Music for imagining (students close eyes and imagine things)
13. Looking at the grammar of a song
-Past tense: Yesterday
-Second conditional: If I had a Hammer
-Present perfect: Where Have All the Flowers Gone?

Teacher or student produced lyrics for known tunes.

WHAT SHALL WE DO WITH THE LAZY STUDENT?

WHAT SHALL WE DO WITH THE LAZY STUDENT?
WHAT SHALL WE DO WITH THE LAZY STUDENT?
EARLY IN THE MORNING.

TASK. Complete the song.

Procedure
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• Play song – Ss strand and tap rhythm
• Clap and speak the lines from handout w/o tape
• Class echoes song karaoke style w/o tape
• Class echoes song karaoke style w/ tape
• Groups alternate echo chorals
• Groups echo chorals w/o handout

Some More Ideas

• Where have all the pencils gone, I can’t find them?

• I’m leaving in a tuk-tuk, don’t know when I’ll get to Bangkok.
• Yesterday, I stayed home and watched TV, don’t know what came over me, as I
think about yesterday.
• I’m dreaming of a new Benz, just like the one my uncle has…
• If I had a pencil, I’d write myself a letter, I’d take it to the post office, I’d…

1. Teacher or student produced chants.

• ABC Chants:
I’m going to Alaska, and then I’m going to Boston.
I’ve seen an ant, but I haven’t seen a bear.
I’ll eat some apples, and then I’ll drink some beer.

• Nyaa, Nyaa, Nyaa, Nyaa, Nyaa, Nyaa

I’m taller than Jimmy, I’m taller than…
Debbie’s going to Tokyo, Debbie’s going to…
My books better than your book, my pens nicer than your…
She has some apples, but she doesn’t have any blueberries

• Any Beat chants – DA da da DA da da DA DA DA…etc.

TASK
Write the following dialogue into a song for.

A/ WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO THIS WEEKEND?

B/ I’M GOING TO THE MOVIES WITH A FRIEND.

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Theater Techniques
Theater techniques are activities used in drama workshops to train actors. The
relationship to teaching and learning languages has been around for some time, and was
originally documented in Richard Via’s book, English in Three Acts. The following is a
starter collection of techniques that can be used to encourage the animation of language
roles in the classroom. Special thanks to Mary MacDonald for Death in the Afternoon,
and to John Morango for Follow That Tone, Jump Emotions and other great ideas.

Death In The Afternoon

Narrator1: Ladies and Gentlemen.

It gives me great pleasure to present to you, "Death in
the Afternoon."
Maid2: (Enter, dusting the room)
Mr. Brown3: (Enter) I feel faint. (Faint)
Maid2: (Scream)
Mrs. Brown4: (Enter) What's the matter? (Maid points) Call
the doctor.
Maid2: (On the phone) Doctor, come quick!
Doctor5: (Enter) I'm sorry he's dead.
Narrator1: This is the end of the story. Thank you.

Process

1. Make groups of 4-6. One person can play more than one role, or there can be
two “narrators” if there are six in the group.
2. Tell groups to practice the skit. Memorizing the roles is optional.
3. Add “modes” – i.e. slow, hysterical, opera, sleepy, stupid, etc. – as desired.
4. Each group performs the skit for the class. Video is a fun option here.

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 5. A follow-up activity could have student groups writing and performing their
own mini mellow dramas.

Grab Bag Role Plays

Process

1. Pass out items from a ‘grab bag.’ The items should be ordinary ‘stuff’ that can
be imagined to be symbolic of others things – e.g. a pencil, rubber band, ruler,
paper clip, plastic bottle, string, ball, etc.
2. Each group member takes one item
3. Groups are then instructed to create a story and a dialogue using their “items.”
4. Groups practice and then present their role plays to the class.

TV Commercial

Process

1. Each group is given one item

2. Group then develops a TV commercial around the item to be “sold”
3. The commercial should include both song jingle and dance
4. Group presents the commercial to the class.

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 Follow That Tune

Process

1. Pairs or small groups study a prepared script

2. Pairs or groups practice among themselves.
3. Teacher narrates as the students present role plays using the written script
4. Teacher or pair narrates as the students act out role plays without words
5. Teacher, or another group narrates and students act out plays speaking and
without script
6. Teacher, or another group, narrates variations or expansions on the prepared
script as appropriate.
7. Roles switch as the actors change the script and the narrators have to describe
what the actors are doing.
8. Other students act as the audience for different “actor” and “narrator” groups
perform.

Jump Emotions

Process

1. Small groups (3-5) use pictures, drawings, tapes or other to develop the names,
personalities, dress and other characteristics of two or more persons in the role-
play.
2. Groups develop a script of a length and complexity appropriate to the students
level with the help of the teacher.
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 3. Students practice the script
" Changing roles occasionally
" Starting with miming the dialogue
" Experimenting with different emotions and modes
4. Director brings each group on the “stage” and then calls out different emotions,
modes or styles for the group to act out as they go through the dialogue.
5. An optional step for groups to critique each other for style and accuracy.

Proverbial Mini-Drama

Process
1. Groups of 4-7 students explore the meaning of different proverbs:
" In L1
" In English
" As applied to everyday life
2. Each group chooses a proverb and further explores the meaning and expression
in L1 and English
3. The group collaborates to write a story around the proverb using contemporary
life circumstances that they can relate to.
4. Teacher assists the students in developing their story and the vocabulary and
expressions needed, but should not direct the plot of the story.
5. Stories are read aloud, corrected and critiqued between student groups
6. Groups then develop a script from their stories.
7. Teacher assists students in developing the script and the needed language.
8. Groups present their plays as script reading to other groups
9. Groups present their plays to other groups.
10. Mini dramas are videoed for review and critique

Note: While proverbial mini-dramas are presented here as a class activity, this activity
can easily provide the content and process for much more extended periods. Proverbs
provide a window on cultural beliefs and values. As such, they have a lot of emotional
content and engagement built in. A class divided into two groups of 10-15 students can
easily spend a semester developing the stories, scripts and theater presentations using
the steps above. Borrowing from Richard Via’s ideas, while one group performs, the
other group can act as the stage cast – prompters. Prop people, cameramen, and
costume and make up people, directors, etc.

Summary of Theater Techniques

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The examples above are just a few starters on the idea of using “acting” or “role
playing” to facilitate language learning. When we speak another language we are, in
fact, ‘acting’ out a different role. Most second language speakers feel that they are a
different person in some ways in their second language. Teachers can utilize this by
letting students ‘get out of their own skins’ to try on the foreign language. This often
makes it easier to speak since the risks are not to the individual, but to the imaginary
personae. A very simple technique is to have students practice dialogues,
• Silently, only acting out the roles
• Using a falsetto or other ‘voice’
• Disguised in a simple costume – a mask, hat, or someone else’s clothes
• In a “mode” – sleepy, silly, creepy, cold, nervous, etc.
Think of TV, movies, comics, books and other role sources, and let your students
become another person, speaking English.

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Noticing Errors
• Error is a sign that the student didn’t learn.
• Error is a sign that learning is taking place*.

*Learning Teaching, James Scrivener

TASK
Consider the statements, and think about why you think one, or the other, or both might
be true.

Observe>Hypothesize>Experiment
This is what we want students to be doing. Allowing the students to “experiment”
implies that we are willing to accept errors as part of the learning process. Study of
learner error and the development of “inter-language” (partially formed language
produced during learning) suggests that students may be juggling several intermediate
forms at any one time as they try to get a fix on what is correct. As well, the learner’s
awareness of error ranges from:

• I am aware of the error after I have said it

to
• I am aware of the error as I say it
to
• I am able to correct the error before I say it

Let’s take a look at some examples of error. What is the student trying to say in each of
the examples below.

1. I talk to her yesterday.

Say this sentence to your self correctly and incorrectly a number of times. What’s the
difference in the sound production? Can you imagine why students might have a bit of
trouble picking up the distinction, and then producing the difference to the satisfaction
of a teacher?

2. He borrowed her the book.

What do you think the student is trying to say here? Notice that there are a number of
possibilities. What would provide the clue to which form is correct in this case?

3. They went there since yesterday.

Explore as in the above.

4. Where you go after school?

How does this show learning? What does the learner still need to acquire?
85
5. I want red book.

What are the possibilities here?

TASK. Discuss for each sentence,

• WHAT error has been made?

• WHY has the student made the error?
• WHETHER the error should be corrected?
• WHEN to correct the error?
• WHO will correct the error?

Guidelines for correction

Given that the teacher may or may not know what error has been made, what the
student is trying to say, or what would be the best way to correct the error, perhaps the
first rule of correction might be “patience.” Inappropriate error correction often leads to
learner “shut down” – i.e. stop speaking or participating in the class. We will assume
this is not what the teacher intends. While letting errors continue for long periods may
lead to bad habits, it is probably advisable to delay correction until the following
criteria can be followed.

Error should be corrected when the correction is:

1. Acceptable. This means that the correction is not seen as a threat, and the learner is
open and ready to adopt the corrected form. This suggests that the correction be
done by remodeling with the whole class – on the blackboard, with T/T, T/S or S/S
– rather than pointing the correction at an individual student.
2. Understandable. This is a more subtle point, but will be well understood by anyone
who has been corrected themselves, and not understood the correction. For example,
in Thai someone says, “Let’s go to see Pi El.” Not understanding, one might ask for
confirmation by saying, “Oh Pi El?” with a rising tone. Only to be corrected again
by the Thai saying, “No Pi.” With a falling or low tone. Since there are seven
possible tone combinations here, many indiscernible to the non-Thai speaker, there
is a high likelihood here that frustration and shut down will follow. Can you think of
examples where this might happen in English correction?
3. Doable. This refers to the situation when the learner knows the correct form, but is
unable to produce it. This can happen for two possible reasons.

a. The correct form is known, but not part of the student’s unconscious
production/response system – i.e. When asked in an ‘on-the-spot’ class
situation:

How many boats are there?

The student may respond,

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 There are three boat.

Leaving the /-s/ off even though the correct form is known.

b. The correct form is known, but the learner is unable to produce the correct
form because of unpracticed neural-motor skills. For example, rolling the r’s in
Spanish, or the initial “ng” sounds in Thai.

Error Correction and the Order of Acquisition

Another factor in error correction that has been addressed in language acquisition
research is the influence of the so-called “natural order of acquisition.” In first language
acquisition, it is clear that children acquire language features in a discernable order.
Word order comes first, and although children do not include all the words, it is clear
that Mommy cookie means “Mommy I want a cookie.” While the exact features of
language that are acquired at different stages is not a complete picture, it is clear that
features like final inflections for plural and past forms, and the proper use of auxiliaries
comes much later in the learning process. Whether or not the teacher agrees with the
idea of a ‘natural order of acquisition’ or not, it is probably reasonable to suggest that
the teacher’s expectations of fixing any particular error at any particular moment should
be modest, rather than insistent.

Ways and Means

The way a teacher corrects (or doesn’t correct) depends upon consideration of the above
questions. Since in the classroom there is seldom time for detailed analysis, it often
comes down to the question of what is the aim of the activity. As a rule, activities may
be aimed at “fluency,” – i.e. getting students to speak or try out language – or,
“accuracy” – i.e. practicing correct models of language. Also, in general, lower level
learners need more encouragement for “fluency” and less focus on “accuracy.” HOW to
correct an error starts with looking at the possible sources of correction or feedback.

1. Self-correction is the most preferable since it strengthens the learner’s confidence.

The important thing is to give the student enough time to self-correct. The teacher’s
very nature to be helpful may get in the way, jumping in to supply an answer before
the student has had a chance to respond. Encouraging self-correction might include:
o Pausing to allow for the response
o Providing supporting cues – board or pictures
o Recording students response on paper or tape, and asking them to look for
errors
o Indicate that there is an error, but wait to allow the student to correct in the
future

2. Peer correction might include,

o Eliciting responses from the class to the board
o Students brainstorming responses in groups
o Giving students cut up sentences to re-assemble
o Writing incorrect sentences on the board and students correct
o Tape record students responses, and then the class listens for errors
3. Teacher correction can be effective as long as it is done carefully.
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 o Rephrasing the question
o Asking a clarifying question
o Remodeling T/T
o Asking the student to repeat the answer

4. Reference resources
o Look the answer up in the student text
o Look in a dictionary
o Look in a grammar book

Input Processing, Output Processing, and Scaffolding

While there is some consensus that paying attention to language form during the input
stage may eventually assist the learner in acquiring and using the form, there is more
debate about the usefulness of guided production or output processing. In the extreme,
this is the sort of habit forming choral repetition and substitution drills that
characterized audio-lingual (ALM) teaching thirty years ago. ALM has since fallen out
of favor simply because there was no evidence that merely repeating things led to
meaningful communicative competence. Krashen has written, “Practice does not make
perfect.” (1982) “There are numerous studies that confirm that we can develop
extremely high levels of language and literacy competence without any language
production at all (Krashen 1994) Furthermore he says, ”“there is no direct evidence
that CO [comprehensible output] leads to language acquisition.” (1998) Larsen-
Freeman writes,

We know that learners require time to integrate new grammatical structures

into their inter-language systems. However, it is not only that the transfer is
delayed, but the learners often produce forms that bear no resemblance to what
has been presented to them or practiced.

Where does this leave us? Looking at language form and usage during the
comprehensible input stage – listen and reading - is OK, but when the student is
speaking or writing, there nothing to be done but wait(?) This certainly leaves the
teacher in a quandary. I would suggest that a middle answer here is suggested by what
is called scaffolding – a process by which the learner in dialogue with the teacher, or
another learner, reconstructs output expressions. Recognizing gaps between what he
wants to say, and what is understood, the learner can, in dialogue with others, refine and
correct the output. There is a lot of observational evidence that this is exactly how non-
student learners outside of classroom situations acquire language. They reconstruct their
output expression through interaction with more proficient users of the language, not
necessarily native-speakers.

It might go something like this. A hypothetical conversation between two Thai high
school students might show the following developments. Notice here that the speech is
still not totally correct, but Ning has included in her response the “going” from Deng’s
speech.
Ning What are you do after school.
Deng I’m going to play football.
Ning You go play football?
Deng Yeah. We’re going to play at school.
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 Ning Well, I going to home.

It suggests that one of the reasons that student-to-student group work is an effective
learning activity is because of the ‘noticing’ and rephrasing that takes place between
peers. The dialogue with the teacher or parent becomes more problematic, probably
because of the “threat” posed by correction. This dialogue between Martin Braine and
his daughter at the dinner table from The Language Instinct by Stephen Pinker seems to
illustrate this nicely in an L1 situation.

Daughter Give me the other one spoon please daddy.

Father You mean give me the other spoon?
Daughter Yes. Give me the other one spoon please.
Father Can you say…’other?’
Daughter Other.
Father Can you say ‘other spoon?’
Daughter Other spoon…Now, can I have the other one spoon, please?

Practical Suggestions
Probably the first thing teachers can do is to let the natural processes work through peer
interaction. Collaborative group work that requires a “product” in English – e.g. a
poster, report, role-play or game activity – allows students to interact naturally,
“noticing” and “restructuring” their language output as their competence develops.
Teachers may object that this is not enough. This may be true. Left on their own,
students may just lapse into L1 with little or no L2 language use or practice. That’s why
it is critical that the teacher:

1. Create an environment where language practice and experimentation can take place.
This means that,
a. There is meaningful context for language practice
b. The form and meaning of the target language has been adequately modeled
c. Individual students are not ‘put on the spot’ but allowed to participate when
they are ready
d. Controlled practice activities are provided which are interactive and
engaging

2. Develop a collaborative learning community in the classroom by,

a. Encouraging students to work together most of the time
b. Getting students to help other students
c. Changing student grouping regularly

3. Assign tasked group assignments that,

a. Require target language that has been modeled and practiced
b. Engages the students in something they care about
c. Include a ‘process’ task like making a poster
d. Have a ‘payoff’ that requires the student to do something in English

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Scaffolding or output processing is a natural outcome of a collaborative learning
process, and may provide the key to the development of grammatical accuracy when the
student really cares about what is being communicated.

In sum, patience with error correction seems prudent. Allow the student opportunities to
self-correct, and provide focused activity to “notice” when errors occur. The guideline
for correction should be “remodeling” rather than “correction.” Providing students
consistently and repeatedly with correct models of the language is essential. Equally
important is allowing them time to sort out language forms and usage as they develop
competence though interactional “scaffolding.” In other words, error correction is
involved in the process of allowing students time to experiment and reflect upon what
they are going to say or write before they are required to do so in a performance mode.
Often this requires the teacher to wait and remain silent while the students talk among
themselves in their own way. This leads naturally into the next topic, ‘noticing
grammar.”

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Highlighting Grammar
The idea is to make students aware of grammar, form and usage, without making
threatening corrections, giving misleading “rules” or taking the language out of context.
Rather, noticing, grammar “highlights” words, phrases, structures or collocations in a
variety of ways. This is also known as “consciousness raising” and processing language
output. There is some debate about whether making learners aware of language form
and usage helps or hinders the learning process. In Teaching Language: Grammar to
Grammaring, Diana Larsen-Freeman quotes R. Ellis(1993), “ (He)…has proposed a
weak interface position, suggesting that instruction draws learner’s attention to
language features and permits them to develop knowledge of these features, but that
learners will not incorporate such features into their inter-language (learner language)
until they reach the requisite developmental stage.”

Look at some language “highlighting” activities from Marc Helgesen’s “Grammar,

Activities and Awareness”, Thai TESOL 2000.

1. ABC Picnic

If you bring the _____(apples)_____, I’ll bring the _____(bananas)_____.

We went to ______(Alaska)___, but they went to _____(Brasil)___.
He’s wearing a(n) ___(afghan), and she’s wearing a ___(blouse)___.

2. Find the Error (Don’t worry. Mistakes aren’t “viruses.” You don’t “catch” them)

" He play the guitar

" Noi go swimming yesterday.
" A airplane is more big than a car.
" Book Mary is on the table.
" Tum went to swimming yesterday.

3. Three minute grammar search. Read through some number of the text and find as
many examples of – e.g. past tense, irregular verbs, future, possession, comparison.
Be careful to avoid linguistic terms as much as possible.

4. Scrambled sentences. Cut sentences up into words or phrases. Groups/pairs work to

assemble sentences. This can be group competition and dialogue by having words to
make both questions and answers.

5. Listen and notice. Read aloud a story at the appropriate level. Students listen and
raise hand when they hear a specified grammar point.

6. Listen and Sort. Same as above, but hand signs for different (but related) grammar
points – e,g. hands forward for future, hands up for present, hands back for past.

7. DIY Find the Mistakes. Students change a paragraph from book to include specified
errors. They read aloud for partners to see if they can hear the errors.

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8. Remember. Stop in the middle of an exercise and ask students to list as many
examples as possible of a grammar feature.

9. Chalkboard blank filling race. Students decide into teams and race to the BB to fill
in blanks. For example:
A______________is_____________than a _________________.

10. Imagine. Have the students imagine what a sentence, phrase or word looks or
sounds like. For example: He came to see me yesterday. Imagine the sentence
written. What does it look like? Where is it written? Imagine hearing the sentence.
What does it sound like? Who is speaking? This can be expanded to have students
write things in the air, on their hand, on their arm, and, where appropriate, on
another students hand. The power of imagination to stir the learning process should
not be underestimated.

11. ESP Games. One person (teacher first) imagines something, and others guess – e.g.
Is it bigger than a dog? Is it hairier than a cat? Is it more dangerous than a …..?

Further examples from other sources would include,

12. Songs and Chants. Small Talk and other books by Caroline Graham (OUP), and
Singing Grammar by Mark Hancock (CUP) are full of great activities that allow

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Classroom Management
Classroom management means “people management” while teaching, or, in other
words, how to direct the students to do what you want them to do. There is a clear
relationship between the content and process of the lesson, and the management of
the class. Overall, well-planned lessons that meet the needs, interests and pace of
the students work the best in terms of getting the students to do what you want them
to do. This should include anticipation, even expectation, that students may diverge
from the teacher’s lesson plan in directions that might be followed, as well as,
potential diversions to be avoided. A lesson that engages the students in activities
that interest and challenge them seldom presents the problems that require us to
resort to ‘extraordinary’ management methods.

With that in mind and recognizing that it is not a ‘perfect world,’ classroom
management also must consider the spectrum of tolerable behavior based on the:
• Teacher’s patience with disorder
• Requirements of the institutional
• Expectations of the learners for a safe and comfortable learning environment

Some general principles

" Make a distinction between “behaviors” and “judgments.” Students “talking”
may, or may not be “disrupting the class.” Non-participation may mean that the
student is not paying attention, or it may mean that the student is reflecting on
the lesson. Two boys fooling around might interrupt the class, but it is not
necessarily “bad.” It may merely be a sign that the teacher is moving too
slowly to engage them. The main point is that dealing with classroom
behaviors is more effective if the teacher can keep emotion out of the dynamic.
This does not mean that there is never a time to indicate that certain behaviors
are unacceptable or wrong. It does mean that dealing with them is usually more
productive without making judgments.
" Deal with classroom order and discipline at a level appropriate to your own
feelings and beliefs. Some people can simply stand more chaos than others.
You have to establish a level of discipline and order you can live with. What is
“right” in the classroom is closely connected with each individual’s values,
attitudes and beliefs. Thus, a noisy chaotic classroom atmosphere may be
“right” for one teacher, but “wrong” for another. As well, our choice for
dealing with classroom discipline problems are related to our own personal
lists of “rights” and “wrongs.” Being aware of our individual “values” is
critical for making appropriate decisions about classroom management.
" To the degree possible, negotiate classroom rules and procedures with your
students. This might start with groups or a committee making suggestions.
Regular, or, ‘as needed’ returns to the groups should be included to revise, add
or delete rules. That does not mean that the teacher will be ruled by student
recommendations, but that the teacher will solicit students' ideas, respect them
and include them as appropriate. Ultimately, the teacher must be the final
word.

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TASK - Two students are talking while the teacher is modeling/presenting language
to the class. What do you think would be the most effective teacher response?

Approaching the classroom – Some basics to consider.

Professional behavior and dress. While this varies from place to place, in general,
teachers are expected to represent conventional and relatively conservative models
of behavior and dress. Students have expectations about how their teachers should
act and dress. ‘Making a statement’ as a teacher may cost more than it’s worth in
terms of credibility and respect, most particularly overseas where the native-speaker
may not really understand the student’s expectations.

Encouraging learning vs. entertaining. The rule of thumb here is that a teacher
should be entertaining, but not an entertainer. There is no doubt that many teachers
can be very effective in drawing the attention of their students through humor,
entertaining behavior and being engaging personalities. This is useful to focus the
student’s attention during some modeling and practice activities. However, it is
equally important for the teacher to know how to step out of the limelight, literally,
to get out of the students’ way. As we move through the basic lesson paradigm of
model to practice to communication, it becomes increasingly important for the
teacher to step back. The “teacher as entertainer” role can get in the way of the
essential fact that ultimately, it is the students who have to “do” things to become
competent in a language.

Be prepared – lesson plan, materials, and resources. This is self-evident, but often
forgotten in the everyday routine of teaching. Sometimes, familiarity with a class
can lead to lack of preparation since the teacher falsely believes that he can work
something out as the class goes along. Another common diversion from planning, is
re-teaching a lesson that has been done with other classes. Whatever the case, there
is no doubt that the best classes are preceded by the best lesson plans. This means
that the teacher has carefully considered,
1. The context of the lesson in the learner’s terms
2. Modeling and target language
3. The objectives of the lesson in student terms
4. What the students will do at each stage
5. How the teacher will facilitate what the students ‘do’
6. The potential problems that might arise at each stage
7. Approximate timing for the lesson activities
8. The sequence of activities in terms of learning and student engagement
9. The amount of material needed to fill the allotted time and offer alternatives
Lesson planning is the first consideration in classroom management since engaged
students seldom require “problem management.”

Make your commitment and enthusiasm obvious. Students respond with enthusiasm
when they are led by an enthusiastic teacher. You are the ‘energizer rabbit’ in your
classroom. The students will be as animated and committed as you appear to them.
Do temper your enthusiasm with a level of decorum appropriate to your role as a
teacher. Don’t behave in a manner that will offend or discomfort students in the that
culture – for example, overly loud voice or sudden actions.
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Establishing your presence in the classroom
• Convey a need for order by your body language in entering and organizing the
classroom - i.e. clean board, lay out materials, check on seating arrangement, etc.
• Recognize each person in the class with eye contact, gesture or speech. You
initial movement around the class at this point can be helpful in establishing this.
• Establishing order may involve telling students to put things away, or to take out
class materials.

Classroom arrangement
TASK - Discuss,
• What is the ideal classroom arrangement? Why?
• What is the most common classroom arrangement? Why?

Names
Knowing the students' names is one of the most effective ways of establishing
rapport with your class, and maintaining control during the lesson.

Here are some ideas.

1. Name games. Get students in a circle. Each student says their name, and the
name of the previous students who have spoken as you go around the circle. It
gets harder as you proceed, but it does focus everyone on the task. A variation
here is to have a name association like “Dan the man” to assist the memory
process.
2. Taking role. Sounds pretty traditional, but I expect has been the mainstay of
teachers for years to remember and use names in the classroom. This can be
made more fun with something like “bullet questions – i.e. quick questions fired
at each student that relate to the previously studied or known language. It can
also be fun to involve the students in taking role so it is not just teacher-centered
activity.
3. Picture. Some teachers make a photo album at the beginning of every class
semester, and keep it handy for reference. With digital and computer technology
this is becoming an even handier option.

TASK – Discuss
" How can you remember student names?
" How can you continue to remind yourself of names during a semester?

Eye Contact and position

Use eye contact to recognize the presence of everyone in the class, both at the
beginning of the class, and during the class so that all the students know that you are
interested in what they are doing.
• Obviously, your eye contact must be friendly and brief enough not to embarrass.
This is particularly important in some countries.

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• Eye contact is a way to keep in touch with other students in the class when you
are addressing an individual, or a group.
• You should combine eye contact with position in the classroom by standing
close to some students while using eye contact to maintain contact with others.
• Changing your position helps you to check on everybody in the class, and makes
sure you don’t ignore someone.
• Remember, getting close to someone:
1. Doesn’t mean you must ‘confront’ them (demo), and
2. Can be an effective way to “reign in” students whose attention has wandered.

Gestures
Most effective teachers have developed a set of classroom gestures to indicate what
they want students to do. These gestures are often more effective than voice
directions, and at least reinforce voice directions. Unnecessary teacher talk and
directions actually tends to raise classroom ‘hubbub’ and ‘clutters’ the atmosphere
with unneeded noise.

Some typical gestures are:

• Listen - hand cupped behind the ear
• Repeat in chorus - sweep of the hands like an orchestra director
• Stand up - raising the hands palms upward
• Sit down - motioning downwards with the palms down
• Get into pairs - hand or finger movements to show getting together
• Stop - clap or time out sign
• Good - thumbs up or smile and nod (Watch out for...!)
• Not right - facial expression, plus shake of head or finger
• Nearly right - outstretched hand rocked side to side or thumb and fore
finger lightly apart
• Interesting idea - raised eyebrows and nod
• Eliciting - beckoning with the cupped hand
• Say again - circling motion with hand to one student
• Missing word - “fingers” – one finger for each word indicating that one word
is missing

Remember, when you meet a class for the first few times they will be unaccustomed
to you and your gestures. You will have to reinforce your gestures with spoken
directions, and there may be some initial hesitancy or confusion.

What is to be avoided
1. Be careful not to use any words, gestures or body language, which is offensive
to your students.
2. Be conscious of, and try to control, any “tics” which might irritate or distract the
class – for example, rapid movement around the class, saying “OK”, “Right, right”,
“Good job” or other repeatedly.

Seating Arrangements
Things to consider:
1. Who sits next to whom?
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2. Are seating positions fixed?
3. If they change, when and how often?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fixed vs. flexible seating?

To create a learning community in your classroom you may want to move students
around quite often. Once they become accustomed to this, it should contribute to the
level of interest and engagement in activities since students do not keep talking to
only a few people. Even in a classroom where fixed seats may be required or
desirable, it is useful to move students around temporarily a few times during the
class to create more interesting communication dynamics.

Re-seating students as a classroom management tool is also an option. Separating

two unruly boys, or girls, is often the least disruptive way of dealing with fooling
around or excessive talking.

Teacher Talk
• Teacher talk can be one of the best sources for authentic language in the
classroom.
• Clear instructions by the teacher are “real” language communication and are
essential for good classroom management. Discuss:
• The teacher can provide invaluable input for the class with:
1. Authentic listening texts - a tape cassette is not always needed
2. Anecdotes and stories, particularly for cultural exploration and personalizing
3. Modeling for form, pronunciation and meaning
4. Correction of errors
5. Explanations of language points
TASK

What are the disadvantages of teacher talk? Discuss the following

1. How can you use it, and not abuse it?
2. What are the guidelines for “appropriate language” that must be observed here?
3. When might “explanation” be useful and appropriate?
4. How do you know how much teacher talk is appropriate?

Eliciting
This is a common activity in classrooms all over the world. It is used to:
• Get students involved and interested
• Check on student level
• Focus on topical, situational or functional areas
• Personalize the lesson with student input
• Encourage initiative
At the same time, it is important to realize that eliciting, in itself, is not teaching. In
other words, if the student can answer and provide words or ideas in English, then
they are already known. Getting partial responses or individual words, may be a
starting point to build on. Alternatively, it is a way that students in a class can share
and build their store of vocabulary and expressions. For this reason, it is important
that the teacher choreograph the situation so that the vocabulary and expressions
offered by the students are recorded and shared. This is done by:
" Eliciting to the board
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 " Brainstorming on poster paper
" Students writing no the board
"
TASK
Discuss:
1. Techniques for eliciting would include asking relevant questions. What questions
might you ask?
2. Can you think of other techniques for eliciting?
3. How would you share the information?

Pair work
Pair work is an important interactive activity because it:
• Gives the student a chance to practice, and experiment with what they are
learning.
• Allows the teacher to withdraw and monitor student performance and progress
• Encourages rapport and collaborative learning
• Builds affective competence (confidence)
• Encourages shy or withdrawn students to participate
• Encourages learner autonomy
• Adds variety to the lesson
• Allows the student to “invest” in the lesson and personalize

TASK
Given that all these things are desirable, discuss
1. What are the essential prerequisites to pair work?
2. What should the teacher be doing while pair work is taking place?

Trios
Mini-groups of three’s is a great alternative to group work since it focuses the
speaking activity more. It is an improvement on pairs since one of the students can
watch and listen, while the others speak. The observer in the trio may in fact be
learning more than the participants. At least, the individuals get to make some
choices about who speaks and when, plus the additional input from another student.

Group work
Group work is an extremely useful, communicative learning activity. It is natural
and engaging for most people to exchange and develop ideas in a group. If the
teacher encourages a collaborative, helpful atmosphere, the peer exchanges in
groups can be of critical importance in developing language competence. It is likely
that much of the “scaffolding” dialogue between students occurs in this format, with
the sharing of ideas, vocabulary, language form and usage. Group work is often the
best answer for large classes and difficult students. The activity itself is engaging,
and it allows the teacher to focus attention where it is most needed for both input
and control. Group work needs to be carefully planned and executed.

TASK
Discuss
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1. How would you prepare for it?
2. How do you “task” the group work so that students stay focused?

Things to consider
Preparations. Group work needs to be linked to the context and target language that
has been modeled and practiced with the class. The students should know clearly
what they are expected to do, and have language models and resources available.
For example, in the “Expanded Lesson Framework” the group work stage is
modeled by the listening activity – i.e. the students are expected to produce their
own dialogue that matches the fill-in listening dialogue they have just completed.
Another possibility is for the teacher to show a completed, or partially completed,
example of the work that the students are expected to do. Working group size is
normally between 4 and 7 students. Do not be overly concerned if the students use
L1 in the group, as long as the “product” – for example a poster of presentation –
has to be in English.

Focus or “tasking” of activity. It must be clear to the students what they are doing in
the group. They must have a clear task – for example, making a poster, preparing a
group dialogue, drawing and labeling pictures, or writing a story. One of the easiest
devices for doing this is poster paper. Asking students to develop dialogues, lists,
mind maps or writing on posters gives the group a visual focus, and at the same
time, provides the teacher with clear evidence of what the group is doing. Using
poster paper and markers makes the task large enough for the entire group to see
and contribute to. The teacher can often elaborate the poster focus by providing a
picture, symbol or format (like columns) for the students.

SAMPLE TASK.
1. Use the symbols below to write a brief story
2. Tell your story to another group
3. Write a script for your story and role-play for the other groups.

Choreography. Setting up the group. The most common practice is probably

“bunching” – the teacher groups together 4-5 students sitting close to each other.
While this is OK, it may be better to count off the students and then group them by
number – i.e. all the 1’s together, all the 2’s together, etc. This has the advantage of

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separating friends, which often makes the groups work better. Changing group
make up occasionally is also recommended, although groups would normally
remain consistent for a given activity or task.

Sharing. Another feature to be choreographed is sharing group information and

products. Some possibilities.
o Poster sessions. Put posters on the wall and walk around
o Spies. Each group sends “spies” out to find out and report on what
the other groups are doing
o Pyramiding. Putting two groups together to exchange or present what
they have done
o Class presentations
o Immigrants. One member of each group “emigrates” to another
group taking along information about what their original group was
doing.
o Teacher elicitation to the board.

Products. Focused group work needs a task, as mentioned above, but there must also
be a product, or result, that puts the students the spot to do something with what
they have produced. This could be,
" A presentation
" A role play
" An audio or video tape
" A fishbowl discussion (the rest of the class observes but does not participate)
" Interviewing native speakers outside of class
" A simulation – an elaborate role-play involving multiple characters and roles.

Timing. This will depend upon the class, but something the teacher should plan
careful and review as the class proceeds. In some classes the group activity may
take up less than 10%-20% of the class period. In other classes the majority of the
time may be spent in groups. Some of this will depend upon level. Usually, lower
levels need more modeling and controlled practice time, and thereby, less group
time. More advanced classes may spend most of their time in groups with the
teacher coaching each group individually. The critical question is how much input is
needed for the groups to function. If a lot of input is needed, then the teacher will
have to spend “whole class” time doing this with models and practice. Group time
will follow other class activity. The proportion of group time will increase, as the
need for input becomes less.

When in the lesson? Just about any time is fine. A class could begin with students
brainstorming ideas and vocabulary, and then go on to modeling of core materials
and controlled practice activity. Brainstorming could follow the introduction of a
core dialogue to develop additionally vocabulary in the middle of a lesson. Groups
could come at the end of the lesson to prepare for presentation or role-plays in the
following class.

Management. Once the teacher has established the group task and checked with
each group to assure understanding, the best step is probably to step back and take
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stock of what is happening. Teachers often feel compelled to be doing something,
and this may translate into getting involved with the group work. While this may be
helpful, initially it may be best to let the groups work a bit on their own while the
teacher observes, monitors and determines when and where intervention is needed.
If things are going well the hardest job may be to do nothing. Teachers need to
encourage independence and self-sustaining group activity. Another factor is the
need for the teacher to encourage and show appreciation for what the students are
doing. Thus, while the teacher should intervene only as necessary, careful
monitoring and attention are important.

Monitoring
All classroom activities require teacher monitoring. While classroom management
involves “controlling” the class, and maintaining order and focus, it also means
monitoring - constantly checking - on the progress of student learning. One of the
first things that teachers need to remember is to pay attention to what their students
are doing. This may seem obvious, but it’s not just watching over the students, but
looking carefully at what they are doing. First and foremost, students are doing
things to please the teacher. If they don’t think the teacher is noticing and interested
in what they are doing, then they won’t be.

Some points to consider.

" Back off a little bit in the beginning of group or pair work to emphasize that
students should work on their own, and to assess where your intervention might
be most needed.
" Consider how you are going to check on progress with students who are not
responding vocally.
" This often means having them write things, both as part of the ‘task’ involved,
but also so the teacher can ‘see’ what is being done.
" Move around the classroom so you have a chance to check on each student, and
keep an eye on the rest of the class as you. The problem here is that teachers
often get so involved with one group, that they ignore what is going on in the
rest of the class.

Potential Problems
Consider the following situations and discuss how you might handle them.

1. One or more students are not participating or engaged in the lesson.

2. A group of students come into the classroom after the lesson has begun.

3. One student has her head down on the desk and other students are looking at
her.

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4. The beginning of the class is delayed because two students are fighting.

5. You have assigned a task, and some of the students have already completed it,
but others are still working.

6. You have purposely counted off students to work in random groups of 5, but
some students want to stay with their friends and don’t go to the assigned group.

7. One student is causing disruption (acting out).

8. Write your own “incident.”

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Evaluating Texts
Before you can decide on a text, you have to profile the class. Who are the students?
What is the level, age, motivation, syllabus, etc?

TASK Specify the criteria for determining the needs of a particular class.
• Age
• Level
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
TASK
Look through five student course books. Write the name in the left column, and in
the right column, what you like and dislike about each book.
Title Comments
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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TASK. Determine ten basic criteria for evaluating a text.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Some Evaluation Ideas

• GRAMMAR. Pick a difficult grammar point – i.e. present perfect, determiners,

past forms, etc. Compare how it is taught in different texts. Is grammar “noticing”
utilized? Is the grammar “contextualized” or presented as drills?
• LANGUAGE. Look at the language in dialogues and other samples. Is it natural
language in a situational context, or is it re-scripted language for the classroom?
• CONTEXT. Are the lessons contextualized by real life situations or language
functions? Particularly important that context is appropriate for a specific target
group.
• DIRECTIONS. The perfect text would be so clear that a teacher’s manual would
not be necessary, and is clearly shown what students and teachers should do with
the materials.
• LEXIS. Does the text reflect what we know about the importance of co textual
relationships – i.e. does it use collocation in its language models and practice
activities – i.e. does it show that certain words are likely to appear together in the
same expression? An example of this is the occurrence of since and for with the
perfect tenses – e.g. I have studied here for three years.
• ACTIVITIES. Are there a variety of activities? Do the activities vary, but
maintain some sense of predictability? A good text will have some basic patterns,
but will have a variety of exercises and variations in sequence.
• VISUALS. A picture is worth a thousand words. Does the text utilize pictures
and use them to prep listening, reading and provide lesson context for conversation
and writing?

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• SKILL FOCUS. Integrated texts that use the four skills to support learning are
best for general language learning. Single skills texts should utilize other skills as
part of the activity – e.g. a listening text without pre- and post-discussion would be
weaker than one that provided for this.
• NAVIGABILITY. Is it easy to move around in the text? Can you easily find the
communication activities in the back of the book, or the grammar references? Does
the book lend itself to variable sequencing of units?
• RESOURCES. Are there supporting teacher’s books, tape cassettes, CD-ROMs,
videos, web sources and TESTS?

You never really know a book until you teach it, but the initial question is – Does
the book look like it would be fun to teach?

Choosing the right textbook can be a very exciting, but daunting exercise. It is a lot
of fun to look through books, and imagine teaching them. It is equally discouraging
to think that if you make a mistake, you may be stuck with the book for some period
of time. The importance of “trialing” new books can’t be overemphasized. If
possible, try out a new book with one or two classes before adopting it on a larger
scale. Work with other teachers to see if the book meets your criteria. The
“evaluation approaches” above provide some initial ideas, but it is critical that a
group of teachers work together to develop and expand their own criteria. Does the
text,

" Address contexts that relevant for our students?

" Require a lot of prep time?
" Include needed resource materials?
" Lend itself to adaptation?
" Provide the appropriate skill focus and practice?
" Offer sufficient group work, student input opportunities, communicative
practice or other

Other considerations not already mentioned would include:

" Can the text be easily divided into different levels

" What is the projected “shelf life” of the text?
" Can the students afford it?
" How much ‘prep’ time will be required to teach it?

A final suggestion – let the publishers help you. Publishers are one of the teachers’
best friends, and their representatives can make very useful suggestions about book
choices. Obviously, they want to sell you books, but they also want to make you,
and your students happy. Thus, it is in their best interest to suggest texts that will
mean repeated and continuing sales. They have a broad perspective of what works
in your region and your kind of teaching situation. See their websites for local
contacts.

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Adapting Course books
TASK. Discuss the following quote from Kathleen Graves, Teachers as Course
Developers, CUP,

The text is not the course; rather, what the teacher and the students do with the
text constitutes the course.

TASK. Discuss another quote from Kathleen Graves, Designing Language Courses,
Newbury House. 2000.

This text is written for everyone, and this text is written for no one.

To sum up briefly, no text will ever be perfect for your class, and no text is perfect
‘as is.’ The teacher is faced with a dilemma between the following propositions,

1. Teaching the text as it was written, and intended by the author

Or
2. Changing the text, and, perhaps, losing the intended focus and teaching
strategy

Let’s take these two propositions and expand on them a bit.

Teaching the text as it was written and intended by the author.

It is hard to imagine any author who would suggest that there was only one way to
teach their textbook. As a matter of fact, most authors are faced with the challenging
reality that their texts need to be flexible enough to allow for a variety of students,
teachers and curriculum demands. Let’s start off by looking at the order of units in a
textbook. While there is some logic to the sequence of topics covered in a text, it is
a topical sequence suggested for an imaginary class. Usually the order of contexts
starts with some sort of greeting, but then the sequence breaks down into more or
less random topics. When we know that the students are going to an English
speaking country, then we can order the topics according the chronological
sequence of events they are likely to encounter. With a general English class, the
chronology of encounters is unknown, thus, they could be covered in any order.

What about grammatical sequencing? There is no reason to believe that there is any
sequence of grammatical items necessary to learning a language. But what about
starting with simple Yes/No and sentences with the verb to be that has been used in
textbooks for years? There is no research to show that this sequence is a prerequisite
to developing grammatical competence. Moreover, studies show that students learn
grammatical features in a sequence and a pace that is individually determined and
unrelated to the sequence of items that they are taught, in spite of what is done by
the teacher. There is also no evidence that any feature must necessarily precede any
other feature for the language to be acquired. What is easy, or learnable, is simply
determined by the “length” of the target language, and the degree of “abstractness.”
So if students learn at their own “order of acquisition” and at their own pace, how
do we know what to present first, and then in what sequence? As one of my past

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colleagues, Carolyn Andrade used to say, “I present my students with a buffet of
language, and let them choose what they want to learn.” This may seem a bit
unfocused, but it is really a pretty good answer. In other words, give students
opportunities to select the text units that interest them. Except for the first couple of
units that deal with group building and getting to know each other, the sequence of
the following units is largely a matter of student interest.

Changing the text

One effective strategy to explore “changing the text,” is to photocopy a unit, and
then cut up the copy so that there is a single activity on each piece of paper. Next,
hopefully with fellow teachers, separate the activities into two piles, the ones you
are going to use, and the ones you aren’t going to use. Then, arrange the activities
you are going to use in a sequence that makes sense to you and your colleagues.
This exercise should help to reassure teachers who are afraid that re-arranging the
text will somehow violate the author’s intended plan. In other words, you should
find that you have “adapted” the activity resources in the text to your own students
by,

• Eliminating the things they already know, or aren’t ready for

• Focusing on the type of activities that fit your objectives - e.g. dialogues,
readings, listening, writing or grammar activities
• Putting the activities into an order that takes into account what you know about
the student’s previous English learning, and the student’s life view.

There is no way that the author could have foreseen your teaching-learning
situation, and “his” teaching strategy may, or may not, have any relation to you or
your students needs. We have to get away from the idea that textbooks are the
products of experts who know better than teachers what to teach. More correctly,
textbooks are written by excellent teachers, who know what and how things should
be taught, but not necessarily what and how they should be taught to your students.

Text Adaptation Example

Interchange Intro, Unit 5. This unit starts with the following “Conversation.”

Debbie: Hello?
John: Hi, Debbie. This is John. I’m calling from Australia.
Debbie: Australia?
John: I’m at a conference in Sydney. Remember?
Debbie: Oh, right. What time is it there?
John: It’s 10:00 P.M. And it’s four o’clock there in Los Angeles. Right?

Debbie: Yes – four o’clock in the morning.

John: 4:00 A.M.? Oh, I’m really sorry.
Debbie: That’s OK. I’m awake … now.

The conversation includes the following concepts.

• Names and places
• Time of day relative to activities – i.e. What time is it? What are you doing?

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 • Time zones

While all three concepts might be appropriate for adult learners in a city
environment, it doesn’t work with high school students from rural Thailand because
the idea of time zones is more remote for them. Thus, the first “Conversation” is not
appropriate as the first activity for this unit. In fact, the second “Conversation” in
this unit works best since it practices the “time” and “doing” relationship without
the time zone concept. Thus, this is a good starting point for the rural Thai students,
followed by the “Grammar Focus” on the previous page for more vocabulary
expansion. Then, we could introduce the time zone concept with the “Interchange
5” activity from the back of the book, followed by the first “Conversation” and
“Listening” activities that practice the time zone idea. The author of this fine text
was not ‘wrong,’ but simply could not write the text for only students in rural
Thailand.

In this Unit 5, there are four activities that might be skipped entirely for the rural
Thai students.

o “Telling Time 1 & 2” simply because the Thai students already have had a
lot of practice with this.
o “Word Power” and “Listening” activities to practice What is s/he doing?
Again, because this would be easy for some classes.

The “Reading” activity fit well into the rural Thai setting, but it does not necessarily
have to happen at the end of the unit as it does in the textbook. There is not
particular reason why it couldn’t come at the beginning of the unit sequence in place
of the “Conversation.” We have become accustomed to putting listening and
speaking first, but there is no pedagogical reason why this should be so. After all,
the pre-reading discussion and brainstorming of “Saturday morning with my
friends,” could involve speaking, vocabulary building, reading and writing activities
leading into the Conversation. It is possible that the reading comes last in some texts
for publishing reasons, like it fills up the last page of the unit.

In sum, text adaptation means:

• Reorder
• Reformat
• Revise

Reorganize
Reorganizing is the simplest text modification, as in the example above. Pick the
activities you want to use, and then put them in the order that makes the most sense
to you. This is probably the most effective thing the teacher can do to adapt the text,
without modifying the content or focus of the material substantially. Freeing the
teacher to choose activities and sequence helps to get away from the blind
adherence to the text, and provides an opening for “contextualizing” the text for
your students. It is unlikely that there is only one possible order even for a particular

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group of students. More likely, any text unit could be taught effectively in several
different sequences to a given class of students.

TASK
Discuss: Is a textbook a “roadmap” or a “resource book?”

Reformat
This means changing the activities in the text. For example,

• Timing – how much time is spent on each activity?

• Refocusing activity
• Formatting – how will the activity be presented to the class – e.g. the textbook
may specify a “listening” activity, but the teacher may decide to change this to a
“reading” activity followed by discussion and conversation.

TASK
Photocopy 3-4 pages from your textbook. Cut the copies up into individual
activities. Work with a partner to decide which activities you want to do, in what
order and how?

Revise
This means looking at:
o Preps – How will you prepare the Ss for each activity
o Activities – how to do? Texts often don’t specify
o Skill focus – what skill(s) will you focus on
o Supplementary materials – what will you need to model and practice,
including BB planning

Most international texts leave a great deal up the individual teacher to decide. This
is often supplemented in the teacher’s handbook, but in most cases, “what to do,”
depends upon the teaching situation. As an example, New Interchange by Jack
Richards has six pages of twelve activities per unit. Each page represents
approximately 50 minutes of a 30-hour course. The activities as they appear would
not fill 50 minutes, and must be supplemented by the teacher. With each activity
the teacher must decide how to:
o prepare the Ss for the activity
o conduct the activity
o follow up

TASK
Pick a page from your textbook. Plan:
o communicative activities that will lead up to the text activity
o the procedure that will be used to implement
o the follow up tasks to be done

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Course Design and Textbook Adaptation References

http://www.thomsonlearningjapan.com/Books/designinglanguagecourses.htm Brief
description and buying information about Kathleen Grave’s book Designing
Language Courses, Heinle & Heinle
http://books.cambridge.org/052149768X.htm Information and outlines of Teacher
as Course Developers, Cambridge. the stories of six teachers who successfully designed their
own ... provides a framework for the processes of course development which ...
http://www.tesol.org/pubs/author/books/curricdevelop.html The TESOL
organization curriculum development project description with lots of interesting
ideas and an invitation to participate

*What I like about the references above is that they all see the teacher as the key to
course development and design, not some ‘expert.’ They all recognize and empower
the teacher to create their own syllabus and curriculum. What many teachers
hesitate to do is move along the continuum from,

Lesson Course Curriculum

Planning Design Design
&
Syllabus

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Content Based Instruction

What’s this?
Write all the words you can think of in the boxes.

Things Actions

Notice
The words you have written down contain “content” – in other words, they
communicate ideas, concepts, perceptions or perhaps opinions about what the viewer
sees in the picture. To a large degree, this is ‘content based instruction.’ It is instruction
in English, or another target language, that is focused upon things, ideas, concepts and
perceptions, rather than upon the language itself. In a sense, content-based learning is
the ultimate “context” since all of the language for the “content” is defined. Let’s look
at a simplified example.

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2+2=4
In English this is expressed in words by, two plus two equals four. In other words, the
concept or content very precisely defines the language used to express the idea.

TASK
How might this be useful in the learning of English?

To a great degree the language to be taught is defined by the content making the
teacher’s job much easier. The teacher doesn’t have to guess what language might be
useful to the student, and, most important, the language meaning and usage is already
defined in the student‘s mind. This includes language structure since the reason for
speaking (function) and the setting (context) in which the language is going to be used.

Just to put the idea of content-based learning into context, look at the continuum below.
These are ways of organizing language learning to maximize the transfer of meaning
from the ‘context’ of the real life usage of the language – i.e. language activities can be
organized around functions, topics, context and content.

TASK
Why the arrows?

Functions Topics Context Content

Reason for Subject matter Situation Category of
speaking knowledge

• Apologizing • food • winning the lottery • math

• Explaining • daily • going to the clinic • science
• Giving activities • new in town • countries of
directions • weather • talking about: the world
• Asking for • shopping o weekends • environment
things • pets o school • nutrition
• Clarifying • the mall o future • health
• Asking • things o holidays • massage
directions & you’re good • •
locations at
• my hero
•

Content-based learning offers some interesting opportunities since it defines so many of

the features of language to be taught in terms of - function, topic and context. In other
words, the functions are determined by the teaching situation in terms of – explaining,
discussing, clarifying, disagreeing, etc. Topics are defined by the content area itself –
such as math – addition, subtraction, fractions, ratios, etc. Context is easiest of all since
the classroom itself becomes the context, and we don’t have to imagine or role play an
“outside” reality.

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Syllabus Progression
Activation Input Product
Schema Listening Tasks + product
Known info Reading
Learner’s Q’s Speaking
Sharing

The syllabus progression shows a variation in the design of a content based lesson that
makes it unlike a well-designed and modeled ‘context’ lesson. In a context lesson, all
the concepts can be modeled in terms of things that the learner already knows – like
clinic, pharmacy, mall, holiday weekend, etc. – then the teacher only has to supply the
“form” in English. In a content lesson, by definition, we must model new information,
concepts and ideas that the learner does not know. Fortunately, the language structures
required are not unique and involve “functions” that are generic to any language usage
– e.g. explaining, asking questions, answering questions, confirming, etc.

A Recipe for Developing Content Based Lessons

1. Choose a subject and reduce it – i.e.

science>>health>>nutrition>>proteins/fats/carbohydrates>>a balanced diet

2. Define the lesson – An Overall objective that is clear

Fats %

Protein %
Balanced
Diet

Carbohydrates %

3. Define the language

a. statements

You /need//should eat/ percent of /fats/protein/carbohydrate in your diet.

People should eat…

b. questions

What should I/you…?

What do I/we need to…?

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 c. vocabulary

Vocabulary must be defined by modeling and examples, not by using more

words. Some samples below.

Vocab Modeling
• Pyramid •
• Ratio • 1:4 (pie chart)
• percentage • 25% or .25
• fats • examples - oil
• protein • examples - fish
• carbohydrates • examples - rice
• balance
•
• healthy

• unhealthy •

• vitamins • Centrum, Vitacaps (realia, pictures)

4. Define the Tasks and Products. This means deciding what skills to focus on, what
tasks within each skill area, and what the “products” of each task will be in terms of
language activity.

A SAMPLE COLLECTION
Tasks Products
• listening • bulletin boards – real or web
o predicting • journals – public to private
o focused with literal response • presentations
o matching • role plays
o inferences • skits
o sequencing • mime
• reading • drawing and illustrations
o literal – identifying information • charts
o reorganization
• surveys
o inference
• mind maps
o evaluation
o appreciation • reports
• speaking • essays
• debates
• writing
• discussions
• audio/video recording

Putting It Together
The ‘recipe’ above gives a general idea, but good language lessons must address more
complex issues. Specifically, we must define and organize the tasks. Here “tasks” are
the activities that the students will be engaged in during the lesson. Task seems a more
114
appropriate word since it implies ‘purpose’ and the idea of doing something for a
‘reason’ or to produce a ‘product.’

The tasks should have:

1. Variety and consistency – Students rebel at the idea of doing the same thing over
and over again. The bolder ones will mimic the teacher’s words or actions, and
eventually learners will shut down into bored indifference or distractive behaviors.
There is, apparently, a “deviance default” in our internal thought process that
requires us to change the way we say things so that we are not “repeating
ourselves,” and, resists doing anything in a repetitive fashion. Teachers know this
from experience, and good teachers are constantly looking for new ways to
accomplish the same ends with different activities.

At the same time, there is a need for consistency and regularity in the learning
environment. Going through known procedures seems to provide a ‘comfort level’
that is required to lower affective barriers, facilitate comprehensible input and
encourage productive practice activity. How do we reconcile these two factors? The
answer, which is evident in good textbooks, is to have a basic framework, and then
to vary the tasks and language to be used within the basic framework.

For example, in English Firsthand by Marc Helgesen, Longman’s each unit is

sequenced around the following framework.

1. Listening -
" Getting ready – pre-listening activity
" listening task #1
" listening task #2
" About You - listen and answer about yourself
2. Conversation – listening and practice
3. 3-Minute conversation task
4. Duet – info gap conversation
" Plan ahead – predicting
" Pair work – information exchange
" Challenge – applying language to your world
5. Language Check – highlighting grammar and vocabulary
" Grammar check
" Vocabulary check
" 5-minute grammar search
" on your own - online reference
6. Ensemble – group activities
" Language map or pronunciation box for reference
" Plan ahead – a planning step towards developing more complex
language
" Communication Exchange –
" Finished? Choose one – extension activities
7. Solo – reading and writing activity
" Personal reading
" Comprehension task
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 " Personal writing

Within this framework, each unit is focused on a different language context, target
language and varying activities and tasks. This is a good model for the requirements
of a content-based lesson that needs a set format within which the language and the
tasks can vary.

2. Appropriacy – The tasks should be appropriate for the content of the lesson and the
level of the learners. The tasks should be:

• Personalized – allow personal input from the learners. This means that the task must
draw on things the learner already knows. As well, it is important to allow for the
learner’s opinions and emotional engagement.
• Localized - brought into the context of local perspectives, viewpoints and things.
For example, a task might be to collect local weather information. Obviously, the
students are going to be more interested in this task about local weather, than if the
weather data were collected for South Dakota or London. Science and math are
more relevant and engaging if we use things that the students are acquainted with,
and are part of their daily lives.

3. Logical sequence. Tasks should have a ‘logical sequence’ that makes complex
instructions unnecessary. For example, if you pass out an envelop with a
conversation dialogue cut up into parts, it is fairly predictable that the students will
try to reassemble the parts without a lot of directions. Once they have reassembled
the conversation, it might also follow that students could take all of the pieces for
one ‘part’ in the dialogue to practice with someone else who had the pieces for the
other ‘part’ of the dialogue.

4. Relevance. This should be more carefully defined to mean immediate relevance to

the students’ lives and interests. In other words, “tasks” should be worth doing, in
and of themselves, not some sort of educational ‘promise’ – i.e. if you do these
things they will be good for you some day. The learner should be able to see clearly
what the task is, why it is important to do, and, how it will be useful to him or her.

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Cultural Awareness

Culture Is What You See?

117
What is Culture?
Culture is a collection of beliefs, values and attitudes that are reflected and expressed
through behaviors, artifacts and language in a society or group of people. These groups are
usually defined as ethnic or national groups – Portuguese, Chinese, German, African-
American, Hispanic American, etc. We could also talk about the culture of “business,”
“women,” “children,” or others.

Beliefs
Beliefs are the assumptions we make about ourselves, about others in the world and about
how we expect things to be. Beliefs are about how we think things really are, what we think
is really true, and what, therefore, we expect as likely consequences that will follow from our
behavior.
Values
Values are about how we have learned to think things ought to be or people ought to behave,
especially in terms of qualities such as honesty, integrity and openness.
Basic Assumptions
Basic assumptions are our long-learned, automatic responses and established opinions. We
are, ourselves, almost always unaware of the nature of our own basic assumptions, but they
are enacted through our behavior - what we say and do. Basic assumptions are usually rooted
in our infancy, early family life and social context. More widely, assumptions shaping our
behavior relate to cultural context
Attitudes
Attitudes are the established ways of responding to people and situations that we have
learned, based on the beliefs, values and assumptions we hold. Attitude becomes manifest
through our behavior.

What is the goal of Cross-cultural Awareness?

The goal of intercultural awareness is:
To achieve a level of awareness and understanding of another culture to the point where it is
possible to develop sympathetic, self-sustaining relationships with people of that culture.
(Gochenour & Janeway, circa 1972)
This assumes, of course, that the individual wants to achieve “cultural awareness.” This
motivation is likely to vary considerably with any individual. Thus, we need an additional
axiom.
An individual will develop a degree of cultural awareness proportional to that person’s
desire to be “like” the people in the host culture. (Janeway, circa 1970)

The Four Levels of Cultural Awareness From:

http://www.peacecorps.gov/wws/culturematters/Ch6/fourlevels.html

As you go through the cycle of adjustment, your awareness of the host country culture
naturally increases. This awareness tends to progress through a series of levels, which are
described below, * with each level corresponding to a phase or phases in the cycle of
adjustment:
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I. UNCONSCIOUS INCOMPETENCE: This has also been called the state of blissful
ignorance. At this stage, you are unaware of cultural differences. It does not occur to you that
you may be making cultural mistakes or that you may be misinterpreting much of the
behavior going on around you. You have no reason not to trust your instincts.

II. CONSCIOUS INCOMPETENCE: You now realize that differences exist between the way
you and the local people behave, though you understand very little about what these
differences are, how numerous they might be, or how deep they might go. You know there's a
problem here, but you're not sure about the size of it. You're not so sure of your instincts
anymore, and you realize that some things you don't understand. You may start to worry
about how hard it's going to be to figure these people out.

III. CONSCIOUS COMPETENCE:

You know cultural differences exist, you know what some of these differences are, and you
try to adjust your own behavior accordingly. It doesn't come naturally, yet you have to make
a conscious effort to behave in culturally appropriate ways, but you are much more aware of
how your behavior is coming across to the local people. You are in the process of replacing
old instincts with new ones. You know now that you will be able to figure these people out if
you can remain objective.

IV. UNCONSCIOUS COMPETENCE: You no longer have to think about what you're doing
in order to do the right thing. Culturally appropriate behavior is now second nature to you;
you can trust your instincts because they have been reconditioned by the new culture. It takes
little effort now for you to be culturally sensitive.

Cultural Knowings Framework (adapted from Pat Moran, Teaching Culture, Heinle &
Heinle)

The cultural knowings framework offers a means for describing culture in terms of what
students need to do in order to learn it – their encounters with another way of life.
The cultural experience consists of four interconnected learning interactions:
• Knowing about
• Knowing how
• Knowing why
• Knowing oneself

Knowing about
This interaction includes all activities that consist of gathering and demonstrating acquisition
of cultural information – facts, data, or knowledge about products, practices, and
perspectives of the culture. This information about specific culture and language, as well as
about the nature of culture and the processes of learning and entering other cultures in
general, or information about the students’ own cultures.

Knowing how
This interaction involves acquiring cultural practices – behaviors, actions, skills, saying,
touching, looking, standing, or other forms of “doing.” This calls for direct or simulated

119
participation in the everyday life of the people of the target culture, according to their
customs and traditions, using their tools or technology – and their language – to establish
bona fide relationships with them. Learners need to be able to adapt and/or integrate in the
culture – to say and do things in the manner of the people of the culture. This means
1
changing behaviors to develop others that are appropriate for the culture.

Knowing why
This interaction deals with developing an understanding of fundamental cultural
perspectives– the perceptions, beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie or permeate al
aspects of culture. This is a practice of learners’ structured inquiry into observations,
information, and experiences with the culture. Knowing why requires skills in probing,
analyzing, and explaining the cultural phenomena learners encounter, which necessarily
involves a comparison with their own culture and themselves. Learners need to understand
insider and outsider perspectives: the emic and the etic. Learners need to understand the
culture on its own terms by using their own powers of cultural analysis and comparison. The
basic values of culture are an important point of comparison with the values of the culture of
the learners.

Knowing oneself
This interaction concerns the individual learner – their values, opinions, feelings, questions,
reactions, thoughts, ideas, and their own cultural values as a central part of the cultural
experience. It deals with self-awareness. The cultural experience is highly personal, and
therefore idiosyncratic. Individual learners need to understand themselves and their culture as
a means of comprehending, adapting to, or integrating into the (target) culture. They need to
recognize and manage the cultural highs and lows involved in the cultural learning process.
Ultimately, it is the learners who decide the extent to which they engage in, accept, explore,
or become part of the culture and develop expertise as cultural learners.

Cross - Cultural Learning

Cross-cultural learning involves more than acquiring knowledge of another country's
language and customs. Successful cross-cultural interaction requires more than KNOWING.
It demands an ability to ACT differently. This focuses upon six affective skill areas that are
essential to successful cross-cultural interaction.

• Self-awareness skills. Knowing who you are as a cultural being, and what your "cultural
baggage" is.
• Observation skills. Seeing more than you expect to see; understanding what you see in
alternative ways.
• Communication skills. Using language, body language, attitude and expectation as
medium and message.
• Emotional amour. The ability to handle ambiguity, trust strangers, balance initiative with
patience, and 'stay cool' when uncomfortable situations occur.
• Problem-solving skills. Strategies for dealing with daily problems: defining the problem,
withholding judgment, considering alternatives, values clarification and review of results.

1
The idea of changing behaviors is the flashpoint in the cultural awareness process. While most people are
willing to consider intellectually and rationally different perspectives, values, beliefs and attitudes, many find it
extremely threatening and difficult to change their behavior.
120
• Behavioral modification skills. Changing the ways you ACT and REACT in different
cultural situations - i.e. putting yourself in someone else's shoes.

These skills are not 'culture specific' and assume an experiential learning approach -
ACTION>>>REFLECTION. Cross-cultural learning is the result of real experiences, from
trying to speak a foreign language, to simulation games, to living in another culture. Cross-
cultural learning is by definition "participatory." It is a learning-by-doing process; reflection
on experience. The more 'real' (personal) the experience, the greater the learning input to be
expected.

The Experiential Learning Process

2
In its most basic form, the experiential learning process might look like this.

EXPERIENCES REFLECTIONS
• Group Interactions • Group discussion
• Real life interactions • Poster sessions
• Discussions • Journals
• Readings, videos, lectures • Presentations
• Scenarios & skits

The participants DO something, and then reflect upon that experience in groups or
individually. There is a certain inevitability about individuals’ introspective reflections upon
experience. Often these introspective reflections are unconscious, unarticulated or distorted
from personal filtering. Thus, it is important that individuals express their thoughts and
reflections in a group setting where they are more likely to find balance, meaning and insights
for the application of what has been learned. Unfortunately, most people do not “learn from
experience,” and thus, the reflection part of the paradigm is critical.

Experiential Learning and Academic Learning

Experiential Academic

• Doing things • Reading or hearing about things

• Focused upon feelings • Focused on thinking
• Requires personalization • Demands objectivity
• Outcomes are ambiguous • Outcomes are defined
• Group and learner centered • Teacher centered
• Encourages behavioral change • Unrelated to behavioral changes
• Encourages multiple perspectives • Demands a choice of perspective
• Learning is different for every • Learning is the same for all
individual individuals

2
Notice the interchangeability between some of these things – e.g. group discussion is both an experience and a
reflection device.
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 • The learner accepts responsibility • Learning is the responsibility of the
for their own learning teacher, class or institution
• Learners are participants in input • Learners are observers in the input
process process
• Assessment is by self-imposed, • Assessment involves objective
self-defined criteria testing
• Teacher as facilitator and mentor • Teacher as knower and guide
• Process is the most important thing • Product is the most important thing

Where does this leave us?

It is not necessary that an intercultural facilitator be an expert. As a matter of fact, it is critical
that the facilitator recognize that they are not an expert. They must approach the learning
situation from the perspective of a fellow traveler. Perhaps the facilitator is a traveler with a
bit more experience, reflection and knowledge, but, still a fellow traveler and guide.

What does the teacher do?

1. Identifies and prepare participants for experiences that may offer cultural awareness. Get
students to predict what they may see and identify the main elements for consideration.
For example, preparing for a “community exploration” trip.
2. Helps students to notice things that may reveal cultural concepts, ideas, values, belief,
attitudes or perspectives.
3. Holds up a mirror through questions and discussion to assist individuals in seeing in
themselves the “cultural baggage” they carry in terms of values, attitudes, beliefs,
concepts and perceptions.
4. Processes reflections upon individual and group experiences through group discussion
and individual reporting.
5. Introduces and applies a creative problem-solving model.

A Creative Problem-solving Model

Preview and predict what Define the Guided experience – i.e.
can be seen and learned from opportunities definitions of guidelines
upcoming experience or problems and objectives

Redefining new
experiences to further
gather cultural impressions
and test hypothesis Collection of artifacts,
information and
impressions during
experience
Forming
hypothesis for
understanding the
experience, Processing the experience –
including a generating alternative Defining and categorizing
synthesis with interpretations, perspectives impressions, ideas, and
individual cultural or solutions artifacts after an experience
perspectives, 122
values, beliefs and
attitudes
The process of exploring and redefining the problem-solving/opportunity seeking model may
be one way to focus the path to intercultural awareness. The important thing here is that:

• The focus is on the process rather than the product

• Intercultural awareness is a lifelong learning experience, not something that learned and
completed.
• There are no right or wrong answers. All perceptions and opinions are valid as
observations, but may have more or less applicability or acceptability.
• Feelings are more important than intellectualizations in achieving cultural awareness
• The goal is to discover to what degree each person can adopt and adapt to different
cultural identities.

The Bank of Cultural Habits

There is kind of a bank of cultural habits – values, beliefs, attitudes, perceptions and
behaviors that everyone draws on. When faced with a situation where cultural awareness and
adaptation is required, the question becomes whether a debit or credit will be incurred. A
debit would be a failure to make the appropriate adaptation, therefore lowering one’s credit or
credibility in that culture. A credit would be making an appropriate adaptation that would
result in more credit, or, a higher degree of cultural acceptability.

For example, in many cultures trying different cultural food dishes is important. If the person
didn’t like to experiment with food, then they would make a choice to politely refuse,
knowing that this would be a debit on their cultural ledger. Something they would have to
make up for in some other way. The point being, that few individuals are able to totally adopt
another personality or culture. A more reasonable goal might be to achieve a positive balance
in the bank of cultural habits.

TASK
Write a “case study” of an cross cultural incident for the culture you are in involving
everyday life – such as, misunderstanding over a bill, lack of response to a request, or other.
Then, define alternative in terms of whether they would be “assets” or “debits” on your “bank
of cultural habits.”

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CROCODILE RIVER, adapted by Dave Hopkins,

Popeye was walking along the Crocodile River one day when he heard a cry,
"Helloo! Hellooo there!"
He looked across the river and immediately fell in love. She was the most beautiful creature
he had ever seen, and she was calling to him.
"Uh, me? Are you calling to Me?"
"Yes, you handsome brute. What's your name?"
Why, my name is Popeye. And what's yours, if I may ask?"
"Well yes you may, and my name is Olive Oil."
"And what's a beautiful damsel such as yourself doing strolling
along the river?" ventured Popeye.
"Well, I was just out for a little walk, dreaming about a prince who would come and
carry me away to his castle. And what would you be doing, hanging about the river
bank?" asked Olive.
"Uh well. I was thinking it would be nice to have someone to clean up around the
castle. Would you be interested in marrying?"
"I might be," replied Olive, "but you'll have to court me."
Popeye courted and courted as much as he could with a river of crocodiles between them. Oh
yes! The crocodiles!! Vicious man-eating brutes that swarmed in the river and devoured
anything that ventured into the water. This limited to a great extent the courting activities of
Popeye. He sang songs of love, and displayed his great strength. Olive responded with
swoons and dances and exclamations of eternal devotion. The day came when they could
wait no longer.
"Olive! Olive! I must marry you. I can wait no longer."
"Oh yes, Popeye, yes! We must marry now"
"But how will you cross the river Olive?"
"I don't know Popeye. I just don't know."
After searching the banks of the river for many days Olive came upon a large man with a
great beard rowing a boat.
She cries out, "You! You there! Take me across the river."
"What is it you want young lady?" he says.
"Take me across the river. I must cross to marry my prince."
"The name's Bluto my young lovely. What's your name, and, why are you in such a
hurry," he asked.
"My names Olive. . . Olive Oil to you. You shouldn't be so nosy about other people's
business. I just need to get across the river," she replies.
"Well, if you're in such a hurry, BUT.... you have to give me a KISS."
"A KISS! You dirty swine. I won't give you a KISS!"
Olive goes back to talk with Popeye crying.
"Oh Popeye, I can't cross the river unless I kiss that dirty pig Bluto. What can I do?"
"Well, if you KISS Bluto, I can't marry you."
So much for Prince Charming.

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THE PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL

1. What is the problem?

2. Give three possible solutions to the problem.
3. Choose one solution and finish the story. What happens next?

Procedure

a. This exercise should be done in small groups of 4-5 participants

b. The facilitator should first introduce the "problem-solving model"

TASK ONE
Define Problem
Redefine Problem

TASK FOUR TASK TWO

Analyze Generate
Solution Alternatives

TASK THREE
Choose
Solution

TASK ONE: Define the problem. What is the main issue, the key which, if resolved, will
lead to a successful solution.
TASK TWO: Generate alternatives. There should be at least five alternatives for solving the
"problem" Participants should be encouraged to avoid pre-judging solutions, and to treat
each alternative solution as "possible."
TASK THREE: Choose a solution. In choosing, the group should discuss and write down
the values, attitudes and beliefs that have affected this choice.
TASK FOUR: Analyze solution. This is a process of projecting, "If this solution is
implemented, what will be the result?" In the case of Poyeye and the Crocodiles, this means
completing the story to see what happens if a particular solution is chosen.
c. The groups then proceed to move through the tasks, putting their results up on newsprint.
d. The facilitator should move among the groups to assure that they understand the problem-
solving model, and, are really generating alternative before they choose a solution.
e. When finished each group will presents its "alternatives," "solution," and "analysis," or, in
the case of Popeye, the completion of the story.
f. Brainstorm a "redefinition" of the problem with the whole group. The facilitator
encourages participants to view the "problem-solving" model as a cycle, or spiral of defining
and redefining problems as we apply solutions.

Objectives
1. To develop awareness of values, attitudes and beliefs as they affect choices.
2. To learn to withhold judgment in searching for alternative solutions.
3. To develop awareness of the "problem-solving" model as an on-going cycle
4. To see "solutions" not as an end, but as a point for redefining problems.
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Testing
TASK
Why Test? Make notes for discussion.

Purpose of Testing
The purpose for testing depends upon what you want to know. Two possible objectives
might be to:

• Find out if students know language taught in a particular series of lessons.

• Measure student ability over a broader scale of English used worldwide.

We also need to consider ‘how’ the student knows the language - i.e.

• Is able to speak the language in true-life situations

• Can demonstrate cognitive knowledge of the language through written testing
• Can show an ability to read and respond to test questions about current issues
• Can write an academic essay

Questions.

1. What is the relationship between these different testing purposes?

2. Which are we most likely to need in the average classroom situation?

Overview of test types

1. Proficiency tests. Global and containing unknown language
2. Achievement tests. Focused on previously taught material; non-global
3. Diagnostic tests. Aimed to find out if the student knows discrete language forms and
meaning
4. Aptitude tests. To determine the predictable success of a student for language study

TASK
Which of these test types are most relevant to the everyday classroom situation?

Oral Proficiency Testing

Probably the most common assessment tool in the classroom is the teacher’s evaluation of
the student’s speaking ability. It is also the most misunderstood and misused testing
device. Usually, oral proficiency evaluation is the teacher’s “sense” of the student’s
ability based on classroom performance. Given that, the teacher’s ‘sense’ of student
performance:
§ Does not account for what the student ‘knows’, but does not produce.

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§ Is affected by non-linguistic student behavior – e.g. class participation,
responsiveness, promptness, cooperative spirit, obedience, etc.

TASK
What’s wrong with this approach?

TASK
How can we develop a better “sense” of student’s oral proficiency in ways that include:
1. Performance objectives that specify what students should be able to demonstrate after
a certain period of time. How would performance criteria be developed?
2. Make sure that students have equal opportunity to demonstrate their competency.
How?

Competency vs. Proficiency

• Proficiency is the cognitive knowledge that a student has that may be demonstrated in
written or oral testing.
• Competency is the demonstrated ability to communicate in ‘real’ language situations

Criterion versus Norm-based Testing

Norm-based tests are primarily intended to ‘rank’ students along a continuum, often for
the purpose of grouping students with similar abilities into classes. The Test of English as
a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is an example of a norm-based test. The purpose of TOEFL
is to determine which students are at a level, within a percentile, that the College Boards
determine is necessary to sustain university study. Criterion-based testing is intended to
determine what students can do, and under what circumstances. This is “achievement”
testing, and often the kind most valuable to the classroom teacher since it will help
indicate what the students in a class have learned. Check out the web links below for
more information.
http://www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed410316.html
http://www.dsink.com/wkshops/crt.pdf

An Oral Proficiency Rating Scale (modified LPI/FSI)

5 An educated native-speaker. No noticeable errors and has full control of the language
in both formal and more colloquial situations. Reading and writing are near the level of a
native speaker depending upon education level.

4 Comprehends and speaks without any hesitancy, no noticeable errors and can speak
on a range of topics in any social context. Accent and vocabulary choice may indicate a
non-native speaker.

3 Can understand and speak fluently on topics of personal and professional interest.
Errors in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary are noticeable, but do not often
interfere with communication. Can deal with topics on an abstract level.

2 Can handle most social requirements, and basic work communication. Errors often
interfere with communication. There is evidence of grammatical and phonological

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knowledge. Ability Limited to topics of a ‘concrete’ nature for the most part. Shows some
generative ability.

1 Minimal social competence to handle greeting, polite situations and basic survival
demands. Minimal evidence of grammatical knowledge. No generative ability.

0+ Word level communication.

0 No communicative ability.

DISCUSSION TASK
How would you place your students on this scale?

Multiple Choice Tests

One of the best and most efficient ways to measure students’ language proficiency – i.e.
what they know – is the multiple-choice test. No, it will not tell the teacher what the
student will be able to perform in any real situation, but it does provide a benchmark for
assessment. This is extremely important since the assessment of “performance” in
language situations may be very subjective. The multiple-choice test or quiz provides a
useful balance to assessment from other sources like speaking and writing samples.

Writing Multiple Choice Test Items

This is not as easy at it may first appear.
The rules here are:
1. Only one correct answer
2. One “key” (correct) and three “distracters” (incorrect) answers
3. Distracters may be incorrect usage, but must be correct language forms – e.g. “hims”
would not be a valid distracter for “his”

TASK
Write a four-choice question for a class, and exchange with a partner for checking. Look
at the following example.

1. They ___________seen the test yet.

b. has
c. have
d. haven’t
e. hasn’t

TASK
What other kinds of test items might be used? Work with others and write examples –
examples: fill in the blanks, sentence completion, fix the sentence, add a word, etc.

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http://www.eltnews.com/features/thinktank/index.shtml For more from Marc Helgesen on
Norm and Criterion based testing, and an all important clarification of the “bell curve” in
testing your classes.
http://www.bangkokpost.net/education/site2003/cvoc0703.htm A Bangkok Post article
about TOEIC in Thailand.
http://www.toeic.com/4faq.htm The FAQ page at the TOEIC website
http://www.toefl.org/ The official TOEFT website with links to all important TOEFL
information.
http://www.ielts.org/what.htm The ‘what is IELTS?’ webpage

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Lesson Planning
It may seem unusual to close a book on ‘how to teach’ with a chapter on lesson planning.
However, the idea is that now that you know something about - what to do?- we can start
talking about putting these things into a lesson plan. The answer to what to put into a
lesson plan, or, how to plan for a lesson, may be different for different teachers. The kind
of lesson plans demanded during a certificate training course are a kind of ‘mental
programming’ that would be unlikely to be repeated in day-to-day classroom teaching.
Here are some commonalities to think about.

Preliminary considerations
1. Who are the students? What is their level, numbers, expectations, life view, previous
English learning experience, classroom timeframes, etc.
2. What is the teaching situation? Length and frequency of classes, curriculum, testing
requirements, administrative expectations and goals, etc.
3. Why are the students studying English? Why is English being taught in this school?
Why will my class be useful to the students?

Most teachers enter a teaching situation where some of the answers to the above questions
are known or prescribed. It can’t be overemphasized, however, that it is critical for the
teacher to consciously think about these things before they start planning lessons. Too
often teachers, led by their own beliefs and values about teaching and learning, devise
lessons that just don’t fit the situation that they are working in.

Put another way; let’s look at a reference from Kathleen Grave’s book, Designing
Language Courses, Heinle & Heinle.

Questions that Guide Conceptualizing Content

1. What do I want my students to learn in this course, given who they are, their needs,
and the purpose of the course?
2. What are my options as to what they can learn?
3. What are the resources and constraints on my course that can help me narrow my
options?
4. What are the relationships among the options I have selected?
5. How can I organize these options into a working plan or syllabus?
6. What is the driving force or organizing principle that will pull my syllabus together?

Designing Planning Criteria

Another useful way of conceptualizing what you will teach comes from a presentation by
Donald Freeman to Thai TESOL in 2002, Designing Training Criteria. (My apologies to
Donald if I have misconstrued or misinterpreted his ideas here.)

A training course, class, or activity will be ‘good’ to the degree that,

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1. It personalizes the content of the course, and makes it relevant, meaningful and
engaging to the participant. In the rush to teach books and classes, teachers often
don’t take the time to make sure that what they are teaching reaches the learner at an
emotional level – i.e. something they really care about.
2. It is generative – i.e. presents and practices language that enables the development of
communicative competence in real language situations. It should generate both the
ability to use and practice language in new and real communicative ways, and,
generate the willingness, or risk-taking ability, to use these language skills.
3. It is worth doing in and of itself. Courses, classes and activities should have intrinsic
and obvious value to the participants at the time they are doing them. There is often
the ‘educational promise’ that you have to do ‘this,’ so someday you will be able to
do ‘this.’ This is not very effective. It is the challenge that faces the teacher to find
ways to make classroom activities ‘worth doing in and of themselves’ so that students
will be able to apply the skills learned in a later situation.
4. It involves the participants in a variety of ‘roles.’ From game theory these roles
include:
a. Agent – the participant is the initiator of action as the person with the ball
is in dodge ball, or the person who is “it” in hide and seek. This is often
the teacher’s primary role, but we need to find opportunities to put the
students into this role. How?
b. Patient – the receiver of action or intent – this is the most typical role for
students, and the role of the other players in dodge ball and hide and seek.
Nothing wrong with this role as long as it doesn’t become the only role for
the students.
c. Reciprocator – the participant is both an initiator and a receiver of actions
as in tennis, boxing or checkers. In the classroom this role often involves
questions and answers, and the trick here is to vary the ‘initiator’ part of
the role. (Please note T/S>>S/T>>S/S questions and dialogues mentioned
earlier)
d. Referee – Another way to see this role might be to think of the participant
as a ‘mediator’ of the actions and intents of others. In most team sports
(like football), the players who do not have the ball, are ‘referees’ in that
they are observing and mediating the actions of others to determine what
actions they will take. This may be a very common role for students in the
classroom, but often the results of their ‘mediation’ are not taken
advantage of in the class. A “fishbowl” activity where one group of
students observes another group discuss a question, and then, in turn,
discusses what has been discussed, would be an example of taking
advantage of the ‘referee’ role.

What do teachers need to plan?

" Objectives
" Activities
" Sequence
" Timing
" Student does
" Teacher does
" Problems
" Alternatives
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 " Tasks
" Products/outcomes
" Teacher language
" Content or target language
" Grammatical/structural highlighting
" Context setting
" Student feedback
" Assessment and testing

This is quite a list and certainly not complete. So, what to do?

Mind Maps
Teachers at any level could benefit from the exercise of mind mapping. It is a non-linear
way of visualizing the multidimensional nature of the class and classroom teaching that is
invaluable. Initially you will feel clumsy and find it hard to get started, but as you develop
your skills at mind mapping you will find yourself revising and refining your ‘maps’ to
more accurately reflect your thinking. While it is possible to ‘think about what we think
about’ it is a lot easier if we can ‘see’ what we are thinking about. Mind mapping is way
to get there.

The following pages are from Tony Buzan’s website

http://www.mind-map.com/mindmaps_howto.htm

Lesson Plan Development

We should remember that old fashion written lesson plans are really another way to mind
map. There are advantages and disadvantages to both. While mind maps, per se, are more
multi-dimensional, they may not represent the linear, chronological realities of the
class/course as well as written plans. Before we get into the lesson planning further it
might be useful to look at the process as a cyclical evolution of ideas. Lesson planning is
always a ‘work in progress’ not a completed event.

Reassessing
the needs and Assessing
process the needs
Developing
modeling and
practice Setting
materials Objectives

Determining Developing
problems student and
and Setting timing teacher
alternatives and sequence activities

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The cycle represented in the above illustration is usually started at the top with ‘needs
assessment’ and moves clockwise around the cycle, but this is not necessarily the process
that every teacher will use to plan a lesson. Nor does it have to be. It is convention to start
with ‘objectives’ on the assumption that ‘you don’t know where you are going until
define your objectives.’ But, it is also true that many good teachers visualize their classes
in terms of the activities their students will be doing. Thus, they have to focus on the
activities first, and then define the objectives. So, the sequence is not critical, but touching
all the bases is. All other things being equal, developing materials could be the first part
of the lesson planning process. The problem with starting with materials, or activities, for
the beginning teacher, is that they may never get down to defining the objectives, or, may
find the objectives were not what they intended. In sum, we will start by looking at
objectives since this is a good place to start for most individuals without a lot of
classroom experience.

Setting Behavioral (Performance) Objectives

Behavioral objectives are stated in terms of things that can be seen or heard, often
completing the statement,

By the end of the lesson the students will be able to:

And using action verbs such as,

…say…
…respond…
…initiate…
…do…
…perform…
…write…
…demonstrate…
…reply…

The advantage of these expressions of student observed behavior is that they can be
‘seen’ or ‘heard’ and thus the teacher can make at least partial judgments about the results
of their teaching. The statement of objectives is, in other words, a statement of the
outcome criteria that the teacher is setting for herself and her class. More importantly, the
statement of objectives requires the teacher to “conceptualize” how the lesson will
proceed if it is successful, in terms that define behaviors, rather than a guess about what
the students has…learned…comprehended…knows. While it is interesting to speculate
about what a student ‘knows’ or has ‘learned’ at any particular point, it is just that,
speculation. We are hard pressed to define exactly what ‘learning’ or ‘knowing’ means,
much less so when applied to an individual learner in a particular learning situation.
Writing educational objectives in behavioral terms demands a lot of thought from the
teacher, and, as such, is a great tool in the planning process. It is not the perfection of the
written objective itself that is important, but the process of trying to think through the
learning process of the students, and specify what should happen in observable terms. A
very useful resource in this endeavor is Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
See the following on the Pennsylvania State University website for further information on
Bloom’s Taxonomy. http://faculty.washington.edu/krumme/guides/bloom.html

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 Lesson Planning Format A – Mental Programming for Teacher Training

[1] Lesson Context: Getting a ticket at the bus station for intercity travel

[2] Behavioral Objectives: By the end of the lesson the student will be able to,

[a] Terminal Objective:

Use language appropriate for buying a bus ticket- asking for price, departure time
and gate number – in a role play situation with other students with minimal material
support like a bus schedule

[b] Enabling Objectives:

1. Participate in lesson warmer asking and answering questions used in greetings
2. Follow the language modeled by the teacher asking and answering questions re –
time, price and gate number – with other students
3. Substitute new vocabulary in the core structures modeled and practiced in a
student walkabout activity
4. Use a listening activity to fill in blanks using practiced vocabulary and structures
in pairs or groups with other students
5. Ask and answer questions using the target language to play a communicative
game

A Sample Page One of a Basic Model Lesson Plan

CONTEXT: Buying Things At The Market
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
A. MAIN OBJECTIVE:
Use the target language for the context of “Buying Things in the Market” in S/S interactions involving real
communication – i.e. to play a game, collect information or other
B. PROCESS OBJECTIVES:
1. greet each other and exchange names comfortably(warmer)
2. ask and answer questions S/S using the target language structures(core dialogue)
3. substitute new vocabulary into the core structures in S/S interactions (vocabulary expansion)
4. fill in blanks in a listening sheet with help from other students and teaching props (listening)
5. use the core structures and vocabulary to play a S/S game

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TIME TEACHER DOES... STUDENTS DO... POTENTIAL
PROBLEMS
Warmer " Teacher
" models the greeting with a T/T " observe teacher model forgets to
charade " recognize sounds and meaning smile and put
" initiates questions with students T/S " ask other students for clarification and class at ease
" indicates that students should initiate confirmation " Insufficient
questions S/T " respond to teacher Qs modeling of
" gets students to ask other students " watch other students as they respond warmer
S/S " feel apprehensive about being called on language
" remodels as needed " are excited to try speaking " Unclear
" encourages students to help each " initiate Qs as directed by the teacher modeling of
other " become more comfortable with using warmer
" randomizes calling on students the warmer language language
" Better students are called on first to " approach other student in S/S " Teacher
model for others exchanges moves too
" Backs off when students are " watch teacher model the horseshoe quickly
interacting S/S activity through the
" Counts off students for a " participate in the S/S greeting steps of the
“horseshoe” activity conversations warmer
" Gets “1,s” or “2’s” to stand " change partners
" models the interaction activity " continue to feel more comfortable with
" models the switch when students the language
change partners

This format is useful during and intensive teacher training course since it gets the teacher to
think through the lesson five times from different perspectives in the following steps.

1. Lesson context and target language

2. Objectives – terminal and enabling
3. Teacher does/students do
4. Timing estimates
5. Potential problems

While teachers are unlikely to have the time to do this in real-time teaching, in a training
course it provides a concrete task that will focus the teacher on the planning process. The
teaching skill that is being practiced here is ‘predicting’ what will occur when the lesson is
taught. Good teachers are teachers who can accurately predict what will happen in their class
the following day. Moreover, good teachers can bring together what they want to happen,
with what will happen to create a meaningful learning experience. This is no easy trick.
While there are exceptions to the rule, usually good classes don’t just happen. They were
planned to happen, and carried out successfully.

Let’s look at the planning steps more carefully.

1. Language context and target language. The teacher needs to think through a language
communication situation or context that is meaningful and relevant to the students’ needs
and interests. Target language should be chosen that is personalized for the students,
appropriate to their level, and ‘doable’ within the timeframes of the class.
2. Objectives – terminal and enabling. It is useful to break the objectives up this way. The
‘terminal’ objective is what you want the students to be able to do at the end of the class,

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 using the target language in a particular situation. The enabling objectives reflect the
‘stages’ in the lesson – in this case warmer, core dialogue, vocabulary expansion,
listening activity, and communicative activity.
3. Teacher does/Students do. The teacher writes up this part of the plan zigzagging between
what the teacher is going to do, and what the students are going to do in response. An
interesting variation here is to write first, what the students are going to do, and then,
second, what the teacher is going to do to get them to do that.
4. Timing estimates. The timing estimates can be added as the teacher writes up the various
lesson stages, or after completion of the activities description. It is usually recommended
that the teacher does the timing afterwards since it requires another run through of the
complete plan in the mind.
5. Potential problems. The problems should relate directly to each stage of the lesson, and
again, are probably better added after other parts of the lesson plan have been completed.
The problems should be noted from the teacher’s perspective. For example, the students
don’t understand should be noted as, the teacher fails to model sufficiently, or, controlled
practice activity rushed. The point is that the teacher must deal with problems from their
own perspective. It’s a question of saying, The students aren’t motivated, as opposed
saying, The teacher fails to engage the students’ interest.

The point of lesson planning in the above fashion might be thought of as ‘mental
programming’ – i.e. thinking through the steps and procedures of the lesson to explore and
remember what is to be done during the lesson. It is often confused with the administrative
function of lesson plans to assure administrators that teachers are indeed planning their
lessons. This may be a function of the lesson plan, but the value to the teacher is it’s
“predictive’ function. That is, to give the teacher a better chance to adapt to the needs of the
class during the actual lesson. In this sense, it is not actually essential that the teacher ‘follow’
the plan, but that the teacher ‘adapt’ the plan to the immediate needs of the students in the
classroom. A good lesson is a balance between what the teacher and the curriculum plan for
the lesson, and ability of the teacher to adapt the lesson to the learners needs. In Jack
Richard’s book, Beyond Training he cites a study where ‘certificate’ teachers with 1-3 years
of experience were compared with ‘diploma’ teachers with 7-10 years of experience in terms
of how much they deviated from their lesson plans. The results showed that the better trained
and more highly experienced teachers were more flexible in their adherence to their plans.
They were more likely to adapt their plan to the activity and engagement of their learners in
both timing and content. The experienced teachers did maintain the objectives and general
structure of the lesson.

Lesson Plan Format B – Running Lesson Plan

Time Language Process

7” Warmer
" Good morning to the class
A/ MY NAME’S DAVE. " Tells class to sit down
WHAT’S YOUR NAME? " Do teacher to teacher (T/T)
B/ MY NAME’S …. models of the warmer greeting
A/ NICE TO MEET YOU. " Teacher to student (T/S) Qs
NICE TO MEET YOU TOO. " Student to teacher (S/T) Qs
" Student to student (S/S) Qs
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 " Get the students into double
lines
" S/S talk and switch places in the
lines
20” Core Dialogue
" Set context for the dialogue with
A/ WHAT TIME DOES THE BUS the bus schedule poster
TO BANGKOK LEAVE? " Elicit and input some info from
B/ AT 12:30. the poster
A/ HOW MUCH IS THE TICKET? " Model 2 lines at a time T/T
B/ 120 BAHT, PLEASE. " T/S>>S/T>>S/S practice
A/ WHAT’S THE GATE " 2 lines at a time
NUMBER? " elicit to the board after each two
B/ GATE 2. lines
A/ THANK YOU. " horseshoe controlled practice
with students switching partners
Vocabulary Expansion

(to be continued following the basic

lesson framework previously
described)

The running lesson plan is a more detailed version of what a working classroom teacher
might write – specifying the language to be taught, the stages of the lesson, process for
teaching and time estimates. While the above takes less time than the training model, it is still
probably more elaborate than a teacher using a textbook might use.

Lesson Plan Format C – Using textbook references

The textbook simplifies planning to a great degree, but also can give the teacher a false sense
of thinking that a lesson is all planned because it is in the book. As we have discussed earlier
in textbook adaptation, no text is really ready for your classroom. In other words, all text
lessons need some ‘adaptation’ to be personalized for your students and teaching situation.
One option is a notebook of lined paper for each class, the right hand page for notes on the
teaching of the next class; the left-hand page provides a good place to reflect on how the class
actually went

Left page - comments Right page – planning notes

" Ask Ss “What are you doing?” during
the warmer, but don’t worry about
answers
" Use prop card for starting “phone”
conversations about, “What time is
it?” and “What are you doing?”
" Expand to the “I’m getting up.”
option

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" Didn’t do double lines here " Practice T/S>>S/T>>S/S
" Double lines??
" Model Permsak from p 31 Grammar
Focus and practice
" Practice using a blow up of book
picture
" Chose to go to listening activity here " Expand to other picture from activity
7, OR
" Use listening activity and fill in
blanks
" Limited dialogue to where is is/are " Tic-tac-toe game - elicit places to the
he/she/they? What is/are he/she/they grid on the board
doing
" " etc. for the whole lesson

Another option here offered by Marc Helgesen is a semester day-by-day lesson plan that
contains the generic steps and references for each lesson, and special features (like physical
activities) that the teacher wants to work into the lessons. This is really “Course Planning”
which goes a bit beyond the purposes of this text. Check the following websites for more
information.
http://www.developingteachers.com/articles_tchtraining/cplan1_emma.htm A well described
specific example
http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej16/r8.html A review of Kathleen Graves Book,
Designing Language Courses, Heinle & Heinle
http://www.tesol.org/pubs/author/books/curricdevelop.html A comprehensive TESOL
organization coverage and curriculum development project description

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The Role of Grammar in Teaching Language
The first thing that occurs to me here is the question, what do we mean by ‘grammar,’ and,
what do we mean by ‘teaching?’ The possible answers to this question cover quite a range of
possibilities. Here are a few.

Grammar Approach Language Vocabulary

1. Grammar is Communicative Natural and set in Restricted to what is

contextualized in situations modeled by situations that are real or real, natural and
communicative the teacher and practiced imaginable to the appropriate to the
content relevant to a in T/S and S/S learner. communicative context
distinct group of interactions. for a defined group of
learners learners.

2. Grammar in the Structures presented by Modified somewhat and A broad range of

form of selected the teacher and practiced restricted to the main vocabulary introduced
core structures in pattern and patterns of language to and sometimes includes
representing high substitution drills, emphasize structural categories of things like
frequency patterns usually followed by forms. – color, numbers, modes
in the target communicative of transport, etc.
language. activities.

3. Grammar set in Taught as Natural and set in real Less restricted than #1,
communicative communicative language situations, but but the vocabulary is
situations and situations as in #1, but generalized for a broad limited to the situational
functions followed by a focus on range of language context. Broader range
generalized for specific forms that are learner contexts. of vocab choices to
most learners. The highlighted to allow accommodate a larger
grammar, usually as students to make audience of learners.
structural patterns generalizations about
with minimal grammatical structures
labeling, is and rules.
highlighted in
grammar boxes or
‘noticed’ as a
review activity.

4. Grammar as ‘rules’ Models of the language Language is highly New words are often
or ‘generalizations’ are given and explained. restricted to demonstrate studied and memorized
explaining grammar Drills and exercises are the rules as explained. up front to prepare
form and meaning, used to practice Often not students for dialogues or
including language. Sometimes contextualized, or set in readings. The range of
terminology to leading to real communicative vocabulary is not always
describe and discuss communicative practice. situations. restricted by situational
language features content.
and use

From these four possibilities there are certainly a much broader spectrum of classroom
practices which mix the grammar, approaches, language and vocabulary in a variety of ways.
To get a more complete picture, we might consider the materials that are likely to be used in
each of these cases.

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1. The materials created or adapted specifically for a particular class or school location. This
means a higher degree of contextualization for the learner.
2. Commercially available texts using a structural approach. Usually older, or foreign
adaptations of older texts.
3. Published texts at the edge of the commercial ‘envelope’ such as ENGLISH FIRSTHAND.
4. Materials used by native speakers (so called authentic materials), or advanced texts for
high level students.
Grammar in context without Grammar in communicative Authentic language materials
highlights or explanations situations, but summarized or with grammatical generalizations
highlighted to encourage learner and explanations.
generalizations

" Beginners " Intermediate " Intermediate to advanced

" Young learners " HS to adults " Older adults
" Speaking & listening " Multi-skill focus " Academic focus
" Fluency over accuracy " Reading & writing " Accuracy stressed
" EFL " EFL/ESL " ESL
" Survival " Social & basic work " Specialized needs
" Basic education levels application " University +
" HS+ education

This paradigm is a gross generalization of classroom practices, but may provide some useful
insights into what is done, or might be done, with grammar in the classroom. These
applications are not necessarily supported by SLA or cognitive psychology. They probably
reflect the fact that higher level and older learners are more likely to demand explanations,
are more resistant to taking language speaking risks, and, feel a strong felt need for a rational,
logical approach to the learning situation. The students ‘demands’ for explanations or reasons
– i.e. grammar rules and explications – matches up with the teacher’s own learning
experiences, resulting in a tacit agreement to try to ‘learn’ grammar.

This logical approach to the learning experience does reflect the fact that older more educated
students have more highly developed learning skills and strategies. These learning and
reasoning skills may, in fact, assist the student in the learning process, but may not be
reflected in the intuitive spontaneous use of language in real communicative situations. By
contrast, work with refugees and immigrants having little or basic education demonstrates
little demand or usefulness for grammatical explanations. The key distinction to be
considered here between “implicit” grammar in context, and “explicit” grammar rules and
explanations lies in the difference between language “learning” and language “acquisition” as
described by Dulay, Burt, and Krashen. (see unit 1)

Educated adult learners are undoubtedly constrained in their efforts to learn second languages
by the many years of “learning” that they have experienced. Even relatively unsophisticated
adult learners carry with them the conventional wisdom that ‘learning must involve studying’
a language in the way they imagine that learning must take place. It is interesting that the
very things that we are taught as we move higher on the educational ladder, seem to interfere
with the acquisition of language – e.g. analysis, conscious categorizing, deconstructing things
to look at the parts, avoidance of error, labeling, and the importance of symbolic systems
such as written language forms. One wonders if the very act of learning to read and write our
1st language programs us in a way that interferes with 2nd language acquisition.

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