Gas Liquid Separation

DSc Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

Sarajevo 2024
Gas Conditioning Chapter-3 Gas Liquid Separation

Chapter 3

Gas Liquid Separation

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Gas Conditioning Chapter-3 Gas Liquid Separation

Chapter 3 Contents
32.1 Introduction

3.2 Separation Process

3.3 Principles of Separation

3.3.1 Gravity Separation
3.3.2 Separation System Problems
3.3.3 Factors Affecting Separation

3.4 Phases Separation

3.4.1 Primary Separation
3.4.2 Secondary Separation
3.4.3 Mist Extraction
3.4.4 Liquid Accumulation
3.4.5 Oil and Water Separation

3.5 Terminology and Applications:

3.5.1 Vessels Terminology
3.5.2 Separator Application

3.6 Stage Separation

3.7 Separators Classification

3.7.1 The Vessel Shape
3.7.2 The Number of Fluids to be Separated

3.8 Separator Internals

3.8.1 Inlet Configuration
3.8.2 Intermediate Configuration
3.8.3 Outlet Configuration

3.9 Separator Operation and Troubleshooting

3.9.1 Separator Control
3.9.2 Troubleshooting

3.10 Operating Problems

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Chapter 3
Gas Liquid Separation
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In an oilfield separation system the substances to be separated are oil, water and gas.
The difference in this case is density.

Before we go on to consider the oilfield separation process in more detail, let's look
at the components to be separated.

Crude Oil this is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons produced from the reservoir in
liquid form. Its density usually ranges from around 40 lb/cu ft, to 55 lb/cu ft.

Natural Gas - which is associated with an oil accumulation may be termed free gas
or dissolved gas.

A- Free Gas is a hydrocarbon mixture which exists in a gaseous state at

reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure. It remains as a gas when it
is produced under normal conditions.

B- Dissolved Gas is dissolved in the oil at a certain temperature and pressure. If

the pressure is ft reduced and/or the temperature is increased, the dissolved
gas may be liberated from the oil. When this occurs the gas assumes the
characteristics of free gas.

The density of the gas depends upon the pressure at which it is confined. At 750 psi a
typical hydrocarbon gas may have a density of 2.25 lb/cu ft. However, at atmospheric
pressure the density of that same gas may only be 0.1 lb/cu ft.

There is a relationship between the volumes of gas and oil produced from a
reservoir. This relationship is known as the Gas Oil Ratio (G.O.R.).

G.O.R. is defined as the volume of gas produced per unit volume of oil production.
The usual oilfield units for this ratio are standard cubic feet per barrel (scf/bbl).

Water produced with oil or gas may be in the form of liquid or vapour. The liquid
water may also be in the form of free water or it may be emulsified in the oil. Other
units in the Petroleum Processing Technology Series will deal with the problems of
oilfield emulsions and water vapour in gas. In this unit we will just concern ourselves
with the separation of free water from the oil and gas.

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Produced water is usually salty and has a density somewhat higher than that of sea
water. Typical oilfield water may have a density of 67 lb/cu ft.

If the three reservoir fluids of oil, water and gas were to be placed in a closed
container and allowed to stand, separation would occur.

The water, being the densest of the fluids, would sink to the bottom of the container.
The oil would float on top of the water. Finally, gas, the least dense component,
would occupy the space on top of the oil.

This then is the basis of oilfield separation.

However, reservoir fluids are being continuously produced and must be continuously
separated. This takes place in one or more pressure vessels which are designed to
achieve optimum separation as a continuous process.

3.2 SEPARATION PROCESS

The process can be described as:

 Three phase separation, or

 Two phase separation

The phases referred to are oil, water and gas. In two phase separation, gas is removed
from total liquid (oil plus water). In three phase separation, however, in addition to
the removal of gas from liquids, the oil and water are separated from each other.

Figure 3.1, shows the difference between 2 and 3 phase separation in a very
simplistic way.

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Figure 3.1 The Difference between 2 & 3 Phase Separation in a Very Simple
Way

3.3 PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATION

The objective of ideal separation is to separate the hydrocarbon stream into liquid-
free gas and gas-free-liquid.

Ideally, the gas and liquid reach a state of equilibrium at the existing conditions of
Pressure and Temperature within the vessel.

Two factors are necessary for separators to function:

1- The fluids to be separated must be insoluble in each other.

2- One fluid must be lighter than the other.

Separations depend upon the effect of gravity to separate fluids. If they are soluble in
each other, no separation is possible with gravity alone. For example, a mixture of
distillate and crude oil will not separate in a vessel because they dissolve in each
other. They must be segregated in the distillation process.

3.3.1 Gravity Separation

Since a separation depends upon gravity to separate the fluids, the ease with which
two fluids can be separated depends upon the difference in the density or weight per
unit volume of the fluids.

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In the process of separating gas from liquid (Figure 3.2), there are two separation
stages:

1- Separate liquid mist from the gas phase.

2- Separate gas in the form of foam from the liquid phase.

Droplets of liquid mist will settle out from gas, provided:

 The gas remains in the separator long enough for mist to drop out.
 The flow of the gas through the separator is slow enough that no turbulence
occurs, which will keep the gas stream stirred up so that the liquid has no
chance to drop out.

The difference in density between the gas and liquid will determine the maximum
flow rate of gas that will allow the liquid to settle out. For example, mist will drop
out of gas at 52 bars (750 psi) pressure as long as the gas is moving less than
31cm/sec (1 ft/sec). In other words, the separator has to be large enough so that the
gas travels from the inlet nozzle to the outlet nozzle at a rate of 31 cm/sec (1 ft/sec),
or less.

Figure 3.2 Separation Process

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It has been stated that gas at 52 bars (750 psi0 weighs about 0.036 kg/l (2.25 lb/cu.ft),
whereas it weighs only 0.0016 Kg/l (0.10 lb/cu.ft) at 1 bar (15 psi). Since its density
is lower at 1 bar (15 psi), the oil droplets will settle out faster because there is greater
difference in density between the low-pressure gas and oil.

Consequently, the gas can flow faster in the separator. In fact, it can flow at 1.52
m/sec (5 ft/sec) and not interfere with the liquid droplets as they settle out. Gas
bubbles in the liquid will break out in most oilfield applications in 30 to 60 seconds.
Consequently the separator is design so that the liquid remains in the vessel for 30 to
60 seconds. The length of time that the liquid remains in the vessel is called its
residence time.

3.3.2 Separation System Problems

There are many problems that confuse the separation process as follows:

 Slugs of liquid.
 Dust.
 Oil fogs.
 Mists.

Therefore, it is necessary to carry out additional separation to remove them from the
incoming stream.

Dust: causes erosion of compressor intake valves and plugging of small orifices in
various controlling and process equipment.

Oil fogs and mists: Create environmentally and process equipment problems
because they contaminate lubricants, chemical and desiccants.

These are common problems in natural gas pipelines, compressor stations,

conditioning equipment, and control systems.

3.3.3 Factors Affecting Separation

The factors that affect the operation and separation between the oil and gas phases in
a separator are:

 Fluid stream composition.

 Operating pressure.
 Operating temperature.

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Changes in any one of these factors on a given fluid stream will change the amount
of gas and oil leaving the separator.

Foaming and emulsion will also affect the capacity of separation in a separator.
Foam must be broken to obtain a good gas-oil separation. It takes time (length) to
breakout physically; chemical like silicon compounds may be used.

Effect of factors that cause separation

Separation factor Effect of factor

1. Difference in weight of fluid. Separation is easier when weight

difference is greater.

2. Residence time in separator. Separation is better with more time.

3. Coalescing surface area. Separation is better with more area.

4. Centrifugal action. Separation is better at higher velocity.

5. Presence of solids. Makes separation more difficult.

Separation of oil and gas is a critical field processing operation and becomes a part of
the gas processing necessary properly to condition the gas properly.

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3.4 PHASES OF SEPARATION

The total process within the separator can be broken down into 4 parts which we will
follow now (Figure 3.3).

3.4.1 Primary Separation

As the reservoir fluids enter the vessel an initial separation of gas and liquid takes
place. This happens because of:

 a reduction in velocity
 a reduction in pressure
 a change in flow direction

The velocity of the inlet stream is reduced as the fluids flow from a relatively small
diameter pipeline into the large volume separator.

The pressure is reduced by maintaining a controlled pressure on the vessel lower

than that of the inlet stream.

The change in flow direction is accomplished by placing some form of deflector at

the inlet to the separator.

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3.4.2 Secondary Separation

After the initial separation, gas will flow towards the outlet of the vessel. However, it
will still contain a certain amount of liquid in the form of droplets. In the secondary
separation process these liquid droplets are removed from the gas stream.
Liquid droplets which are suspended in the gas stream will tend to fall or 'settle'
towards the bottom of the vessel. This is simply due to the force of gravity.

Figure 3.3 Separator Sections

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The ease with which the droplets will settle out of the gas stream and fall into the
liquid accumulation section of the separator depends on a number of factors. These
include:

 The size of the droplets.

 The density of the liquid droplet compared to the density of the gas.
 The velocity at which the gas stream is traveling through the separator.
 The turbulence which exists in the flowing gas stream.

Of these factors:

 The difference in density between oil and gas and the droplet size will be
determined by the composition of the well stream.

 The velocity of the gas stream is determined by the size of the separator and its
throughput.

 Turbulence can be reduced by having devices called straightening vanes built

into the separator to make the gas flow more streamlined.

Figure 3.4 A Typical Set of Straightening Vanes inside a Vessel

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3.4.3 Mist Extraction

The secondary separation of liquid droplets from the gas by gravity settling will not
usually remove very small particles. These particles tend to remain in the gas stream
in the form of a mist. In order that the gas leaving a separator as free as possible
room liquid, a final mist extraction section is built into the vessel.

Mist extraction is accomplished using either an impingement or a centrifugal force

mechanism.

3.4.4 Liquid Accumulation Section

The lowermost section of a separator is where the liquids from the other three
sections accumulate before being discharged from the vessel. Initially, this liquid will
have gas bubbles entrained within it which must be removed.

Just as liquid droplets tend to fall through a gas stream, gas bubbles tend to rise to the
surface of liquids due to density differences.

The time required for the bubbles to reach the surface and re-enter the gas stream
will vary. However, for most oilfield applications it will occur in one to four
minutes. This means that the liquids must stay in the vessel for this period of time,
which is known as the retention time.

If the separator is of a sufficiently large capacity, this will ensure that the reservoir
fluids stay in the vessel for the required retention time.

You will remember that a 3 phase separation process not only removes gas from
liquid, as we have just seen, but also separates oil and water.

This, in effect, adds a fifth part to the total process within the separator.

3.4.5 Oil and Water Separation Section

Oil and water do not mix. If these liquids are left long enough in a vessel, separation
will occur and the oil will float on top of the water.

Oil and water will separate faster than gas will be liberated from the oil. So, if the
separator is large enough to allow efficient gas separation, then the retention time
required for oil and water separation will be exceeded.

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3.5 TERMINOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS:

3.5.1 Vessels Terminology

The term "oil and gas separator", in oil field terminology, designates a pressure
vessel used for the purpose of separating well fluids into gaseous and liquid
components. A separating vessel may be referred to in the following ways:

1. Oil and gas separator

2. Separator
3. Stage separator
4. Trap
5. Knock-out (vessel, drums, and trap)
Water knockout
Liquid knockout
6. Flash chamber (trap, vessel)
7. Expansion vessel (separator)
8. Scrubber (gas scrubber)
9. Filter (gas filter).

3.5.2 Separator Application

To size and design a separator, certain data and information must be known. There
must be data about the process fluids and operating conditions. You need to know the
service that the separator is to perform and the performance requirements. Often it is
helpful to know something about the system into which the unit will fit. Special
construction and design specifications, if applicable, must be followed. Then all that
information must be interpreted to select the best design and to correctly size it.
Often design data is incomplete and assumptions must be made. Information about
type of service and the relationship to the whole system can be useful in making
better assumptions.

There are also a whole range of different separator designs which can be used or
adapted to fit each need. There are vertical and horizontal designs, longitudinal or
cross flow, an assortment of mist extractor types and designs with and without slug
catching sections.

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Separators
Are mechanical devices used for primary separation to remove and collect liquid
from natural gas, which is normally accomplished with the aid of centrifugal force.

The terms oil and gas separator, separator, stage separator, and trap all refer to a
conventional oil and gas separator. These separating vessels are normally used near
the wellhead, manifold, or tank battery to separate the fluids produced from oil and
gas wells into oil and gas or liquid and gas. They must be capable of handling "slugs"
or "heads" of well fluids.

Production Separator
Also called "bulk separator" or "primary separator", is used to separate one or more
combined well streams at a well site, gathering center, plant or offshore platform. It
can be two or three-phase. "Primary" separation indicates it is the first process of
separation the produced fluids have encountered. If located in a plant, the production
separator might be very large and handle the production from a whole field. In large
plants, several production separators are often used in parallel.

Test Separator
Is usually, connected parallel to a production separator. It is normally sized to handle
one well at a time. Individual wells can be segregated from the main production
stream at the well manifold and processed through the test separator where the
separated phases are then measured. The products are then recombined with the main
stream products.

Knockout (vessel, drum, trap)

Used to remove only water from the well fluid or all liquid oil plus water from gas.
In the case of a water knockout the gas and liquid petroleum are discharged together
and the water is separated and discharged from the bottom of the vessel.

A liquid knockout is used to remove all liquid, oil plus water, from the gas. The
water and liquid hydrocarbons are discharged together from the bottom of the vessel
and the gas is discharged from the top.

Flash Chamber (Separator, Drum)

This is a two-phase vessel used as a subsequent stage of separation to process the
liquid hydrocarbons flashed from a primary separator. The name is applied to the
vessel used as a second stage separator on a cold separation unit. The vessel is
usually of low pressure design-not more than 125 psig working pressure. It rarely
differs from the conventional low pressure separator.

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The secondary purpose is degassing liquid before it enters another process. An

example is in an electrostatic coalescer or desalter where no free gas can be tolerated,
the fluid is first degassed in a flash separator which is elevated above the coalescer so
that once degassed the fluid will remain gas-free.

Expansion Vessel
This name applied to the vessel into which gas is expanded for a cold separation
application. It also is referred to as a cold separator or a low temperature separator.
The vessel differs considerably from the normal separator since it is designed
primarily to handle and melt gas hydrates that are formed by expansion cooling. In
cold separation applications where a hydrate preventative is used, the design may be
very close to that of normal separator. The usual working pressure of this vessel is in
the range of 1000 to 1500 psig.

Filter (Dust Scrubber)

Where liquid is present to a fair degree in a gas stream, the conventional oil and gas
separator will remove any solid particles in the stream. The liquid acts to trap the
solids in the mist extractor (or coalescer) and other sections of the separator. It then
serves as a medium to flow solids out of the vessel.

When gas is dry, there are still solid particles present to interfere with some phases of
gas transmission and distribution. The vessel designed to remove these solids is
called a filter or dust scrubber.

The filter normally uses a dry filter pack to trap undesirable particles. These filter
packs require periodic removal for changing or cleaning.

Scrubber
Scrubbers are usually two-phase, vertical vessels. The scrubber is NOT used as a
primary separation means at a well, and are recommended only for:

1. Secondary operation to remove carryover fluids from process equipment such

as the absorber and the Liquid Dust Scrubber.

2. Gas line separation downstream from separator and where flowlines are not
long.

3. Very high GOR flow streams that is, to "scrub" small amounts of liquid from a
gas stream.

4. Flare scrubbers or vent scrubbers are placed in gas outlet streams from
production separators to remove any residual liquids left or any condensates
that may have formed in the line, prior to flaring or venting.

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5. Suction and discharge scrubbers are placed upstream and downstream of gas
compressors.

6. Fuel gas scrubbers remove residual liquid from gas just prior to its use as a
fuel.

7. Pipeline scrubbers remove condensate from gas streams flowing through long
pipelines.

Slug Catcher
Or surge drum is a separator designed to separate bulk liquid-gas flow streams which
are surging or slugging. The slug catcher may be also serving as a production
separator, in which case better separation is required. Properly designed it should
smooth out the intermittent flow.

Metering Separators
Separator featuring calibrated liquid chambers are used for metering in either 3-phase
or ordinary 2-phase operation. These vessels register the number of dumps of the
calibrated volume of oil and water and are applicable where individual well tests are
desire or where continuous or frequent data are necessary.

Accumulators
Condensed overhead vapors from distillation columns collect in vessels called
accumulators. These Keep the tower functioning smoothly and prevent tower
fluctuation from down stream equipment. Hence surge residence time is the basic
design factor in designing vessels for this type of service.

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3.6 STAGE SEPARATION

The purpose of stage separation is to reduce the pressure on the reservoir liquids a
little at time, in steps, or stages, so that a more stable stock tank liquid will result.
Petroleum liquids at high pressure usually contain large quantities of liquefied
propanes, butanes, and pentanes, which will vaporize or flash as the pressure is
reduced. This flashing can cause substantial reduction in stock tank liquid recovery,
depending on well stream composition, pressure, temperature, and other factors. For
example, if a volatile condensate at 1,500 psig were discharged directly into an
atmospheric storage tank, most of it would vaporize immediately, leaving very little
liquid in the tank.

In many circumstances it may be possible to do this. However, imagine a situation

where the pressure of the reservoir fluids at the wellhead is 2 500 psi and the gas oil
ratio is 2 000 scf/bbl.

If separation is to yield stabilized oil and gas at atmospheric pressure, then the
separator may need to be extremely large. With a throughput of, say, 75 000 bbl/day
of oil, the separator must be capable of handling all that oil plus 150 000 000 cu ft of
gas. The pressure would also have to be reduced in one go, from wellhead conditions
to atmospheric conditions.

The ideal method of separation, to attain maximum liquid recovery, would be that of
differential liberation of gas by means of a steady decrease in pressure from that
existing in the reservoir to that existing in the storage tanks. With each tiny decrease
in pressure, the gas evolved would immediately be removed from the liquid.
However, to carry out this differential process would require an infinite number of
separation stages, obviously an impractical solution. A close approach to differential
liberation can be made by using three or more series-connected stages of separation,
in each of which flash vaporization takes place. In this manner, the maximum
economical amount of liquid can be recovered.

When ideal separation has been accomplished, the, gas and liquids have reached a
state of equilibrium at the temperature and pressure within the vessel. In other
words, at these conditions of temperature and pressure, no further separation would
take place.

In most oilfield applications the goal is to stabilize the crude oil for shipment at
pressures at or near to atmospheric, this means that the separator would have to be
operated at this pressure.

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In order to achieve optimum separation in such a case the process would be carried
out in a number of separator vessels working in series. Each separator would operate
at a lower pressure than its predecessor. This process is known as stage separation.
At each stage the gas which is liberated and separated is removed and the liquid
passes to the next vessel in the sequence.

Stage separation is a process in which gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons are separated
into vapor and liquid phases by two or more equilibrium flashes at consecutively
lower pressures. Two-stage separation involves one separator and a storage tank
(Figure 3.5). Three-stage separation requires two separators and a storage tank. Four-
stage separation requires three separators and a storage tank. The tank is always
counted as the final stage of vapor-liquid separation because the final equilibrium
flash occurs in the tank.

The series of vessels used in a stage separation process is known as a train of

separators. The number of vessels in a train varies, but usually ranges from two to
four. We can refer therefore to a two, three or four stage separation train.

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Figure 3.5 Stage Separation Flow Diagrams

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3.7 CLASSIFICATION OF SEPARATORS

Separators are classified into two ways:
1. The shape of the vessel.
2. The number of the fluids to be separated.

3.7.1 The Vessel Shape

Separators are commonly manufactured in three basic shapes:

1. Horizontal Separator
2. Vertical Separator
3. Spherical Separator

A. Horizontal Separators:

The horizontal separator (Figures 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9) is designed for processing
well stream. The large liquid surface area provides for efficient removal of gas from
the liquid. This type of vessel has a large interface area between the liquid and the
gas phases. Thus, adding more separation when the gas capacity is a design criterion,
the horizontal vessel is more economical in high pressure separators due to increased
wall thickness required with large diameters and, in general, recommended for use
with low gas-oil ratio fluid streams unless additional factors dictate otherwise.
However, the liquid level control replacement is more critical than that in vertical
separator.

Figure 3.6 Three-Phase Horizontal Separator

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Figure 3.7 Two (bottom) and Three-Phase (top) Horizontal Separators

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Operation of Single Barrel Separator:

The oil and gas mixture enters at (A) (Figure 3.8) and hits an angle baffle (B) where
the direction of flow is changed. Here the heavier liquids fall to the bottom of the
tank while the gas and spray rise. This wet gas passes into a chamber (C) where
small drops gather into larger drops and fall into the liquid at the bottom of the tank.

The partly dried gas goes through a final element where the last liquid particles of
smallest size are removed from the gas by a mist extractor (E) generally similar to
the scrubber dome. The dried gas then goes through the top portion of the tank and
into the gas outlet (F). The liquid from which the gas has been removed moves along
the bottom of the tank past the plates (D) to the oil outlet (H). The plates act as
baffles to keep waves from forming in the liquids.

A- Oil and Gas Inlet

B- Impact Angle
C- De-Foaming Element
D- Wave Breaker and Selector Plate
E- Mist Extractor
F- Gas Outlet
G-Drain
H-Oil Outlet

Figure 3.8 Single Barrel Horizontal Separator

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Figure 3.9 Typical Horizontal Three-Phase Separator with parallel plates

Advantages of Horizontal Separators:

1. For a given oil and gas capacity, the horizontal usually will be cheaper than
a vertical.
2. A horizontal configuration will be more adaptable to skid – mounting and
on-skid piping.
3. For a given size, more area is available for settling in the liquid phase.
Thus, the horizontal conforms to three phase operation better than does a
vertical.
4. If heating coils or sand jets are required, horizontal configuration is more
adaptable.
5. Foamy crudes are processed more effectively in a horizontal than in a
vertical. The greater surface area between the gas and liquid phases is an
asset in allowing free passage of collapsed foam to the liquid section of the
separator. In fact, if the crude is more than slightly foamy, this feature
alone generally will dictate use of a horizontal vessel.

Disadvantages of Horizontal Separators:

1. Horizontal separator normally have less liquid surge capacity than a
vertical of comparable oil and gas capacity, and.
2. Liquid level control is more critical than with a vertical type.

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B. Vertical Separators:

This type (Figure 3.10, 3.11, and 3.12) is capable of handling large slugs of liquid
without carryover to the gas outlet and is best suited for well streams with low liquid
content and high gas volume. The action of level control is not critical.

Due to the greater vertical distance between the liquid level and the gas outlet, there
is less tendency to re-vaporize the liquid into the gas phase. Vertical type is most
often used on fluid streams having considerably less liquid than gas (gas – oil ratio is
high)

Advantages of Vertical Separators:

1. Liquid level and control not as critical as for horizontal;
2. Easier and cheaper to design for surge capacity;
3. With certain designs, more extraneous material (for example, sand, mud,
and corrosion products) can be handled; and
4. Usually easier to clean.
5. Requires less space to install (e.g. offshore applications)
Disadvantages of Vertical Separators:
1. More expensive,
2. Does not adapt to skid-mounted assemblies as well as do horizontals in
most case, and
3. Requires a larger diameter for the same gas capacity.

Figure 3.10 Typical Vertical Three-Phase Separator with parallel plates

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Figure 3.11 Two-Phase Vertical Separator

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Figure 3.12 Two-Phase Vertical Separator

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C. Spherical Separators:

These types of separators (Figure 3.13) are compact vessels arrangement and provide
good gas separation. However, they have very limited surge space and liquid settling
section.

When a well stream can contain excess mud or sand and are subjected to surging
foamy components, the spherical separator is not economical. The liquid level
control is very critical.

These Separators are not as popular today because of their limitations.

However, they are still used in small scale operations.

Operation

Figure 3.13 illustrates the principles of the spherical separator. The well stream
enters the top of the separator and the liquids spread thinly over the hemispherical
baffle and accumulate in the lower part of the vessel. Gas proceeds along the same
initial path between the hemispherical baffle and the separator shell. At the lower
edge of the baffle, the gas passes into the chamber of the separator and rises through
the mist extractor. Gas leaves the separator through the upturned outlet which
emerges from the bottom center of the vessel. The rising liquid activates a float or
level controller to operate the oil valve on the dump line from the separator.

Advantages of Spherical Separators: Its compactness

1. Ease of skid mounting
2. Excellent gas separation capacity per dollar, and
3. Its cleanout and drain features are better than those of a vertical separator.

Disadvantages of Spherical Separators:

1. Is not economical for large gas capacities, and
2. Its surge capacity is limited.

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Figure 3.13 Spherical Separator

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The designation of high or low gas-oil ratio is rather arbitrary. The following are
specific instances in which high or low GOR's usually occur:

Low Gas-Oil Ratio

 Oil well streams.

 Flash tanks in dehydration, and sweetening plants.
 Fractionator's reflux accumulators.

High Gas-Oil Ratio

 Gas well streams.

 Gas pipeline scrubbers.
 Compressor suction scrubbers
 Fuel gas scrubbers.

The terms Flash Tank, Accumulator and Scrubber are commonly used for specific
applications of separators. The vessels are gas-liquid separators.

3.7.2 The Number of Fluids to be Separated

Normally, fluids to be separated are either in two or three phases. If there are two
fluids, such as gas and liquid, the separator to be used is a two -phase separator, may
be horizontal or vertical type. If three fluids are separated, such as, gas oil and water,
the vessel to be used is a three-phase separator. The number of phases refers to the
number of streams that leave the vessel, and not the number of phases that are in the
inlet stream. For example, well stream test separator frequently has gas, oil and
water but only the liquid and gas are separated in the vessel, and flow to another
separator where the oil and water are separated. Consequently, a two-phase separator
is one which the inlet stream is divided into two fluids and a three-phase separator
will have three products.

Some well streams contain sand or either solid particles which are removed in a
separator. Special internal devices are provided to collect and dispose of solid
materials. They are not considered another phase in the classification of the vessel.

A- Two-Phase Separators

The flow in horizontal or vertical separators is similar. The well stream enters the
inlet side and strikes a baffle. Forward motion is stopped temporarily with the heavy
liquids falling to the bottom of the vessel.

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Gas and liquid spray continue through straightening vanes, which cause liquid drops
to form and drop intro the accumulation section.

As in Figures 3.11 & 3.12 flow in a centrifugal separator is somewhat different than
that in conventional types. The vessels are usually vertical and depend on centrifugal
action to separate the fluids. The inlet stream is directed to flow around the wall of
the vessel in swirling motion. The heavier liquid moves to the outside, and droplets
collect on the wall and fall to the bottom. The lighter of the fluids collects in the
middle of the vessel and flows up the outlet pipe.

B- Three-Phase Separators

This type handles gas plus two immiscible liquid phases. The two liquid phases
might be oil and water, glycol and oil, etc. The potential application of three phase
separators occurs where space is a major consideration.

The designation of high or low gas-oil ratio is rather arbitrary. The following are
specific instances in which high or low GOR's usually occur:

Low Gas-Oil Ratio

 Oil well streams.

 Flash tanks in dehydration, and sweetening plants.
 Fractionator's reflux accumulators.

High Gas-Oil Ratio

 Gas well streams.

 Gas pipeline scrubbers.
 Compressor suction scrubbers
 Fuel gas scrubbers.

The terms Flash Tank, Accumulator and Scrubber are commonly used for specific
applications of separators. The vessels are gas-liquid separators.

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3.8 SEPARATOR INTERNALS

Production equipment involving the separation of oil and gas usually has a wide
variety of mechanical devices that should be present in some of all separators,
regardless of the overall shape or configuration of the vessel. These mechanical
devices improve the separator’s efficiency and simplify its operation. The most
commonly used devices are:

 Inlet configuration
 Intermediate configuration
 Outlet configuration

3.8.1 Inlet Configurations

In horizontal separators the internal configuration can take many shapes. The most
commonly used are:
 Structural channel iron
 Angle iron
 Cyclone
 Flat plates
 Dished heads
 Schopentoeter

The latter three shapes have been considered optimum for certain applications. These
shapes are used in gas-liquid separators in front of the inlet nozzle of the vessel,
which serve two purposes:

1. To aid in the separation of entrained gas from the liquid.

2. To divert the fluid flow downstream.

In vertical separators, there is a centrifugal inlet device, it causes the primary

separation of the liquid and gas to take place. Here, the incoming stream is subject to
a centrifugal force as much as 500 times the force of gravity. This action stops the
horizontal motion of the liquid droplets together, where they will fall to the bottom in
the settling section.

Inlet Diverters
There are many types of inlet diverters. Figure 3.14 shows two basic types of devices
that are commonly used. The first is a deflector baffle. This can be a spherical dish,
flat plate, angle iron, cone, or just about anything that will accomplish a rapid change
in direction and velocity of the fluids. The rapid change of the fluid velocity
disengages the liquids from the gas due to kinetic energy differences. At the same

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velocity, the higher density liquid possesses more kinetic energy and therefore does
not change direction or velocity as easily as the gas. Thus, the gas tends to flow
around the diverter while the liquid strikes the diverter and then falls to the bottom of
the vessel. The design of the deflector is governed principally by the structural
support required to resist the impact-momentum load. The advantage of using
devices such as a half-sphere or cone is that they create fewer disturbances than
plates or angle iron, cutting down on re-entrainment or emulsifying problems.

Figure 3.14 Two Basic Types of Inlet Diverters

The second device shown in Figure 3.14 is a cyclone inlet that uses centrifugal force
to disengage the oil and gas. This inlet can have a cyclonic chimney, as shown, or
may use a tangential fluid race around the walls. These devices are proprietary but
generally use an inlet nozzle sufficient to create a fluid velocity of about 20 ft/s
(6.096 m/s) around a chimney whose diameter is no larger than two-thirds that of the
vessel diameter.

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Figure 3.15 Inlet Diverter Types

Schoepentoeter
The Schoepentoeter (vane-type) is a Shell-proprietary inlet device and is commonly
used for introducing gas/ liquid mixtures into a vessel or column

It is used to absorb the initial momentum as the well fluid enters the separator. It
tends to deflect the direction of flow causing gas to rise and free liquid to drop that
the flow encounters. A drop in velocity as well as reduction in pressure.

Figure 3.16 shows schematically the typical outline of a Schoepentoter in a vertical

vessel together with its design parameters (for simplicity not all the vanes are
shown).

The geometry of the Schoepentoter is largely standardised so that the choice of

dimensions to be made by the designer is limited to the following:

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 The number of vanes per side nv.

 The vane angle, a which is 8 degrees o less.
 The length of the straight part of the vanes, Lv , which shall be 75,
100, 150 or 200 mm. The choice of Lv is also used to fix the vane
spacing.
 The radius of the vanes, Rv, which shall be 50 or 100 mm.

With a Schoepentoeter, it is normal to specify a protruded nozzle, although this is not

essential.

Figure 3.16 Schematic Outline of the Schoepentoeter

a = vane angle, angle made by straight part of vanes with centre line.
B = edge angle, angle made by edge of the row of vanes with centre line.
D = vessel inside diameter, mm.
d1 = inlet nozzle inner diameter, mm
E = available space, mm.
L v = length of straight part of vanes (normally 75, 100, 150 or 200 mm)
N v = number of vanes per side.
R v = vane radius, mm (normally 50 or 100 mm)
t = vane material thickness, mm (normally 3 mm, but typically 5 mm for heavy
duty, e.g. slugs)
Wvo = width of vane entrance opening, mm.

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3.8.2 Intermediate configuration

The most commonly used of these intermediate devices are:

 Wave Breaker
 Coalescing plates
 Straightening vanes
 Weir
 Horizontal baffles
 Defoaming Plates

Wave Breakers
In large horizontal vessels, wave breakers may be used to limit wave propagation in
the vessel. The waves may result from surges of liquid entering the vessel. The wave
breakers consist of plates perpendicular to the flow located at the liquid level. On
floating or compliant structures where internal waves may be caused by the motion
of the foundation, wave breakers may also be required parallel to the flow direction.
The wave actions in the vessel must be minimized so level controls, level switches,
and weirs may perform properly.

Stilling Wells
Even where wave breakers are not needed, it may be beneficial to install a stilling
well around any internal floats for level control. The stilling well is a slotted pipe
which protects the float from currents, waves, etc., which could cause it to sense an
incorrect level.

Coalescing Plates
It is possible to use various plate or pipe coalescer designs to aid in the coalescing of
oil droplets in the water and water droplets in the oil. Recent tests using C. E. Natco's
Performax plates indicate that some savings in vessel size are possible. Because of
potential plugging problems, it is recommended that coalescers only be used to
extend the capabilities of existing three-phase separators or where there are severe
space limitations.

Horizontal Baffles
These are used in large gas liquid separators to prevent waves in the liquid phase.

Weir
It is a dam-like structure, which is controlling the liquid level and keeps it at a given
level. Maybe one or two weirs are used in one separator, where one maintains the oil
level and the other the water level.

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Straightening vanes
These are used to separate liquid mist from gas and used where hydrate or paraffins
are present. They are used when hydrate or paraffins prevent the use of pads.

Figure 3.17 Straightening vanes

Defoaming Plates
Foam at the interface may occur when gas bubbles are liberated from the liquid. This
foam can be stabilized with the addition of chemicals at the inlet. Many times a more
effective solution is to force the foam to pass through a series of inclined parallel
plates or tubes as shown in Figure 3.18 so as to aid in coalescence of the bubbles.

Figure 3.18 A Schematic of Defoaming Plates

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Sand Jets and Drains

In horizontal three-phase separators, one concern is the accumulation of sand and
solids at the bottom of the vessel. If allowed to build up, these solids upset the
separator operations by taking up vessel volume. Generally, the solids settle to the
bottom and become well packed.

To remove the solids, sand drains are opened in a controlled manner, and then high-
pressure fluid, usually produced water, is pumped through the jets to agitate the
solids and flush them down the drains. The sand jets are normally designed with a 20
ft/s jet tip velocity and aimed in such a manner to give good coverage of the vessel
bottom.

To prevent the settled sand from clogging the sand drains, sand pans or sand troughs
are used to cover the outlets. These are inverted troughs with slotted side openings.

Figure 3.19 Sand Jets and Piping Inside Horizontal and Vertical Separator.
Triangular Cover Prevents Plugging of Drains.

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3.8.3 Outlet Configuration

These mechanical outlet devices are sometimes used in horizontal and vertical
separators, and the most commonly used are the following.

Mist pad or extractor

Most frequently used in gas-liquid separators and normally located near the gas
outlet that will coalesce small particles (mist) of liquid that will not settle out by
gravity. It breaks oil-water emulsion to help in segregating the two liquids. Not used
where hydrate or paraffin may be present.

The most common mist extraction device is the knitted wire mesh pad which is an
impingement mechanism. (Figure 3.20)

Figure 3.20 A knitted Wire Mesh Pad

This type of mist extractor is placed near to the gas outlet from the vessel. As the gas
containing the very small droplets flows past the wire mesh, the gas turns to flow
round the strands of wire. The droplets, however, tend to continue in a straight line
so they will strike the wire strands and stick to them. As more droplets stick to the
wire, a film of liquid forms which slowly moves to the lowest point on the wire. At
this point the liquid accumulates to form a drop. When the drop is large enough it
will break away from the surface where it has collected. From there it will fall down
to the liquid accumulation section of the separator under the influence of gravity.

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Figure 3.21 The Action of a Knitted Wire Mesh Pad

The use of centrifugal force for mist extraction is usually confined to vessels where
the gas flow is vertically upwards. If the gas stream containing liquid mist is made to
flow in a circular motion, centrifugal force throws the liquid particles outwards. This
causes the particles to impinge on the walls of the vessel or container. Here the small
droplets will coalesce into larger droplets until they are large enough to gravitate to
the liquid accumulation section.
G

Figure 2.22 A Centrifugal Force Type Mist Extractor

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In centrifugal extraction, a continual change in gas flow direction at high velocities is

required for small particle removal. This results in relatively large pressure drops
across the extractor, which may limit its application.

The stainless steel woven wire mesh mist-eliminator of thickness 10 – 20 cm (4-8

inch) is considered to be the most efficient type. It is held in place by a sturdy grid
which prevents it from being swept out or torn by a sudden surge of gas, and has
been proven by removing up to 99.5% or ore of the entrained liquids from the gas
stream.

This type offers the greatest area for the collection of liquid droplets per unit volume
as compared to vane type.

Figures (3.23 and 3.24) show two of the most common mist-extraction devices; wire-
mesh pads, and vans. Wire-mesh pads are made of finely woven mats of stainless
steel wire wrapped into a tightly packed cylinder. The liquid droplets impinge on the
matted wires and coalesce. The effectiveness of wire mesh depends largely on the
gas being in the proper velocity range. If the velocities are low, the vapor just drifts
through the mesh pad without the droplets impinging and coalescing. Alternately
high velocity gas can strip the liquid droplets from the wire mesh and carry the
droplets out the gas outlet.

Weir-Mish Pads

Arch Plates

Figure 3.23 Schematic of Two Types of Mist Extractors

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Vane-type mist extractors force the gas flow to be laminar between parallel plates,
which contain directional changes. Droplets impinge on the plate surface where they
coalesce and fall to a liquid-collection area where they are routed to the liquid-
collection section of the vessel. Vane-type mist extractors are sized by their
manufacturers to assure both laminar flow and a certain minimum pressure drop.

Figure 3.24 A Common Mist Extraction Device using Vanes

Some separators have centrifugal mist extractors which cause the liquid drops to be
separated by centrifugal force. These can be more efficient than either wire mesh or
vanes and are the least susceptible to plugging. However, they are not in common use
in production operations because their removal efficiencies are sensitive to small
changes in flow. In addition they require relatively larger pressure drops to create the
centrifugal force.

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The selection of a type of mist extractor involves a typical cost benefit analysis. Wire
mesh pads are the cheapest; however, mesh pads are the most susceptible to plugging
with paraffins, gas hydrates, etc. With age, mesh pads also tend to deteriorate and re-
lease wires and/or chunks of the pad to the gas stream. This can be extremely
damaging to downstream equipment such as compressors. Vane units, on the other
hand, are more expensive. Typically, vane units are less susceptible to plugging and
deterioration than mesh pads. The selection of a type of mist extractor is affected by
the fluid characteristics, the system requirements, and the cost.

It is recommended that the sizing of mist extractors should be left to the

manufacturer. No specific sizing technique has been identified for mist extractors and
therefore no method is presented in this manual. Experience indicates that if the
gravity-settling section is designed to remove liquid droplets of 500 micron or
smaller diameter, there will be sufficient space to install a mist extractor.

Figure 3.25 Mist Extractors in Various Types Vessels

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Vortex Breakers
The liquid outlet should be equipped with anti-vortex devices to prevent a vortex
from forming, and gas from going out with the liquid. Several types are shown in
Figures 3.26 & 3.27.

Figure 3.26 Outlet Vortex Breaker

Figure 3.27 Three Views of Typical Vortex Breaker

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3.9 OPERATORS AND TROUBLESHOOTING

3.9.1 Separator Control

Separators have two major control points:

1. Pressure control.
2. Level control.

A- Pressure Control (Figure 3.28)

The pressure of the separator must be rather constant, independent of the operation of
adjacent equipment. Usually, this means a back pressure valve on the gas outlet, any
off-set due to flow rate changes normally no problem.

However, the vessel design pressure and high pressure alarm or shut down controls
must be consistent with the range of pressure expected for the proportional setting
and off-set anticipation.

The pressure on a separator should be held as high as possible in order to the best
possible operation. Increasing the pressure reduces the actual volume of gas, and
thereby lowers the velocity of the gas in the vessel. Therefore, pressure is regulated
with a pressure control valve, which regulates the flow of gas leaving the vessel.

Figure 3.28 Separator Pressure and Level Controls

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B- Level Control (Figure 3.28)

1. Two-Phase Separators Level Control

In horizontal separators the point at which you hold the level of liquid in the
separator can have a significant effect on the separation of the vessels. The level of
the liquid in the separator needs to be enough, so that the volume of the liquid in the
vessel will provide the desired residence time for gas bubbles to break out.

It should be apparent that the separator and control design should be compatible if
the liquid level is high, the residence time will be more than is required. This will not
affect the quality of the liquid that is withdrawn from the vessel, but will reduce the
vapor disengaging space and can result in some liquid carrying over in the outlet gas
stream
.
In a vertical separator the liquid level control point will usually not have much
effect on the quality of the gas out of the vessel because the vapour space is usually
several meters (feet) high, and a few centimeters (inches) will have little effect.

Example: (Figure 3.29)

A 60 cm (24 inch) diameter horizontal separator is designed to operate with the

vessel half full of liquid. What will be the effect on the vapor disengaging space if
the liquid level varies 8 cm (3 in.) from the middle of the vessel? The effect of
changing the level 8 cm (3 in.) is as follows:

From this, you see that changing the level 8 cm (3 in.) increases or reduce the volume
of vapor space about 30%. The change would be less in a larger diameter vessel.

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Figure 3.29 Effects of 8 Cm (13 In.) Change in Level in 60 cm (124 In) Diameter

The point at which the level controller should be set will depend upon how rates of
liquid and gas entering the vessel. If the gas rate is above design, and the liquid rate
is less, you should run with a lower level to allow more room in the vessel for vapor
disengaging. On the other hand, if the liquid rate in up, and the gas rate is down, you
should raise the level in order to provide more liquid residence time.

It is often difficult to determine whether the liquid residence time is sufficient to

allow gas bubbles to break out. If it is dumping into an atmospheric tank, you might
get some idea its gas content by observing the amount of gas that is being vented
from the tank.

The gas leaving a separator usually flows to another process vessel, and liquid
carryover will usually fall out in it. If liquid carryover is noticed, it can often be
stopped by lowering the liquid level. Generally, liquid carryover in the gas stream
will cause more operating problems than gas bubbles in the liquid stream.
Consequently, it is usually better to hold the liquid level on the low side rather than
the high side in horizontal separators.

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2. Three Phase Separator Level Control

Level control in separators handling water and oil is a little more involved because
control of the water level will effect residence time of both water and oil.
Furthermore, these vessels are often in a service in which the quantities of water and
oil often in during the operation of the separator.

For example, a new oil well might make 7000 m3 /d of gas, 40 m3 /d of oil and 1 m3
/ d of water (250 M cf/d of gas, 250bbl/d of oil and 6 bbl/d of water). After 5 years,
the production may change to 11 000 m3 /d of gas, 30 m3 /d of oil and 15 m3 /d water
(400 M cf/d of gas, 200 bbl/d of oil and 100 bbl/d of water). During the early stage
of production, most of the liquid section is filled with oil.

Water level is operated near its lowest control point. After 5 years the water level
must be raised in order to provide sufficient residence time for the water production

Control of the water level in the above case was accomplished with a level controller
having its float partially immersed in water and the remainder in oil. The float that is
used on the controller must be designed for the difference in specific gravities of the
oil and water that are in the vessel. You can visualize the float as being heavy enough
so that it sinks in the oil but floats in water a float used to control the level of oil in a
gas-oil interface would not function in an oil-water interface.

The oil-water interface is often difficult to detect. Wood, rags, scale and dirt that
sinks in oil but floats on water will accumulate at the interface. This material tends to
promote foam or an emulsion of water and oil. Consequently there may be no clear
cut interface, but instead, a layer or trash will form between the oil and water. The
mixture will cause erratic action of the level controller.

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It is not unusual for a gauge glass to show a distinct interface when this layer is in the
separator. This is illustrated below.

If one of the gauge glass connections to the vessel is in the trash layer, the glass may
fill with the material, and an interface cannot be seen. When this occurs, the trash
layer should be drained from the vessel.

In order to get away from level control in an emulsion, the level of oil and water is
usually controlled by the methods shown in Figure 3.30

In the vertical separator shown in Figure 3.30 the oil level can be changed a few
cm (inches) by resetting the level controller. In the horizontal separator, the level in
the oil setting chamber is fixed by the height of the weir on the oil bucket. The
volume of oil within the bucket is relatively small, and no significant change in the
oil settling volume will result from a change in level within the bucket.

In most separators, the total liquid settling volume is fairly constant. The volume of
the oil and water settling sections depends upon the location of the interface location
of the interface on the separators in Figure 3.30 depends on the level in the water
draw- off chamber the level should be low at low water rates, and raised as the water
rate increases.

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Figure 3.30 Three Phase Separator Interface Control

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3.9.2 Troubleshooting

Frequent problems with separators are:

1. Liquid carryover in the outlet gas stream.

2. Inability to maintain constant liquid level.
3. Failure of coalescing devices to function properly so that one or both liquid
streams contain an excessive quantity of the other liquid.

The procedure for finding and eliminating the cause of the problems is discussed in
detail below.

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A- Troubleshooting Procedure for Liquid Carry Over in Outlet Gas Stream

Cause of Carry Over Troubleshooting Procedure

1. Excessive inlet gas flow rate Check gas flow rate and cut back to design
rate

2. High liquid level which cuts Check liquid level.

down vapor disengaging Blow down gauge glass.
space Lower level to design point

3. Coalescing plates or mist pad or a. Check temperature and pressure to

centrifugal device is plugged determine if hydrate can form.
with dirt or hydrate
b. Measure pressure drop across device. It
should be less than 0.1 bars [2 psi]. If drop
across mist pad is 0, pad may have torn or
come loose from its mounting. Pressure
drop measurement should be made at
design gas rate. High pressure drop
indicates plugging. Internally inspect if
necessary

4. Excessive wave action in liquid Check or install horizontals baffles.

5. Operating pressure is below Check pressure and raise to design or lower

design gas rate in proportion to reduction in pressure

6. Liquid API gravity is higher Check liquid gravity. If it is above design, gas
than design rate will have to be cut in proportion to
difference in gravity.

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B- Troubleshooting Procedure for Inability to Hold Constant Liquid Level

Cause of Changing Level Troubleshooting Procedure

1. Float is totally covered with a. Blow down gauge glass to get accurate
liquid level reading.

b. If float cage is external, blow it down to be

sure pipes between cage and vessel are not
plugged.

c. When gauge glass and float cage are clean,

check to see if float is covered with liquid.

d. Manually drain enough liquid from vessel

so that ½ of float is immersed.

2. Liquid level is below float a. Perform steps a & b above.

Note: Level controller will not b. If level is below float, close valve in liquid
function if the liquid level line to allow level to rise until float is ½
is above or below the covered.
float. The float must be
partially immersed in c. Put level controller in service.
liquid in order for the
controller to work.

3. Liquid flow rate has changed. a. If level controller does not have reset, the
level control point on the controller will
have to be changed each time the liquid to
be changed each the liquid flow rate makes
a significant change.

b. If controller has reset, it can be adjusted to

take care of changes in liquid flow rate.

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B- Troubleshooting Procedure for Inability to Hold Constant Liquid Level

(Continued)

Cause of Changing Level Troubleshooting Procedure

4. Liquid enters vessel in slugs. a. Lower level set point on controller.
Level controller does not
react fast enough to drain b. Lower proportional band setting.
liquid.
c. In some cases it may be helpful to install a
valve positioned on the level control valve
in order for it to open rapidly.

5. Level control valve is not a. Check valve action to see that it is not
operating properly. closing when it is supposed to open.
b. Stroke-valve to full open and closed
positions to see that the spring tension is
not too tight or too loose, and that nothing
is under the valve seat to prevent it form
closing.
c. Check liquid flow rate with valve fully
open to see that there is no restriction in the
line.

6. Wave action is causing Install float shield.

internal float to move.

7. Level controller shows no a. Manually twist torque tube or float arm to

response to change in level. see that controller shows response. If there
is no response, repair controller. If
controller shows response, float has
apparently drooped off, or liquid level is
above or below float.
b. Check liquid level as described in items 1
and 2.
c. Manually open and close drain valve so
that the liquid level travels the full length
of the float. If the controller shows no
response, the float had fallen off.

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B- Troubleshooting Procedure for Inability to Hold Constant Liquid Level

(Continued)

Cause of Changing Level Troubleshooting Procedure

8. Float in oil-water interface is a. Check for emulsion in vessel by draining a

totally immersed in emulsion. line connected to the vessel near the float.

b. Drain emulsion from vessel if it is present.

9. Gravity of oil has changed so a. Check gravity of liquid.

that float will not respond to
change in level. b. If it is different from design, consult level
controller supplier to get a new float.

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C- Troubleshooting Procedure When One Liquid Contains an Excessive

Amount of the other Liquid.

Cause of Excessive of One Troubleshooting Procedure

Liquid

1. The flow rate of one or both Check flow rates and cut back to designing
liquids is high. rates.

2. The temperature of the liquids is Check the temperature and raise it to design
below design.

3. Filters or coalescing material is a. Check pressure drop across coalescing

plugged. device
.
b. Clean or replace coalescing material or filter
elements.

4. Interface level is float above or a. Blow down gauge glass and cage to get
below float so that level accurate level indication.
controller will not function.
b. Open or close valve in liquid lines as
required bringing interface level to center of
float.

5. Improper interface level a. If oil contains water interface level is too

high. Level must be lowered.

b. If water contains oil, interface level is too

low. Level must be raised.

The gauge glass that indicates the liquid level is probably the most important
operating device on a separator. It is also one of the easiest devicse to plug with dirt
and debris, and cause it to shown a flase level.

Gauge glasses should be cleaned with a broush or with a chemical solution of

frequent intervals; and the gauge valves should be blown as required to prevent an
accumulation of dirt in them.

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3.10 OPERATING PROBLEMS

Some of the major problems encountered in the operation of oil and gas separators
are due to foam, paraffin, sand, emulsions and slugging.

3.10.1 Foamy Crudes

This is caused when the oil fails to release the gas quickly enough as it passes
through the vessel, and a layer of oily bubbles forms on top of the liquid surface.

Another major cause of foam is impurities other than water in the crude oil that are
impractical to remove before the stream reaches the separator. Foam presents no
problem within a separator if the internal design assures that the rate of foam breakup
is faster (or at least equal to) the rate of buildup.

The level control displacer on the oil side of the weir is designed to operate in a
liquid. It cannot float in foam.

When the float sinks in the foam it indicates a false low level to the level controller
and the oil outlet valve will close. This can result in the carry-over of liquids with
the gas stream and a possible shutdown of the gas facilities downstream.

The problem

Foaming in a separating vessel is a threefold problem and may be outlined as

follows:

1. Mechanical control of liquid level is aggravated because any control device

must deal with essentially three instead of two phases.

2. Foam has a large volume-to-weight ratio. Therefore, it occupies more than its
appropriate share of vessel space, which would otherwise be available to allow
minimum gas and oil velocities.

3. In an uncontrolled foam bank, it becomes impossible to remove separated gas

or degassed oil from the vessel without entraining some of the foamy material
in either the liquid or gas.

Information concerning the general characteristics of foam within separators is of

little value, since the vessels contain no windows or ports to inspect the interior.
However, information on characteristics of foaming liquids may be compared with

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respect to known oil-gas separation results and predictions within given vessels can
be derived.

To stop this happening, anti-foam agents are often injected into the inlet stream to
prevent foaming.

Use of a Foam Comparator

Comparison of foaming tendencies of a known oil to new one about which no

operational information is known can be made on the basis of observations in a foam
comparator. The results provide comparison of the relative foam problem, which
may be expected with the new oil as weighed against the known oil production.
Then a related amount of adjustment can be made in the design parameters, as
compared to those found satisfactory for the known case.

It should be noted that the amount of foam varies with pressure levels between which
gas is liberated and also with the characteristics of the liquid at separator conditions.
Therefore, comparators do not take into account all function of foam formation.
Though no measure of quantitative foaming effect can be taken into account,
qualitative comparisons of two different crude or two conditions of one crude are
most valuable in separator application decisions. In some cases, the effects of
temperature may be found to be quite spectacular and frequently is overlooked in the
design of separators for foaming conditions. The influence of this effect can be
evaluated by use of a foam comparator.

Results of a foam comparator test will allow a manufacturer to design the internals of
the separator to most efficiently process the foam by breaking it into its gaseous and
liquid phases before it leaves the separator.

Depressants

Foam depressants are available that often will do a good job in increeasing the
capacity of a given separator. However, in sizing a separator to handle a particular
crude, the use of an effective depressant should not be assumed as charateristics of
the crude and the foam may change during the life of the field. Sufficient capacity
should be provided in the separator to handle the anticipated production without use
of a foam depressant inhibitor. Once in operation, use of a foam depressant may
allow more throughput than the design capacity. This is valuable in expansion
programs. To anticipate this effect, it is a good idea to oversize lines and valves
entering and leaving a separator.

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3.10.2 Paraffin

Separator operation can be adversely affected by an accumulation of paraffin. Mist

extractors, in particular, are prone to malfunction by accumulations of paraffin.
Where it is determined that paraffin is an actual or potential problem, use of a type of
mist extractor prone to plugging should be avoided; and manways, handholes and
nozzles shoud be provided to allow steam, solvent or other type of cleaning of the
separator internals.

3.10.3 Sand

Sand can be very troublesome in separators. These difficulties are evidenced mainly
by cut-out of valve trim, plugging of separator internals and accumulation in the
bottom of equipment. Special hard trim can minimize effects of sand on the valve.
Accumulations of sand can be alleviated by the inclusion of jets for injection of
water, steam or possibly a side stream of the production periodically into the bottom
of the vessel.

Plugging of separator intermals is a problem that must be given considerable

consideration in the design of the separator. A design that will promote good
separation and have a minimum of traps for sand accumulation may be difficult to
attain. The design that provides the best mechanism for separating the gas and oil
phases probably will provide areas for sand accumulation. A practical balance of
these factors is the best solution, and the experience of a separator manufacturer is
invaluble in providing a workable solution to the problem.

3.10.4 Emulsions

A common operating problem is that caused by the water and oil forming an
emulsion.

This is a mixture of two immiscible liquids where one of the liquids is dispersed
throughout the other in the form of very small droplets. In the oilfield, the dispersed
liquid is usually the water.

An emulsion may be classed as 'tight' or 'loose'. Milk is a tight emulsion. It is a

mixture of butter fats and water and it cannot be easily broken.

Salad dressing is a loose emulsion. It is a mixture of oil and vinegar. When you
shake the bottle an emulsion forms and the small globules of oil and vinegar can be
seen with the naked eye. If you let the bottle stand for a few minutes the emulsion
will break down and the oil will begin to float on the top of the vinegar.

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If emulsions are found in a separation process they may be tight or loose. The type
will depend, for example, on the nature of the oil being produced and the amount of
water present.

If a stable emulsion has been formed betwwen the oil and water phases upstream of
the separator or in the vessel, separation of these phases is not practical. The
combined water and oil stream must be removed from the separator and routed to
other equipmnt for separation into two phases. This separation usually can be
accomplished in a conventional treater.

When emulsion tendencies are present, the settling time required to achieve an
acceptable separation of oil and water may be longer than that required to adequatly
clean the gas in any vessel configuration. In this case, it will be necessary to remove
the water and oil phases from the vessel and route them to another separator for
further processing. Frequently, it is possible to appreciably lower the settling time
necessary for water-oil separation by application of heat in the liquid section of the
separator.

Over a period of time an accumulation of emulsified material and /or other impurities
usually will form at the interface of the water and oil phases. In addition to adverse
effects on the liquid level control, this occurrence will also decrease the liquid
settling time in the separator with a resultant decrease in water-oil separation
efficiency,however, in some cases, the emulsion can be treated in the separator itself.
This involves the injection of a chemical into the well fluids. This chemical, which
is called a demulsifier, helps to break down the emulsion and allows the separator to
do its job.

3.10.5 Slugging

Slugging occurs when, for some reason or another, there is an intermittent, rather
than a constant, flow of well fluids into the separator. In some instances the flow may
cease altogether for a few seconds and then a slug will arrive.

This intermittent flow can cause rapid fluctuations in separator levels and pressures.
The controllers react to these changes by rapidly opening and closing their respective
valves in an attempt to bring the situation under control. In severe cases the control
system may become unstable resulting in a shutdown.

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