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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications

This document provides information about the International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications (IJSRP). It includes: 1) IJSRP is an online and print monthly journal that publishes research papers under the ISSN 2250-3153. 2) The journal has both an online version available at www.ijsrp.org/e-journal.html and a print version available at www.ijsrp.org/print-journal.html. 3) Authors retain sole ownership and responsibility for their published research papers. Readers should contact the authors directly with any questions about research subjects or matters.

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540 views689 pages

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications

This document provides information about the International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications (IJSRP). It includes: 1) IJSRP is an online and print monthly journal that publishes research papers under the ISSN 2250-3153. 2) The journal has both an online version available at www.ijsrp.org/e-journal.html and a print version available at www.ijsrp.org/print-journal.html. 3) Authors retain sole ownership and responsibility for their published research papers. Readers should contact the authors directly with any questions about research subjects or matters.

Uploaded by

JUAN CARLOS AHUACTZIN DIAZ
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 689

January 2014

Online Print Version

International Journal of Scientific


and Research Publications

Print Version, Volume 4, Issue 1


January 2014 Edition
ISSN 2250-3153

IJSRP
www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 1
ISSN 2250-3153

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications


GENERAL INFORMAION:
IJSRP, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications publish monthly journal under ISSN
2250-3153.

ONLINE VERSION
http://www.ijsrp.org/e-journal.html

PRINT VERSION
http://www.ijsrp.org/print-journal.html

All the respective authors are the sole owner and responsible of published research and research papers
are published after full consent of respective author or co-author(s).
For any discussion on research subject or research matter, the reader should directly contact to
undersigned authors.

COPYRIGHT
Copyright©2014 IJSRP.ORG

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or
otherwise, except as described below, without the permission in writing of the Publisher.
Copying of articles is not permitted except for personal and internal use, to the extent permitted by
national copyright law, or under the terms of a license issued by the national Reproduction Rights
Organization.

All the published research can be referenced by readers/scholars/researchers in their further research with
proper citation given to original authors.

DISCLAIMER
Statements and opinions expressed in the published papers are those of the individual contributors and not
the statements and opinion of IJSRP. We assumes no responsibility or liability for any damage or injury
to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained
herein. We expressly disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular
purpose. If expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.

Contact Information:
Editor: [email protected]
Website: http://www.ijsrp.org

www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 2
ISSN 2250-3153

Table of Contents
THE INFLENCE OF PRINCIPALS’ LEADERSHIP STYLES ON SCHOOL TEACHERS’ JOB
SATISFACTION – STUDY OF SECONDRY SCHOOL IN JAFFNA DISTRICT ............................................. 8
Thusyanthini Nadarasa ............................................................................................................................ 8
Ravivathani Thuraisingam ...................................................................................................................... 8
USING ONTOLOGIES FOR KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT: ASSESSING TECHNOLOGY
APPLICATIONS WITHIN AN ORGANISATION ............................................................................................ 14
Bernard, Igoche ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Culturing Cellulolytic Fungi in Sea Water ........................................................................................................... 20
Sivakumaran Sivaramanan*.................................................................................................................. 20
Mobile Monitoring and Inquiry System Using Fingerprint Biometrics and SMS Technology ........................... 26
Michael H. Indico, Luisa M. Lanciso, Ana L. Vargas ......................................................................... 26
Scientific Investigation of the Environmental Impact of Mines Using Geospatial Techniques over a Small Part
of Keonjhar District of Orissa ............................................................................................................................... 33
Mr.Sonjay Mondal1, Dr.Jatisankar Bandayopadhyay2, Dr.Debashish Chakravatry3 ..................... 33
An Ethnographic Profile of Dhulis of Cachar, Assam .......................................................................................... 40
Jhimli Bhattacharjee .............................................................................................................................. 40
Water Pollution and Public Health Issues in Kolhapur City in Maharashtra ....................................................... 43
Swapnil M. Kamble ................................................................................................................................ 43
Embedded Web Server with Data Security for Wireless Sensor Networks ......................................................... 49
Jayashri S Janiwarad ............................................................................................................................. 49
Multiple Foetal Parameters in Third Trimester Gestational Age Estimation ....................................................... 52
Dr. Manisha Bakliwal (Jain) .................................................................................................................. 52

On The Homogeneous Bi-quadratic Equation with FiveUnknowns


............................................................................................................................................................................... 56
M.A.Gopalan*, S. Vidhyalakshmi**, E.Premalatha** ....................................................................... 56
Relationship between Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement: The Case of Model School Students at
Haramaya University, Ethiopia ............................................................................................................................. 62
Aklilu Seifu Adesa1, Sangeeta Rani2, Negussie Bussa3 ........................................................................ 62
Socio-cultural and Religious plants used by BODO tribes of BTC, Assam, India .............................................. 67
Sanjib Brahma1*.Hwiyang Narzary2, Jayeeta Brahma3 ..................................................................... 67
FREON LEAKAGE.............................................................................................................................................. 78
Distribution of digestive enzymes in the gut of American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.) .................... 87
Oluwakemi Oyebanji*, Olalekan Soyelu*, Adekunle Bamigbade**, Raphael Okonji ** ............... 87
Improved Cook Stoves and Green House Gas Reduction in Uganda ................................................................... 92
Adeyemi Kafayat* and Asere Abraham** ............................................................................................. 92
A REVIEW OF THE ENERGY SITUATION IN UGANDA ............................................................................. 95
K.O. Adeyemi* and A.A. Asere** ......................................................................................................... 95
The Factors that Influenced Consumptive Behavior: A Survey of University Students in Jakarta ...................... 99
Aldo Enrico*, Ritchie Aron *, Weriyen Oktavia * ................................................................................. 99
Financial Innovation and Poverty Reduction ...................................................................................................... 105
Mohammed Avais ................................................................................................................................. 105
Effectiveness of Insecticides and Biopesticides against Gundhi Bug on Rice Crop in District Rewa (M. P.),
India .................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Dr. Amit Tiwari*, Dr. Jai Prakash Pandey**, Dr. Kalpana Tripathi*, Dr. Dhirendra Pandey*, Dr.
Brajesh Pandey* and Nisha Shukla*.................................................................................................... 109

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 3
ISSN 2250-3153

Fuzzy Controller Design of Lighting Control System by Using VI Package ..................................................... 113
*
K.Saravanan,**N.Muthu Prabhu,**B.Raja Rajeswari ..................................................................... 113
Removal of Chromium (VI) metal ions from waste water using alternative adsorbents - A comparative study 119
Sunil H*, Karthik K.V **, Pradeep H N**, Mahesh Kumar Shetty** ............................................ 119
INTELLIGENT VEHICLE TRACKING FOR DETECTION OF OBJECTS ......................................................................... 128
P. Venkateshwari .................................................................................................................................. 128
Production and optimization of cellulase enzyme by Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 4643 using sawdust as a
substrate .............................................................................................................................................................. 135
Tanuja Agarwal*, Manjula K. Saxena*, Chandrawat M.P.S.** ........................................................ 135
Synthesis and Characterization of Mixed Ferrites .............................................................................................. 138
Nawal Kishore* and S. Mukherjee**.................................................................................................. 138
Research on ADR in in-patients using Naronji's and who scale: A basic necessity for better therapeutic
outcomes and rational drug use........................................................................................................................... 143
CH.PRAGATHI1, S.MAHESH KUMAR2, CH.ANAND KUMAR3, PRAVEEN KUMAR4 ......... 143
Chemical Analysis of Leaf Extracts of Calotropis procera ............................................................................... 145
Dr. Amit Tiwari*, Sanchita Singh*, Suchita Singh** .......................................................................... 145
Effects of Resistance Training with Different Nutrient Supplementation on Muscle Strength ......................... 147
Ali Faleh Salman *, Qays Chyad Khalaf ** .......................................................................................... 147
Electrical Resistivity as a Geophysical Mapping Tool; A Case Study Of The New Art Department, Knust-
Ghana .................................................................................................................................................................. 153
Aning A. A., Sackey N., Jakalia I. S., Sedoawu O., Tetteh E. H., Hinson G., Akorlie R. K., Appiah
D., Quaye E. K. ...................................................................................................................................... 153
Packaging as an Attractive Language to Stimulate Consumer Preference on Perfume: A Survey on Young Adult
Respondents in the Area of Jabodetabek ............................................................................................................ 160
(Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Bekasi) ...................................................................................................... 160
Indonesia ............................................................................................................................................................. 160
FebiValentya*, Ni WayanAyu Lestari*, Timothy Gotama*, Suresh Kumar* ............................... 160
The Impact of Marketing Promotion through Social Media on People’s Buying Decision of Lenovo in Internet
Era: A Survey of Social Media Users in Indonesia ............................................................................................ 167
Felix Pratama Chianasta1, Sandy Wijaya2 ......................................................................................... 167
The Influence of Family Backgrounds toward Student’s Saving Behavior: A Survey of College Students in
Jabodetabek ......................................................................................................................................................... 173
Danny Firmansyah................................................................................................................................ 173
A Case Report of treatment of a 16-year old girl with Amelogenesis Imperfecta ............................................. 179
B.Vardhana1, Babu GKL2, Vijetha KR3 ............................................................................................. 179
Online Stroke and Akshara Recognition GUI in Assamese Language Using Hidden Markov Model .............. 183
SRM Prasanna, Rituparna Devi, Deepjoy Das, Subhankar Ghosh, Krishna Naik *...................... 183
A Research Study on Software Quality Attributes ............................................................................................. 189
Dr.A.Chandrasekar *, Mrs.SudhaRajesh **, Mr.P.Rajesh *** ............................................................ 189
Prosthodontic Rehabilitation of Different Clinical Situation.............................................................................. 193
1
Dr. K. Raghavendra Reddy, 2Dr. Prafulla Thumati ......................................................................... 193
Theoretical Study of the effects of solvents on global properties of 1,10-phenanthroline ................................. 201
K.K.Srivastavaa, Shubha Srivastavab , Md. Tanweer Alamc, Riturajd............................................ 201
Vijay Purbia1, Himanshu Vyas2, Maneesh Kumar Sharma3, Devashri Rathore4 .......................... 209
Germplasm evaluation in genus Carex of family Cyperaceae............................................................................ 214
Paramjeet Cheema ................................................................................................................................ 214
Child Labour - Social and Economic Realities Which Effecting Child Development ....................................... 221
Mrs.P.G.Sunandamma ......................................................................................................................... 221

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 4
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TOXICITY OF CYPERMETHRIN INFLUENCED BY PH AND TEMPERATURE ON THE FRESHWATER


FISH OREOCHROMIS MOSSAMBICUS .......................................................................................................... 224
A.PARITHABHANU* and M.DEEPAK** ........................................................................................ 224
Factors that Affect the Entrepreneurs Growth in Bekasi Region, Indonesia ...................................................... 228
Giovani Pangestu, Nicky, Pogen Fuston, Mr. Suresh Kumar .......................................................... 228
Survey on Requirements and Approaches of Business Process Repositories .................................................... 236
R.P.T.Bhagya*, S. Vasanthapriyan*, P Jayaweera** ....................................................................... 236
Vocational and Technical training for rural laborers in northern midland and mountainous area of Vietnam .. 240
Nguyen Thanh Duong*, Doan Van Khanh**, Hoa Thi Ngoc Ha***, Do Manh Cuong**** ............... 240
Directory of Open Access Journals, Music: A Bibliometric Study .................................................................... 246
Neera Bansal .......................................................................................................................................... 246
Design of Triband Miniature Microstrip Antenna with Modified Resonating Structure using CADFEKO ...... 252
Gaurav Morghare*, Poonam Sinha** .................................................................................................. 252
The Challenge of Policy Formulation and Service Delivery in the 21st Century: “Improving customer service
delivery” By E-governance ................................................................................................................................. 256
Aneri Mehta ........................................................................................................................................... 256
Effects of Demography, politics, competition & environment on business ....................................................... 263
Bhawana Miglani .................................................................................................................................. 263
Fungal-bacterial Biofilms Differ from Bacterial Monocultures in Seed Germination and Indole acetic acid
Production ........................................................................................................................................................... 265
U.V.A. Buddhika*, G. Seneviratne*, C.L. Abayasekara**............................................................... 265
A Study on the Role of Sacred Groves in Conserving the Genetic Diversity of the Rare, Endangered and
Threatened Species of Flora & Fauna of Chhattisgarh State (India) .................................................................. 271
Komal Chandrakar, Daneshver Kumar Verma, Devendra Sharma, K.C. Yadav ......................... 271
The effect of fertilization on growth & yield of rain fed Blackgram in custard apple based Agri-horti-system
with Alley Cropping Pattern on Vindhyan soil................................................................................................... 276
Hem Lal Chandrakar*, Komal Chandrakar**, Manas Ujjaini*** & K.C.Yadav**** ...................... 276
Zig-Bee and Wi-Fi based Mine Safety Application ........................................................................................... 280
Kumari Archana*, Abdul Wasay Mudasser ...................................................................................... 280
Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal Toxicity and Role of soil in Rhizobacteria .................................................. 284
Rajendra Prasad Bharti, Abhilasha shri vastava, Nandkishor Soni, Asha Tiwari , Shivbhanu more
,Jagjeevan ram choudhary ................................................................................................................... 284
Business Correspondent Model vis-à-vis Financial Inclusion in India: New practice of Banking to the Poor .. 289
Naveen Kolloju ...................................................................................................................................... 289
Captive breeding of endangered Barbs Pethia manipurensis (Menon et.al, 2000) by oral delivery of
gonadotropic signaling molecular analogue WOVA-FH ................................................................................... 296
Yurembam Motilan1, Yumnam Bedajit2 and Wahengbam Sunitibala3 .......................................... 296
A Study on Consumption Trends of Fuel Wood & their Impact on Forest in Kanker Forest Division of
Chhattisgarh State (India) ................................................................................................................................... 301
Devendra Sharma, Komal Chandrakar, Daneshver Kumar Verma, K.C. Yadav ......................... 301
Evaluation of Quality of Life Impairment in Depressive Patients ...................................................................... 304
Ranganathan Lakshmi1 & Swaminathan S2....................................................................................... 304
Case of HIV positive multiple solitary recurrent extra medullary plasmacytoma.............................................. 307
Dr. Koushik*, Dr. Shailaja, P.Jadhav*, Dr. Lata bhoir**................................................................. 307
Management System of Islamic Private Schools in Nigeria, Madrasah Da’wah al-Islamiyyat, Case Study ..... 310
Ibrahim, Alli Adelani ............................................................................................................................ 310
Fabrication of Embedded System for Dust Removal on Solar Photo Voltaic Cell ............................................ 316
Poonam R. Chaudhari*, Kuldeep Pande**, Subroto Dutt*** ............................................................. 316

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 5
ISSN 2250-3153

Physical and Emotional Symptoms Associated to Work Related Stress in IT Professionals ............................. 319
Time Stamp Based Mining in Multiple Asynchronous Text Sequences ............................................................ 324
Suresh Kumar*, Mrs. D. Saravanapriya** ........................................................................................ 324
Poisson-Size-biased Lindley Distribution........................................................................................................... 332
Mr. Tanka Raj Adhikari and Prof. R.S. Srivastava .......................................................................... 332
A Study on Laundry Workers Attitude towards Health Care Industry in Trichy City ....................................... 341
Dr. S. SUKUMAR*, V. KARTHIGA** .............................................................................................. 341
A Numerically efficient power optimization scheme for coded OFDM systems in achieving minimum frame
error rate .............................................................................................................................................................. 351
KVBL Deepthi*, V. Rama Krishna Sharma**, G. Santhosh Kumar*** ........................................ 351
Balance and Decline of Trade in Early Andhra: (With special reference to Roman contacts) .......................... 359
Dr. G. Mannepalli ................................................................................................................................. 359
OPTIMISED DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE PROPULSION ................ 367
ARYA GOWRI G. ..................................................................................................................................... 367
PRINCE A. ............................................................................................................................................... 367
Power Generation through Gravity and Kinetic Energy ..................................................................................... 372
Md.Muqtar Ahmed*, Heena Naaz** .................................................................................................. 372
Foetal weight estimation methods – Clinical, Sonographic and MRI imaging .................................................. 375
Nidhi Sharma*, K. Jayashree Srinivasan*, M. Benjamin Sagayaraj**, D. V. Lal**......................... 375
A Study on the impact of nutrition education programme conducted for adolescent girls and parents of
Changanacherry Taluk of Kottayam district ....................................................................................................... 380
Renjini M R ........................................................................................................................................... 380
Analysis on big data over the years .................................................................................................................... 383
R.Devakunchari .................................................................................................................................... 383
Heavy Metal (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Cr and Fe) Content in Almeda Textile Industry Sludge, Northern Tigrai, Ethiopia
............................................................................................................................................................................. 390
Mehari Muuz Weldemariam, Amha Woldu Kahsay........................................................................ 390
Library and Information Services in College Library of Hisar: A User Survey ................................................. 393
Neera Bansal .......................................................................................................................................... 393
Effect of Asanas and Pranayama on Self Concept of School Going Children ................................................... 398
Dr. Uday Bhanu Kundu1 , Dr. Tarak Nath Pramanik2 ..................................................................... 398
Synthesis, Characterization of Water Soluble PS-b-PEO-b-PS Tri-block Copolymers and its Corrosion
Inhibition Behaviour on Mild Steel in Acidic Solution ...................................................................................... 415
Anil Barak1, Palash Jyoti Das2, Hemlata Vashisht3, Sudershan Kumar 4 ....................................... 415
Scope of education and dropout among tribal students in Kerala -A study of Scheduled tribes in Attappady .. 423
Dr.HaseenaV.A ...................................................................................................................................... 423
Dr.Ajims P. Mohammed....................................................................................................................... 423
Phytochemical screening and evaluation of genotoxicity and acute toxicity of aqueous extract of Croton tiglium
L. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 436
Thangal Yumnamcha*, Upendra Nongthomba** and M. Damayanti Devi* .................................... 436

NONHOLONOMIC FRAMES FOR FINSLER SPACE WITH SPECIAL ( )-METRICS .................... 441
Vehicle Propulsion using Switching Magnetic(SM) Energy .............................................................................. 447
Gopi Krishna. N .................................................................................................................................... 447
How to Detect Failure Node in a Selected Network? ......................................................................................... 458
Manisha Wadhwa*, Dr.Kanak Saxena** ............................................................................................. 458
Particle Swarm Optimization Based Automatic Generation Control of Two Area Interconnected Power System
............................................................................................................................................................................. 460
Kapil Garg*, Jaspreet Kaur**............................................................................................................. 460

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 6
ISSN 2250-3153

Heart attack detection and Medical attention using Motion Sensing Device-Kinect ......................................... 468
Shivam Patel *, Yogesh Chauhan** .................................................................................................... 468
Demographic Profile of Selected Irular Tribes of Coimbatore District – Tamil Nadu ...................................... 472
Bharathi Dhevi. V.R* and Dr. Bhooma Mani** .................................................................................. 472
Employing Information Security Awareness to Minimize Over-Exposure of Average Internet User on Social
Networks ............................................................................................................................................................. 480
WorawitBinden*, MaheedeenJormae**, ZakariaZain***, Jamaludin Ibrahim****.................... 480
Decision Support System for Rapid Prototyping Process Selection ................................................................... 487
Vikram Shende*, Dr. Prafulla Kulkarni** ........................................................................................ 487
A Study of Awareness towards Environmental Education among the Students at Secondary Level in Gurgaon
District................................................................................................................................................................. 493
Poonam Sindhu* and Suman Singh** .................................................................................................. 493
Diphenyl Sulphide as Corrosion Inhibitor for Zinc Metal in Acid Solutions ..................................................... 497
A.Pasupathy1*, S.Nirmala1, P.Sakthivel2, G.Abirami1 and M.Raja1 ................................................ 497
Reactive Blue Dye as a Novel Corrosion Inhibitor for Zinc Metal in Acidic Solutions .................................... 500
A.Pasupathy1*, S.Nirmala1, P.Sakthivel2, G.Abirami1 and M.Raja1 ................................................ 500
Inhibitive Action of Solanum Nigrum Extract on the Corrosion of Zinc in 0.5N HCl Medium ........................ 503
A.Pasupathy1*, S.Nirmala1, P.Sakthivel2, G.Abirami1 and M.Raja1 ................................................ 503
Cerebroprotein Hyodrolysate in Extra-Pontine Myelinosis – A Case Report .................................................... 507
Sagar Karia1, Radhika Majlikar1, Avinash De Sousa2, Nilesh Shah3 .............................................. 507
Influence of Promotional Mix and Price on Customer Buying Decision toward Fast Food sector: A survey on
University Students in Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Bekasi)Indonesia ............................. 509
Christina Sagala*, Mila Destriani*, Ulffa Karina Putri*, Suresh Kumar* .................................... 509
A Prominent Analysis on Head Phantom Image using Correlation Coefficient ................................................ 517
Omveer*, Vinith Chauhan** ................................................................................................................. 517
REVIEW OF CHALLENGES AND STANDARD RESEARCH CONTRIBUTION IN OPTICAL NETWORKS .......................... 523
KAVITHA G.R ......................................................................................................................................... 523
DR. INDUMATHI T.S ............................................................................................................................... 523
Design of Automated Hotline Maintenance Robot Using Haptic Technology .................................................. 533
P Vishnu Chithamacharyulu, D Phani Sashanka, G Uday Kiran, Ch. Priyanka ........................... 533
E-Recruitment & E- Human Resource Management Challenges in the Flat World: A Case Study of Indian
Banking Industry (With Special Reference to ICICI Bank, Jaipur) ................................................................... 539
*
Dr. Ankita Jain, **Ankita Goyal ......................................................................................................... 539
IMPACT OF WORK ENVIRONMENT ON JOB SATISFACTION ............................................................... 547
*Dr Ruchi Jain ...................................................................................................................................... 547
**Surinder Kaur ................................................................................................................................... 547
A Survey of routing protocol LEACH for WSN ................................................................................................ 555
Bhakti Parmar*, Jayesh Munjani**, Jemish Meisuria***, Ajay Singh**** .................................. 555
Understanding the Cloud: Towards a Suitable Cloud Service............................................................................ 561
Huda S. Alrowaihi................................................................................................................................. 561
Physiological Analysis of Groundnut (Arachis hypogae L.) Genotypes ............................................................ 567
Miss.V. M. Dharanguttikar, Miss.V.H.Borkar .................................................................................. 567
Evaluation of Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Genotypes for Physiological Traits....................................... 577
Miss.V. H. Borkar, Miss.V.M.Dharanguttikar .................................................................................. 577
Resource Constrained Leader Election Scheme for Intrusion Detection in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks ............ 585
K.Prabha*, B.Kavi Priya**, Dr.S.Sukumaran*** ................................................................................ 585
Performance evaluation of the CMOS Full adders in TDK 90 nm Technology ................................................ 589
G. Divya*, B. Subbarami Reddy**, P. Bhagyalakshmi*** ............................................................... 589

www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 7
ISSN 2250-3153

MATLAB based Image Editing and Color Detection ........................................................................................ 594


Raquib Buksh1, Soumyajit Routh2, Parthib Mitra3, Subhajit Banik4, Abhishek Mallik5, Sauvik
Das Gupta6 ............................................................................................................................................. 594
Implementation of MATLAB based object detection technique on Arduino Board and iROBOT CREATE ... 603
Raquib Buksh1, Soumyajit Routh2, Parthib Mitra3, Subhajit Banik4, Abhishek Mallik5, Sauvik
Das Gupta6 ............................................................................................................................................. 603
Influence of Fine Aggregate Particle Size and Fly-ash on the Compressive Strength of Mortar for SCC ........ 610
Er. Gupta Ankush, Dr. Chandak Rajeev and Er. Koshta M.K. ....................................................... 610
Quality Teaching & Higher Education System in India ..................................................................................... 616
Nand kishor Soni *, Teerath Prasad Patel** ........................................................................................ 616
ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY AND TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................... 620
Nand kishor Soni ................................................................................................................................... 620
Teerath Prasad Patel ............................................................................................................................ 620
QR Based Advanced Authentication for all Hardware Platforms ...................................................................... 625
Dipika Sonawane*, Madhuri Upadhye**, Priyanka Bhogade**, Prof. Sanchika Bajpai.............. 625
Informal Economy as a Source of Livelihood in Zimbabwean Urban Areas: The Case of Bulawayo
Metropolitan Province ........................................................................................................................................ 630
Nkululeko. J Ndiweni1, Shirley Mashonganyika2, NonsikeleloNcube3 and Nosizo Dube4 ............. 630
HASBE: A Hierarchical Attribute-Based Solution for Flexible and Scalable Access Control in Cloud
Computing........................................................................................................................................................... 638
Sanchal Ramteke, Purva modi, Apurva Raghojiwar, Vijaya Karad, Prof.P.D. Kale .................... 638
Design of Fuzzy controller and supervisor for Load Frequency control of Micro Hydro Power Plant ............. 642
Suhas V. Kamble*, D.P. Kadam** ........................................................................................................ 642
Design and Analysis of Level Shifter in High Voltage Transmitter ................................................................... 647
S.Vaishnavi, (PG SCHOLAR), [email protected].................................................................. 647
S.Ashok, M.E Asst Professor, [email protected] ....................................................................... 647
T.Mohammed Abbas, M.E Asst Professor, [email protected]. ....................... 647
Arun Ragesh, M.E Asst Professor,[email protected] ................................................................ 647
Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala, Veltech Multitech Engineering College, Chennai. ....................... 647
Effect of Mental Imagery Training &Tratak Kriya on Stopping of Penalty Strokes in Hockey ........................ 656
Tarun Routhan1, Devender Singh Jaggi2, Gaurav Negi3 .................................................................. 656
Some Modified Unbiased Estimators of Population Mean................................................................................. 660
*Shashi Bahl, **Bhawna Mehta .......................................................................................................... 660
The Emerging Development Model in India Differently-Abled Entrepreneurs ................................................. 667
SHANIMON.S ....................................................................................................................................... 667
Dr. M. SHAHUL HAMEEDU ............................................................................................................. 667
Study of Various Plant Species Useful in Each Nakshatra for Human Society ................................................. 679
Dr. Rutesh R. Shah and Dr. R. S. Patel .............................................................................................. 679
Word of Mouth and Its Impact on Marketing ..................................................................................................... 689
Fatima Naz ............................................................................................................................................. 689

www.ijsrp.org
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 2012 8
ISSN 2250-3153

THE INFLENCE OF PRINCIPALS’ LEADERSHIP


STYLES ON SCHOOL TEACHERS’ JOB
SATISFACTION – STUDY OF SECONDRY SCHOOL
IN JAFFNA DISTRICT
Thusyanthini Nadarasa
(BBA(hons) HRM special, Advanced Diploma in Management Accounting)
Department of Human Resource Management, University of Jaffna,
Email:[email protected]

Ravivathani Thuraisingam
(BBA(hons) FM special), Department of Financial Management, University of Jaffna
Email: [email protected]

Abstract- The study was designed to investigate the effects of principals’ leadership styles on teachers’ job satisfaction. The design
of the study was descriptive survey design. For the data collection, only the primary data collection technique was used by the
researcher. Questionnaire was given to selected sample in order to get needed data.
In an attempt to focus the study, one reach question was posed and two hypotheses were formulated and tested. According to the
purpose of the paper, Stranded questionnaires were used. Answers to these questions were analyzed using Regression analysis and
Correlation analysis. Findings of this study states that Autocratic leadership has negative impact on teachers’ job satisfaction. In
addition with that Democratic leadership has positive impact on job satisfaction.
Index Terms- Democratic leadership, Autocratic leadership and Job satisfaction
Introduction
School administration is an important part of our education system. Administrators face a variety of issues on a daily basis. Every
school administrator has a personal educational leadership philosophy. This philosophy covers a multitude of areas which school
administrators will deal with on a daily basis.
Any school is only as strong as the leadership and administration that runs it. Being a school administrator or in a school leadership
position is a thankless job and one that comes with making difficult decisions. However an effective school leader can change the face
of a school and the benefits of seeing student growth.
A leader is recognized as a person who sets direction and influences people to follow that direction. Some early researchers attempted
to define effective leadership styles and to relate them with various aspects of organizational outcomes (eg,Lewin et al., 1939).
However, recently, researchers have focused on two main facets of leadership viz autocratic leadership style and democratic
leadership style. A leader is a person who sees something that needs to be done, knows that they can help make it happens and gets
started. A leader sees opportunity and captures it. He/she sees future that can be different and better and help others see that picture
too. He/she is a coach, an encourager and is willing to take risks today for something better for tomorrow. A leader is a communicator,
co-ordinator and listener.
The democratic control means aiding the dialogue, encouraging employees to contribute towards ideas, and processing all the
accessible information to the finest verdict. The democratic leader should be talented enough to converse that decision back to the
group to boost up unity in the plan that is chosen. In an autocratic leadership style, the person in charge has total authority and control
over decision making.
School administration is itself often part of larger administration units. The conditions of teachers’ working life are influenced by the
administration and leadership provided by principals, and it is widely assumed that school leadership directly influences the
effectiveness of teachers and the achievement out comes of students
Job satisfaction is how content an individual is with his or her job. Leadership styles have the impact on job satisfaction of employees.
This study also analyzed the relationship between the autocratic and democratic leadership style among school teachers.
Review of literature
Leadership provides the basis for co-operation in several ways. Good two-way communication, man-to-man personal leadership, use
of participation and creation of opportunity for need satisfaction are meant for increasing the understanding between the leader and his
subordinates of their mutual viewpoints.This increased understanding through the reactions of individual personalities promotes
favorable feelings and attitudes among them.

It has been revealed that positive leadership behavior of the principal and the decision making process have made an impact in
developing teachers’ interest on school activities, loyalty and job satisfaction (Hettige, 1996).

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To be successful as a leader, principals should identify the different aspects of his role as a leader. “Their first challenge is to reorient
headship from management to leadership. Not only do they have to assume the role of leadership, switching from implementation to
initiation, focusing on outcomes and taking risks, but they also need to adopt leadership strategies and styles suitable for hierarchical
school organization” (New Education Act for General Education in Sri Lanka, 2009).The extent to which a job gives an employee
opportunity to interact with other co-workers enhances the sense of community at work (Camman, Fischman, Jenkins & Wesh, 1983),
but the organizational climate which will pave way for such interaction is determined by the leadership style (Buckner, 1988).

According to the Kearneya, “Participative decision making approach plays very important role in employees’ job satisfaction. The
employees achieve lots of personal benefits from this approach including human resource benefits like housing provided, group
insurance, disability income protection, retirement’s benefits, sick leave, social security, and profit sharing.
Smith (1998) asserts that if the task is highly structured and the leader has good relationship with the employees, effectiveness will be
high on the part of the employees. His findings further revealed that democratic leaders take great care to involve all members of the
management.
Lewin et al (1939) concluded that democratic style of leadership is the most effective, but Smith and Peterson (1988) pointed that the
effectiveness of group leaders is dependent on the criterion which was being used to assess leadership.
Popoola (1984) defined job satisfaction as the totality of employees’ social and psychological well-being relative to job performance.
It culminates in satisfactory interpersonal relations, financial rewards, fringe benefits, training and promotion, decision-making and
free channels of communication among others. This predisposes employees to hard work and optimum productivity.

Basically, such achievements in secondary schools are dependent on two identifiable leadershipstyles namely; autocratic and
democratic leadership styles (Lunenberg& Ornstein,1991). While the autocratic leadership style appears generally self-centered and
allows minimum participation of the subordinates in decision making, the democratic style is rather people oriented and counts on the
participatory contribution of the subordinates (Mgbodile, 2004). It permits initiatives; originality and creativity in school work
operations and promotes hard work among the subordinates.

Patricia (2002) studied transactional and transformational leadership, and how the two relate to job satisfaction. The participants of the
study were engineers and technical support staff at an aerospace company. This study used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ) and Job Describe Index (JDI) to measure transactional and transformational leadership and job satisfaction. The study
concluded that transactional leadership was not positively related to job satisfaction but that transformational leadership was.

Based on previous studies we can say that there are no sufficient studies on Principals’ leadership styles on Secondary school
teachers’ job satisfactionin Sri Lanka. Hence the present study is focused on theories related to principal leadership styles and how
teacher perceptions of these styles affect their job satisfaction.

Research model

Democratic
leadership

Job
Leadership
satisfaction
style

Autocratic
leadership

Based on the theoretical and empirical literature, a theoretical framework was developed.The theoretical framework shows that the
relationship among leadership style, and teachers’ job satisfaction. A principal’s leadership style might affect teachers’ job
satisfaction. Teachers’ job satisfaction could improve their performance in the classroom. This model shows that leadership styles of
their principal influenced their job satisfaction.

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Objectives
 This study was carried out to achieve the following objectives.
 To identity the commonly practiced principals’ leadership styles in secondary schools
 To find out the significant relationship between principals’ leadership style and teachers job performance in secondary
schools

Research Method

For this research purpose, data has been collected from the selected sample. The collected data would be used to test hypothesis of this
research recognize truthiness of the research problem. For the data collection, only the primary data collection technique was used by
the researcher. Questionnaire was given to selected sample in order to get needed data. Stranded questionnaires were used.
According to the purpose of the paper, researcher developed structural questionnaire that revised from other’s inventory. It has three
parts. Part 1 of the instrument sought information on personal data of the respondent. Part two of the questionnaire is designed to
analyze leadership style and behavior. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was used to collect data on the two
independent variables of autocratic and democratic leadership style.
Here respondents are asked to mark on the following scale
1 - Strongly disagree
2- Disagree
3- Neutral
4- Agree
5- Strongly agree

In part three, job satisfaction is analyzed. Job satisfaction questionnaire was developed by west AvenidaGavita and San clemente.
5point scale was used with scores ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). High scores indicated high levels of
satisfaction.
Data Analysis Technique
After collecting the valid questionnaires, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences is used to do data analysis. The appropriate tools
will be used to test the hypothesis and find reliability. The following statistical analysis will be used to do this research properly. They
are Regression analysis, Correlation analysis, & Percentage analysis.
Research question
In this research, the main problem is that principal’s leadership style affects on teachers’ job satisfaction. Researcher clearly states this
problem from the following research question.
“Whether there is a relationship between leadership styles of principals’ and teachers’ job satisfaction?”
Hypotheses of the research
If the organization intends to keep out performing in the violently competitive environment, leadership is the most influential factor.
The objective of this research is to explore the relationships among principals’ leadership style and teachers’ job satisfaction.
Researcher learned from the literatures that the leader’s leadership style has significant influence on the staff’s job satisfaction. Thus,
this research develops hypothesis based on the research framework. Any research is carried out through hypotheses. It takes place
inevitable part. At the end, it is tested, whether it is acceptable or not. This research is conducted based on the following hypotheses.
H1: Autocratic leadership style has negative influence on job satisfaction.
H2: Democratic leadership style has positive influence on job satisfaction.
Data Analysis
Regression analysis is used to predict the value of the one variable on the basis of other variables. In this study it is used to for
leadership style and job satisfaction.
Regression analyzes for satisfaction and autocratic leadership style is given below.
ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 4067.355 1 4067.355 62.074 .000a
Residual 6421.395 98 65.524
Total 10488.750 99
a.Predictors(Constant),democratic

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ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 4067.355 1 4067.355 62.074 .000a
Residual 6421.395 98 65.524
Total 10488.750 99
b. Dependent Variablesatisfaction

The above table is used to find out the overall fitness of Democratic leadership style and job satisfaction. F value indicates whether
this model has overall significant or not. Based on the above result F value is 62.074 and its significant is at 0.000 at 0.01 significant
levels. So the Democratic leadership style is significant for job satisfaction.

Model Summary

Std. Error of the


Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Estimate
1 .623a .388 .382 8.09472
a. Predictors: (Constant), democratic

Regarding to the above model summery, R square value is 0.388. R square states to what extent Democratic leadership style
determine satisfaction level. Here there is a weak relationship between democratic leadership style and satisfaction. R square value is
also low. It indicates that only about 38.8% is explained by the variation in the score of democratic leadership style. The remaining is
unexplained.
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 7.071 5.565 1.271 .207
demo 1.958 .248 .623 7.879 .000
a. DependentVariable:
satisfaction

According to the above table, the relationship between the two variable are Democratic leadership style as an independent variable and
job satisfaction as a dependent variable and their coefficient is 1.958. The value of t-statistic of the above output is t= 7.879 with a
significance of 0.000. Since the significance is less than 0.01, it can be said that at 1% significance level. Positive linear relationship
exists between Democratic leadership and satisfaction.
Regression equation for satisfaction and Democratic leadership style is
Y= 7.071+1.96*Democratic leadership style
Regression analyzes for satisfaction and autocratic leadership style is given below.
ANOVAb
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 2369.961 1 2369.961 28.607 .000a
Residual 8118.789 98 82.845
Total 10488.750 99
a.Predictors:(Constant),autocratic
dependent Variable satisfaction

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The above table is used to find out the overall fitness of Autocratic leadership style and job satisfaction. F value indicates whether this
model has overall significant or not. Based on the above result F value is 28.60 and its significant is at 0.000 at 0.01 significant levels.
So the Autocratic leadership style is significant for job satisfaction.

Model Summary
Adjusted R Std. Error of the
Model R R Square Square Estimate
1 .475a .226 .218 9.10191
a. Predictors: (Constant), autocratic

Regarding to the above model summery, R square value is 0.475. R square states to what extent Autocratic leadership style determine
satisfaction level. Here there is a weak relationship between democratic leadership style and satisfaction. R square value is also low. It
indicates that only about 21.8% is explained by the variation in the score of Autocratic leadership style. The remaining is unexplained.
Coefficientsa
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.


1 (Constant) 72.940 4.302 16.954 .000
autocratic -1.185 .222 -.475 5.349 .000
A.Dependent Variable: satisfac

According to the above table, the relationship between the two variable are Autocratic leadership style as an independent variable and
job satisfaction as a dependent variable and their coefficient is 72.94. The value of t-statistic of the above output is t= 5.349 with a
significance of 0.000. Since the significance is less than 0.01, it can be said that at 1% significance level. Negative linear relationship
exists between Democratic leadership and satisfaction.
Regression equation for satisfaction and Democratic leadership style is
Y= 72.940+-1.185*Autocratic leadership style
Correlations
demo au satis
demo Pearson Correlation 1 -.363** .623**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 100 100 100
au Pearson Correlation -.363** 1 -.475**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 100 100 100
**
satis Pearson Correlation .623 -.475** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 100 100 100
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Findings and Conclusion


The main purpose of our study is to examine the impact of leadership style on employee job satisfaction. In this study researcher
examine the two leadership style (Democratic leadership style and Autocratic leadership style). This conclusion is based on the
selected sample. That means this, study aimed at finding the influences of leadership styles on job satisfaction at secondary schools in
Jaffna educational zone. This research studied the relationship between leadership style of principals at schools and teachers’ job
satisfaction. Leadership style is one of the main factors determining job satisfaction.
Findings of this study states that Democratic leadership has positive impact on teachers’ job satisfaction. In addition with that
Autocratic leadership has negative impact on job satisfaction. This study empirically proves that Democratic leadership style will

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increase teachers’ job satisfaction. So the principals should practice democratic leadership style in order to increase teachers’ job
satisfaction then only, they give their full effort in their service.
This research only covered the secondary schools in Jaffna educational zone. But this is a small position of Jaffna district. So when
doing research in future, attention should be made to cover large position. Hence findings of this research can be applied to all.

References:
 Buckner, J. C. (1988). The development of an instrument to measure neighborhood cohesion. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16(6), 771-791.
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 Camman, Fischman, Jenkins, & Wesh (1983) Assessing the attitude and perception of organization members. In S.Seashore (Ed.), Assessing organizational
changes. New York: John Wiley, 71-73
 Kearney,R.,Hays,S.(1994),Labor Management Relations and Participative Decision Making, Public Administration Review,54,pp.44-51.
 Kreitner, R. (1983). Management (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin
 Lewin, K., Lippit, R. and White, R.K. (1939), “Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social cultures”, Journal of Social Psychology, Vol.
10, pp. 271-99
 Lunenberg, F.C. & Ornstein, A.C. (1991). Educational Administration Concepts and Practices.Belmont, C.A.: Wadworth.
 Mgbodile, T.O. (Ed.) 2004. Fundamentals in Educational Administration and Planning. Enugu:Magnet Business Enterprises.
 Mosadegh Rad, A. M., & Yarmohammadian, M. H. 2006. A study of relationship between managers’ leadership style and employees’ job ssatisfaction.
Leadership in Health Services, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. xi-xxviii.
 Nicholson II & patriaa W. D. 2007. Leading where it counts: An investigation of the leadership styles and behaviours that define college and university
presidents as successful fundraisers. International Journal of educational advancement, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 256-270
 Popoola, D. (1984). Job Satisfaction and Employee Motivation in Institutions of Higher Education: The University of Lagos Experience. Education and
Development 4(1), 417-425
 Smith, P. B., & Peterson, M. F. (1998). Leadership, organizations and culture: An event management model. London: SAGE Publications

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USING ONTOLOGIES FOR KNOWLEDGE


MANAGEMENT: ASSESSING TECHNOLOGY
APPLICATIONS WITHIN AN ORGANISATION
Bernard, Igoche

M.Sc IT Management, MBCS, MACM


Department of Computer Science, Benue State Polytechnic, Ugbokolo - Nigeria
Email: [email protected]

Abstract- This research work deals with the use of ontologies for knowledge management and the application of technology within an
organization. Knowledge management has immense value to the organisation’s activities. It is well known that knowledge has an
immense value in all kinds of businesses and people's everyday life. The work presented in this dissertation aims to make a stronger
connection between knowledge management and organizations. The approach taken is to use ontology based knowledge management.
The study tries to propose technologies that support knowledge management activities within an organisation. In order to achieve thi,
objective, the use of ontologies for knowledge management plays very important role in different ways.

Index Terms- Knowledge Management, Ontology, Technology.

I. INTRODUCTION

O rganisations in the last few years have been looking at knowledge as a resource. They are giving such an important status to the
knowledge resource that a special type of information systems are also being developed as knowledge management systems
(Alavi and Leidner, 2001). Organisations need to acquire new knowledge and approach of managing that which will transform their
operations in a continuous fashion for survival. (Van Eijnatten, 2004; Stacey, 2003). The goal of knowledge management is a practical
one: to improve organisation capabilities through better use of the organisation’s individual and collective knowledge resources. These
resources include skills, capabilities, experience, routines, and norms, as well as technologies (Probst, 1998).

“Knowledge management (KM) is the set of activities and/or processes that seeks to change the organisation’s present pattern of
knowledge processing to enhance both it and its knowledge outcomes” (Firestone, 2008, p.17). This implies that knowledge
management doesn’t directly manage knowledge outcomes, but only impacts processes, which in turn impact outcomes.

The most common approaches to KM seem to be technology-oriented; they emphasize the explicit nature of knowledge, and tend to
interpret it as an object that can be stored in repositories, manipulated, and transferred via information and communication
technologies. These approaches are also described as the content perspective on KM (Hayes and Walsham, 2003).

Nonaka et al. (2001) suggest that socialization, externalization, combination and internalization can be used to create organisational
knowledge by means of interacting between explicit and tacit knowledge. Literature has shown that a number of knowledge
management approaches have been developed with the purpose of managing organisational knowledge, for example, the re-distributed
knowledge management framework is developed to manage organisational help desk knowledge (Leung, 2011). Other examples

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include the integrative framework that established an effective knowledge transfer process within an organisation (Goh, 2002), the
distributed knowledge management framework that allows individual knowledge workers and distributed communities to manage
organisational knowledge with the support of ontology (Pirro et al. 2010) and the distribution, interaction, competition and evolution
(DICE) model that examines organisational knowledge from an ecological perspective (Chen et al. 2008). In order to manage
knowledge, ontology plays an important role in enabling the processing and sharing of knowledge between experts and knowledge
users. Besides it also provides a shared and common understanding of a domain that can be communicated across people and
application systems.

Knowledge management is concerned with the representation, organisation, acquisition, creation, usage and evolution of knowledge in
its many forms. To build effective technologies for knowledge management, there is the need to understand how individuals, groups
and organisations use knowledge. Given that more and more knowledge is becoming encoded in computer-readable forms, there is the
need to build tools which can effectively search through databases, files, websites and the like, to extract information, capture its
meaning, organize it and make it available (Jurisica et al., 1999).

Broadly, knowledge management is a purposeful and systematic management of knowledge and the associated processes and tools
with the aim of realising fully the potential of knowledge in making effective decisions, solving problems, facilitating innovations and
creativity and achieving competitive advantage at all levels (personal, group, organisation, country and so on (Kebede, 2010).

On this basis, it can be said that knowledge management is the coming together of organisational processes, information processing
technologies, organisational strategies and culture for the enhanced management and leverage of human knowledge and learning to the
benefit of the company (see figure 1).

Technology Processes

People

Strategy Cultural Context

Fig 1. Key elements in Knowledge management (Source: Ahmed et al., 2002)

A fundamental to knowledge management is the codification of knowledge into two basic forms: explicit knowledge (i.e easily
codified and shared) and tacit knowledge (e.g experiential, intuitive and communicated most effectively in face-to-face encounters).
There is however, a middle ground. With dedicated and focused efforts, some knowledge believed to be tacit can be transformed into
explicit knowledge. This body of knowledge is the organisation’s implicit knowledge (Frappaolo, 2008).

II. TECHNOLOGIES SUPPORTING KNOWLEDGE PROCESSES


The most frequent way to present KM technologies is to associate them with knowledge processes, e.g. creation, storage and retrieval,
transfer, and application; or socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization. Studies using this approach usually adopt
a particular perspective of KM, identify a set of core processes, and list technologies that can be used to support them (Nonaka et al.,
2001; Marwick, 2001; Alavi and Tiwana, 2003; Becerra-Fernandez et al., 2004; Jashapara, 2004). Their objective is either to

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demonstrate that technology can actually support KM, or to illustrate how a particular KM model can be implemented with the aid of
technology.

Technology can support and enable knowledge management in two ways:


1. It can provide the means for people to organise, store and access explicit knowledge and information, such as in electronic
libraries or best practice databases.
2. It can help to connect people with people so that they can share tacit knowledge, such as through white pages, groupware or
video conferencing.

Prakasan et al (2007) in Holsapple and Wu (2008) conclude that knowledge management has experience sudden growth and produced
a substantial literature. They point out that there are varying definitions and conceptions of knowledge management but that whatever
view is adopted should recognise that knowledge management is of strategic importance to an organisation’s success. One such view
is provided by the collaboratively engineered knowledge management ontology, which defines knowledge management as “an entity’s
systematic and deliberate efforts to expand, cultivate, and apply available knowledge in ways that add value to the entity, in the sense
of positive results in accomplishing its objectives or fulfilling its purpose” (Holsapple and Joshi, 2004). The ontology scopes out
knowledge management very broadly as any process of generating new knowledge, acquiring valuable knowledge from outside
sources, selecting needed knowledge from internal sources, assimilating knowledge to alter the state of internal knowledge resources,
embedding knowledge into organisational outputs, and/or leading, coordinating, controlling and measuring these five kinds of
activities.

III. ONTOLOGIES IN KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT


Jurisica, et al. (1999) defines ontology as “a branch of Philosophy concerned with the study of what exists”. Ontologies provide a
common understanding of a domain that can be communicated across people and application systems, and thus facilitate knowledge
sharing and reuse (Fensel, 2000; Borst et al. 1997).

Steels (1993) in Gomez-Perez et al. (2004) states that, the objectives of knowledge management in an organisation are to promote
knowledge growth, knowledge communication and knowledge preservation in the organisation. To achieve these objectives, corporate
memories, persistent representation of knowledge and information are needed in an organisation. Knowledge management encourages
organisations to create and use knowledge continuously to gain competitive advantage. Simultaneously, it also aims to improve the
quality, content, value and transferability of individual and group knowledge within an organisation (Mentzas, et al., 2001). The
adoption of advanced technology is important to enable organisation to access useful knowledge knowledge from anywhere in the
network. However, some of the knowledge management approaches range from industrial specific, theoretical, to procedure-wise, for
example, the re-distributed knowledge management framework is developed to manage organisational help desk knowledge (Leung &
Lau, 2006). Another example is the integrative framework that establishes an effective knowledge transfer process within an
organisation (Goh, 2002). These designs are incapable of cooperating in the current distributed knowledge environment, particularly
areas that deal with organisational knowledge. Generally, the approaches are customised to suit individual organisational knowledge
management strategies and business requirements without consideration of system interoperability.

To improve inter-organisational knowledge management practice, the use of ontology is becoming increasingly important in the area
of knowledge management research. The concept of ontology can also be applied to solve the interoperation problem in the distributed

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knowledge management system environment. Ontology is defined as an explicit specification of a conceptualization, while a
conceptualization is an abstract, simplified view of the world that we wish to represent for some purpose (Gruber, 1993).

In this approach, explicit knowledge of the knowledge management system is annotated in a form that is machine-processable
metadata based on the domain or topic specific ontology (Davies et al., 2005; Mentzas et al., 2001). Using the ontology, one
knowledge management system can communicate with others in spite of the underlying system, syntax and structure heterogeneities,
thus allowing the involved systems to understand incoming requests and return the required knowledge as they are using the same set
of vocabularies. Besides, the exploitation of ontological metadata enables ontology-based searching to take place for the retrieval of a
more precise collection of knowledge.

IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY


This paper uses three case studies as overall research strategy to explore knowledge management practices within an organisation. The
reasons for using case studies as research strategy are that each case discussed their issues and viewpoints on knowledge management
practices within an organisation. Moreover, case studies allow for exploration and practical solutions for complex issues as well as
developing new knowledge and skills for research. Therefore this research use journals and other sources from various authors in
knowledge management.

V. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The findings from the case studies used for this research.
Case Study 1: A case study of knowledge management implementation for Taiwanese Information Consulting Company. The case
study states the kind of knowledge intensive enterprise, which solve customers’ problem based on customization. The case discusses
the importance of knowledge management to information consulting companies.

To the specialised consultants, they use management application software that is the accumulation of the knowledge as powerful tool
to accomplish their consulting job. The key point of management consulting is to provide the customer with value –added element.
The content of service includes collection of information, conversion of information. The objective of consulting service is to provide
customer with his experience, knowledge and solutions to customer’s problems.

The key point for consultants implementing knowledge management is knowledge and experience. The study discovered that
professional knowledge is not only obtained from outside but also from the interaction of organisation’s members. Information
consulting company belongs to knowledge-intense enterprise, and need to master knowledge and wisdom to increase enterprises
competitiveness.
The case proposed the goal of knowledge management enterprise. The expected benefits are:
1. Increase in the value and amount of an organisation’s overall knowledge.
2. Elevating the service skill of consulting and advising, customer satisfaction and transferring of knowledge.
3. Enhancing the interior exchange within an organisation and the efficiency of obtaining the knowledge.
4. Increasing the knowledge learning ability for groups and individuals.
The case proposed a modified formula as KM = (P + L + H)S, where;
KM = Knowledge Management
P = People
L = Learning
H = Handling
S = Sharing
+ = Connection

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This formula represents the knowledge management that can readily be implemented by connecting internet, learning previous
processed information and unlimited sharing.

Case Study 2: A case study of Brazilian Energy Utility Company


Case study 2 is on the utilization of ontologies in a knowledge management project conducted by one of the largest Brazilian electric
utilities active both in the production and in the distribution of energy. The case demonstrates that ontologies are, in many ways, a
useful tool in knowledge management applications and shows that their use is not limited to the development of automated systems.
The authors advocate that ontologies can be successfully used in knowledge management initiatives provided they are evaluated as to
their content.

The authors in the case study states that within the information systems realm, ontologies are generally used as system models but
their usage has not been restricted to software development. They advocate that once assessed as to its content, ontology may provide
benefits to corporate communication and therefore, provide support to knowledge management initiatives.

Ontologies made a contribution to knowledge management in many ways.


1. In the preservation of specialised knowledge
2. In IS development for knowledge management support and interoperability
3. In reaching a consensus by means of content evaluation

Ontology is an instrument capable of making a common language operational. This promotes improvements in communication in the
organisation.

Case study 3: A case study of Indonesia University of Education


Indonesia University of Education is a public university implementing knowledge management systems to increase competitive
advantage and improve the performance of the university/higher education. There are two categories of knowledge namely the
academic knowledge and organisational knowledge. The academic knowledge is the main aim for higher education, while the
organisational knowledge includes knowledge which refers to the whole business process of the institution of education in terms of
lack or excellence.

Academic knowledge framework is suggested to go through four main processes to form a culture of knowledge and collaboration.
1. Making knowledge visible
2. Increasing knowledge intensity
3. Building knowledge infrastructure
4. Developing knowledge culture

VI. CONCLUSION
The most important role of ontology in knowledge management is to enable and enhance knowledge sharing and reusing. Moreover, it
provides a common mode of communication. Technologies are now being called upon to support knowledge management and not just
to process data or information. Many advances contribute to taking information systems beyond mere data into the realm of

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knowledge. However, the key to providing useful support for knowledge management is founded on how meaning is embedded in
information models as defined in terms of ontologies.

This research has presented the findings of three case studies conducted to investigate the implementation of Knowledge Management
within an organisation. In order to build a true knowledge-based enterprise, assimilating and integrating Knowledge Management
practices into the daily work routines of organisations is important. The case studies provide useful insights and directions for which
KM can be implemented in reality.

REFERENCES
[1] Ahmed, P.K., Lim, K.K. and Loh, A.Y.E. (2002) Learning through knowledge management. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
[2] Alavi, M. & Leidner, D.E. (2001) Review: Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and Research Issues. MIS
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Culturing Cellulolytic Fungi in Sea Water


Sivakumaran Sivaramanan*
*
6/1, Dr. E. A. Cooray mawatha, Wellawatha, Colombo-06, Srilanka.

Abstract- This study aim to find the colonizing ability of collected into sterile containers and stored separately. Potato
cellulose degrading fungi which were derived from terrestrial dextrose agar medium was used to grow the initial cultures,
sources, in sea water with salinity of 34‰, which can be used in where samples were cultured by streak plate method and sprinkle
degradation of marine algal debris in order to use as fertilizer. method (Figure 1).
Algal debris is rich in minerals but due to its salt content it takes
relatively longer time to degrade by microbes. Here the fungus 2.2 Methods of inoculation
Cladosporium sp. depicted the highest activity of 64.01 FPU/ml. 2.2.1 Streak plate method
which was 20.74 FPU/ml in CBM medium on the same In order to isolate the fungi this method is best in practice. Initial
substrate; this shows their preference as well as tolerance to streak is made with the sample then all other streaks are
marine environment. While Helminthosporium sp. showed the continuum of the previous strike using separate sterile tooth peck
activity of 60.65 FPU/ml which is also relatively higher than that for each strike.
of CBM medium, activity of fungal crude enzymes was 2.2.2 Sprinkled method
evaluated in different temperature and varying pH medium, the This is more suitable for the soil samples and sawdust. Particles
optimum temperature for all given strains was 50 0C while pH were sprinkled on the medium. Well-spaced sprinkled particles
vary. would result in separation of colonies. Finally, petri-dishes were
sealed with Para film, labeled and inverted dishes were incubated
Index Terms- Biodegradation, cellulose, Fpase, fungi, in a dark place. Visible colonies were observed after 4-7days.
enzyme, sea water, halophilic, salinity.

I. INTRODUCTION

F ungi are highly insubordinate microorganisms as they can


prevail in many vast rage of environments. As in insects
presence of chitin in their cell wall gives more rigidity for their
cell surface. In addition fungal enzymes also can tolerate
considerably broader temperature variations, as decomposers
their enzymes are extracellular and have the ability to function Straw sprinkled Sawdust sprinkled
any relevant substrate. Moreover many terrestrial fungal species Figure 1: Inoculation of samples for the first time on PDA
have shown the ability to retain the same efficiency of degrading medium by sprinkle method
in marine environments; many of the species of the genera are
facultative halophiles such as Aspergillus sp. and Cladosporium 2.3 Media used for sub culturing
sp.and Trichoderma sp. [1, 3]. Even in hyper saline environment 2.3.1 Selective water agar medium
like Great Salt Lake and Dead Sea many of the genera of To separate the fungi causing cellulose digestion, a medium
terrestrial origin exists. In a study among 100 samples of water consisting cellulose as a sole carbon source was prepared. For
from dead sea 68 were positive [2]. It is also reported cellulose whatman no. 1 filter paper made of 100% cellulose was
Cladosporium sp. was found on sub merged pine at Great salt used. Water agar medium was prepared by dissolving 4g of agar
lake at high salt concentration of 290-360‰ (parts per thousand) in 250ml of distilled water. Autoclaved pieces of filter paper
which is ten times higher than the salinity of sea water used here (1cm×1cm) were used for inoculation.
and Cladosporium cladosporioides was found in dead sea After pouring the water agar medium on petri dishes, paper strips
ecosystem where salinity is 300‰ [4]. Main purpose of the work were carefully placed on top of the agar bed by a sterile forceps.
is to culture the cellulose degrading fungi from terrestrial sources After the inoculation, sealed dishes kept for 4-7 days of
in sea water and examine their enzyme activity which can be incubation. To avoid bacterial growth, antibiotic was added to
used in production of compost using the algal debris from the the medium. This made the medium more selective to fungi.
sea, since algae is rich in minerals, but their degradation is Table 1: Antibiotics and their concentrations that used in the
relatively slow due to its high salt content. culture
Antibiotic Ampicillin Tetracycline
II. Research Elaborations In a ml of stock 50mg/ml 100mg/ml
2.1 Source of fungi and initial culturing solution
Samples were collected from sawdust, straw dust and sprinkled
soil (garden, beach, Mud). Decaying wood particles and
decaying leaf collected from the surroundings. Samples were

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Final 50µg/ml 100µg/ml 0.1ml of crude enzyme of each fungus was added with 0.15 ml of
concentration in a Trisodium citrate dihydrate solution, while the pH was
ml of water Agar maintained at 4.8. Always a blank was maintained in one tube
medium without adding any fungal enzymes. Instead, it was replaced by
same volume of sterilized distilled water. Then the Whatman no.
1 filter paper strip (0.5cm×0.1cm) was added as the substrate.
Table 1 depicts the amount of antibiotics that were added for the Each tube was then incubated in 500C shaking incubator running
preparation of selective water agar medium. Sub culturing at 100 r.p.m [5].
continued until the pure culture was available.
2.6 Measuring the activity of cellulolytic enzymes from
2.4 Culturing fungi in liquid cellulose basal medium on liquid cellulose basal medium
filter paper substrate and preparation of crude The activity of extracted fungal enzymes can be quantitatively
enzymes. measured. Here the concentrations of reducing sugars (products
In order to extract the secreted cellulolytic enzymes by each of enzyme activity) were measured using DNS reagent test since
fungal colony, it is important to culture them in a liquid medium. the optical absorbance can be more accurately measured
Cellulolytic basal medium (CBM) was chosen for this purpose. numerically using spectrophotometer at 540nm.
Cellulolytic basal medium (g /250ml in distilled water) was
prepared [7]. 2.6.1 Dinitrosalicylic acid method.
Diammonium tartrate (C4HI2N206 ) 1.5 Dinitrosalicylic acid reagent was prepared by adding 1g 3, 5-
dinitrosalicylic acid in 50ml of distilled water. 200mg crystalline
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2P04 ) 0.25 phenol (optional) and 30g of Sodium potassium tartrate were
Yeast extract 0.02 added to the solution, which turns the solution into yellow
MgS04• 7H20 0.15 colour. To this, 20ml of 2N NaOH was added. This turns the
CaC12.2H20 0.0002 colour of the solution into transparent orange yellow. Finally, the
CBM medium was autoclaved and 10ml aliquots were stock was made into 200ml by adding distilled water. Stock was
transferred to sterile 20ml bottles. stored at 4°C in refrigerator, to prevent deterioration [9].
Cotton wool strips of same amount were submerged into the After the incubation, filter paper strips were carefully removed
CBM medium aseptically inside the laminar airflow. Samples from the tubes using a glass rod. Then 0.5ml of DNS reagent was
which were previously obtained from pure culture were pipetted into each tube. This terminated all enzymatic reactions
inoculated by streaking on the submerged cotton strip aseptically occurred in the tube. Then the lids of tubes were tightly closed,
by sterile tooth peck. Always a control bottle was kept without and placed in a water bath at 95-1000C for 10 minutes. After this,
inoculation. Caps of the bottles were loosely fitted to allow the tubes were immediately transferred into an ice cold bath and kept
adequate air exchange. All the bottles were incubated for 4 days for few minutes. 1ml of distilled water was pipetted into each
at room temperature (250C). After the incubation, observations tube before measuring the optical absorbance.
were made, and the liquid medium, which contains the crude Colour change in each tube was measured by using UV
fungal enzymes, was collected. spectrophotometer at 540nm wavelength. Finally, the optical
Each bottle contains the cellulolytic enzymes that were secreted absorbance readings were compared and plotted with the
as extra cellular enzyme by each fungus colony. At the time of standard glucose curve to find the glucose (product)
isolation, which is after a period of incubation it is better to concentrations [9].
vortex in slow speed in order to ensure the distribution of
enzymes all over the liquid medium. About 1ml of aliquot was From each glucose and buffer mixture, 0.1ml of solution was
taken by sterile micro pipet and placed into the 1.5ml sterile added to 0.15ml of Trisodium citrate dihydrate buffer solution.
centrifuge tubes. Centrifugation was done at 12,000 r.p.m for 15 Then each centrifuge tube was transferred into a water bath
minutes. The resulted supernatant consists of proteins that are where tubes were incubated at 50oC temperature for an hour,
mostly the fungal crude enzymes. Centrifugation is important for same as the conditions given for the enzyme filter paper assay.
the separation of fungal spores since spores could not be allowed After the incubation, 0.5ml of DNS reagent was pipetted into
in the later filter paper assay. each tube and the lids of all tubes were tightly closed. Then the
temperature in the water bath was raised to 95-100oC and kept
2.5 Filter paper Assay for 10 minutes. Finally, the tubes were immediately transferred
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists recommended into an ice cold bath for few minutes and 1ml of distilled water
filter paper assay (FPA) as the standard measure of cellulase was pipetted to each tube before measuring the absorbance of
activity. Enzymatic reactions often occur in the presence of optical absorbance, and the samples were examined for the
buffer, which helps to keep the reaction environment stable. This colour change.
is obtained by maintaining the ionic balance and the pH Colour change in each tube including the control blank was
unchanged. 2ml 0.05M of Trisodium citrate dihydrate measured by using UV spectrophotometer at 540nm wavelength.
(C6H5Na3O7•2H2O) buffer was used with the crude enzymes Finally, the optical absorbance readings were plotted against the
and filter paper strips (0.5cm×0.1cm) were used as substrate. concentration of glucose.
Table 2: Glucose concentration vs. Optical absorption at 540nm.

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Glucose concentration Optical absorption Then autoclaved filter paper strips were carefully submerged
3.35mg/0.5ml 0.766 inside the medium of sea water and inoculations were made by
2.50mg/0.5ml 0.580 using sterile toothpicks. Lids of the bottles were loosely closed to
1.65mg/0.5ml 0.378 ensure the airflow. After 4 days of incubation at room
1.00mg/0.5ml 0.228 temperature (25oC) crude enzyme extracts were assayed on filter
paper at 50oC for an hour and products were measured using
As given in the table 2 optical absorbance differ according to the DNS reagent test. Concentrations of reducing sugar were
concentration of glucose, this is ranging from 1.00mg/0.5ml to obtained from the standard glucose curve and, finally activity
3.35mg/0.5ml resulted in optical absorbance ranging from 0.228 was calculated as FPU/ml. (Figure 3).
to 0.766 respectively.

Figure 2: Glucose concentrations vs. Optical absorbance


(540nm): - standard glucose plot.
This standard curve (Figure 2) was used to find the unknown
concentrations of reducing sugars in all samples, dilutions used Figure 3: Colony of Trichoderma sp on filter paper strip
were translated into enzyme concentrations. Concentration of immersed in Sea water.
enzyme which would have released exactly 2.0 mg/ 0.5ml of
glucose by means of a plot of glucose liberated against the 2.8 Identification of fungi
logarithm of enzyme concentration was estimated. In order to identify the fungal colonies colony colour, shape,
border, and spots (if the spores are available) were recorded as
Filter paper unit was calculated according to IUPAC-FPU. As given in table 4.2. Microscopic visuals were observed under high
given below: power (40×10) oil immersion objective. Spores and the mycelia
0.37
FPU  units  ml-1 were observed so clearly (Figure 4), and the data were recorded
Enzyme concentration to release 2mg glucose and used in classification. Fungi were classified up to the genus
level by their morphological features. Classification was based
This quantitatively shows the activity of cellulolytic enzymes as on microscopic observation of mycelia as well as reproductive
given in Adney and Baker, 1996. structures such as spores and fruiting bodies, if available.
Characters used in classification were compared by considering
Percentage of saccharification of cotton wool by each enzyme is mycelial characters such as presence of septa, whether mycelium
calculated by using given formula. was branched or not, on mature colonies the presence of
reproductive structures such as sporangia, conidia and their
Saccharification(%) ={Glucose (mg/0.5 ml) / Substrate (mg/0.5 morphology, types of spore they generate, whether spores are
ml)}x 100 septate or not and position of rhizoids on the mycelium etc.

Since Whatman no.1 filter paper consist of 98% cellulose,


substrate concentration in 0.5ml can be derived as 49mg
(cellulose). By applying the product (glucose) concentration
retrieved from the standard glucose curve the percentage of
saccharification was calculated.
.

2.7 Culturing fungi in sea water medium Cladosporium sp.


Fungi samples were cultured in sea water medium using
Whatman no. 1 filter paper strips (1cm ×2cm) as substrate to
check its ability to grow in marine environment that is highly
saline. Here the CBM medium was replaced by seawater which
is autoclaved and aseptically transferred into 20ml sterile bottles.

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tolerance, It is also reported Cladosporium sp. was found


on sub merged pine at Great salt lake at high salt
concentration of 290-360‰ (parts per thousand) which is
ten times higher than the salinity of sea water used here
[4] and Cladosporium cladosporioides was found in dead
sea ecosystem where salinity is 300‰ [8]. In addition,
Helminthosporium sp. and Trichoderma sp. also depicted
Trichoderma sp. higher tolerance as their enzyme activity was 60.65 and
53.24 FPU/ml respectively, whereas Aspergillus sp.
depicted relatively lowest activity of 41 FPU /ml. None of
the sample is sensitive to the salinity of sea water.

Helminthosporium sp.

Aspergillus sp.
Figure 4: Fungal samples

2.9 Effects of pH and Temperature on fungal enzyme Figure 5: Comparison of the activity of fungi in Sea water
activity. with that of CBM.
Enzyme activity related to variation in temperature and pH were
measured separately. Filter paper assays of each fungal crude 3.2 Comparison of the percentage of saccharification of
enzyme were kept in water baths at temperatures of 370, 500 and cellulose in Sea water with that of CBM media.
600C. After an hour of incubation DNS reagent test was done.
Similarly, pH of the each buffer solution was changed to 3, 6, 8, As shown in the comparison of enzyme activity in 3.1
and 13 by adding either dil NaOH or dil HCl. Then crude saccharifying percentage of the cellulose filterpaper also
enzyme of each fungus was added and filter paper strips were resulted in similar manner. According to the results (Figure 6)
placed. Assay was incubated at 500C for an hour and products where Cladosporium sp. was topping with 2.29% in sea water,
were measured using DNS reagent test. Concentrations of which was denoted by the lowest saccharification of 0.775% in
reducing sugars were obtained from the standard glucose curve CBM medium. Further Helminthosporium sp., Trichoderma
and, finally activity of enzymes was calculated as FPU/ml. sp., and Aspergillus sp. also depicted increased levels of
saccharification compare to that of in CBM medium.

III. Results and discussion

3.1 Comparison of the enzyme activity of fungi in Sea water


medium with that of CBM.
According to the results (Figure 5), Cladosporium sp.
showed an increased level of activity of 64.04 FPU/ml
which is vastly higher than its previous observation that is
20.74 FPU/ml in CBM medium on the same substrate.
And comparatively Cladosporium sp. showed the lowest
activity among all four samples in CBM but in sea water it
showed the highest enzyme activity. This showed it may
have some preference to salinity of the sea as well as

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Figure 6: Comparison of the % of Saccharification of most active, and the result is determined by the effect of pH on a
cellulose in Sea water with that of CBM. combination of factors such as binding of the enzyme to
substrate, catalytic activity of the enzyme, ionization of the
3.1 Effect of environmental factors on saccharification of substrate, and the variation of protein structure. The initial rates
cotton. (Based on examining derived enzyme activity by for many enzymatic reactions exhibit bell-shaped curves. The
filter paper assay). most favourable pH value (optimum pH) may vary among
Environmental parameters are one of the major factors in enzymes of different fungi. In this experiment (Figure 6) the
saccharification of fungal enzymes. Mainly during the storage of optimum pH for fungus Trichoderma sp. and Fusarium sp. was
cotton humidity, temperature, and even pH of the substances closer to neutral, and for Helminthosporium sp. it is 3. It means
come to contact may facilitate colonization of fungi. However in Helminthosporium sp. prefers slightly acidic medium. For
case of temperature, there is no proved relationship between Aspergillus sp. the curve was peaking at very low pH that
temperature of colonization and optimal temperature of their showed the preference of Aspergillus sp. towards acidic
enzymes. In addition preference of such parameters by each environment.
fungal species may differ.

3.1.1 Effect of temperature on the activity of


cellulolytic fungal enzymes (FPU/ml).
The rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction increases as the
temperature has risen. Variations in reaction temperature by 1 or
2 degrees may introduce changes of 10 to 20% in the results. In
this experiment, enzymatic reaction of given fungi (Figure 5)
showed a peak at 500C by reaching a peak of 32.5 FPU/ml. This
shows that the temperature for the cellulolytic enzymes of three
given fungi was 500C. However, if further high temperatures are
tested it is possible to find the point they get denature. Normally
animal enzymes get denatured even at 400C. Nevertheless, for
fungi it is higher. It is also possible to observe the tolerance as
well as the preference of high temperature (since 50 0C as
optimum) by fungal enzymes. According to the graph, the fungus
Trichoderma sp. shows an increase in the rate of reaction until Figure 8: Effect of pH on the activity of cellulolytic enzymes
500C followed by decline afterwards. from fungi.

IV. Conclusion and related works


Based on the results, the cellulose saccharifying ability of each
fungus in sea water medium is increased. This shows the
halophilic nature of them, though the fungi are terrestrial origin
they have an individual preference as well as tolerance to marine
environment. Some of the samples are facultative halophiles
such as Cladosporium sp. and some Aspergillus sp., even though
they have no exposure to saline environment in any part of their
life cycle as they are belongs to terrestrial ecosystem their
potential metabolic activity is higher in marine environment. It is
possible to use the extracted fungal enzymes in degradation of
algal debris from sea in the production of fertilizer, since algae
are rich in minerals but due to its salt content it takes longer time
to decompose by microbes.

In a similar work done in Goa, India. Colonizing ability in higher


concentration of salt solution was evaluated by the growth rate of
the colony, and few species belong to Aspergillus sp. which is a
facultative halophile [3]. In another work a total of 17 species
Figure 7: Temperature vs. activity of fungal enzymes (FPU/ml). were screned soil samples isolated from a manmade solar saltern
in Ban Laem, Thailand, many of the isolated species were
3.1.2 Effect of pH on the activity of cellulolytic fungal belongs to genera Aspergillus sp.[6] Even in hyper saline
enzymes (FPU/ml) environment like Great Salt Lake and Dead Sea many of the
genera of terrestrial origin exists. In a study among 100 samples
Since enzymes are proteins, they are very sensitive to changes in of water from Dead Sea 68 were positive, isolated strains include
pH. Each enzyme has its own optimum range for pH, where it is Aspergillus sp. [2].

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 25
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Acknowledgement

It is my honor and perquisite to offer sincere thanks to Dr.


Preminda Samaraweera, Department of Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology, University of Peradeniya, Srilanka for
supervising this work.

REFERENCES
[1] C.J.Alexopoulos and C.W. Mims, 1979. Introductory mycology, 3 rd ED
Wiley, NY.
[2] T.I.Mbata, Sudanese journal of public health: 2008, vol.3(4), 172.
[3] Saritha. N. , Valerie. G., Shweta. N. “Isolation and salt tolerance of
halophilic fungi from mangroves and solar salterns, Goa, India”, Indian
journal of microbiology, 2012, 52(1): 22–27.
[4] Cronin, A.D., Post, F.G., 1977, Report of a Dematiaceous hypomycete from
the Grate salt lake, Utah, Mtcologia 69. 846-847.
[5] Mandels, M., Andreotii, R.C.,1976. “Measurement of saccharifying
cellulase”. Biotechnology Bioeng. Symp. 6, 21-23
[6] Imran ali, Lakhana, K., Sansanalak, R. and Kumar, R., “Identification,
phylogenetic analysis and characterization of obligate halophilic fungi
isolated from a man made solar salternin Petchaburi province , Thaland”,
Annals of microbiology B. Smith, “An approach to graphs of linear forms
(Unpublished work style),” 2012; DOI:10.1007/s13213-012-0540-6.
[7] Pointing, S.B., 1999. “Qualitative methods for the determination of
lignocellulolytic enzyme production by tropical fungi”. Fungal Diversity. 2,
17-33.
[8] Asya S. Buchalo, Eviatar Nevo, Solomon P. Wasser, Paul A. Volz, “Newly
Discovered Halophilic Fungi in the Dead Sea (Israel)”. Journey to Diverse
Microbial Worlds, Cellular Origin and Life in Extreme Habitats., ED
Kluver, Volume 2, 2000, pp 239-252.
[9] Miller, G.L. ,1959. “Use of Dinitrosalicylic acid for determination of
reducing sugar”. Anal. Chem. 31, 426-429.
[10] Adney, B. and Baker, J. 1996. “Measurement of Cellulase Activities”,
Technical report, NREL/TP-510-42628.

AUTHOR PROFILE

Sivakumaran Sivaramanan received the B.Sc. (Hons.) in


Natural science from The Open University of Srilanka and M.Sc
in Experimental Biotechnology from University of Peradeniya.
Since 2011 he is in teaching profession, Teaching IGCSE
Biology and Human biology subjects. E-mail:
[email protected]

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 26
ISSN 2250-3153

Mobile Monitoring and Inquiry System Using


Fingerprint Biometrics and SMS Technology
Michael H. Indico, Luisa M. Lanciso, Ana L. Vargas
College of Arts and Sciences
Partido State University
San Juan Bautista Street, Goa, Camarines Sur
Email address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paper described a mobile monitoring and inquiry system using the fingerprint biometrics and Short Message Service (SMS)
technology. It was specifically developed for the monitoring of preschoolers’ attendance during their schooling, which is beneficial to
the working parents. The system adopted the Rational Unified Process (RUP), Visual C#.Net 2008 and MySQL Server 5.1 database
and software development kit (SDK). The system was designed to automatically sends an alert SMS to the parents/guardians whenever
the pupils logged-in/logged-out in the system. Likewise, it could receive an SMS inquiry and sent an SMS reply to the
parents/guardians when no alert message was received after the expected time of logged-in/logged-out of the pupil. All the text
messages used a predefined content of 160 characters or less, without graphics and are local texting only. Results of the system
evaluation showed that the fingerprint scanning records an average of 93.48 % and 93.81 % accuracy for the login and logout
respectively. The average time of sending an alert message to the parents/guardians is 27.20 s while 23.08 s for the reply of an SMS
inquiry. The mobile monitoring and inquiry system using the fingerprint biometrics and SMS technology is convenient, economical
and reliable method of monitoring, identifying and/or verifying users since it no longer requires identity cards or passwords
memorization. Thus, the system could be used by the other levels of pupils depending on their monitoring needs. However, there is a
need for some innovation like designing a multiple detection and recognition using a high resolution of camera for easy use of login
and logout in the system.
Keywords: Mobile Monitoring, SMS Inquiry System, Fingerprint biometrics, SMS Technology

I. INTRODUCTION
School environment must be conducive to learning and free from any untoward incidents (e.g. illegal entry and kidnapping). As
such several strategies were implemented by the school administrators to address such dilemma. Provision of proper student
identification card, as they enter or leave the school campus was one of those strategies adopted by the school administrators.
However, based from observations, traditional personal authentication systems used personal token like Identification card (ID)
that could be forgotten, lost or stolen. Thus, it does not suffice the issue on proper identification of students.
Hence, school administrators shifted to modern techniques of authentication analogous with the technology advancement i.e. use
of personal computers, internet, swipe cards, PINs, use of password and the use of biometric finger scanning. All these, except for the
biometrics, do not meet the stringent security requisites of authentication as these could easily be passed over, lost or guessed by other
users.
Further observations showed that biometric fingerprint scanning was one of the best alternative and accepted method of
authentication nowadays. It provided accurate identification of users, track and audit records of users. It can’t be lost or stolen, no
password memorization, thus, more reliable and user-friendly. It has a wide range of application such as attendance and payroll
management, visitor management, access control, and door locks.
It was in this premise that the researchers thought of reinventing the current authentication system of school operators and
administrators. This system would provide accurate user identification, monitoring, SMS alert and inquiry which could be used by the
school administrators and the parents of the pupils. Thus, the researchers integrated the biometric finger scanning and short message
service (SMS) or popularly known as texting. The SMS served as an information transmission between system and parents of the
pupils. The system made use of wireless networks, mobile phone, Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) modem and
biometric device.

A. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM


One of the major thrusts in any institution is to promote sound environment for its clientele and its staff. Hence, a safe and secure
school premises is a requirement rather than a necessity only. Presence of any form of violence within school premises would
adversely affect the educational process and operations of the institution; students’ academic performance; and the loss of trust and
confidence of the clientele. Nonetheless, school authorities got difficulty in responding these issues.

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For this reason, the researchers designed and developed a system that would help the school operators and administrator to
provide a safe and secure environment. A system that would enable the parents/guardians monitors their students and makes an
inquiry about their pupil’s attendance in the school through the integration of biometric fingerprint scanners and SMS or text
messages.

B. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY


The general objective of this study was to design and implement a mobile monitoring and inquiry system using the fingerprint
biometrics and SMS technology for preschoolers aged 4-6 years. Specifically, it aimed to:
1. Develop an authentication system for the pupil’s entry and/or exit in the school campus.
2. Design an application software that would combine monitoring and alert system of pupils coming in and out of the school
campus through biometric fingerprint scanning and text messaging (SMS) sent to students’ parents or guardians.
3. Develop an SMS inquiry system between the school authorities and their clientele.
4. Conduct the testing of the system to both kinder and nursery pupils in terms of:
a. Biometric fingerprint scanning,
b. Text Messaging, and
c. SMS inquiry.

C. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY


The researcher is confident that the results of the study were deemed beneficial to the following stakeholders:
Pupils. Results of the study would ensure the authentication of the pupil’s true identity, promote a sound environment for learning
– thus, outstanding academic performance is highly expected. Also, students were exposed to a state- of- the-art information and
communications technology (ICT) coping up with the modern world.
Parents. Results of the study provided the parents/guardians a most affordable mobile monitoring and inquiry system which
enabled them checked and monitored their children’s attendance to school through cellular phones, provided peace and security;
checked as they would be automatically informed about the school attendance of their children. Consequently, it would promote a
strong and effective partnership between the parent and the school administrators.
School Administrators. This technology would empower the school operators and administrators in conveying excellent services
to their clientele as well as safe and peaceful learning environment to their clientele. Moreover, it would permit a creative and
dynamic tripartite interaction among the school-parents and students.
Researcher. This study would enhance the researcher’s technical knowledge and understanding on his field of specialization.
Thereby, the difficulties encountered broaden the researcher’s horizon in applying the new gained principles.
Future Researchers. This would serve as avenue for the improvement of future related studies on monitoring and security issues in
any institution of concerned. Further, this would serve as vital inputs to future researchers who may embark in the development of a
new technology associated with monitoring and security matters.

D. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION


The study focused on the development of a software intended for mobile monitoring, alert and inquiry system through the
integration of biometric fingerprint scanning and short messaging service (SMS) popularly known as text messaging.
Generally, it is consisted of a computer, biometric device, GSM modem, and cellular phone connected in the wireless network.
The system could generate automatic alert message sends to the parent/guardians as the pupils performed the login and logout in the
system. Likewise, an inquiry and reply messages could be done on the system particularly when the parents/guardian received no texts
after the expected logged-in or logged-out of the pupils. All the texts messages must not exceed 160 characters, no graphics and were
local texting only.
The system is designed specifically for nursery and kindergarten pupils from age 4 to 6 years old. However, it can be used by the
other pupils depending on their monitoring and security requirements.
This was a six (6) months study that commenced on April 2013 and ended on September 2013.

II. METHODOLOGY
This study employed a descriptive developmental method of research in the context of system development. Descriptive was used
in discussing the results of the testing phase while developmental was used during the system development. The data were analyzed
using the percentage technique and arithmetic mean after conducted the testing of the biometric fingerprint scanning, Text Messaging
and SMS Inquiry.
The researcher made used of the fingerprint biometrics for authentication or verification of pupils in the school campus. The
DigitaPersona was used as fingerprint reader to capture the fingerprint image of the pupils when performing the login and logout in
the system. The Microsoft Visual C#.Net 2008 was used to develop the system and the Software Development Kit (SDK) called
DigitalPersona One Touch for Windows SDK 1.4.0.1 was used for registration and recognition of the fingerprint images. A total of 76
fingerprint images of the pupils was stored in the database for the system’s matching and verification process purposes. When the
pupils placed or put his/her finger on the fingerprint reader, the device captured the fingerprint image and matched it sequentially on

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the different fingerprint images stored in the database. Once a match was found, the searching and matching of images automatically
stopped. Otherwise, a message prompted on screen informing that no matched found.
The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) was used in designing the software application of the system. The Rational
Unified Process (RUP) methodology was adopted for the SDLC where RUP addresses the complete software development lifecycle
wherein it was broken into cycles and each cycle working on a new generation of the software. These four major cycles of RUP are
inception, elaboration, construction, and transition.
Inception. This is the planning cycle of the system development wherein the researcher developed an SMS-based application
using the fingerprint biometrics which authenticates the pupils true identity based on his/her physical attributes. The activities included
were the identification of the hardware and software requirements in the development of the system, scope of the project (attendance
monitoring), schedule of activities (Gantt chart), and the total budget cost.
Elaboration. In this cycle, the researcher designed the requirements needed in system development. Included were the system
components, system architecture, contextual diagram, data flow diagram, data dictionary, entity relationship diagram, user interface
design, and system flowchart. These processes were discussed in this chapter.
Construction. The researcher made used of Microsoft Visual C#.Net 2008 and MySQL Server 5.1 to initially start the coding
process. Additional tools for the software development kit (SDK) were used such as fingerprint reader, webcam, and GSM modem.
Debugging and testing of the program for fixing bugs or errors of the design was also done in this cycle. Finally, the system was
released and tested as beta version thru conducting a pilot test for five days.
Transition. After the beta testing, minor refinement was done to integrate corrections of bugs and the users’ feedbacks which were
focused mainly on fine-tuning of system, configuring, installing, and usability issues. In this cycle, the researcher was assured of the
usability of the system to its target clienteles (the pupils). The user’s manual is prepared to facilitate using of the system. Screenshots
of the human-machine interfaces, simplified diagram and software installation instructions were clearly presented in the manual.
In the development of SMS Inquiry system, the researcher was used of the GSM modem (USB SmartBro) and the mobile phone
which are connected to the system. The GSM was used for sending the alert messages and receiving the text messages from the
parents/or guardians. The mobile phone was used for receiving the text messages and alert messages from the system. The content of
the alert message, text message, and SMS inquiry are in a predefined format and shown in the appendices. The system was used of the
Core.Net SMS Library 1.2 for the Software Development Kit (SDK) used in Microsoft Visual C#.Net 2008 when developing the SMS
Inquiry system.
The system was tested and conducted at San Juanico Pre-School, Goa, Camarines Sur for the biometric fingerprint scanning of
pupils thru logging-in and logging-out in the system at the school campus. The pupils were performed in the system for the duration of
five (5) days in using the fingerprint scanner on the regular classes of 8:00-10:00 AM and 1:00-4:00 PM for the nursery and
kindergarten pupils. The total number of pupils was registered in the system is 76 for both nursery and kindergarten pupils.
The researcher was conducted the testing of the text messaging and SMS inquiry using a mobile phone and the system. The
system and the mobile phone are connected through a wireless network using the GSM modem (USB SmartBro) configured to the
system. The testing of the mobile phone was used for the alert messages and text messages together with the system sent to the
parents/or guardians. The alert messages are the messages received by the parents from the system after the pupils performed the
login and logout at school campus. The text messages are the messages received by the parents from the system after the SMS inquiry
thru mobile phone. The testing was conducted for a total of five (5) trails in both text messaging and SMS inquiry.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


A. System Components
As shown Figure 1, the four major interconnected components of the system were the biometric device, GSM device, mobile
phone and database. The biometric device was used to capture the fingerprint image and verify the pupils by logging-in or logging-out
in the system for the purpose of authenticating the pupil’s identity. The GSM device served as the gateway to connect with the mobile
phone users and the system. It is also used to send and receive the text messages via SMS. The text message sent and received by the
system was stored in the database. The database recorded the logins and logouts, and saved the records of the incoming and outgoing
text messages. The mobile phone is the last component of the system. This is used to make an SMS inquiry and text messaging service
between the system and the parents/guardians.

Figure 1: System Components


B. System Architecture
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The Mobile Monitoring and Inquiry System (MMIS) is capable for monitoring the pupils in the school campus through sending
an alert message and text message to the parents/guardians via SMS (Fig. 2). The system and the parents/guardians are connected
through a wireless network. The two types of clients served by the system were the pupils and their parents/guardians. The pupil
pressed his/her finger on the fingerprint reader and was recognized by the system through his own fingerprint. This act led to sending
the pupils’ parents/guardians an alert message which was received through mobile phone. The GSM device is responsible for sending
an alert message or text message from the system to the parents. The mobile phone receives the information that was made by the
system.

Figure 2: System Architecture

C. Context Diagram
The system requires two external inputs as illustrated in figure 3. One is the attendance details (finger print) coming from the
pupils which served as the first input needed to be feed into the system which resulted to sending automatically an SMS alert to the
parents/guardians. The second external input is the SMS Request sent by the parents/guardians that the system will received upon
inquiry of the parents for not receiving an alert message that his son/daughter had already performed logged-in or logged-out from the
school. The system replied via a predefined content SMS with the following pupils’ information, name of the pupil, logged in / logged
out time and the date of transaction.

Figure 3: Contextual Diagram

D. Data Flow Diagram Level-0


Figure 4 shows the five major functions of the MMIS. These five major functions are Register Account, Login/Logout, Send
SMS, Receive SMS, and Reply SMS. The Register Account function is used for the registration of the pupils and the fingerprint image
capturing. The Login/Logout function authenticates the pupils when he/she logins or logouts in the system and process an SMS alert
message. The Send SMS function is used to send the Outgoing SMS needed to receive by the parent/guardian. The Receive SMS
function is used for accepting the request or inquiry sent by the parents/guardians. The Reply SMS function sends the text reply to the
guardian made by the system.

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Figure 4: DFD Level 0

E. Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)


Figure 5 shows the design and structure of the database that keeps the records of the pupils, fingerprint images, logs, sends and
receives text messages. The data entry in the registration, login and logout, received and sent messages are stored in the database.

Figure 5: Entity Relationship Diagram


F. Testing Result for Biometric Fingerprint Scanning
The testing of the fingerprint biometrics focused on the execution of login and logout of the pupils. The use of the fingerprint
biometrics is for the identification and verification of the pupils before sending an alert message to the parents/guardians. Table 1
shows the results after conducting the biometric fingerprint scanning. During logged in, 71 pupils on the average had performed the
logged in in the school campus. Of this number, 93.48 % of the pupils were succesfully recorded for the first attempt of pressing their
fingers on the fingerprint scanner. The remaining 6.52%, 4.53 % of which was only recognized after the second attempt and this was
due to improper position of finger . One and seventy hundreths (1.70) % were not recognized due to unregistered fingerprints.
Documentation of the logged out was also done. When the pupils performed the logged out in the system, 93.81% acceptance
were recorded for the first attempt, while 5.24% done it twice. The remaining 0.5 % are for the unregistered fingerprint.
In the actual experimentation, 29.77% of the tested pupils missed out the logouts since they already approached their parents who
were there to fetched them.

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G. Testing Result for SMS Inquiry and Text Messaging


The mobile phone is used to connect with the system and the parents/guardians through SMS technology. The parent/guardian
had regularly received an alert message from the system when the pupils performed the login or logout in the school campus. Table 2
shows the results of an SMS inquiry and text messaging. The alert message sent by the system to the parents/guardians has recorded
an average received time of 27.20 seconds after the pupils performed the login or logout in the school campus. The shortest and
longest time of sending an alert message is recorded to be 26.43 seconds and 28.41 seconds respectively. The SMS inquiry was also
documented in terms of speed of recipient. The response time of sending the text message after the parents/guardians had sent their
SMS inquiry to the system was recorded on the average of 23.08 seconds while the shortest and longest time were 16.49 seconds and
37.56 seconds respectively.

IV. CONCLUSION
The Mobile Monitoring and Inquiry System (MMIS) was specifically developed for monitoring the pupil’s attendance in the
school campus thru SMS Inquiry, and logging-in and logging-out in the system using the fingerprint biometrics and SMS technology.
The system was used of the fingerprint scanner for the login and logout of pupils using their fingerprint at the school campus and the
mobile was used for the SMS Inquiry or in the text messaging service. The used of the fingerprint scanner and the system provides
most economical and accurate identifying of pupils since it no longer requires identity cards (ID) or passwords memorization. Thus,
the system could be used by the other levels of pupils depending on their monitoring needs. Through the use of fingerprint scanner, the
system sends a reliable text message or alert message to the parents/or guardians. The system combines the functionality of the
fingerprint scanner and the GSM modem (USB SmartBro) in monitoring the attendance of pupils and sends the messages to parents/or
guardians. The system provides a convenient way of monitoring the pupils through the use of mobile phone which is a common
personal communication medium in most of the parents/or guardians today. The parents received automatically the alert messages
from the system within the country only when they are working at the office or in other places after performing the pupils for the login
and logout in the system. The system provides an SMS Inquiry for the clientele (parents, guardians) in monitoring of attendance of
pupils at the school campus. The system thru SMS Inquiry delivered the text messages using the GSM modem and the mobile phone
which are connected in the wireless network.

V. RECOMMENDATIONS
After conducting the testing, the researcher recommends for the future researchers in order to further improve the system. Some
of the following recommendations were made:
1. Develop a multiple face detection and recognition device as a replacement of the fingerprint reader for easy login and logout
transaction in the system. The system will use a high resolution of camera in detecting and recognizing faces of the pupils when
entering and leaving the school campus. The system is capable of multiple face detections and recognitions using the camera that
are uses for login and logout of the pupils and it sends automatically a text message to the parents based on the detected and
recognized faces of the system.
2. Develop a fuzzy logic application for multiple face detection and recognition in recording the login and logout of pupils.

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3. Design an embedded system for combining the use of the fingerprint reader and the GSM modem (USB SmartBro) in monitoring
the pupil’s attendance at the school campus thru logging-in and logging-out and sends a text message to the parents/guardians
using their fingerprints.

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[1] Arun S., Emmanuel K., Diwakar M., and Rajeswari R. (2013). Automated Attendance System using Biometrics with Embedded
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[2] Bhamare Mamata, Malshikare Tejashree, Salunke Renuka and Waghmare Priyanka. (2012). GSM Based LAN Monitoring and
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[4] Salameh, O. (2012). A Mobile Phone SMS-Based System for Diabetes Self-Management. International Arab Journal of e-
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[5] Sebastian Sherin, Neethu Rachel Jacob, Yedu Manmadhan, Anand V.R., and Jayashree. (2012). Remote Patient Monitoring
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[6] Sonia. (2011). Biometric Attendance Terminal and Its Application to Health Programs. Internation Journal for Science and
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[8] Vashek Matyas and Zdenek Riha. (2011). Security of Biometric Authentication Systems. International Journal of Computer
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(2012). A Biometric Model for Examination Screening and Attendance Monitoring in Yaba College of Technology. World of
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[10] Yousif Ahmed, Zeinab Abd Alrahman, Razan Saad Aldeen, Elham Altyeib and Khansaa Taha. (2013). Designing of an
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[11] Yuan, M. (2011). A Design for E-government SMS Platform Based on Web. International Conference on Management and
Artificial Intelligence IPEDR, Vol.6 IACSIT Press.

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Scientific Investigation of the Environmental Impact of


Mines Using Geospatial Techniques over a Small Part of
Keonjhar District of Orissa
Mr.Sonjay Mondal1, Dr.Jatisankar Bandayopadhyay2, Dr.Debashish Chakravatry3

1
(Sonjay Mondal, Research scholar, Department. of Remote Sensing & GIS, Vidyasagar University, West Bengal, India)
2
(Dr.Jatisankar Bandyopadhyay, Assistant Professor, Department. of Remote Sensing &GIS, Vidyasagar University, West Bengal, India)
3
(Dr.Debashish Chakravatry, Associate Professor, Department. of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302, West
Bengal, India)

Abstract- The impact of mining and mineral extraction activities been over exploited for almost two centuries, without any
can be significant on the surrounding land, water and air bodies, concern about environment.
in any operational area. The environmental degradation ranges
from localized surface and ground water contamination to the
damaging effects of airborne pollutants on the regional II. STUDY AREA
ecosystem; which need the properly designed geospatial
The study area is located between Latitude: 2152.5’ 0” to
database. The monitoring of these environmental impacts
22 0’ 0” N and Longitude: 85 22.5’ 0” to 85 30’ 0” E in the
requires a user-friendly and cost effective method to quantify the
Joda Block of Keonjhar District of Orissa. The study area is
land cover changes over large time periods. Now-a-days, it has
rough terrain but an altitude changing from place to place.
become compulsory to use the remote sensing techniques for
regular monitoring of these environmental hazards in-and-around
the mining areas. This paper provides a case study on the use of
geospatial techniques for environmental monitoring in the III. LOCATION MAP OF THE STUDY
mining areas.

Index Terms- Mining, airborne, Remote Sensing, Environmental


Impacts.

I. INTRODUCTION

M ining tends to make a notable impact on the environment,


the impact varying in severity depending on whether the
mine is working or abandoned, the mining methods used, and the
geological condition. It courses massive damage to landscape
and biological communities of the earth. The unscientific mining
of minerals possess a serious threat to the environment, resulting
in the reduction of forest cover , erosion of soil in a greater scale
Figure 1: Location map of the study area.
, pollution of water, air and land and reduction in biodiversity.
The problems of waste rock dumps become devastation to the
landscape around mining areas (Sarmaand Kushwaha, 2005).
IV. AIM & OBJECTIVES OF MY STUDY
The Indian sub continent is replete with minerals and many
states have rich coal resources. Soon after independence, India 1. To categories the study area into environmental
witnessed a spurt in the growth of heavy industries that needed zones with mining.
large amount of mining of iron and manganese. Thus the mining 2. To determine the present Geospatial GIS
operations in India began on a large scale in 1950s. Presently, in techniques.
India more than 80000 ha of land are under various types of 3. To determine Environmental Management of
mining. Minerals from the earth crust, is second only to Mineral Resources.
agriculture as the world’s oldest and important activity. Since the
history of mining is the history of the civilization from the
prehistoric day’s man has been interested about earth’s minerals V. PHYSIOGRAPHIC SETTING
wealth. The crude stone implements of the early Paleolithic The state is broadly divided into four geographical regions
period. Post Neolithic pottery, the Egyptian pyramids, iron and viz. the northern plateau, central river basins, eastern hills and
manganese in various civilizations and the modern steel age are coastal plains. But the northern plateau region comprises mainly,
all testimony of mining activities of man. Natural resources gave Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar and Sundergarh districts. The central river

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basins lie between the northern plateau and eastern hills and
include Bolangir, Sonepur, Sambalpur, Deogarh, Bargarh,
Jharsuguda, Dhenkanal and Angul districts, and a part of Cuttack
district. The eastern hills which constitute the last portion of the
eastern ghats, lie to the south and southwest of central river
basins stretching for about 250 km in northeast – southwest
direction through the districts of Koraput, Rayagada,
Nawarangpur, Malkangiri, Kalahandi, Nuapara, Gajapati and a
part of Ganjam district. The eastern hills are elevated and are
generally 900 m above sea level. (CHILIKA DEVELOPMENT
AUTHORITY, state of Orissa, 2010)

VI. GEOLOGICAL SETTING


The physical features of the coastal regions of India are a
sort of terra incognita. The coastal plains of Orissa are narrow in
the north, wide in the middle, and narrow in the south (Sinha et
al., 1971). Coastal Orissa is characterised by wide deltas. The
monsoons are a great force in shaping the shore features. The
ports on the east coast of India such as Ganjam, Kalingapatnam
and others are protected by spits. The ports owe their existence to
the projection afforded by bars and spits. The beach features Figure2: Flowchart showing methodology.
work as natural breakwaters, providing relatively sheltered
anchorage to these ports (Ahmad et al., 1972). Further, the rivers Selection of the study area and get to the all the primary
of Orissa have created large deltas at their confluence with the details. Digitized the mining boundaries by the geo rectified
Bay of Bengal. The Mahanadi delta starts its projection on north Toposheet and superimpose the Environment planning. The
east of Chilka Lake. The sediments brought by longshore drifting buffering zone is prepared in the Arc GIS software. Prepared the
from the southwest during the Southwest monsoon, and currents area of interest (AOI) from the satellite images
or drifts are arrested in the Chilka lake. Starting from east there is Selection of mine site: Keonjhar District is the one of the
a straight shoreline for about 120 km between the Mahanadi delta important iron mineral in the Orissa state. Mining stated from
and Srikakulam. There are only two marine inlets within these 1976 in along 30 years has changes in the environment and
long stretches, one at the narrow mouth (400-600 m) of the surrounding covered the pollution, so the environmental purpose
Chilkalake and the other on the mouth of the Rushikulya river. has to be measured or calculated
Chilkalake is located on the southwest corner of the Mahanadi The Division zone form the satellite images are to be
delta and connected with the sea through a tidal inlet. It has wide classified by the ERDAS SOFTWARE using. By the field
sandy beach ridges and barrier spits which separates it from the verification /ground tooth prepared map with scientific. The error
Bay of Bengal. matrices from the supervised classified image and field
verification for the kappa statistics. Calculate / analysis the
attribute of the individual classes in the satellite image. Final
VII. EARLIER WORK DONE ON THIS AREA attribute are prepared for a land use and verified the classes by
The land under permanent pasture has also decreased. the field verification, spatial and spectral matching also.
Fallow land –left without cultivation far one or less than one
agricultural year. National forest policy in 1952. Waste land
includes rocky. Arid and desert area and land put to other non IX. DATA USED
agricultural uses included settlements, roads railways industry  Primary date collected from the mining Agency(Mine
etc. Continuous use of land over a long period of time out taking Planning, local /regional maps)
appropriate measures to conserve and manage it. But the field  Toposheet have collected from the Geological survey of
work carried out between 1982 and 1986 in the Keonjhar district India in 1:50,000 scale.
of Orissa State. very little work has been done previously on the  Regional maps (Geology, Geo morphological and
pre history of this area, and fieldwork reported here ,carried out previous land use maps).
in part fulfillment of my doctoral work, here the initial aim of  Satellite image collected glcf site.
locating stone age sites through intensive exploration and then  Land sat ETM+ Satellite image (date, 26-10-2001).
making a detailed study of their associated environment and land  Google image.
use pattern.

VIII. METHODOLOGY

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Remote Landsat ETM+ Satellite XI. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR
Sensing Data image
 Eco-System Management
Google Earth image  Air/Water Pollution Control
 Water Resource Management
 Flora/Fauna Conservation and Management
Co-lateral Data Toposheet  Land Use Planning
 Social Sciences/Rehabilitation
Regional maps  Ecology
 Environmental Health
 Subject Area Specialists
X. THE ROLE OF LAND-USE So SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION is the important part
Human systems depend critically on the state of the of my research work, I highly indicate the investigation of
environment. Managing a sustainable evolution of land-use mining area with respect to satellite images and demark the
systems at the regional scale concerns various themes of vital effected of surrounding area and finally there sustainable
importance: environmental management.
Land-use/cover changes affect the hydrological cycle both
qualitatively and quantitatively by influencing how precipitation
is intercepted, evapotranspired, and retained in soils, which in XII. IMPACTS ON LAND USE
turn determines the amount and speed of runoff. Land-cover There might be a considerable impact on the land in my
change also influences local soil erosion and nutrient losses. At study area but the mining activities as there are a lot of mines in
the scale of river basins, it determines water availability and the and around this area. However, the economic needs of the local
intensity and frequency of flooding; people who are economically backward are being met to a large
Ecosystems and land in general store waste materials and extent. Considering the existing Agro-climatic conditions, in
provide critically important purification functions. The ability to future there may be very little possibility for any change in the
provide these services is threatened by pollution and land present land use pattern.
degradation due to inappropriate land use, or over-exploitation
that transgresses capacity thresholds. (Options summer, 1999)

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Above showing the Map, that scientific investigation of the study area. It has been found out that forest comprises more than
environmental impact of mines in the study area has been 50% of land use cover of the study area which acts as sink for
delineate for the purpose of transportation ,status of forest and any sort of air pollution and map (b) Above showing the features,
mining zone with respect to satellite image. but here the area can there are three type of mining located in the area.
be approached from Keonjhar town covering a distance of 56  Active Mining
KM road consisting of 7 km on NH 215 (Panikoili-  Abandant Mining
KeonjharKalta) and 49 Km all weather roads between NH215and  Discontinuous mining
Srikagutu on Palaspanga- Bamberi road. It may be due to large
scale of deforestation and vehicular movement. Similarly change The big area covered by active mining that continue
in land scape is resulting in to affecting the solar radiation thus speeded in sounding area but in mining of abandant that quite
increasing the temperature. Apart from it, reduction in green low located in the area and lastly discontinues mining has been
cover is the major reason in alternation of this. Another reason of showing the lower part of active mining.
this air quality may be because of presence of dense forest in the

Figure4: (a) Map for Mining with respect to Toposheet.

Figure 5: 18km buffer is prepared around the Joda block to delineate the impact area.

In figure4, 5 maps showing that mining map have to create


in the Toposheet to tally with satellite image and finally create
the buffer zone in the study area to gather investigation classes. XIV. IMPACTS DUE TO TRANSPORTATION OF THE MINERAL
Impact on existing environment & Local infrastructure
Major impact is Dust Generation
XIII. USE OF MINERALS  Increase in Gaseous Pollutants like SO2, NOx
The ore produced from the mines are entire sold in  Noise Pollution Control measures
domestic market and the size specification of the iron depends on  Installation of Dust Suppression System & Regular
the requirement of customer. A sponge iron plant in the stay in Water Sprinkling on haul roads
the near place. So which is managed the iron from the place. Iron  Proper maintenance of Transportation vehicles
are produced will be consumed for captive use in the sponges  Checking up for overloading of Transportation vehicle.
plant mainly for internal consumption in steel making shop.

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 Regular Air Quality Monitoring to check increment of .The increase in production in mine and other allied activities in
pollutants. the area shall have additional impact on abiotic and biotic
environment of the area (although not significant) Various
Open cast mechanized method of mining is being adopted environmental safe guards have been proposed to implement in
with the benching pattern of 6m height x 6m width. It involves the form of my study area report.
deployment of machines like Wagon drill, excavator and
development also followed by drilling, blasting, excavation,
transportation, communication, sorting, sizing blending and XVIII. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
dispatch. Meteorological data have been collected at the pre-defined
station located in the study area. Meteorological data such as
Rainfall, Temperature, Humidity, Wind speed & Wind Direction
XV. EXISTING MANPOWER have been generated as the primary data. Secondary data on
The mine is working with adequate number of management meteorology have also been collected from the nearest station i.e.
and technical personnel with the anticipated production of next Keonjhar.
five years. There is scope of further increase in the management
and supervising manpower along with the miners and the hazri
workers. Including Managerial, Skilled, Unskilled Personnel & XIX. CLIMATE
laborers. The area experiences dry to moist subtropical climate with
summer from March to May and monsoon from June to August.
May is the hottest month and December to January is colder
XVI. LAND DEGRADATION months.
Open cast mining causes various types environmental
pollution. It is predicted that the process of mining have little But the average annual rainfall recorded for the last twelve
impact on the existing ecological conditions of the project area. years (1990 – 2001) in the region is 1366.78 mm. The annual
The increase in production in mine and other allied activities in rainfall recorded during last couple of years is in the range of
the area shall have additional impact on abiotic and biotic 1200 – 1400 mm. On an average 90% of rainfall is received
environment of the area (although not significant) various during monsoon from June to August. Similarly Maximum
environmental safe guards have been proposed to implement in rainfall recorded is 537.68 mm during July, 1990. The maximum
the form of my study area report. temperature of 39.460 C is found to be in the year 1994, while
the minimum temperature of 12.70C is recorded during in 1992.
Temperature recorded from the Meteorological station fixed in
XVII. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS the study area during the study period indicates that the
temperature ranged from 22.1 to 44.20C during March 2009 to
Open cast mining causes various types environmental
May 2009.
pollution. It is predicted that the process of mining have little
impact on the existing ecological conditions of the my study area

Month Wind Speed Temperature

Mean Max % of Calm Mean (Dry Bulb ) Highest Lowest

Max Min
October 3.60 47.88 23.13 42.50 24.60 36.20 24.20

November 3.87 25.92 20.69 32.80 16.70 33.70 13.30


December 4.82 30.24 0.00 29.80 13.80 30.60 13.30
Source: District statistical handbook.

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Figure 6: Rainfall of the study area and Yearly Rainfall data in the study area.

community concern. The vibration and air blast from blasting can
XX. WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION lead to community concern primarily due to fear of structural
The data on wind speed and wind direction have been damage.
collected during the study period. Wind direction and Wind
speed play a vital role to disperse the containment of dust in the
local surrounding in the transportation of dusts. The maximum XXIII. RISK ASSESSMENT & MANAGEMENT
wind speeds recorded during the study period were 18.6 Km/hr Following hazards may occur during the course of mining
during the study period. Predominant wind direction is SW-SE. Fire hazards, Slope instability, Erosion and sedimentation,
Daily data have been collected and a wind rose diagram has been Road Accidents, Falling of boulders Blasting hazards
prepared. Following procedures will be followed for effective
management of any disaster in the mine.
Step – 1 : Identification of Disaster risk
XXI. IMPACT ON BIODIVERSITY Step – 2 : Identification of persons at risk
Impact on Flora: The floral population in the core zone is Step – 3 : Removal of hazard
very less. The lease comprises of forest land but the mining is Step – 4 : Evaluation of the risk
confined to the broken up area & hence there will be no impact Step – 4 : Control measures to be taken
on the Floral Population within the area zone. The flora is likely
to be affected as there are a cluster of mines around the mining
area. Sal, Kendu, Mahul are the most dominant species in the XXIV. ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN
forest in this region. Other plant species found are mainly 1) Measures for controlling air pollution
Sisham, Bahada, Arjun, Kusum.  Regular water spraying on haul roads. The volume of
 Impact on Fauna: No endangered animals are found dust rising from waste dump areas & ore, roads, etc. by
within the study area. But there will be some impact on the action of wind shall be checked by planting grasses and
faunal diversity in the area due to heavy frequency of the broad leaf trees. Ensuring transporting vehicles not to cross
mines in the study area. As this region is thick in forest stipulated speed. Exhaust fumes in the internal combustion
cover, animal inhabitants are also found in the regions which engines used in excavators, dumpers, dozers and other
are mainly Elephant, Bear, Jackal, Monkey etc. machinery shall be minimized by ensuring vigorous
maintenance and stringent overhaul schedules.
2) Measures for controlling water pollution
XXII. IMPACT OF GROUND VIBRATION Proper drainage system shall be done within the study site.
During mining operations vibration is generated from There will be no effluent discharge from the project site, so the
various sources like transportation vehicle, equipment & chance of water pollution is negligible. Appropriate measures
machineries etc. Blasting operation not only cause vibration but shall be taken to ensure that the surface water quality in the
also air blast. Among these, vibration and air blast from the project area is within permissible limits. Before water is supplied
blasting is most significant, as it has potential to cause for consumption particularly for drinking purpose it has to be
ensured that the water is free from any pathogens.

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3) Solid Waste Management results is show the forest and vegetation land is going to decrease
The waste generated during conceptual mining period will from previous production or planting .The total forest cover is
be in the tune of 62.292 lakhs cum, out of which 37.375 lakhs 65% in1975 (Ref. Toposheet 1975) but now we observe only
cum of materials shall be used for construction of road, Railway 45% area are under forest cover (Ref.Recent satellite image) and
siding and reclamation of quarry and the remaining 24.917 lakhs also the increased mining activity. Other part of the way is shown
cum shall be dumped south-eastern side and western side of the that pollution is so much speeded that surrounding area is cover
lease area as ear marked in the conceptual plan. This will cover by dust. So the environment is highly polluted and not suitable
an area of 20 hects. But I mention to only small part of my study for habitation. Malaria and other vector borne disease are
area. spreading in that area
4) Occupational safety and health
To avoid any adverse effect on the health of workers due to
dust, noise and vibration etc. extensive measures has to be XXVI. CONCLUSION
adapted related to safety aspect. Regular maintenance and testing The present study will be very useful in assessment of some
of all equipments& machineries as per manufacturer’s change in land use pattern due to mining activity. The change in
guidelines. Periodical medical examination of all workers by agriculture and forest land due to this activity will further help in
medical specialists shall be conducted. actually finding out the adverse effect on vegetation of the area.
5) Socio economic measures This result of study will certainly be helpful in designing the
The work, does not involve any displacement of human mining or land use management plan and conservation of the
habitation, hence no habilitation package is needed for study area which is a vital step in ecological planning .The
displacement. The activity envisages the deployment of local proposed infrastructures facility shall be of use to people of the
laborers. So, it is likely that the general economic condition of area. The roads, transportation facilities and rest sheds can be
the local people will improve. The peripheral development utilized by the community of the area. The revenue of the State
package will also improve their health and sanitation. Health and Govt. shall be definitely increasing due to the enhanced
education facilities created in the project shall be extended to production. The study area is surrounded by industries from all
villagers also. Roads development in the project shall be utilized sides. The entire project area is devoid of any endangered flora
by the villagers. Providing employment to local people will be and fauna.
the major factors for upliftment of the society.

REFERENCES
[1] K. Sarma and S.P.S. Kushwaha., (2005) coal mining impact on land use
/land cover in jaintia hills district of Meghalaya, India using remote sensing
and GIS technique.
www.csre.iitb.ac.in/~csre/conf/wp-content/uploads/.../OS5_17.pdf
[2] P. Rabade., (2008) Environment impact assessment of land use planning
around the leased limestone mine using remote sensing techniques.
[3] S.N. Paul., (1867) rapid environmental impact assessment and
environmental management plan.
[4] Directorate of Economics & statistics(2010) .Bhubaneswar Orissa
[5] CHILIKA DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY state of Orissa(2010)
Figure7: Photographs collected from different places in the [6] http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/INF/OPT/Summer99/guenther_fischer.htm
study area. [7] http://www.gocbse.com/posts/show/914257.htm
[8] www.vasundharaorissa.org
[9] http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001449/144996m.pdf
[10] http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/INF/OPT/Summer99/guenther_fischer.htm
XXV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A rapidly changing economic profile in mineral sector is
putting a two-way pressure on environmental and social changes
AUTHORS
on the ground. This is leading a two way pressure on
environmental institution. On one hand there is a growing public First Author – Mr.Sonjay Mondal, Sonjay Mondal, Research
awareness demand for better environment management, while scholar, Department. of Remote Sensing & GIS, Vidyasagar
the level of non compliance of polluted industries is increasing. University, West Bengal, India
Rapid growth in industrial & mineral sector is increasing Second Author – Dr.Jatisankar Bandayopadhyay, Dr.Jatisankar
workload for the environmental regulators to process the Bandyopadhyay, Assistant Professor, Department. of Remote
application, proper monitoring & enforcing compliance and to Sensing &GIS, Vidyasagar University, West Bengal, India
respond to large number of public complaints. The ability of state Third Author – Dr.Debashish Chakravatry, Dr.Debashish
institutions to manage the environmental & social impacts of Chakravatry, Associate Professor, Department. of Mining
mining is also lacking. Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302,
The study area showing that total coverage of the land like West Bengal, India
vegetation, forest, mining activity zone and drainage cover area
.but deeply see the total area is mining activity .that for the

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An Ethnographic Profile of Dhulis of Cachar, Assam


Jhimli Bhattacharjee

Department of Sociology, Assam University, Silchar

Abstract- The Dhulis in Barak valley are the depressed section of stickmen areas of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Madras presidency.
society who occupy a very degraded social status in the social By 1905-06 the adult laborer on the plantations in Assam rose to
ladder of caste hierarchy. They are known as duglas or dhulis, or 417,262 of which only a few thousand were local. By 1911, the
Shabdakar or badyakar . The main occupation of the community tea garden laborer population exceeded 13 million. The tea
is beating dhools or drums , a musical instrument made up of garden labourers in Assam thus became an important
wood and skin. Most of the dhulis write surname das. The dhulis demographic component of Assam.
or duglas of the district consists of mainly two groups of
populations, one being migrated from the then East Bengal and Population
other from West Bengal mainly from its Birbhum district . The The population of this community was 4013 which was 0.44
dhulis of Cachar is highly dominated by the migrants from west percent of total SCs of Assam in 1971. The literacy percentage of
Bengal in terms of its number1. this community in the same year was 15.02 percent of total SC
population. According to 2001 census total population of Dhuli
community is 6,364 , which is 0.3 percent of total SC population
I. WHY ETHNOGRAPHY? in Assam.

T he depressed community of the Indian society not only do


not have any visibility in the development map of the society
but also they are hardly known to the enginners of development.
Geographic distribution
Around 1514 Dhuli families are settled in different parts of the
Very less is known about their culture , knowledge, religious district, numbering around 8581member in its totality. As the
practices, beliefs , ideology, outlook , worldview and the main reason for the migration of this community was to work in
ethnomethodology of their life. The literature on this society is the tea gardens of Assam, all the clusters of dhulis are settled in
either hollow or blank if some one turns over the pages on their the vicinity of tea gardens of the district. They are highly
ways of producing and reproducing their social structure.. concentrated in Dharamkhal, Dudh patil , Punichhera etc. The
Barring a few, who are dominant numerically or a better of Dhuli distribution can be assesed from the following :
in terms of bargaining for their status, most of these are not  Dharamkhal : 293 families
known to academic community or development planners .This  Dudh Patil : 92 families
is highly evident in case of the community of Dhulis who have  Panichhera : 158 families
migrated from West Bengal. This made it necessary to get a  Binodnagar Tea garden : 52 families
holistic view of the life and living of this community. Hence is  Bhubandor : 63 families
an ethnographic approach.  Jaroiltola : 62 families
 Chenkuri Bagan : 58 families
 Dakhin Tilla : 13 families
II. THE MIGRATION OF THE COMMUNITY  Bishnupur : 37 families
The community came to this region out of a deal at the time  Sicooree bagan 10 famiies
of British rule. A group of Dhuli people came to this region only.  Sicooree camp 7 famiies
It seems that the people count five generations in this valley. It  Dormikhal 38 famiies
is known that the community was in a precarious living condition  Dikhush 78 families
which led them to migrate to this region in search of their
livelihood, i.e. working in the tea garden. As narrated by one The social organization of the dhulis
member of the community, there was a story of their migration The Dhuli community belongs to the depressed section of
.The story says that the British told these people to come to the lower castes of the Hindu society. Barring a few, all the
Assam , where the money plant are sown and any one can avail dhulis of the district use surname Das as is used by the many
the chance to collect money from that plant , once they come to lower caste groups like Koiborto, Patni, Namasudra etc. The
Assam. A sincere thought tells the fact. This plant was nothing community keeps its traditional values and caste rule intact
but the tea plant which is also known as the green gold of Assam. despite the change of occupation of most of the community
Important to mention here is that the Dhuli came to this part of members.
assam in a period when a number of communities many of whom The entire community is divided into clan or gosthis. The
being tribals , have migrated to the state in hordes in different size of a gosthi varies from few to 200 members depending on
phases. All of them migrated to work as labourer in the state. The the willingness of the members to continue with such large
British could keep the profit margin high paying abominably low groups. All the members of a clan has to follow different types of
wages to the laborers brought almost as slaves from the poverty rites and rituals pertaining to marriage and death and also other

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programs related to the members. An example can be given that 6) Petty assaults
if a member of the gosthi dies then each member of the clan 7) Defying the customs of caste regarding feasts etc. during
become polluted and has to go through a ritual process of marriage and other ceremonies.
purification before the main ritual of the funeral.
The governing body of caste performs all the functions that
The organizational structure of the caste administrative a caste panchayat does. The violation of caste rule is punished by
body is as follows: the body. This takes place in the form of 1) out-casting either
temporarily or permanently 2) impositions of fines 3) feasts to be
Bongeswar given to the caste man 4) apolosising to the members of the caste
Poramanik in public. This kind of practice can be understood from two
Dalal recent incidents of such violation of custom and rule. The first
Murol incidence was the defying the customs of the caste regarding
Srimukhyo feast . It was informed that the host of the marriage party did
Mukhyo not invite the caste member according to caste norm.. As a result
Kole (man) the bongeswar and other members of sashan did not attend the
marriage party, This also resulted in non attendance of the party
The Dhulis have their own Shasan or rule which they assert by other members of the caste. The marriage party remained
is more stronger and older than the Constitution of India. No one almost unattended. This resulted not only an environment of
knows when this system of administration was established, but unease and unhappyness of the family members of the host but
consider it to be practiced from the time of their forefather. The also led to an enormous wastage of food items accounting to an
shasan of Bongeswar is spreaded through out all the Dhulis in waste of a couple of lakhs of rupees. The host learned a lesion
different parts of Barak valley where Dhuli settlements are from the incident and went to Bongeswar to forgive him. The
observed. member was accepted by the fellow members for which he had
Each status is ascribed. The son of Bongeswar only to vow in front of the community that he will not repeat such
becomes Bongeswar. If there is no son of Bongeswar the position mistake.
goes to the next male member of the family or larger kin unit of Another instance of such violation was the elopement of a
Bongeswar. Similar is the case with other positions. All Dhulis girl of the community with a different caste member from Bihar.
believe in that and is very much aware of the status and role of This caused to resentment of the members of the community. A
each member of their administrative unit. In each village there is baisha was called on the request of the family members of the
one Murol and the successive positions. girl. The baisha suggested that since the marriage has taken
The role of Gyati is well understood from the falicitation of place so , there is no point to take further action .The baisha
the gyati members at the time of marriage and funerals. The asked ntimated the girl’s parents not to keep any further contact
whole body of gyati is invited by the host of the program and a with the girl and the family of her husband .
permission of gyati is taken before the feast is started. The very The caste exogamy is so highly prohibited that the violation
ritual does not start until the caste body gives blessing in a of this rule may not only lead to the ostracisation of the
particular way. Even at the time of marriage not only the bride is immediate family of the defier but also the immediate kins of the
blessed in a ritualistic way by the caste body, but also the newly kin members
arrived groom is also blessed by the gyati members.
Religion
The caste in practice As is known, the Dhulis are the believer of Hindu religion.
The role of caste panchayat is very much observed among Along with the worship of the other Hindu Gods and goddesses,
the members of the community. Each activity within the the Dhulis consider Gandheswari, a form of Goddess Durga as
community must follow the dictat of caste panchayat. Most of their community god. Though no reason behind this could be
the important decisions about the community is taken through a explored, the community considers that there can not be any
meeting called baisha. There are two kinds of meeting : baisha dhuli who do not worship Gandheswari.
and chourashi . The people are still not clear what does a The members of the community are again follower of
chourashi mean yet they can make out the difference only in different sects. Some are the follower of lord Ramakrishna,
terms of size of the population that attend the meeting. some follow the path shown by Anukul Thakur, some follow
Swarupananda , again some follow the path shown by the pundits
An understanding of the rule of caste panchayet can be made who come from Benaras.
from the writing of G S Gurhye 2 As the community came to the region to work in the tea
garden, the settlement of dhulis developed along with the
Some of the affairs that the body looks into are: settlement of other laborers migrated from different parts of the
1) Eating, drinking or similar practice with the community country mainly Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
with which such social intercourse is restricted. Rajasthan, West Bengal etc. this has an impact not only in their
2) Marrying a member of another caste or community. language, food habits etc but also in their religious practices.
3) Seduction or adultery with married women Very often the rituals are performed by the priests of the
4) Refusal to keep promises of marriage Hindustani community. As is the practice, the priest of one
5) Non-payment of debts linguistic community is usually from the same community, an

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unusual case is observed with this community which actually The present generation of the community do not show much
belong to Bengali community, but about 50 percent of the rituals interest in their age old occupation as most of them consider that
are performed by the Hindustani priests. An admixture of unrewarding in terms of money and status. It is only a handful of
Bengali and Hindustani ritual is observed in such cases when the dhulis who continue with their traditional occupation, due to the
mantras are chanted according to the Hindustani style but certain fact of lack of any other source of earning.
customs are followed according Bengali tradition. The calling of
priest from other community may be the cause of lack Social upliftment and positive discrimination
availability of Bengali priests in the immediate locality and the The community is yet to hit the strike in so far as the
growth of a tea garden culture due to a process of acculturation absorbing of the benefits of positive discrimination is concerned.
or cultural homogenization that is very often observed by the The community is yet to count ten graduates from its entire set of
scholars3. population. As is informed by the Murol of dhuli community of
Binodnagar garden, the ninety families settled over there can
Family, marriage and kinship count only a single matriculate of its total population in that
The familyof the dhulis are generally nuclear in type, garden. The Dharamkhal tea estate which hosts more than 300
sometimes extended family is also observed. The descent families , is yet to count 10 graduates from its total population
follows male line. Marriage takes place mostly through settled over there. The picture is same with all the other Dhuli
negotiation. The residential pattern follows patrilocal type. constellations.
The community has a deep sense of kinship. The In so far as the accessibility to job opportunity is concerned,
community is highly divided into clan or gosthi. In one of the the community is yet to avail it. Out of the total Dhuli population
settlement of Dhulis, namely Dharmakhal , there are near about there is hardly one percent of the Dhulis who could avail the job
25 gosthis. The size of the gosthi varies from few to even 200. opportunity provided by government of India to the
Very often the gosthi gets separated when the size becomes very underprivileged section of the society.
big and it becomes difficult for the members to follow the rules
of gosthi. This separation or break up takes place through a ritual A spatial mobility followed by occupational mobility in the
known as gua kata. It is observed that betal nut plays an new settlement in Cachar thus could not bring much change in
important role in any ritual. The invitation to clan members their lot and social standing in its starting of new life and
follow a symbolic gesture of sending betal nut along with livelihood in the region . Some noticeable changes are also
invitation letter. So when a breeach or separation of gosthi takes observed in the community. The community witnesses few
place it involves ritual where few betal nut are taken and graduates and few have started climbing up. A few are uplifting
separated in the name of two gosthis in the presence of their social status by engaging in business. The changes though
Bongeswar who is the head of all gosthi. appear microscopic but the trend gives some hope for a better
future. Though the present scenario of social upliftment is
Occupation grim, the future seems to be better to the community as is
The actual occupation of the dhuli community is to play envisioned by the members of the community.
dhools and make dhools or drums. It must be remembered that
the community came to this region in horde in search of life and
livelihood. The community is unable to estimate how many REFERENCES
members of the community came to this region at the time of [1] Das , Bhakta 1986 A Glimpse of the Scheduled Caste and their Socio-
their migtation. Many families are settled there for four or five Economic Development in Assam Omsons Publication new Delhi and
generations. After their migration most of the forefatherers of the Guwahati
present dhuli population started working in tea garden. As a [2] Ghurye, G S 1992 Features of Caste System in Dipankar Gupta Social
Stratification Oxford University Press
result they were given a land entitlement and wages besides some
[3] Biswas, Roma Prasad 1413 ( Bengali year) Borak Upatyakay Cha
facilities to get certain item of daily need (rice, oil etc) in Shramiker Sanskritik Parisar Srijan Graphics and Publishing House 1413 ,
subsidized rate. But it has been observed that due to increase p 19
of its population and gradual deterioration of the economic
condition of the tea garden many of these dhuli community have
left the tea laborer’s job and started being engaged in different AUTHORS
occupations. Thus occupational mobility of this community
makes an interesting observation. There was a first generation of First Author – Jhimli Bhattacharjee , Department of Sociology,
change to occupation of labourer. The third generation shows a Assam University, Silchar
major change where around 15 to 20 percent of them are engaged
in tea garden. Around 20 percent of them are engaged in business
and a major portion of them are engaged as day laborer in nearby
township or areas. A handful of them are found to be engaged in
government services. Around 5-7 percent of the members
practice their traditional age old occupation. The rest of the
population are engaged in agricultural activities.

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Water Pollution and Public Health Issues in Kolhapur


City in Maharashtra
Swapnil M. Kamble

Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Shivaji University, Kolhapur (Maharashtra)

Abstract- Present paper is a micro level case study of Kolhapur the quality of health is decreasing due to global warming, climate
city in Maharashtra. This study is based on secondary sources of change and pollution. The industrialization has produced the
data from different government reports, research articles from challenge of water pollution and it is affecting the public health
journals and books and internet sources. In this paper, an attempt at large.
has been made to understand the problem of water pollution of
panchaganga river due to urbanization and industrialization and
its impact on public health in Kolhapur city and measures to be II. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
taken to deal with this problem effectively. Researches have Water sustains life. An adequate supply of fresh water is
proved that, water pollution is one of the most leading causes of needed for domestic as well as industrial processes. Water bodies
public health issues and mortality. Water pollution is the have become both resources for fresh water and receptacles for
outcome of urbanization and overpopulation. Water pollution is domestic and industrial wastes leading to “water pollution”.
caused due to over utilization of fertilizers by farmers, sewage According to Chapman (1996:6), “Pollution of the aquatic
from hotels, hospitals and homes and industries in the city. The environment refers to the introduction by man, directly or
polluted water of Panchganga has led to spread some dangerous indirectly, of substances or energy which results in such
infectious diseases like Diarrhea, jaundice, gastro and fever etc. deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human
in Kolhapur city. Therefore; there is a need of government health, hindrance to aquatic activities including fishing,
intervention with the help of active peoples’ participation. impairment of water quality with respect to its use in agricultural,
industrial and often economic activities, and reduction of
Index Terms- Water pollution, Public Health, Case study and amenities.
Government Intervention. Water pollution affects water quality. Water quality refers to
the overall quality of the aquatic environment (Chapman, 1996).
The description of the quality of the aquatic environment can be
I. INTRODUCTION carried out through a variety of ways. It can be achieved through

I ndia has been undergoing industrial revolution in a big way


during the last three decades. With the recent liberalization of
industrial policy, it has got a further boost. Economic conditions
quantitative measurements such as physico-chemical
determinations (in the water, particulate material, or biological
tissues) and biochemical/biological tests (BOD 16 measurement,
of the common man will improve, prosperity will prevail. This is toxicity tests) or through semi-quantitative and qualitative
all provability ‘one side of the coin.’ The other side of coin is not descriptions such as biotic indices, visual aspects, species
very bright. The industries spend solid, liquid and gaseous inventories, odor, etc. These determinants are carried out in the
substances in to the environment. Unless such substances are field and in the laboratory and produce various types of data
effectively managed, our environment may get damaged which lend themselves to different techniques (Chapman,
irreparably. The scientific and technological advancements and 1996:7). The quality of freshwater at any point on a landscape
mismanagement of natural resources have given rise to numerous reflects the combined effects of many processes along water
environmental problems such as pollution of water, soil, air pathways and both quantity and quality of water are affected by
radiation and noise, with consequent adverse effects flora, fauna, human activity on all spatial scales (Peters and Meybeck, 2000).
human health and well-being (Shastri S.C. 2002, P.137). The Yamuna River in New Delhi had 7,500 coliform bacteria per
The environment is under more sustained threat from human 100 ml (thirty-seven times the level considered safe for
activity in the 21st century than at any other time in the history swimming in the United States) before entering the city. The
with extensive potential social and health consequences. Human coliform count increased to 24 million cells per 100 ml as the
health broadly defined, encompassing physical, mental and river picked 20 million liters of industrial effluents every day
spiritual dimensions, is highly dependent on the context in which from New Delhi. Mortality rates were thus high and life
we live. Any threat to our environmental certainties, therefore, expectancy low in those areas (Cunningham and Saigo, 1999).
has a significant impact on human well-being. Man’s health to a large extent is dependent on access to clean
In this present era of globalization has put before us some potable water. Unfortunately, not everyone on the planet has
chronic public health issues due to the industrialization and access to this precious resource. Some persons have access to
urbanization. Multinational corporations (MNCs) have been water but such water is polluted. Polluted water could be a carrier
spread all over the world. The environmental issues are more of many diseases and when it is ingested into the human system,
affecting to the urban areas than rural. Studies show that, today, it could have negative implications for human health. Persons

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who use polluted water are in danger of contracting water-borne, III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
water-hygiene, and water-contact or water-habitat vector 1. To understand the connection between water pollution
diseases. Water borne infectious diseases are those in which the and public health.
pathogen is present in water and ingested when the water is 2. To discuss how polluted water of Panchaganga is
consumed. affecting the public health in Kolhapur city.
Water-habitat vector diseases are transmitted by insect
vectors that spend all or part of their lives in or near water.
Examples include malaria and filariasis as well as onchocerciasis IV. METHODOLOGY
which has the aquatic fly as its vector (Bartram and Balance,
1996). According to UNDP estimates, more than 1 billion This study is a case study of Kolhapur city. It is a micro
people are denied the right to clean water and 2.6 billion people level study. Kolhapur city is located at 16° 42' N and 74° 14' E,
lack access to adequate sanitation (UNDP, 2006: v). In Sub- having mean sea level of 570 m, stands on rising ground on the
Saharan Africa, it is estimated that 42 per cent of the population south bank of the river Panchaganga. The river Bhogawati is
is without improved 27 water (WHO, 2004:2). The absence of renamed as Panchaganga from Prayag Chikhali, after the
improved water sources puts people’s health at risk and may confluence with 5 rivers namely Kumbhi, Kasari, Tulshi,
force them to extract water from alternative, unsafe sources, Dhamani and Bhogawati. The river flows towards south-north
exposing them to diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, side and meets river Krishna at Narsinhwadi, Tal: Shirol, Dist:
typhoid and schistosomiasis (WHO, 2001). The WHO estimates Kolhapur. The entire catchment area of Panchaganga river lies in
that as many as 80 percent of all infectious diseases in the world Kolhapur district (Study Report on Panchaganga River).
are associated with insufficient and unsafe water (Smet and Van Kolhapur city is subjected to recurring outbreaks of water
Wijk, 2002: 16). Furthermore in less developed countries borne diseases and epidemics like, hepatitis and gastrointestinal
(LDCs), it is estimated that 25 million people per year die from diseases. This is due to the fact that pollution of Panchaganga
contaminated water; three-fifth of whom are children and river is one of the most important and burning problem till date.
worldwide, every hour 1,000 children die from diarrhea related Panchaganga river gets polluted by the discharge of the
diseases (Kaufman and Franz, 1996). municipal and industrial wastewater through various nallahs viz.
According to Wolff (1999), when significant improvements Jayanti nallah (49 MLD), Dudhali nallah (17 MLD), Bapat Camp
in the quality and quantity of water are made in less developed nallah (10 MLD) and Line Bazaar nallah (6 MLD). There is no
countries, there would be about 2 million fewer deaths from underground drainage in the city and drainage is mainly by
diarrhea among children. In addition, research showed that surface drains. The drains are let into the Jayanti nallah and the
access to safe water reduced child death rates by more than 20 Panchaganga river. Municipal water supply to Kolhapur city is
percent in Cameroon and Uganda whilst in Egypt and Peru, the through two sources viz, Balinga water works having a capacity
presence of flush toilets in the house reduced the risk of infant of 41 MLD and Kasaba Bawada water works with a capacity of
death by more the 30 percent (UNDP, 2006). 36 MLD. This supply is augmented by 2
It has been estimated that 50,000 people die daily world- MLD from Kalamba water works as well as from ground
wide as a result of water-related diseases (Nevondo and Cloete water supply through private bore wells. Consequently residents
1999). A large number of people in developing countries lack of Kolhapur city are anguished by the constant threat of
access to adequate water supply. In South Africa, it has been outbreaks of epidemics (MPCB Report; 2005-06). Thus it is
estimated that more than 12 million people do not have access to worthwhile to assess the quality of the Panchaganga river water
an adequate supply of potable water (Nevondo and Cloete 1999). to study its possible environmental impacts.
Polluted water also contains viruses, bacteria, intestinal parasites The present paper is entirely depending on secondary
and other harmful microorganisms, which can cause sources of data which have been collected from various reports
waterbornediseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, and typhoid. Due of the government apart from that; books, journals and internet
to water pollution, the entire ecosystem gets disturbed. Unsafe were also used. The researcher has used recent data from various
drinking water, along with poor sanitation and hygiene, are the studies on this issue.
main contributors to an estimated 4 billion cases of diarrhoeal
disease annually, causing more than 1.5 million deaths, mostly
among children under 5 years of age (WHO 2005). Contaminated V. WATER POLLUTION AND PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUES
drinking water is also a major source of hepatitis, typhoid and It is estimated that 75 to 80% of water pollution by volume
opportunistic infections that attack the immuno-compromised, is caused by domestic sewage. The remaining is industrial
especially persons living with HIV/AIDS (UNICEF 2011). wastewater, which could be more toxic. The major industries
Almost 1 billion people lack access to safe and improved water causing water pollution include: distilleries, sugar, textile,
supply. More than 50 countries still report cholera to WHO electroplating, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, pulp & paper mills,
(World Health Organization). Millions are exposed to unsafe tanneries, dyes and dye intermediates, petro-chemicals, steel
levels of naturally occurring arsenic and fluoride in drinking plants etc. Nonpoint pollution sources such as fertilizer and
water which leads to cancer and tooth/skeletal damage. An pesticide run-offs in rural areas from the agricultural fields are
estimated 260 million people are infected with schistosomiasis also emerging as a major cause of concern. Only 60% of
(WHO 2004). chemical fertilizers is utilized in soils and the balance is leached
into soil polluting ground water. Excess phosphate run-off is
leading to eutrophication in lakes and water bodies. Adverse

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 45
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health outcomes are associated with ingestion of contaminated 2009, treatment capacity installed was only 30%. The actual
water, lack of access to sanitation, contact with unsafe water, and treatment was estimated at 72.2 % in 2008 which implies that
inadequate management of water resources and systems only about 20% sewage generated was treated before
including in agriculture. Infectious diarrhea makes the largest disposal in Class I cities and Class II towns (as per 2001 census).
single contribution to the burden of disease associated with As per CPCB report brought out in 2005, about 1, 15,000 MT of
unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene. Besides, the water borne Municipal Solid Waste is generated daily in the country.
diseases like cholera, jaundice and other gastrointestinal track However, scientific disposal of the waste generated is almost
infections are quite significant amongst the population. Certain non-existent.
diseases have also been encountered amongst the affected Urbanization can affect infectious diseases positively or
persons coming in contact with toxic effluent discharged in the negatively. Overcrowding, poor housing, inadequate sanitation
water bodies by highly polluting industries. solid waste removal and unsafe drinking water are the causes of
‘Water pollution is any chemicals, physical or biological that urban health problems. One quarter of the population living in
changes the quality of water and has harmful effects on any urban area in developing world is vulnerable to diseases
living organism that uses it.’ It often has serious effects on public (WHO/UNICEF 2000).
health.
The microorganism which is responsible for disease is Panchaganga River Pollution and Public Health Issues in
known as a pathogen and the infected organism e.g. human being Kolhapur City:
is called as host. Some pathogens like in the environment and are Report on panchganga river pollution 2009:
transmitted to humans directly. Pathogens are highly sensitive to 1. Panchaganga is one of the most polluted rivers in the
their environment. There are two main reasons for this. First, world.
their ability to survive and multiply depends on the availability of 2. Every day 90 million liters/day waste water produce in
right climate and nutritional conditions; second, to cause new Kolhapur.
infections, local conditions must facilitate pathogen’s spread to a 3. It’s capacity is only 25 million liters/day
susceptible host. Divert environmental factors, such as ambient 4. The present drainage system is 30 years old and should
climate and the presence or absence of overcrowding, clean be modified.
water influence a pathogen’s chances of flourishing and causing 5. Industrial waste water, jayanti and dudhali nails,
disease. Some pathogens thrive in warm and wet climates, while domestic waste water are the main sources of the
others only survive almost anywhere. Thus, some pathogens panchaganga river pollution.
cause disease worldwide, while others are only found in well- 6. Due to huge amount of waste water KMC got 131 time
defined areas where the local environment is favorable to their notices.
propagation. For example jaundice, gastro, malaria caused 7. 165 metric ton/day solid waste produce.
pathogens can thrive in polluted water. So, water pollution can 8. These solid waste directly go to the river because there
affect public health. is no solid waste management facility properly working
at present in the city.
Urbanization, Water Pollution and Public Health: 9. Besides panchaganga river eight MIDCs, seven sugar
Urban population (285 million) constituted 27.8% of the factories and 174 gram panchayat villages produce
total population in 2001in India. Even at this relatively low level waste water which goes to the river.
of urbanization, India still has the second largest urban 10. The causes of panchganga river pollution are industrial
population in the world. The Census of India has estimated that waste water, domestic waste water, solid waste, over
by 2026, urban population would rise to around 535 million or utilization of fertilizers, hospitals and small businesses
38.2 percent of the total population. This means an addition of like hotels.
250 million persons or near doubling of urban population in
about two decades from now with reference to 2001. Similarly, Kolhapur is blessed with the presence of Panchaganga river
the Mckinsey Global Institute projects that that India’s urban travelling along the city. However, water quality and quantity in
population will be 590 million by 2030 which would be about 40 the river is more cause of concern than pride.
percent of the total population of the country and further The river is getting polluted due to:
estimates that by 2030, the number of million plus cities will i) Mixing of untreated domestic sewage
increase to 68 of which 13 cities will have more than 4 million ii) Disposal of industrial effluent
and six cities will have more than 10 million persons. By 2050, it iii) Biomedical Sewage
is estimated that urban population will constitute nearly half of iv) Agrochemicals used in the field
the total population in India. v) Mixing of Crematorium ash
The 65th round of the NSS reports that 11% of households vi) Religious activities
had no latrines. vii) Other sources like Hotels, Restaurants, etc.
This implies that nearly three core people in urban areas
defecate in open. 8% were using pit latrines and 77 percent of Discharge of large amount of untreated domestic sewage
urban households were using either septic tanks or flush latrines. from the city :
Further, according to 2001 Census, less than two-third of the The river is getting polluted due to discharge of large
urban households were connected to sewer system. The status in amount of sewage carried out by four major sewers in the city
respect of treatment of sewage is worse. As per CPCB report of such as Jayanti nullah, Dudhali nullah, Line Bazaar nullah and

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Bapat Camp nullah. Since most of the sewage is untreated, it markets waste
increases the organic load of the river water. The river water
becomes highly polluted due to toxicants, bacterial Agrochemicals used in the field:
contamination, plastic litters, solid waste, etc. Large quantities of agrochemicals are used in the
agricultural sector in the upstream as well as in surrounding
Total Water Waste water areas of the river. The residues of these chemicals mix in to the
Panchaganga Population of Usage without river due to excess use, flooding, heavy rainfall, excess
River Kolhapur city (per day) treatment (per irrigation, etc. Many pesticides and chemicals when dissolved in
( 2001 Census) day ) the river water enter in the food chain. Studies have shown that
many vegetables and fruits contain harmful residue of
4.93 lakhs 120 Million 100 Million agrochemicals.
Liters Liters
(Panchganga Basin Pollution study MPCB report, 2009) Sr. Type of Solid state (per Liquid State
No. agrochemical year ) (per year )
Disposal of industrial effluent
Total No. of Total waste water 1 Chemical fertilizers 78,244 Tones ------
Panchaganga River Industries without treatment
Basin 2953 18.59302 Million 2 Pesticides 1,41,764 Tones 22,068 liters
Liter
per day
3 Weedicides 34,995 Tones 21,664 liters
The industrial effluent coming from different small
4 Fungicides 6771 Tones 1828 liters
industrial units, foundries spray painting units in Udyamnagar
and Tanneries from Jawahar Nagar alters the quality of river
Crematorium ash:
water. The ground water quality also changes due to the
Crematorium ash is becoming one of the reasons of water
industrial effluent.
pollution. There are about four crematorium sites present in the
city. Each year approximately 130 tones of crematorium ash
Sewage from different hospitals, pathological laboratories:
pollutes the river water. The crematorium which is most affecting
There are total 498 hospitals and dispensaries
the quality of river water is Vaishvadham Crematorium located
(governmental, semi-governmental and private) and 31
near Prince Shivaji Bridge and Bapat Camp crematorium. After
pathological laboratories in Kolhapur city. Only one hospital i.e.
burning of the dead bodies, as a ritual, the ash is disposed in the
Chhtrapati. Pramilaraje Hospital is planning for STP whereas
river water, which forms a layer on water surface. It traps the
none of the hospitals in Kolhapur city treat its waste water. The
sunlight and prevents mixing of oxygen into the water. There is
untreated sewage about 1,00,000 liters per day mixes in to the
change in the physicochemical parameters of the water body. The
river through nullahs which is highly dangerous to the riverine
amount of total solids, total dissolved solids, toxic heavy metals,
ecosystem.
phosphate and nitrate level increases. At the same time, amount
of dissolved oxygen decreases. The aquatic ecosystem gets
Effluent from other sources:
harmed as well as water becomes unsuitable for drinking
There are about 49 servicing stations in the city which
purpose. The downstream areas of the river also get affected as
generates 49,000 liters of waste water. The quality of water alters
well as the aesthetic beauty of the site decreases.
due to oil and grease content, various petrochemicals colors, etc.
The waste water coming from slaughter houses and fish markets
Religious activities:
are having high organic load which is directly discharged into the
Various religious activities during festivals produce solid
nearby sewer which finally ends into the river through nullahs.
waste in the form of nirmalya and idols. The idols made up of
The sources like hotels, restaurants, hawkers, etc. also contribute
Plaster of Paris changes the physicochemical composition of
for water pollution.
water body. There are 12 sites in the city where the Nirmanlya
and idols are disposed.
Other sources of river pollution:
Sources Total No. Total amount of waste
Sr. Components Amount per Amount per90 Tones
generated
No. year
Servicing Stations 41 2,00,000 liters/ day
1 Nirmalya 90 Tones
Hotels, restaurants 1044 1,49,400 liters / day
2 Idols (domestic) 27000
and hawkers
3 Idols (Sarvajanik) 600
Slaughter houses 02 800 Kg / day
waste
The idols are made up of Plaster of Paris or Shadoo and
coloured with chemicals. When these idols immersed in water
Meat shops and fish 76 1000 Kg / day
the chemicals dissolve in water body altering water quality. The

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paints are having heavy metals such as copper, zinc, lead,


chromium and iron. The other constituents of the idol like Water Treatment Plants:
bamboo, flowers, cotton, clothes and other pollutants such as At present water is supplied to Kolhapur city through water
eatables like prasad, coir, plastic, etc increase the nutrients in the treatment plants:-
lake and lead to eutrophication. The water column is disturbed Kolhapur Municipal Corporation has provided four water
completely during idol immersion. treatment plants for serving potable and safe drinking water to
the citizens. These are namely; Kalamba water treatment plant,
Discharge of nullahs in the river basin: Puikhadi water treatment plant, Bawda water treatment plant and
There are four nullahs in the city viz. Jayanti Nullah, Balinga water treatment plant.
Dudhali Nullah, Line Bazaar nullah and Bapat Camp Nullah. • Kalamba water treatment plant: - It is the oldest water
Jayanti nullah starts flowing from eastern part of the city. During treatment plant and started in pre independence days. An earthen
its course through the heart of the city, it receives waste water dam about 4300 ft. long and 27 ft. high was constructed during
from tanneries from Jawahar Nagar, domestic waste from the 1881- 83 on the southern side of the city. The treatment plant is
city, effluent from fabrication units, spray painting units and of 8 MLD capacity. The water of the Kalamba tank is pure and
foundries from Udyamnagar. Jayanti nullah basin covers 2357 ha wholesome and is filtered and chlorinated. Kalamba water is
of the city. available only to a portion of the city i.e to B ward .
• Puikhadi water treatment plant: - This treatment plant is
Patients suffering from waterborne diseases: located at Puikhadi, 14 km. away from the Shingnapur pumping
Year Jaundice Diarrhea Dysentery Gastro other station. This plant is recent plant established by KMC and started
functioning in the year 2001. The capacity of this plant is 50
2005- 146 221 48 223 15 MLD.
06 • Bawada water treatment plant: - This water works is
commissioned in the year 1978. It is located 5 km away from
2006- 85 298 84 132 23 Bawada pumping station. Initially the treated water from this
07 plant was served to E ward and to 6 villages of eastern outskirts
of city. The capacity of this plant is 36 MLD and presently this
2007- 103 320 94 51 10 supplies water to E ward only.
08 • Balinga water treatment plant:- This water works
commissioned in the year 1949 with the capacity of 10.90 MLD
2008- 139 241 79 79 7 which was increased by providing augmentation schemes. Now
09 the total capacity of this plant is 41 MLD and the source of the
water from Bhogawati river.
Total 473 1090 305 485 55

[Source- Isolation Hospi., Kop., Apr-2006 to Apr-2009]

Analysis report of Water Treatment Plants (WTP) of Kolhapur city

Kalamba Puikhadi Bawada Balinga WTP


Parameter WTP WTP WTP WHO
standards

Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet


pH 7.78 7.74 7.31 7.36 7.2 7.08 7.02 7.10 6.5-8.5
Turbidity 20.3 4.4 21.6 4.6 26.6 4.3 24.31 4.9 5-25
(NTU)
Hardness 154 124 76 60 68 52 84 60 100-500
Chloride 25.7 17.04 25.56 20.1 51.12 30.1 48.2 19.22 20-500
TDS 200 110 245 135 505 100 400 100 500-1000
MPN 1600> nil 1600> nil 1600> nil 1600> nil 0/100 ml
(Dept. of Environmental Science, SUK) (All the parameters except pH, MPN and turbidity are expressed in mg/l)

The results of the treated drinking water in the WTP are VI. CONCLUSION
within the standard limits but further analysis of piped water Increased developmental activities due to urbanization and
shows presence of coli form bacteria due to leakages in the industrialization are greatly responsible for water pollution in
system. Kolhapur city. There are many causes of water pollution such as
sewage disposal, excess use of agrochemicals in the field,

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 48
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discharge of industrial effluents without treatment, disposal of (Maharashtra), Email: [email protected], Cell No.
urban solid waste, agricultural runoffs etc. The polluted water of 09823193862
panchaganga is creating some serious public health issues in the
city. Kolhapur city is one of the developed cities in the state
Maharashtra. Thousands of people are coming to Kolhapur for
seeking employment from across the India. The industrial sector
is growing very rapidly. This city is also characterized as a
famous religious place; therefore plenty of pilgrims visit it every
year. The population of this city is increasing so fast due to
educational facilities, employment and service. Today and
probably in the future; due to the rapid growth in population,
urbanization and industrialization; public health issues will be a
great challenge before the planners, administrators and
politicians. The river as a drinking source is becoming polluted
and the capacity of treatment plants is not enough to stop the
pollution and reduce the damage on public health. The capacity
of these plants needs to be increased. Therefore; there is a need
to wake up as early as possible to be prepared to tackle the
growing issue of water pollution to promote public health. There
is a need of government intervention with active peoples’
participation.

REFERENCES
[1] Assessment of Impact of Environmental Pollution on Human health in the
city of Jodhpur, Rajasthan - R.C. Sharma, Vinod Joshi, A.K. Dixit,
S.P.Yadav, R. Fotedar, P.K. Anand, H.S. Rumana and P.C. Sharma
http://www.icmr.nic.in/annual/2004-05/dmrc/ar45_4e.pdf

[2] Environment in Indian Society- Problems and Prospects: R.B. Patil, A


Mittal Publication, New Delhi (India), 2009, pp. (45-52).
[3] Social Work and Global Health Inequalities- Practice and policy
development, Health and Environment: Margaret Alstone: Edted by Paul
Bywaters, Eileen Mcleod and Lindsey Napier, Published by policy press,
University of Bristol, UK, 2009, pp. 51-62
[4] State of Environment Report: Maharashtra, Indira Gandhi Institute of
Development Research Mumbai-400065 (India), Sponsored by Maharashtra
Pollution Control Board Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of
India Prepared by Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research,
Mumbai.
[5] THE CAUSES AND HEALTH EFFECTS OF RIVER POLLUTION: A
CASE STUDY OF THE ABOABO RIVER, KUMASI by Leslie Danquah
(B.A., Social Science), a ph.d thesis, October, 2010, pp. 15-20
[6] The Effects of Pollution on Health: The Economic Toll
http://www.airimpacts.org/documents/local/poll_health.pdf
[7] Water Pollution: Impact of Pollutants and New Promising Techniques
inPurification Process, Ramandeep Singh Gambhir1*, Vinod Kapoor2,
Ashutosh Nirola3, Raman Sohi4 and Vikram Bansal4, J Hum Ecol, 37(2):
103-109 (2012).
[8] www.cpcb.nic.in Annual Report of Central Pollution Control Board 2008-
09
[9] www.mpcb.gov.in Annual Report of ministry of environment and forest
2009-10
[10] www.mohfw.nic.in Annual Report of ministry of health and family welfare
2009-10
[11] www.kolhapurcorporation.gov.in

AUTHORS
First Author – Swapnil M. Kamble, Assistant Professor,
Department of Social Work, Shivaji University, Kolhapur

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 49
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Embedded Web Server with Data Security for Wireless


Sensor Networks
Jayashri S Janiwarad

IBM India Pvt Ltd. Bangalore

Abstract- Sensor network has quick installation, dynamic  Central node is realized on a Mini2440 Friendly Arm
configuration features. Security of the data in the wireless sensor board. Transceiver CC2500 is used for data reception.
network has become a critical issue. As the applications are Embedded web server is implemented on this board.
increasing, privacy preservation is an important issue in wireless  The encrypted data received from sensor node through
sensor network. Depending on the nature of the installment of the CC2500 is decrypted using the same Tiny encryption
network and the data that is exchanged between two nodes, steps algorithm and the value is displayed on the webpage.
taken to secure the data have to be decided. Security mechanisms
like authentication and encryption play a vital role. The existing
encryption algorithms cannot be applied directly to WSN. Care II. IMPLEMENTATION
has to be taken to modify these algorithms to fit into WSN, as
The implementation of the project “Implementation of
these modifications may lead to additional computations which
Embedded Web Server with Data Security for Wireless Sensor
consume additional energy and additional communication. This
network” is divided into two modules. One module is the PIC
paper aims at implementing one such encryption algorithm
module and the other is the ARM module. The two modules are
which is easy to develop using common programming language
connected through wireless media.
like C and easy to port across different processors varying in
A. System Architecture
processing speed, computations and operating word size.

I. INTRODUCTION

S A. Statement of the problem


ecurity of the data collected by a sensor node realized using
an 8 bit microcontroller should be achieved by encrypting the
data using a standard encryption algorithm. This encrypted data
when received by 32 bit central node; it should decrypt the same
and display the actual value on the webpage hosted by the
embedded web server residing on the central node.

B. Objective of the project


 This project realizes an embedded web server, which
enables data acquisition and status monitoring with the
help of standard web browser.
 An efficient Encryption algorithm is implemented so
that the data packets obtained from heat and temperature B. Diagram Software Design
sensors are encrypted and sent to the base station. The PIC16F877A which realizes the sensor node with
base station will receive the data packets and decrypt temperature sensor to sense the environmental temperature. The
them. The base station is also the center node with the main task of the PIC module is to encrypt the data received from
functionality of the embedded web server. sensor through ADC module and send it to the CC2500 module
 User can monitor remote temperature and heat to transmit it via wireless medium. When the power is ON, the
information remotely through web browser. first thing the controller has to do is to initialize the internal and
the peripheral modules. So the ADC, UART and the LCD
C. Scope of the Project modules are initialized with proper settings, and the port numbers
 Implement a sensor node with PICF1877A as a that are treated as either input or output by the respective
processing unit, LM35 as a temperature sensor, CC2500 peripheral. In a infinite loop the value of temperature is read into
transceiver for data transmission and LCD interface for the registers of the ADC module. This value is multiplied by 0.48
user interface. to get the reading in the convention form. This value is written to
 The data read from the sensor is encrypted by Tiny the register which writes the data on the LCD, at the same time
Encryption algorithm by the sensor node before encoded calling encode_data method. The encoded data is
transmitting it to the central node. written to UART register to send it through transceiver.

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The ARM module is the one on which the central node is to capture the data on the serial link. It should be configured with
realized. This module collects the encrypted data sent by the proper port number (usually the OS does a auto detect) and baud
sensor node. The encrypted data is read through transceiver rate. We can also specify the file name where the captured data
connected to the arm board. The data is decrypted and displayed can be saved.
on the webpage. The embedded web server is also implemented
here. B. Data Captured
ARM is OS based system and software development
process for OS based system includes the establishment of the
cross-compiler, the transplant of the boot loader, transplant of the
embedded Linux, development of the web server and decryption
algorithm.
An embedded web server like any general purpose web
server accomplishes tasks like receiving the request from client,
processing that request and responding to those requests and
finally returning the results to the client. This system works in
B/S mode in which the client need not be programmed
specifically for this application. The client PC is connected to
the Internet through a browser can get access to the embedded
Web server. The user can perform remote login view the web
pages and perform required operation. Hence this mode is simple
to use, convenient to maintain, and easy to extend as compared to
traditional C/S mode. The static web pages are saved in the
system file system and they get displayed on the browser of the
client system.
The programming on ARM includes creating a thread so
that one thread takes care of serving the web requests, and the
main process does the processing of the data read from C. User Interface
transceiver. This process in a forever loop reads the data from The main login page which asks for username and password
serial port, once the data is read call the decryption method to from the user looks like. The operator needs to authenticate
decode and get the actual value. himself by providing the username and password. If he is the
The child process opens a socket, bind to the port and listen right operator he will be allowed to view the sensor page.
on that port. Whenever there is a request from the client, it
identifies the page requested by client and the same is sent to the
client through socket connection. Appropriate error pages and
data pages are displayed.

III. RESULTS
A. Hardware Connections
The overall connection of the modules together looks like

The sensor page displays the decoded value on the box


specified. This page gets refreshed every two seconds, and any
variation in the temperature will be captured automatically when
. the page gets refreshed. There is also option for refreshing the
The data encrypted is sent by the wireless module of PIC. page manually whenever the operator feels like.
Since the data is sent through the serial interface, we can capture
the data at the serial interface of the ARM 9 module. To view the
encrypted data, I have used serial to USB converter from USB
port of the laptop to the serial port of ARM. Real Term is the tool

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[2] First Step Toward Internet Based Embedded Control System Eka
Suwartadi, Candra Gunawan, Ary Setijadi P, Carmadi Machbub Laboratory
for Control and Computer Systems Department Of Electrical Engineering
Bandung Institute Of Technology, Indonesia
[3] Design and development of embedded web server based on Arm9 and
Linux Deepa.Chekka1*and Ravi Kanth2 World Journal of Science and
Technology 2012, 2(10):94-97 ISSN: 2231 – 2587
[4] Design and Implementation of Embedded Web Server Based on ARM and
Linux Yakun Liu Xiaodong Cheng College of Electronic Information
Engineering Inner Mongolia University Hohhot, P.R. China
[5] Design and Development of ARM Processor Based Web Server V.Billy
Rakesh Roy1, Sanket Dessai1, and S. G.Shiva Prasad Yadav 1 1 M S
Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies in Collaboration with Coventry
University (UK)/Embedded Design Centre,
[6] Embedded Web Server Based on DAC System Using ARM S.A.N.Sandeep,
P.Malyadri / International Journal of Engineering Research and
Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 4,
July-August 2012, pp.
[7] Security in cognitive wireless sensor networks. Challenges and open
problems Araujo et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and
Networking 2012, 2012:48
IV. CONCLUSIONS [8] SECURITY IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS By ADRIAN
This project has demonstrated how to get fully functional PERRIG, JOHN STANKOVIC, and DAVID WAGNER
embedded product developed from scratch. This included [9] A review on security issues in wireless sensor network
working on two different controllers, cross compilation and Rajeshwar Singh1, Singh D.K.2 and Lalan Kumar3 Journal of Information
Systems and Communication, ISSN: 0976-8742 & E-ISSN: 0976-8750,
deployment of essential libraries, the configuration of embedded Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2010, PP-01-07
Linux and the development of embedded web server. [10] Coverage and Connectivity Issues in Wireless Sensor Networks
It was a great learning in implementing this project. I started AMITABHA GHOSH and SAJAL K. DAS Department of Computer
this project keeping in mind lot of features to implement on the Science and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington
web server side and the security algorithm was a bit unclear. I [11] Wireless Sensor Networks for Industrial Process Monitoring and Control:
could not implement the full set of requirements that were set out A Survey Network Protocols and Algorithms ISSN 1943-3581 2011, Vol. 3,
No. 1
before the commencement of this project. However I have
[12] Performance evaluation of scalable encryption algorithm for wireless sensor
implemented at least the minimum. The original requirement list networks Murat Çakıro_lu*, Cüneyt Bayilmi_, Ahmet Turan Özcerit and
was not possible to accomplish so a re-scope was necessary. Özdemir Çetin
Finally I would like to say that this paper explains a end to [13] Energy Efficient Encryption Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Network A.
end deployable embedded product. Babu Karuppiah1, Dr. S. Rajaram2 International Journal of Engineering
Research & Technology (IJERT) Vol. 1 Issue 3, May - 2012 ISSN: 2278-
0181 www.ijert.
[14] Analyzing and Modeling Encryption Overhead for Sensor Network Nodes
V. FUTURE WORK Prasanth Ganesan, Ramnath Venugopalan, Pushkin Peddabachagari,
Alexander Dean, Frank Mueller, Mihail Sichitiu Center for Embedded
 To achieve higher security the cipher key used for Systems Research Departments of Electrical and Computer Engineering /
encryption and decryption can be generated in the PIC Computer Science North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
module using rand() function. The generated key can be [15] SPINS: Security Protocols for Sensor Networks 2009 International
used for encryption in PIC module and the same needs Conference on Machine Learning and Computing IPCSIT vol.3 (2011) ©
to be transmitted to arm module before transmitting the (2011) IACSIT Press, Singapore
encoded data. The arm module can use this key to [16] Sensor Data Encryption Protocol for Wireless Network Security By Bharat
Singh, Parvinder Singh & Dr. V.S. Dhaka Global Journal of Computer
decrypt the data. Science and Technology Volume 12 Issue 9 Version 1.0 April 2012 Type:
 The current project is tested with a single client node, Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher:
the same can be enhanced with multiple client nodes, Global Journals Inc. (USA) Online ISSN: 0975-4172 & Print ISSN: 0975-
4350
and then the client should send a identifier to the server
[17] WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK SECURITY ANALYSIS Hemanta
so that it can display the correct data on web page for Kumar Kalita1 and Avijit Kar
each client node.
 The embedded web server is currently supporting single
user login, it can be enhanced to multiple user login
AUTHORS
with different user privileges.
 The SNMP support on ARM can be enabled to send First Author – Jayashri S Janiwarad, e-mail
email alerts to configured user email ids which :[email protected], IBM India Pvt Ltd. Bangalore.
correspond to client nodes.

REFERENCES
[1] Fundamentals of Wireless Sensor Networks by Wiley Series on Wireless
Communications and Mobile Computing.

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Multiple Foetal Parameters in Third Trimester


Gestational Age Estimation
Dr. Manisha Bakliwal (Jain)

Department of Ob&Gyn,
Shadan Institute of Medical Sciences

Abstract-In a country like India where most women present late in third trimester and may not keep menstrual record properly, a
method was needed which can help to estimate gestational age in third trimester. So this study was done on 100 pregnant women
ranging from 28 to 42 weeks of gestation, attending the OPD of SIMS, Hyderabad, A.P, India, during the period July 2009 to Sep
2010. Patients with high risk factors affecting the growth of baby were excluded from the study. These women were subjected to
single exposure of ultrasonography estimation of gestational age using multiple foetal parameters like BPD, FL, HC. Then a
comparison was madebetween the actual gestational age (assessed by Dubowitz score within 24hrs of birth) with mean gestational age
by ultrasonography. The foetal parameters taken for the study in determination of gestational age were compared for accuracy and
reliability with each other by linear regression analysis1. In this study 96% of cases had a difference of 2 weeks from actual age. Hence
this study validates the concept of use of multiple foetal growth parameters to improve the accuracy and precision of foetal dating in
third trimester of pregnancy.

Index Terms- AC, BPD, Dubowitz Score, EDD, FL, Gestational age

I. INTRODUCTION

K Knowledge of gestational age is critically important in clinical obstetrics, primarily because it can significantly affect the
obstetricmanagement decision and neonatal outcome. By defining an acceptable time frame of 28-42 weeks for normal delivery,
this knowledge should preclude the possibility of iatrogenic premature delivery in patients undergoing elective caesarean section. In
patients with premature labor, knowledge of the gestational age will influence the use of tocolytic agents, the use of steroids to induce
foetal lung maturity, the timing of amniocentesis for calculating lung maturity and the type of institute in which delivery should take
place (eg; primary vs a tertiary care centre). Precise knowledge of gestational age should also help the obatetrician to avoid a
pregnancy of post dates and its attendant risks to thr foetus2.

II. MATERIAL AND METHODS


In this prospective study of ultrasonographic estimation of gestational age by multiple foetal growth parameters in third trimester, 100
pregnant women wre subjected to sonographic estimation of gestational age, using Biparietal diameter, Femur length and Abdominal
circumference as foetal growth parameters3 .
These were the patients who were either seen at antenatal clinics or admitted in labour room of SIMS. These women
were registered in the study after taking historyand after general and obstetric examination to exclude complications which can
adversely affect foetal growth , like hypertension, pre-eclampsia, diabetes mellitus, multiple pregnancies, hydrocephalus etc;
A real time 2D ultrasound unit with a 3-5 MH convex sector transducer was used.

III. RESULTS
In the present study total of 100 pregnant women in their third trimester were recruited and were subjected to ultrasonography to
determine gestational age. The actual gestational age was calculated by Dubowitz or New Ballard score within 24hrs of birth 4,5 .
comparision was made between actual gestational age and ultrasonographically derived gestational age.

These cases were divided into three groups depending upon gestational age ( Table I)

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TABLE - I

S.No Gestational Age No. Of


(weeks) Cases

1. 28 – 32 21

2. 33 – 36 40

3. 37 -- 42 39

Mean gestational age was derived from all three parameters BPD, FL, AC and its difference from actual gestational age was derived
and expressed in nearest round figures in all the three groups which is tabulated as such in table II

TABLE-- II

MEAN DIFFERENCE IN WEEKS BETWEEN MEAN GESTATIONAL AGE

AND ACTUAL GESTATIONAL AGE ACCORDING TO GROUPS

Difference Group -- I Group -- II Group -- III


From Age

in weeks No of % No of % No of %
cases cases cases

0 9 42.8 15 37.5 6 15.4

+1 9 42.8 16 40.0 20 51.3

+2 3 14.3 9 22.5 9 23.0

+3 --- --- --- --- 4 10.2

Then the mean difference in weeks between mean gestational age and actual gestational age for all groups taken together is tabulated
as such in Table III

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TABLE III

MEAN DIFFERENCE IN WEKS BETWEEN MEAN GESTATIONAL AGE

AND ACTUAL GESTATIONAL AGE FOR ALL GROUPS

Mean difference
from AGA
No Of Cases Percentage
(Weeks)

0 30 30%

+1 45 45%

+2 21 21%

+3 04 4%

Thus in our study, in 30% of patients the Mean gestational age coincided with actual gestational age with a difference f one week in
45% and 2 weeks in 25%. Thus using multiple parameters, total 965 of cases had a difference within 2 weeks from gestational age.

Then the Mean, standard deviation and Standard erroe for each parameter 9 BPD,FL,& AC) was taken, in
which FL & AC have got least mean and less amount ofvariations as compared to BPD 6 .

The results of correlation coefficient between the selected parameters are highly interrelated and statistically
significant ( P< 0.001) .

IV. DISCUSSION
In present study 100 pregnant women ranging from 28-42 weeks of gestational age were subjected to sonographic estimation of
gestational age usinfg multiple fetal growth parameters. These patients were selected after excluding any maternal or fetal factors
affecting the foetal growth. Then the gestational ageof the newborns was assessed by Dubowitz score within 24hrs.
A comparision was made between Dubowitz actual gestational age and sonographically derived gestational age
fom multiple foetal growth parameters, which revealed 96% cases within a difference of 2 weeks from actual age.
Previous articles evaluate accuracy of gestational age by ultrasound with gestational age by LMP or Delivery dates,
but in present study gestational age from ultrasound was compared with actual gestational age obtained after birth by Dubowitz score
which include eleven physical and ten neurological criteria and whose accuracy has been confirmed by different studies like Gandy
G.M7.
Our study confirms that BPD cannot relied upon for determination of gestational age after 26 weeks, though before 26 weeks
BPD is a relaiable parameter and statistically significant.with single USG examination and even multiple USG examination do not
improve reliability after 34 weeks as in accordance with previous studies done by Sabbagha et al8. , who also shows similar result.
Though Stuart Campbel & Berman 9 show 84% accuracy of BPD.
In our study 92% patients had a difference of +2weeks in late 3 rd trimester when FL alone was used in accordance with Eagley
et al. , Shale, S.Yageland Hill & Coworkers studies who also showed stronger correlation10,11,13.
Our study shows AC better than BPD and almost equal to FL in determining gestational age. Hence AC and FL are most
acceptable indicators of gestational age after 34 weeks as shown by Hdlock et al., studies14.
Using all four parameters (BPD,HC,AC,FL) Hadlock shows 96% of predicted ages were within 2 weeks of true menstrual age 15.
Once again in our study similar results were obtained. In our study also, using multiple parameters ( BPD,FL.AC) 96% of cases had a
difference of 2 weeks from actual gestational age.

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V. CONCLUSION
The perinatal mortality and morbidity can be reduced by properly estimating gestational age. In our country where most of the women
may nort keep menstrual record properly and who present late in third trimester for the first time USG assessed gestational age by
multiple foetal growth parameters can be of immense value.

In present study total 96% ( 30% coincided, 45% had a difference of +1week, 21% differbce of +2weeks) cases had difference within
2 weeks. Hence its use not only increases the accuracy of foetal age determination by single examination but also gives observer
choice to include only those parameters where technically satisfactory measurements have been obtained. These parameters
(BPD,AC,FL) are also useful for foetal weight estimation.

Hence this study validates the concept of using multiplr parameters to improve the accuracy and precision of foetal dating in third
trimester and provides a tool for better care and management of the mother and foetus in Indian condition.

REFERENCES
[1] ACOG Practice bulletin no:98, ultrasonography in pregnancy, obste & gynecol 2008; 112:951.
[2] Military Obstetrics & Gynecology, Brook side press, Estimation of gestational age 2006.
[3] Benson, CB, Doubilet PM; ATR Amj Roentgenol 1991; 157:1275.
[4] Dubowitz L.M.S, et al.; Journal of Paediatrics 1970; 77
[5] Ballard J.L; et al; J. Paediatrics 1991; 199:417.
[6] M.R Modabber et al; Annuals of Biological Research 2012, 3(8); 38:3841.
[7] A. Onasoga, et al; Archives of Applied science Research 2012, 4(1); 447:453.
[8] Recca EA; Gabnelli.S; Obstet and Gyn Survey 1989; 544:45
[9] Gandy G.M; TB Neonatology Churchill Livingstone 1992; 209:213.
[10] Sapre S; Joshi.V; Ind J Obst & Gynaecol 1997; 47(1): 23:28.
[11] Sabbagha E et al; Ultrasonography in Obstetrics & Gynaecology Text Book.
[12] Campbell S. et al; Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of Brotish Common Health 1969; 76:60.
[13] Hill L.M; et al; Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol, 1992; 16:551.
[14] S.Yagel et al; British journal of OBG, 1986 Vol 93 (109-115)
[15] Hadlock F.P et al; AJR; 1982; 139:367-370.

AUTHORS
First Author –Dr. manisha Bakliwal (Jain), Assistant professor( Ob& Gyn), SIMS, Hyderabad, A.P, India
Email id: [email protected]
Mobile number: +917382464641.

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On The Homogeneous Bi-quadratic Equation with


FiveUnknowns
M.A.Gopalan*, S. Vidhyalakshmi**, E.Premalatha**
*,**
Department of Mathematics,Shrimati Indira Gandhi College,Tiruchirappalli – 620 002,Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract-The biquadratic equation with 5 unknown given by x  y  8( z  w) p is analyzed for its patterns of non –
4 4 3

zero distinct integral solutions. A few interesting relations between the solutions and special polygonal numbers are exhibited.
Index Terms- Bi-quadratic equation with 5 unknowns, Homogeneous biquadratic, Integer solutions, Special polygonal
numbers, Centered polygonal number

I. INTRODUCTION
Biquadratic diophantine equations, homogeneous and non- homogeneous, have aroused the interest of numerous Mathematicians since
antiquity as can be seen from [1-7]. In the context one may refer [8-24] for varieties of problems on the diophantine equations with
two, three and four variables. This communication concerns with the problem of determining non-zero integral solutions of yet
another biquadratic equation in 5 unknowns represented by x 4  y 4  8( z  w) p3 .A few interesting relations between the solutions
and special polygonal numbers are presented.

II. NOTATIONS
t m, n - Polygonal number of rank n with size m .

Ct m, n - Centered polygonal number of rank n with size m .

gn a - Gnomonic number of rank a

SO n - Stella octangular number of rank n

CPm, n - Centered pyramidal number of rank n with size m

III. METHOD OF ANALYSIS


The diophantine equation representing the biquadratic equation with five unknowns under consideration is

x 4  y 4  8( z  w) p3 (1)

The substitution of the transformations


x  u  v , y  u  v , z  ruv  1 , w  suv  1 (2)

in (1) leads to u 2  v 2  (r  s ) p 3 (3)

To solve (3), we apply the method of factorization. For this, choose r and s such that r+sis expressed as the product of complex
conjugates. A few illustrations are presented below.
A. Illustration 1
Assume p  a2  b2 (4)

Take r=7 , s=3


so that r  s  10  (3  i)(3  i) (5)

Using (4) & (5) in (3) and employing the method of factorization, define

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(u  iv )  (3  i)(a  ib) 3
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have

u  u (a, b)  3a 3  9ab 2  3a 2b  b 3
v  v(a, b)  a 3  3ab 2  9a 2b  3b 3
Hence in view of (2), the corresponding solutions of (1) are given by
x  x(a, b)  4a 3  12ab 2  6a 2 b  2b 3
y  y (a, b)  2a 3  6ab 2  12a 2 b  4b 3
z  z (a, b)  7[(3a 3  9ab 2  3a 2 b  b 3 )(a 3  3ab 2  9a 2 b  3b 3 )]  1
w  w(a, b)  3[(3a 3  9ab 2  3a 2 b  b 3 )(a 3  3ab 2  9a 2 b  3b 3 )]  1
p  p ( a, b)  a 2  b 2
A few interesting properties observed are as follows:
1. 2 x(a, a)  y(a, a)  5soa  0(mod 25)

2. z(a, b)  w(a, b)  x 2 (a, b)  y 2 (a, b)  2

5
3. z (a, b)  w(a, b)  [ x 2 (a, b)  y 2 (a, b)]
2

4. 30[ x(a, a)  2 y(a, a)  p(a, a)  2t 4,a ] is a nasty number:

5. 50{x(a, a)  2 y(a, a)} is a cubical integer.

B. Illustration 2
The choice r=20 , s=5

so that r  s  25  (1  2i) 2 (1  2i) 2


Following a similar procedure as in illustration-1,the corresponding solutions of (3) are found to be

u  u (a, b)  3a 3  9ab 2  12a 2b  4b 3


v  v(a, b)  4a 3  12ab 2  9a 2b  3b 3
Hence in view of (2), the corresponding solutions of (1) are given by
x  x(a, b)  a 3  3ab 2  21a 2 b  7b 3
y  y (a, b)  7a 3  21ab 2  3a 2 b  b 3
z  z (a, b)  20[(3a 3  9ab 2  12a 2 b  4b 3 )(4a 3  12ab 2  9a 2 b  3b 3 )]  1
w  w(a, b)  3[(3a 3  9ab 2  12a 2 b  4b 3 )(4a 3  12ab 2  9a 2 b  3b 3 )]  1
p  p ( a, b)  a 2  b 2
A few interesting properties observed are as follows:
1. 7 x(a, b)  y(a, b)  0(mod 50b)

2. z(a, b)  w(a, b)  4[ x 2 (a, b)  y 2 (a, b)]  2(mod uv)

3. z(a, b)  4w(a, b)  0(mod 5)

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4.  7 x(a,1)  y(a,1)  50 isa nasty number.

5. 20{7 x(1, b)  y(1, b)  75( gnb  1)} is a cubical integer.

C. Illustration 3
Let r=6 , s=2

so that r  s  8  (1  i)3 (1  i) 3
Following a similar procedure as in illustration-2, the corresponding solutions of (3) are as follows

u  u (a , b)  2a 3  6ab 2  6a 2 b  2b 3
v  v(a , b)  2a 3  6ab 2  6a 2 b  2b 3
Hence in view of (2), the corresponding solutions of (1) are given by
x  x(a, b)  4b  12a b
3 2

y  y (a, b)  4a 3  12ab 2


z  z (a, b)  6[(2a 3  6a 2 b) 2  (2a 3  6ab 2 ) 2 ]  1
w  w(a, b)  2[(2a 3  6a 2 b) 2  (2a 3  6ab 2 ) 2 ]  1
p  p ( a, b)  a 2  b 2
A few interesting properties observed are as follows:
1. x(a, a)  y(a, a)  0

2. 2 z (a, b)  2  3[ x 2 (a, b)  y 2 (a, b)]

3. 2w(a, b)  2  x 2  y 2

4. 3{z(a, b)  w(a, b)  2 y 2 (a, b)} is a nasty number:

5. 4{ y(a, a)  x(a, a)} is a cubical integer.

D. Illustration 4
Let r=13 , s=3

so that r  s  16  (1  i) 4 (1  i) 4
Following a similar procedure as in illustration-1, the corresponding solutions of (3) are as follows

u  u (a, b)  4a 3  12ab 2


v  v(a, b)  12a 2b  4b 3
Hence in view of (2), the corresponding non-zero integral solutions of (1) are given by
x  x(a, b)  4a 3  12ab 2  12a 2 b  4b 3
y  y (a, b)  4a 3  12ab 2  12a 2 b  4b 3
z  z (a, b)  13(12ab 2  4a 3 )(4b 3  12a 2 b)  1
w  w(a, b)  3(12ab 2  4a 3 )(4b 3  12a 2 b)  1
p  p ( a, b)  a 2  b 2

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A few interesting properties observed are as follows:


1. x(a, a)  y(a, a)  4soa  10( gna  1)

2. 2[ z(a, b)  w(a, b)  4  5[ x 2 (a, b)  y 2 (a, b)]

3. z(a, b)  w(a, b)  4( x 2 (a, b)  y 2 (a, b))

4. 2 p(a, a) isa nasty number.

5.  x(a, a)  y(a, a)  3CP3,a is a cubical integer.

E. Illustration 5
Take r=1 , s=3

(1  i) 2 n  2 (1  i) 2 n 2
so that rs4
2 2n
Employing the method of factorization, define

(1  i) 2 n 2
(u  iv )  (a  ib ) 3
2n
 
(u  iv )  2[cos(2n  2)  i sin(2n  2) ](a  ib ) 3
4 4
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have

 
u  u (a, b)  2[(a 3  3ab 2 ) cos(2n  2)  (3a 2 b  b 3 ) sin(2n  2) ]
4 4
 
v  v(a, b)  2[(a 3  3ab 2 ) sin(2n  2)  (3a 2 b  b 3 ) cos(2n  2) ]
4 4
Hence in view of (2), the corresponding solutions of (1) are given
   
x  x(a, b)  2{(a 3  3ab 2 )[cos(2n  2)  sin( 2n  2) ]  (3a 2 b  b 3 )[cos(2n  2)  sin( 2n  2) ]}
4 4 4 4
   
y  y (a, b)  2{(a 3  3ab 2 )[cos(2n  2)  sin( 2n  2) ]  (3a 2 b  b 3 )[cos(2n  2)  sin( 2n  2) ]}
4 4 4 4
 
z  z (a, b)  4{(a 3  3ab 2 ) 2 [cos(2n  2) sin( 2n  2) ]  (a 3  3ab 2 )(3a 2 b  b 3 ) *
4 4
by     .
[cos 2 (2n  2)  sin 2 (2n  2) ]  (3a 2 b  b 3 ) 2 [cos(2n  2) sin( 2n  2) ]}  1
4 4 4 4
 
w  w(a, b)  12{(a 3  3ab 2 ) 2 [cos(2n  2) sin( 2n  2) ]  (a 3  3ab 2 )(3a 2 b  b 3 ) *
4 4
   
[cos 2 (2n  2)  sin 2 (2n  2) ]  (3a 2 b  b 3 ) 2 [cos(2n  2) sin( 2n  2) ]}  1
4 4 4 4
p  p ( a, b)  a  b
2 2

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REFERENCES
[1] L.E.Dickson, “History of Theory of numbers”, vol.2,Diophantine Analysis, New York, Dover, 2005.
[2] L.J.Mordell, “Diophantine Equations”, Academic press, London ,1969.
[3] R.D.Carmichael, “The theory of numbers and Diophantine Analysis”, NewYork, Dover,1959.
[4] S.Lang, “ Algebraic N.T”., Second ed. Newyork: Chelsea, 1999.
[5] H.Weyl, “Algebraic theory of numbers”, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press, 1998.
[6] Oistein Ore, “Number theory and its History”, NewYork , Dover, 1988.
[7] T.Nagell, “Introduction to Number theory”, Chelsea,Newyork, 1981.

[8] J.H.E.Cohn, “The Diophantine equation y( y  1)( y  2)( y  3)  2 x( x  1)( x  2)( x  3) ”,Pacific J.Math. 37, 1971,

331-335.

[9] W.J.Leabey and D.F.Hsu, “The Diophantine equation y 4  x3  x 2  1 ”, Rocky Mountain J.Math. Vol.6, 1976, 141-153.
[10] Mihailov, “On the equation x( x  1)  y( y  1) z 2 ”, Gaz. Mat. Sec.A 78, 28-30, 1973.
[11] M.A.Gopalan and R.Anbuselvi,“Integral Solutions of ternary quadratic equation x 2  y 2  z 4 ”, ActaCienciaIndica, Vol XXXIV M, No. 1, 2008, 297-300.
[12] M.A.Gopalan, ManjuSomanath and N.Vanitha, “Parametric integral solutions of x 2  y 3  z 4 ”, ActaCienciaIndica, Vol XXXIII M, No. 4, 2007, 1261-
1265.

[13] J.T.Cross, “In the Gaussian Integers  4   4   4 ”, Math, Magazine,66,1993, 105-108.


[14] Sandorszobo, “Some fourth degree Diophantine equation in Gaussian integers”, Electronic Journal of combinatorial Number theory, Vol .4, 2004, 1-17.

[15] M.A.Gopalan, A.Vijayasankar and ManjuSomanath, “Integral solutions of Note on the Diophantine equation x 2  y 2  z 4 ”., Impact J.Sci Tech; Vol
2(4) ,2008, 149-157.

[16] M.A.Gopalan and V.Pandichelvi, “On the solutions of the Biquadratic equation ( x 2  y 2 )2  ( z 2  1)2  W 4 ”,International Conference on
Mathematical Methods and Computations, Trichirapalli, July 2009, 24-25,.

[17] M.A.Gopalanand G.Janaki, “Integral Solutions of Ternary quadratic equations x 2  y 2  xy  z 4 ” Impact Journal Vol 2(2) ,2008, 71-76.
[18] M.A.Gopalanand V.Pandichelvi, “On ternary quadratic Diophantine equation x 2  ky3  z 4 ”, Pacific Asian Journal of Mathematics, Vol 2, No 1-2

,Jan-Dec. 2008, 57-62.

[19] M.A.Gopalanand J.Kaligarani, “On quadratic equation in 5 unknowns x 4  y 4  2( z 2  W 2 ) p 2 ”, Bulletion of pure and applied sciences , Vol
28E, 2009, No 2,305-311.
[20] M.A.Gopalan,S.Vidhyalakshmi andS.Devibala, “ Ternary Quartic Diophantine Equation ,”Impact Journal of Science and

Technology,4(1),2010,57-60.

[21] M.A.Gopalanand J.Kaligarani, “On Quadratic Equation In Five Unknowns x 4  y 4  ( z  W ) p3 ,Bessel J Math , 1(1) ,2011, 49-57.

[22] M.A.Gopalanand P.Shanmuganandham., “On the biquadratic equation x 4  y 4  ( x  y) z 3  2(k 2  3) 2n w4 ”Bessel J Math ,2(2) ,

2012,87-91.

[23] M.A.Gopalanand B.Sivakami., “Integral solutions of quartic equation with four unknowns x 3  y 3  z 3  3xyz  2( x  y)w3 ,” Antarctica
J.Math.,10(2) ,2013,151-159.

AUTHORS
First Author –M.A.Gopalan,Ph.D,Srimathi Indira Gandhi College,Trichy-2.e-mail:[email protected].
Second Author – S.Vidhyalakshmi,Ph.D.,Author name,Srimathi Indira Gandhi College,Trichy-2.e-mail:[email protected].
Third Author – E.Premalatha,M.Phil.,Srimathi Indira Gandhi College,Trichy-2.e-mail:[email protected]

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Correspondence Author – M.A.Gopalan .e-mail:[email protected].,Mobile:9944848938.

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Relationship between Physical Fitness and Academic


Achievement: The Case of Model School Students at
Haramaya University, Ethiopia
Aklilu Seifu Adesa1, Sangeeta Rani2, Negussie Bussa3
*
Instructor, Model School, Haramaya University Campus, Ethiopia
**
Assistant Professor, Haramaya University, Haramaya, Ethiopia
***
Assistant Professor, Haramaya University, Haramaya, Ethiopia

Abstract- The main objective of this study was to investigate the oxygen delivered to the brain, which increases children’s
relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement capacity to learn. In addition to these benefits of physical fitness,
among Model School students of Haramaya University. For this researchers have found relationships between physical fitness
purpose Grade six students’ physical fitness levels were and cognitive functioning. Brain Gym exercises and balanced
compared to their academic achievement based on the idea that movements have been proven to reduce anxiety and stress [8]
health related physical fitness had an impact on the ability to Physical fitness has also been linked to higher levels of self-
achieve academically. The pre and post tests on selected health esteem, which are associated with higher academic performance
related physical fitness parameters were administered for two in the classroom [1].
groups (experimental group and control group). For academic Research has been conducted concerning physical fitness
achievement the first semester GPAs (grade point average) was benefits. The most commonly researched use for physical fitness
taken as pre test and Second Semester GPAs was taken as post is certainly for the purpose of physical exercise directly
test for both groups. The GPAs of the groups was determined by impacting the body. The correlation between physical fitness
calculating an average of all subjects. Data was collected from 20 and health has been researched including the importance of
students (10 boys and 10 girls) grade six sections A and B with cardiac, muscle, joint, and pulmonary functioning and even
aged 11-13 years old, during the 2012-2013 school year by using psychological functioning [4]). Regular physical has been
the health related Physical Fitness Tests and (GPA‘s). The physical fitness proven to have a positive relationship with the
training schedules were for twelve weeks for physical fitness healthy functioning of all of these areas [7].
exercises and it was arranged between the first semester final In addition to the physical benefits of physical fitness,
exam and Second Semester final- Exam. The intensity for researchers have found relationships between physical fitness
exercises were low to moderate, for three days per week and cognitive functioning [2]. Past literature consistently
(Monday, Wednesday and Saturday) after their regular classes supports participation in movement and exercise, which leads to
for experimental group. Data was analyzed using computerized the reduction of stress, improvement of emotional state, and
statistical package software (SPSS) T-test and correlation was helps one to function comfortably. Brain Gym exercises and
used to analyze the data. The physical fitness and academic balanced movements have been proven to reduce anxiety [8].
results showed that experimental group's was greatly improved Physical fitness has also been linked to higher levels of self-
from first to second semester. But control group's decreased the esteem and lower levels of anxiety, which are associated with
mean value of GAPs from first to second semester. As exhibited higher academic performance in the classroom [8][1][3]. The
in the results the correlation coefficient of experimental group on relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement
muscular strength, and flexibility showed moderate significant has received attention because of the increasing number of
positive correlation with academic performance. On the other children who are unhealthy and physically unfit. Also, schools
hand body composition had moderate significant negative are feeling the pressure to meet academic standards [5].
correlation. With the exception of the cardiovascular endurance Unfortunately, students are not receiving ample amount of
and muscular endurance results showed very high significant physical activities at school. At school level the communities like
positive correlations with academic performance among the parents and teachers are giving more attention to academic areas
experimental group. This study proved that there is a significant than physical fitness activity. Understanding the relationship
relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement. between physical fitness and academic success is crucial. That is
why it is needed to conduct this research. Thus, this research was
Index Terms- Physical fitness; Academic achievement. conducted to investigate the relationship between physical fitness
and academic achievement.

I. INTRODUCTION
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
P hysical activity during every school day is essential for
numerous reasons. Physical fitness, mental health and social
interaction. Regular physical activity increases the amount of
2.1Description of the Study Area and Period

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The study was conducted at Haramaya University Model sample was 20 (10 female and 10 male) from six grade (section
School which is found in Haramaya University main campus. A and B) students. For experimental and control group allotment
The School is located at 09o 24’ 27” latitudes north and 42o 02’ of the students were done by random method. Thus, there were
05” longitudes east. The mean annual rainfall, mean maximum total two groups, one experimental and one control group. In
and minimum temperature, is, 780.00 mm, 24.4 oC and 8.25 oC, group one 5 female and 5 male and in group two 5 female and 5
respectively, (HARC 1996). The experiment was conducted in male.
the months of March, April and May 2013. The data were taken
from the designed parameters (Physical Fitness test) and 2.4 Data Collecting Instrument
academic achievement in term of their GPA’s. The GPA’s for the The quantitative data was collected through five health
students were collected from Haramaya University Model School related physical tests. Experimental materials such as Weight
record office. The source of population was Model School grade machine,, exercise mats, stopwatch, jumping ropes, wood ruler
sixth students. The total number of student in grade six was 63. and whistle were used during training as well as for the tests in
The subjects were from different family background, this study. For this study, the stratified random sampling
homogeneous in their academic activities and at the same age technique was used to select 20 samples of subjects from 63
level (11-13yrs). students

2.2 The Study Design 2.5Methods and Procedures of Data Collection


The experiment design was used for this study. The training Quantitative data was collected through physical fitness
schedule was for twelve weeks for physical fitness exercises and parameters' and GPAS The data was recorded with the help of
it was arranged between the first semester final exam and Second two assistance data recorders who had been Sport Science
Semester final- Exam. The intensity for exercises were low to teachers at Model School. The experimental field tests and
moderate, for three days per week (Monday, Wednesday and exercise procedures were strictly administered and standardized
Saturday) after their regular classes for experimental group. in terms of administration, organization and implementation
There was no training schedule for control group but tests were conditions.
conducted for them.
2.6 Physical Fitness Test Analysis
2.3Sample Size and Sampling Techniques The changes in the following physical fitness variable
For this study, the stratified random sampling technique was parameters were recorded especially before and after training in
used to select the sample from 63 students. The total size of the terms of pre test and post test

Fitness test Health related physical fitness

Nine meter running /walking test Cardio vascular endurance

Ninety degree push up test Muscular strength

Trunk lift test Muscular strength

Sit and reach test Flexibility

BMI Body composition

2.7Method of Data Analysis


Academic data was collected from Grade Point Averages. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
GPAs were taken from first and Second Semester final-- Exam of The variables selected for the study were cardiovascular
the 2012/ 2013 school year from HUMs record office. Data was endurance, muscular strength, flexibility and BMI. For academic
analyzed using computerized statistical package software (SPSS) achievement first and second semester final exam were taken for
for descriptive statistics mean, standard deviation, maximum and both group. The participation rate was 100%, i.e. there was no
minimum values, while the relationships between the variables dropout due to physical or psychological problem Demographic
were determined by linear correlation coefficients. degree of Characteristics and the results of the study are given in the
relationship is expressed by coefficient which range from following tables.
correlation (-1< r > +1) and the standard significant value p<
0.05.

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Table 1: Distribution of participants by age and sex Total __ 20 100%

Sex Age Number of Percent Table 1 showed the distribution of participants by age and
students(N) (%) sex. The distribution of student by sex group was 50% of boys
Male 11-13 10 50% and 50% girls were with the age of 11-13

Female 11-13 10 50%

Table2: The comparative mean and Standard deviation values of physical fitness parameters of experimental group and
control group

EG CG
PARM Mean ± SD Mean ± SD

PT DT PoT PT DT PoT

PUT 6.9 ± 2.5 7.8 ± 2.52 11.3 ± 2.94 7.3 ± 2. 8.1 ± 2.84 8.4 ± 2.71

NMRT 9.52±187.65 10.50 ± 194.8 11.23 ±195.65 10.06 ±131.90 10.36 ± 144.4 10.26 ± 150.34

TLT 37.30± 4.27 38.60 ± 4.22 41.68 ± 3.34 38.30 ± 5.27 38.75 ± 3.02 38.38 ± 4.08
SRT 5.6±1.99 6.95±1.72 9.72±1.28 7.50±1.58 8.14±1.53 8.19±1.74
BMI 18.80±2.269 19.29±2.38 19.56 ±2.266 19.32 ±2.18 19.33±2.022 19. 25±03

Values are mean + Standard deviation, EG=experimental group, CG= control group, PT= pre- test, DT= during test, PoT= post-
test, PUT= push up test, NMRT= nine meter running test, and TLT= trunk lift test, SRT= sit and reach test and BMI= body mass
index, PARM= parameters
The table 2 showed that there was an improvement of push exercise that they took in the training schedule. The results
up, trunk lift, nine meter running and sits and reach test for clearly showed that exercise can have great effect on their
experimental group as compared to control group. The mean physical fitness.
difference revealed that there was an improvement in the As indicated in table 2 the control group decreased on their
performance of fitness parameters due to exercise in which they physical fitness parameters. In BMI the control group decreased
were engaged in. The mean value of push up of experimental from 19.32 to19.25 and nine meter running increased from 10.06
group was increased from pre to post test, in pre test push up to10.26 from pre to post tests respectively, but in other
performance was 6.9 but after 12 weeks it was recorded as 11.3. parameters slight improvements had been observed. The push up,
Alike push up, nine meter running test, and trunk lift trunk lift and sit and reach performance were increased by 7.3 to
performance was increased from 9.52 to 11.23 and 37.03 to 8.4, 38.30 to 38.38 and 7.50 to 8.19 respectively. The result
41.68 respectively, in the same way the improvement was showed that the experimental group improved more than control
observed in sit and reach (5.6 to 9.72), body mass index (18.80 to group in all health related physical fitness components.
19.56) test from pre to post test. The rationale behind the
improvement in physical fitness performance was due to the

Table 2: The mean value difference and significance results between experimental and control groups from pre to post test

Variables Test EGMD EGS (p) CGMD CGS (p)

Push up test 4.4 0.000 1.1 0.12


Nine meter run test 1.71 0.000 0.20 0.451
Trunk lift test 4.38 0.000 0.08 0.902
Sit & Reach test 4.12 0.000 0.69 0.94
Body mass index test 0.76 0.000 0.07 0.519

EGMD=Experimental Group Mean Difference EGS=Experimental Group Significance, CGMD=Control Group Mean Difference
CGS=Control Group Significance

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As data (table 3) indicated that there was significant group. This showed experimental group increased their
difference in experimental group performance as compare to the cardiovascular endurance than control group. Alike other
control group. The experimental group showed big change on parameters experimental group showed great mean values
physical fitness after 12 weeks of exercise schedule as compared difference on trunk lift and sit and reach test, the recorded mean
to control group. The mean value difference of pre to post test difference was 4.38 and 4.12 for experimental group and 0.08
among experimental group for pushups, nine meters run test, and 0.69 for control group. This proved that the experimental
trunk lift test, sit and reach test and BMI was 4.4,1.71,4.38,4.12 group showed that a great improvement on flexibility and
and 0.76, respectively, whereas, for control group the mean muscular endurance than control group. The mean value
differences were 1.1,2.01,0.08.0.69 and 0.07 for each physical difference of experimental group BMI was 0.76 and control
fitness parameters, respectively. group was 0.07. This mean difference value showed that
The mean value difference of experimental group showed experimental group higher improved their body mass index than
that their muscular strength was improved higher than control control group.
group. In the same way the mean value difference of nine meter
running was 1.71 for experimental group and 0.20 for control

Table 3: The measured and calculated mean values of academic achievement of experimental group and control group,
2012\2013 school year.

Experimental Group Control Group

Academic Test Mean ± SD P Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD P


Variables

GAPS FSGPA - SSGPA FSGPA SSGPA -

79.77 ±11.27 0.000 83.16 ± 11.32 78.44 ± 5.87 77.49 ± 5.65 0.14

GAPs=grade average points, FSGAP = first semester grade average point, SSGAP = second semester grade average point, SD=
standard deviation.
the exercise in which the students engaged in. Whereas, the
As indicated in Table 4, the experimental group's GAPs control group participants decreased their GAPs mean value of
mean value was increased from the first to the second semester from first to second semester (78.44 →77.49).
(79.77→83.16). The rationale behind this improvement might be

Table 5 Correlation coefficients and significant of academic measurements with physical fitness parameters among
experimental and control groups of Model School of Haramaya University

Experimental Group Control Group

No Variables N correlation Significant correlation Significant


1 PUPRT &FSGAP 10 0.566 0.0207 0.271 -0.300
2 PUPOT & SSGAP 10 0.614 0.0183 -0.314 -0.106
3 NMRPRT & FSGAP 10 0.705 0.0137 0.151 -0.039
4 NMRPOT & SSGAP 10 0.981 0.009 0.312 -0.164
5 TLPRT & FSGAP 10 0.894 0.049 0.374 0.356
6 TLPOT & SSGAP 10 0.967 -0.015 0.314 0.316
7 SRPRT & FSGAP 10 0.418 0.0457 0.015 0.235
8 SRPOT & SSGAP 10 0.685 0.0289 0.274 0.147
9 BMIPRT & FSGAP 10 0.399 -0.0350 0.122 -0.256
10 BMIPOT & SSGAP 10 0.825 -0.0300 0.267 -0.380

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FSGAPS =first semester grade average points, SSGAPS also go to my assistant supervisor Solomon Tilahun Sport
=second semester grade average points, PUPRT =push up pre Science staff member of the School for his support and provision
test, PUPOT=push up post test, NMRPRT=nine meter run pre of materials. My particular gratitude and appreciation go to my
test, NMRPOT= nine meter run post test TLPRT=trunk lift pre family, friends, HU Model School students and School
test, TLPOT=trunk lift post test, SRPRT=sit and reach pre test, administrators.
SRPOT=sit and reach post test, BMIPRT=body mass index pre
test, BMIPOT=body mass index post test, EG= experimental
group, CG=control group the degree of relationship is expressed REFERENCES
by coefficient which range from correlation (-1< r > +1) and the [1] Ekeland, E., F. Heian, K. Hagen, B. Abott, and L. Nordheim, 2004.
standard significant value p< 0.05. Exercise to improve self-esteem in children and young people. The
The results showed that there was an improvement of push Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. (1):, CD003683.
up, trunk lift, nine meter running and sit and reach test for [2] Emery, C., R. Shermer and E. Hauck, 2003. Cognitive and psychological
outcomes of exercise in a 1-year follow-up study of patients with chronic
experimental group when it was compared from pre to post test obstructive 129 pulmonary diseases. Health Psychology, 22: 598-604.
measurements. The control group also improved in some aspects [3] Flook, L., Repetti, R. L., and Ullman, J. B., (2005). Classroom social
but it was not that much. The academic results showed that experiences as predictors of academic performance. Developmental
experimental group's GAPs were greatly improved from first to Psychology, 41 (2):319-327.
second semester. But in control group the mean value of GAPs [4] Hansen, C., L. Stevens and J. Coast, 2001. Exercise duration and mood
from first to second semester was decreased. The significance state: how much is enough to feel better? Health Psychology, 20: 267-275.
results showed that experimental group improved academic [5] Maeda, J.K. and N.M. Murata, 2004. Collaborating with classroom teachers
to increase daily physical activity: The GEAR program. JOPERD., 17(5):
achievement (GPAs) due to participation of physical activities. In 42-46.
other hand the results indicated that there was slight [6] Shephard, R., 1983 . Physical activity and the healthy mind. Canadian
improvement had been observed on their physical fitness except Medical Association Journal, 128: 525-530.
BMI . [7] Schneider, K., B. Spring, S. Pagoto and L. Sherry, 2007. Affective benefits
The correlation coefficient of experimental group on of exercise while quitting smoking: Influence of smoking-specific weight
concern. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21:255-260.
muscular strength and flexibility showed moderate significant
[8] Wolfsont, C., 2002. Increasing behavioral skills and level of
positive correlation with academic performance. And body understanding in adults: A brief method of integrating Dennison's Brain
composition had moderate significant negative correlation. Gym balance with Piaget's reflective processes. Journal of Adult
With the exception of the cardiovascular endurance and muscular Development, 9(3):
endurance results showed very high significant positive
correlations with academic performance among the experimental
group. AUTHORS
First Author – Aklilu Seifu Adesa, Instructor, Model School,
Haramaya University Campus, Ethiopia
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Second Author – Sangeeta Rani, Assistant Professor, Haramaya
Regular participation in physical activity had a significant University, Haramaya, Ethiopia
effect on the improvement and enhancement of physical fitness Third Author – Negussie Bussa, Assistant Professor, Haramaya
performance and improved academic achievements. The school University, Haramaya, Ethiopia
participants, who took part in the regular physical activity had
improve their physical fitness and academic achievement as
compared to control group. Participation in regular exercises is
very important for school children for overall development.
There was a strong correlation between academic achievement
and physical fitness. The improvements in academic
achievements and physical fitness were clearly shown during pre
and post test of the study

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank my God for helped me to finish
the research work, lead to successful completion of the study and
everything he gave me. I would like to express my deepest
gratitude to Dr.Sangeeta Rani, my major thesis advisor and Dr.
Nigussie Bussa my thesis co-advisor for their constructive
comments and encouragements throughout this study. It would
have been impossible to complete this study without their
unreserved support and guidance. Also thanks go to Haramaya
University Model School students' and management for
providing me with relevant information and support. My thanks

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Socio-cultural and Religious plants used by BODO


tribes of BTC, Assam, India
Sanjib Brahma1*.Hwiyang Narzary2, Jayeeta Brahma3
1
*Department of Botany, Science College, Kokrajhar-783370, BTC, Assam, India
2
Department of Biothecnology,Bodoland University,Kokrajhar-783370,BTC,Assam,India
3
Department of Botany, Science College, Kokrajhar-783370, BTC, Assam, India

Abstract- Bodos are the major tribe inhabiting in BTC. The Bodos have rich cultural and social heritage. They have their
own religion and language. Since Bodos are living around the forest and nature; they have some traditional believes and knowledge in
plants and forests. Perhaps the availability and richness of forest and plants of the areas where they inhabit may be the important
reasons how they get influence with plants and forests in their socio-cultural and religious life. The Scientific documentation of the
plant species which are used in socio-cultural and religious activities will definitely give encouragement to the community tribal
people. The preservation of their indigenous knowledge with plant and forest may be important tools for conservation of these plant
species. In this paper, a total of 48 plant species from 36 different families are documented.
Index Terms- Socio-cultural and religious plant, Traditional, Bodo tribe, Assam

V. INTRODUCTION
he state of Assam is constituent unit of Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity region. Assam (89 050/ E to 96010/ E and 24030/ N to
T 28010/ N), a North Eastern state of India, is reach in biological diversity [8]. The total geographical area of the state is 78438 sq.
km. out of which28761 sq. km.is covered by forest. Assam has been endowed with a variety of forest type on account of its unique
geographical terrain. The array of floristic richness has permitted many scholars to describe Assam as the ‘Biological Gateway’ of
North East India
The Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) occurs in lower Assam. It covers 3539.95 sq. km. area of forest which is located
along the international boundary with Bhutan. The entire northern belt of the forest is situated in sub Himalayan alluvial tract of
typical formation known as Bhabar tract. The demography of BTC is dominated by Bodos, an aboriginal tribal community of Assam
and has distinct culture and heritage. The Bodos in the course of time have synthesized a vast knowledge in respect of acquiring and
gathering knowledge of herbal medicines out of wild plants for healing and curing of ailments and they are culturally and socially
intertwined with forest around them [9].They worship their God near ‘Bathou Gudi’ie the usual sacred place. This type of sacred place
is found in every countryard in the north-east side of its followers. When this place is taken for social gathering in a field, it is called
‘Bathou Shalee’. The supreme God of the Bathouists is ‘Anan Gosai’ or ‘Bathoubari’ or ‘Sibrai’. ‘Sibrai’ is called by more names
also. ‘Shiva’ is his Hindu counterpart [10]. The socio-cultural and religious activity of Bodos has served the purpose of conserving
their traditional heritage with plants since the time immemorial. Though Bodos have their own traditional religions the modern Bodos
follows different religions like Bathou-Kherai, Brahma, Hinduism, and Christianity.

I. MATERIALS AND METHOD

The present study was carried out among the Bodo Tribe inhabiting in four districts viz. Kokrajhar, Chirang, Baksa and
Udalguri district of BTC, Assam, India. The information regarding the utility of different plants in different religious and socio-
cultural activities was collected from elderly person and religious headman. The survey was carried out among local population and
the community people was met in their residential areas. The visit was repeated for several times as requisite information for proposed
work until was completed. Data was collected by questionnaire, interviews and discussion among local headman in their local
language.

The knowledgeable person was engaged with us to the location site where they have seen the plants. The collected plant
specimens were carefully identified with the help of experts and by referring relevant scientific literatures [1,4-7]. The specimens have
been preserved at Department of Botany, Science College, Kokrajhar. Few of the plant species were photographed during field study
and sample collection.

II. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The present study could document 48 plant species from 36 families which are associated with the socio-cultural and
religious beliefs among the Bodo tribe of BTC. These plant species are used regularly by them in various socio-cultural and religious

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activities. The plant species of the present study are arranged in alphabetically with their Botanical name, family, Bodo name and uses
as shown in Table 1. A total of 49 photographs of 49 plant species are also presented in this paper.

Table 1. List of plant species used by Bodo tribe in socio-cultural and religious activities.

Sl.no Scientific name Family Bodo name Uses


1 Aegle marmelos (L) Rutaceae Bel Leaves are used in offering to
Corr. Serr. please Lord Shiva. This plant is
considered as plant of ‘Bwrai
Bathou’ (Lord Shiva).
2 Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae. Sambram gupur Plant is used to drive away the
evil spirits.
3 Alpina allughas Rose. Zingiberaceae Tarai Used in ‘Gwka-gwkwi’a kind
of social curry prepared during
‘Bwisagu’ the Assam new year.
4 Ananas comosus (L.) Bromeliaceae Anaros Young leaves are used in the
Merr. preparation of ‘Amao’ the
starter cake for ‘Jwo’ a kind of
country made rice beer which is
cultural and social drinks of
Bodos.
5 Anthocephalus Rubiaceae Kwdwm The plant is believed as a plant
cadamba of Lord Krishna.
(Roxb.) Miq.

6 Antidesma diandrum Phyllanthaceae Lapasaiko Used in Gwka-gwkwi a kind of


(Roxb.) social curry prepared during
‘Bwisagu’ the Assam new year.
7 Aquilaria agallocha Thymelaeaceae Agru Agru aroma is used as
Roxb. fragrance during worship. This
aroma is believed as fragrance
of heaven.
8 Areca catechu L. Arecaceae Goi It considered as holy fruits and
used in offering to God and
Goddess.
9 Bambusa tulda Roxb. Poaceae Owa Bamboo plant has relation from
birth to death of Bodo people.
Sharp bamboo stick is used to
cut the nari() of new born baby.
They also use bamboo shang
(carriage) which is prepared by
tying with rope of cane
(raidwng) strictly to carry the
death soul.
10 Benincasa hispida Cucurbitaceae Kumbra Mature enough fruits called
Thunb. ‘kunbra bwrai’ are used in
preparation of ‘Napam’ a
fermented fish. ‘Napam’ is a
traditional heritage and social
dish of Bodos.
11 Bixa orellana Linn Bixaceae. Sindur bipang The red dyes over the seed coat
are used during worship.
12 Brassica compestris L. Brassicaceae Besor Seeds are used to drive away
the evil spirits. Seed oil is used
to lighten the lamp during
worship.
13 Clerodendum Verbenaceae Lwkwna Twig of flowers are used in
infortunatum Gaertn. celebration of ‘Bwisagu’ the

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Assam new year. Young leaves


are used in the preparation of
‘Amao’ the starter cake for
‘Jwo’ a kind of country made
rice beer which is cultural and
social drinks of Bodos.
14 Calamus latifolius Arecaceae Raidwng The plant is used as rope to tie
Roxb. during preparation of many
social and cultural articles of
Bodos. Young tendered shoot-
apex is used in ‘Gwka-gwkwi’
a kind of social curry prepared
during Assam new year.
15 Curcuma amarissima Zingiberaceae Katri bipang Twig of flowers are used in
L.Roscoe. celebration of ‘Bwisagu’ the
Assam new year. Leaves are
used as traditional packaging
materials.
16 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Ganja Used during worship of Lord
Shiva.
17 Costus speciosus Koen Costaceae Buritokon Young shoots are used in
ex.Retz. celebration of ‘Bwisagu’ the
Assam new year. Used in
Gwka-gwkwi a kind of social
curry prepared during
‘Bwisagu’ the Assam new year.
18 Canna indica L. Cannaceae Pajati The flower of this plant is
believed as flower of heaven.
19 Canarium bengalensis Burseraceae Dhuna The brownish clear resin of this
Roxb. plant is use as fragrance during
worship.
20 Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae Parvati pul Flower is used to offer Goddess
(L.)G.Don ‘Parvati’.
21 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Haldwi This plant is regarded as holy
plant. Bathing with rhizome
extract before doing any sacred
work is seen among the Bodos.
22 Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Narengkol It is considered as holy fruits
and used in offering to God and
Goddess.
23 Colocasia esculenta Taso Used in preparation of ‘Napam’
Araceae
(L.)Schott. a fermented fish. ‘Napam’ is a
traditional heritage and social
dish of Bodos.
24 Corchorus capsularis Malvaceae Patw (Narji) Dry leaves are used in
L. preparation of a social curry
‘narji wngkri’. Dry leaves are
also used in ritual believes of
Bodos to cut off relation with
departed soul.
25 Cynodon dactylon Poaceae Dubri hagra The twigs of leaves are used in
(L)Pers. holy water (Dwi Santi) during
worship.
26 Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Datura Used during worship of Lord
Shiva.
27 Dillenia indica L. Dilleniaceae Taigir The persistent calyx (false fruit)
is used in lightning during
Kartik gasa i.e. lamp of ‘Kartik’
the Assam month. The five

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persistent calyx of this plant is


significantly mentioned in
‘Bathou’ prayer.
28 Eleocarpus ganitrus Eleocarpaceae Undurmala The beaded chain prepared
(Roxb.) from the seeds of this plant is
used during the worship of
‘Bwrai Bathou’ (Lord Shiva).
29 Erianthus spp. Poaceae Engkwr Plants are used in ‘Bathou’the
alter of Bodos. This plant is
also use in construction of
traditional kutcha house of
Bodos.
30 Euphorbia neriifolia Euphorbiaceae Sejou In the preparation of ‘Bathou’
Linn. the alther of Bodos this plant is
surrounded by a round fence of
five bamboo strips. This plant is
regarded as plants of ‘Bwrai
Bathou’ (Lord Shiva).
31 Entada gigas Gila Seeds are used in indigenous
Fabaceae
(L)Fawc&Rendle sports ‘Gila gelenai’.

32 Ficus religiosa Linn. Moraceae Pakri Bodos worship their God under
this tree.It is believed as a plant
of Lord Krishna. They have
ritual of offering drinking water
to death soul with leaves of this
plant.
33 Ficus bengalensis L. Moraceae Dhob This plant is considered as
devils plant.
34 Hibiscus rosa sinensis Malvaceae Joba pul This flower is used for offering
L. to God and Goddess.
35 Imperata cylindrical Poaceae Turi The plant is used as tacth for
(L)P.Beauv. rooping for a kutcha house.
Bodos have their own
traditionally design kutcha
house.
36 Justicia gendarussa Acanthaceae Jatrasi The twig of leaves is used in
Burm.f. holy water (Dwi Santi) during
worship.
37 Leucas aspera Lamiaceae Kansingsa The flower of this plant is
(Willd.)Linn. specially used in offering to
please the Lord Shiva.
38 Laportea crenulata Urticaceae Koma The leaves with stinging hairs
Goud of this plant are used for
irritating the guilty person as a
social punishment.
39 Musa paradisiacal L. Musaceae Tailir Whole parts of the plant are
used in social and religious
activities. Fruits are used for
offering. Portion of leave apex
called ‘laijwo’ and portion of
petiole called laikong are used
as article for offering.
40 Maranta sp. Marantaceae Laihulai Used in making of ‘Kopri’ a
traditional and cultural bamboo
article. Bodos are use Kopri as
umbrella in rain.
41 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Taijwo Leaves are used in offering.

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42 Nephrodium Dryopteridaceae Saldaokumwi This plant is used to keep away


cucallatum (Blume) of evil spirit from ill soul of
Baker. humans.
43 Ocimum sanctum Linn. Lamiaceae Tulsi The twig of leaves is used in
holy water (Dwi Santi) during
worship.
Oryza sativa Poaceae Mai Seeds are used in many
religious occasion of Bodos.
44 Piper betle L. Patwi Leaves are used in offering.
Piperaceae
Bodos have rituals of ‘Patwi lai
bisinai’ i.e. teacing of betel
leaves during divorce.
45 Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Indi bipang Leaves are used as food plant
Linn. for eri-silk. The rearing of eri-
silk worm is traditional heritage
of Bodo women.
46 Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae Bongpang rakeb Young leaves are used in the
preparation of ‘Amao’ the
starter cake for ‘Jwo’ a country
made rice beer which is cultural
and social drinks of Bodos.
47 Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae Sebeng Seeds are used in preparation of
rice cake (pitha) a social cake
during festival “Domasi”.
48 Tabernaemontana Apocynaceae Pul daodwi This flower is used in offering
divaricata R.Br. ex God and Goddess.
Roem & Schult.

Daemonorops angustifolia Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Ocimum sanctum Linn


(Giff) Mart.

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Canna indica L. Piper bittle L. Dillenia indica L.

Alpina allughas Rose Ficus religiosa Linn Justicia gendarussa Burm.f.

Ficus bengalensis L Aegle marmelos (L) Corr. Serr. Datura stramonium L.

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Ricinus communis Linn. Nephrodium cucallatum Leucas aspera (Willd.) Linn.


(Blume) Baker.

Laportea crenulata Goud Imperata cylindrical (L) P. Beauv. Sesum indicum L.

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Bambusa tulda Roxb. Eleocarpus ganitrus (Roxb). Clerodendum infortunatum Gaertn.

Curcuma longa L. Cocos nucifera L. Euphorbia neriifolia Linn.

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Cynodon dactylon (L) Pers Ananas comosus (L) Merr Musa paradisiacal L.

Scoparia dulcis L. Mangifera indica L. Tabernaemontana divaricata


R .Br.ex Roem & Schult.

Brassica compestris L. Cannabis sativa L. Allium sativum L.

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Corchorus capsularis L. Colocasia esculanta (L) Schott. Anyhocephalus cadamba

(Roxb) Miq.

Oryza sativa L. Areca catechu L. Benincasa hispida Thunb.

III. CONCLUSION

These studies of socio-cultural and religious plant of Bodos make us understand that how plants are important in human life.
Though we frequently talk about some commercial species which are used in Food, medicine, cloth and shelters, but there are plants
which are less known to us and without of which the socio-cultural and religious heritage of human kind is incomplete.

On the other hand these studies make us understand how community people are contributing in conservation of plants and
forest of their own interest to check their inherent socio-culture and religious activities. These activities of conserving and using of
plant species in the name of socio-cultural and religion has significance in today’s crisis of biodiversity conservation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors are thankful to villagers and religious headmen who are involved in this work for their kind assistance and
useful information.

REFERENCES

[1] H. Narzary, S. Brahma, S. Basumatary; Wild Edible Vegetables Consumed by Bodo Tribe of Kokrajhar District (Assam), North- East India , Arch. Appl. Sci.
Res.,2013,5(5): 182-190.

[2] Vijay Shrma and B.D. Joshi; Role of Sacred Plants in Religion and Health-care system of local people of Almora district of Uttarakhand State (India)., Academic
Arena, 2010;2(6).

[3] Ahirwar J.R.; Socio-Religious Importance of Plants in Bundelkhand Region of India; Res. J. Recent Sci., Vol. 2(ISC-2012), 1-4 (2013) .

[4] J.D. Hooker; The Flora of British India, L.Reeve & Co., London, 1872-1897, Vol. 1-7.

[5] B. Patiri, A. Borah; Wild edible plants of Assam, Director, Forest communication, Forest Department, Assam, 2007.

[6]U.N.Kanjilal et.al.; Flora of Assam, Govt. of Assam, Shillong, 1934-1940, Vol 1-4.

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[7] H. Hara; The Flora of Eastern Himalaya, Reports I&II, Tokyo University, Tokyo, 1966.

[8] S.Basumatary, J.Chem.Bio. Phy. Sci., 2012-2013, 3(1), 551-558.

[9] BTC Forest Department, Profile on Forest and Wildlife of Bodoland Territorial Council.

[10] L. Brahma, Religion and dances of the Bodos., 1993

AUTHORS
*Corresponding author
1
*Sanjib Brahma,Head of the Department(HOD),Department of Botany, Science College, Kokrajhar.,Kokrajhar-783370, BTC,
Assam, India.,Email: [email protected].
2
Hwiyang Narzary, Assistant Prof., Department of Biothecnology,Bodoland University,Kokrajhar-783370,BTC,Assam,India.
3
Jayeeta Brahma , Assistant Prof., Department of Botany, Science College, Kokrajhar.,Kokrajhar-783370, BTC, Assam, India.

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FREON LEAKAGE
Zeljka Vukovic 1*, Dusan Regodic2
1
Department of management engineering systems,
University Singidunum, Belgrade, Serbia
2
Dean of Faculty for IT, University Sinergija, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract - All types of Freon, including those that do not contain chlorine and are not considered Ozone-depleting substances,
have negative effects to the environment because they contribute to global warming. As a result of the harmful effects Freon has upon
the environment, numerous research studies of existing refrigeration systems have been carried out. Some of those studies were related
to the quantity of Freon that leaks out into the atmosphere, while others were related to what causes Freon to leak. The results of a
research on quantity of Freon emissions from refrigerating systems in Serbia are shown in this paper. These findings are important
since they represent the starting point when defining measures aimed at reducing Freon emissions and leakage from refrigeration and
air conditioning systems.
Index terms - Global warming, F-Gas Regulation, Freon leak, refrigeration systems.

I. INTRODUCTION

S erbia has ratified both the Montreal and the Kyoto Protocol treaties, except that regulations of these protocols are not the same for
Serbia and developed countries. Serbia has not signed the F-Gas Regulation yet and still lags behind developed countries in this
respect. This paper presents the results of a research on the quantity of Freon leaked out of the refrigeration systems in supermarkets
and describes what measures, in accordance to the EU legislations, are taken when installing refrigeration systems using Freon.
The amount of Freon currently released to the environment needs to be established in order to take appropriate measures for
reducing Freon leakage.
Freon is widely used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems in foodservice facilities (such as petrol stations,
convenience stores, grocery stores and supermarkets), cold storages for cooling and freezing food and transportation vehicles.
Refrigeration systems in super- and hypermarkets contain the largest quantity of refrigerant which is proportional to their size.
Moreover, refrigeration systems in these facilities use numerous branch circuits and consist of long pipelines containing large amounts
of refrigerant, so pipes tend to burst more often. This can be potentially harmful to the environment and therefore more attention is
being paid to refrigeration systems in super- and hypermarkets as well as to refrigerants.
Small convenience stores, mostly, do not have refrigeration system with central cooling units, yet cooling units are located in
cooling display cabinets (as household refrigerators). Regarding refrigerant leakage, the aforesaid convenience stores are less
dangerous than super – and hypermarkets because refrigerant is found in the cooling units of their cooling display cabinets.
Unlike EU countries, the South East European countries have far greater number of small convenience stores than
supermarkets [1] . The situation in Serbia is the same, even though the trend in the world today is decreasing number of small stores
and increasing number of supermarkets. The retail industry in Serbia is undergoing a transformation where key trends are showing
tendency towards declining significance of small stores that will certainly not be eliminated in the future, but their number will be
reduced.
It often happens that a large quantity of refrigerant leaks out into the environment due to refrigeration system failures and
repair service interventions. For this reason, it is very important to take this problem into consideration when selecting refrigerants
because of their negative environmental impact.

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A major part of refrigeration systems in foodservice facilities utilize Freon. CFC refrigerants are also banned in Serbia and
cannot be used not even for the purpose of equipment servicing, which implies that refrigeration systems using these refrigerants do
not exist in Serbia. HCFCs are being phased out, but there is still great number of refrigeration systems that utilize HCFC refrigerants.
As a result of the Montreal Protocol regulations, the number of refrigeration systems with HCFCs is being gradually reduced.
HFC refrigerants are mainly used in new refrigeration systems and the same thing is being also practiced in Serbia. In most countries
HFCs are not banned, however, developed countries have started imposing stricter regulatory measures on the use of HFCs since they
are categorised as having a high global warming potential (GWP).
Over the past three years, 2010, 2011 and 2012, the records of the quantity of Freon used during maintenance and equipment
repair service at 26 supermarkets in Serbia have been kept. The data for all three years (2010, 2011 and 2012,) were collected in
collaboration with company Soko Engineering. This company maintains refrigeration installations in 26 supermarkets that are the
subject of research.
All supermarkets had two types of refrigeration systems. The first one is the Medium Temperature system (MT) and it serves
to achieve temperature from +2 to +6ºC in cold rooms and cooling display cabinets. The other one is the Low Temperature system
(LT) which serves to achieve temperature from -22 to -18 ºC in cold rooms and cooling display cabinets. Determining Freon leakage
rate in both refrigeration systems has also been included in this research. The amount of refrigerant should always be the same in the
refrigeration system; hence it is important that the quantity of refrigerant recharge correspond to the quantity of refrigerant that has
leaked out.

II. RESEARCH ELABORATIONS


1.1. Research results in 2010.
Table 1 shows research results for 26 supermarkets in Serbia regarding Freon leakage rate in 2010.
Table 1: Freon leakage rate for supermarkets – 2010

First installation The amount of Refill freon in


Leakage
Supermarket of refrigeration refrigerant in the the system
(%)
system installation (kg) (kg)
1 2007 330 66 20,0
2 2004 157 0 0,0
3 2004 140 66 47,1
4 2007 157 0 0,0
5 2007 151 77 51,0
6 2007 136 66 48,5
7 2008 137 33 24,1
8 2008 108 0 0,0
9 2008 370 66 17,8
10 2006 602 231 38,4
11 2008 153 55 35,9
12 2009 95 11 11,6
13 2009 186 44 23,7
14 2004 123 33 26,8
15 2004 102 0 0,0

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16 2006 234 55 23,5


17 2006 125 0 0,0
18 2004 125 25 20,0
19 2007 146 33 22,6
20 2006 159 0 0,0
21 2006 146 55 37,7
22 2004 154 63 40,9
23 2004 126 55 43,7
24 2007 82 33 40,2
25 2008 85 0 0
26 2008 70 3 4,3
Average freon leakage rate in 26 supermarkets - 2010 [%] 22,2

1.2. Research results in 2011.


Table 2 shows research results for 26 supermarkets in Serbia regarding Freon leakage rate in 2011.
Table 2: Freon leakage rate for supermarkets – 2011

First installation The amount of Refill freon in


Leakage
Supermarket of refrigeration refrigerant in the the system
(%)
system installation (kg) (kg)
1 2007 330 117,6 35,6
2 2004 157 11 7,0
3 2004 140 0 0,0
4 2007 157 66 42,0
5 2007 151 20 13,2
6 2007 136 10 7,4
7 2008 137 55 40,1
8 2008 108 22 20,4
9 2008 370 45 12,2
10 2006 602 164 27,2
11 2008 153 33 21,6
12 2009 95 33 34,7
13 2009 186 110 59,1
14 2004 123 35 28,5
15 2004 102 5 4,9
16 2006 234 77 32,9
17 2006 125 0 0,0
18 2004 125 66 52,8
19 2007 146 60 41,1
20 2006 159 11 6,9
21 2006 146 91 62,3

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22 2004 154 73 47,4


23 2004 126 6 4,8
24 2007 82 0 0,0
25 2008 85 0 0
26 2008 70 5 3,5
Average freon leakage rate in 26 supermarkets - 2011 [%] 23,3

1.3. Research results in 2012.


Table 3 shows research results for 26 supermarkets in Serbia regarding Freon leakage rate in 2012.

Table 3. Freon leakage rate for supermarkets – 2012.

First installation The amount of


Refill freon in Leakage
Supermarket of refrigeration refrigerant in the
the system (kg) (%)
system installation (kg)
1 2007 330 56
17,0
2 2004 157 20
12,7
3 2004 140 10
7,1
4 2007 157 32
20,4
5 2007 151 10 6,6
6 2007 136 11 8,1
7 2008 137 11
8,0
8 2008 108 0
0,0
9 2008 370 44
11,9
10 2006 602 66
11,0
11 2008 153 22 14,4
12 2009 95 56 58,9
13 2009 186 11
5,9
14 2004 123 26
21,1
15 2004 102 18
17,6
16 2006 234 30
12,8
17 2006 125 11 8,8
18 2004 125 12 9,6
19 2007 146 16
11,0
20 2006 159 36
22,6
21 2006 146 6
4,1
22 2004 154 56
36,4
23 2004 126 16
12,7
24 2007 82 38 46,3
25 2008 85 40 47,1
26 2008 70 0 0,0

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Average freon leakage rate in 26 supermarkets - 2012 [%] 16,6

III. RESULTS OF FINDING


1.4. Comment and comparison with research results obtained in other countries
The research conducted in 2010 showed that annual Freon leakage rate was 22.2% out of the total operating charge. The
excessive Freon loss in the event of a catastrophic leak was taken into account as well. Regardless of all the precautionary measures,
catastrophic leaks occur and they have been taken into account in this research because it is the only way to get a real insight into the
amount of Freon that leaks out into the environment.
The average Freon leakage rate at 26 supermarkets in 2011 was 23.3% out of the total operating charge. Refrigeration
systems of these 26 supermarkets were relatively new which started operating between 2004 and 2009, so the leakage rate is lower
than the one in older refrigeration systems. Old and worn components, joints and devices within refrigeration systems can cause
increased Freon leakage.
In the first half of 2012 all filters with flared joints were replaced with filters with welded joints. All valves (solenoid, stop
valves...) were also replaced with valves with welded joint. That resulted in Freon leakage reduction, therefore the average Freon
leakage rate in 2012 at 26 supermarkets was 16.6%. Replacing flared joints with welded joints led to significant reduction of Freon
leakage compared with the years 2010 and 2011.
Refrigerant leakage is typical for all refrigeration systems and depends on the complexity of the system, working conditions,
maintenance methods and many other factors. In recent years research studies on Freon leakage has been carried out mostly all over
Europe and in the United States.
A study conducted in Germany reported annual Freon leakage rate for supermarket central refrigeration systems of between
5% and 10% [2]. In 2006, another research conducted at 21 supermarkets in the United States indicated refrigerant leakage rate of
around 8% [2]. Freon leakage in refrigeration systems that are 1 to 4 years old is below this level.
In Sweden, between 1996 and 2003 a research carried out at 450 supermarkets indicated Freon leakage rate of around 12%
[3]. According to the EIA (Environmental Investigation Agency), UK supermarkets are reported an 11% annualised refrigerant charge
loss. Furthermore, the agency reported leakage rates in other countries of between 5% and 22%.
Methods of installing central refrigeration systems in Serbia and in other countries around the world are not so different with
respect to installed components and implemented regulations and measures, especially in large supermarket chains. Serbia does not
have manufacturing companies of refrigeration system components (such as compressors, air cooled condensers, evaporators, oil
separators, receivers, valves, etc.), so all these components are being imported mainly from Italy, Germany and some from France.
Although the same principles, installation methods and the same quality of installed components are being respected, there are other
factors as well affecting the quality of refrigeration systems and thereby Freon leakage.
The aforesaid factors, comparing with other countries, are caused by inadequate education of contractors, service technicians
and service and maintenance engineers. Installing the Freon leak detector in the supermarket machine room, retail space and storage
rooms where cooling chambers are located can considerably contribute to Freon leakage reduction. Nowadays in most European
countries installation of the Freon leak detector is mandatory and stipulated by the F-Gas Regulation. The number of detectors to be
installed is based on the size of a machine room. Freon leak detector is simple device, very inexpensive in comparison to the price of
supermarket refrigeration system and long-term cost-effective for an investor himself because it will prevent Freon loss.
Freon price increase in the world and in Serbia will compel both installers and investors to take appropriate measures in order
to reduce Freon emissions. Refrigeration systems usually have 1 year limited warranty, so the interest of installation companies is to
have as less Freon leakage as possible within that period, in order to avoid greater costs by charging the refrigeration system with

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additional amounts of Freon. After the limited warranty expires the costs are defrayed by the investor, i.e. the purchaser. Until 2007
Freon prices were low, so speaking from this point of view, the problem of Freon emissions and leakage was not even considered.
In order to reduce Freon emissions many research aimed at detecting the most common causes of refrigerant leakage has been
conducted. For that purpose the Forshungsrat Kältetechnik investigated the causes of Freon leakage at 62 commercial refrigeration
systems in Germany which were installed between 1990 and 1999 [4] . The results showed that out of these 62 refrigeration systems,
19 were with central cooling units, 43 were decentralised systems, and refrigerant charge was of between 0, 7 and 360 kg. It was
determined that 83% of the total refrigerant loss was through joints. Empirical data obtained in Serbia is very similar to this research
conducted in Germany.
Figure 1 shows research results of the most common refrigerant leak points at 62 commercial refrigeration systems in
Germany.

Others
Evaporator
Valve
Service valve
Plug
Screw joint
Flange
Sight glass
Flare joint

0 5 10 15 20 25

Fig. 1. Refrigerant leak points (according to the number of leaks, not the quantity) at 62 commercial refrigeration
systems in Germany [4]

Since the great portion of leaks occurred at flared joints, the number of flared joints at refrigeration systems with central
cooling units was considerably reduced, and special attention was given to the points where pipe bursting occurs due to vibrations. A
lot of effort has been put into improving the quality of welded joints where Freon leak most often occurs (afore-mentioned research
refers to the number of leaks, and not to the amount of Freon that leaks out). The same measures are applied in Serbia as well when
installing refrigeration systems.
Figure 2 shows the most common causes that lead to refrigerant leakage, according to the research presented at the
International Congress of Refrigeration in China. 86% of refrigerant leaks are caused by mechanical wear-and-tear on the system and
vibration, as shown in the graph. The major portion of refrigerant leaks within mechanical wear-and-tear is related to flared joints.
These findings are important because they indicate that considerable leak reduction can be accomplished by improving the design of
cooling units, piping installation methods that would reduce vibrations and the quality of components and joints.

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Fig. 2. Most common causes of refrigerant leakage from the system [5]

1.5. Measures implemented in Serbia to reduce Freon leakage

Leakage reduction can be achieved by improving the quality of components, joints and installation methods. The use of anti-
vibration rubber feet or spring mounts under refrigeration compressors reduces vibration which causes 22% of Freon leaks. Figure 3
shows the anti-vibration rubber feet and spring mounts that are installed under the refrigeration compressors.

Fig. 3. Anti-vibration rubber feet and spring mounts for refrigeration compressors

Besides compressor, the matching anti-vibration feet are also installed under the central cooling unit for levelling and
vibration control. Figure 4 shows the anti-vibration rubber feet used for cooling units.

Fig. 4. Anti-vibration rubber feet for cooling units


To avoid vibration, the anti-vibration flexible hoses should be installed in the suction and discharge lines of the refrigeration
compressor. At cooling units these anti-vibration hoses are mounted in all incoming and outgoing pipes. Figure 5 shows the anti-
vibration flexible hose for refrigeration systems.

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Fig. 5. Anti-vibration flexible hose for refrigeration systems

Reduction of refrigerant charge can result in reduced refrigerant leakage. Arranging the refrigeration equipment in only one
section of the super-or hypermarket and installing the machine room closer to the cooling display cabinets and cooling rooms can
contribute to refrigerant charge reduction. Technical solutions such as this should be carried out during architectural design process
phase when good cooperation between architectural and mechanical engineers has to be established. Mechanical engineers, whose role
is to give guidance or instructions and to oversee the mechanical equipment installation, ought to take into account that the short-
length pipeline would result in reduced amount of refrigerant in the system.
Apart from afore-mentioned, reduction of the quantity of Freon in the refrigeration system can be accomplished by various
technical solutions. One of them is to use water-cooled instead of air-cooled condensers in order to reduce the amount of refrigerant
charge. In this manner the system would not have external units (air-cooled condensers) but water-cooled condensers placed in the
machine room next to the cooling units. Accordingly, the length of the pipeline between cooling unit and condenser is shorter, which
leads to reduced amount of refrigerant in the system [6].
Another efficient method to reduce the refrigerant charge is to use certain type of heat exchangers. If the air-cooled
condensers in the system are needed due to deficiency of clean water, then the optimum choice would be to use micro channel
condensers. The volume of these condensers is a few times less than the volume of standard air-cooled condensers of the same
capacity which are made of copper tubes with aluminium fins. The use of water-cooled or air-cooled micro channel condensers
enables easier compliance with the F-Gas Regulation and contributes to a real reduction in refrigerant leakage [6].
It should be mentioned as well that according to the F-Gas Regulation the frequency of leak testing depends on the amount of
Freon in the system, thereby leak checking needs to be done more frequently at systems containing larger amount of Freon.
Apart from the Montreal and Kyoto Protocol requirements, additional measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are being
applied in developed European countries. Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Austria and Sweden have introduced regulations that
prohibit the use of HFC refrigerants, which do not deplete the Ozone layer but have a high global warming potential (GWP). The tax
on refrigerants has not being yet introduced in Serbia and the only regulations put into effect are the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols.
Even though Serbia has not still signed the F-Gas Regulation, we should be working towards system upgrades and better
training of mechanical engineers, service and maintenance engineers and service companies because the opportunities to reduce
refrigerant emissions are most likely to be associated with improvements to service and maintenance regimes and procedures.

IV. CONCLUSION
In comparison with other developed countries, Freon leakage rate in Serbia is significantly higher.
Freon leak reduction can be accomplished in many ways. One way is replacement of flared with welded joints and the use of
flexible hose and anti-vibration feet under compressors. Decisive factor providing reduced amount of refrigerant charge in the system
is the choice of the machine room location and position of cooling devices in order to shorten the length of the pipeline.
In existing systems Freon leakage can be reduced by installing the leak detector, keeping records of service interventions and
providing training of engineers.

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REFERENCES
[1] Kaufeld M., (2009), Market Summary-Model Technologies, In: Comparative Assessment of the Climate Relevance of
Supermarket refrigeration Systems and Equipment, Rhiemeier J.-M., Dr Harnisch J., Ters C., Kaufeld M., Leisewitz A.,
Federal Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Germany, 30.
[2] Kaufeld M., (2009), Market Summary-Model Technologies, In: Comparative Assessment of the Climate Relevance of
Supermarket refrigeration Systems and Equipment, Rhiemeier J.-M., Harnisch J., Ters C., Kaufeld M., Leisewitz A., Federal
Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Germany, 112.
[3] Arias J., (2005), Energy Usage in Supermarkets – Modeling and Field Measurements, PhD Thesis, Royale Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.

[4] Kaufeld M., (2009), Market Summary-Model Technologies, In: Comparative Assessment of the Climate Relevance of
Supermarket refrigeration Systems and Equipment, Rhiemeier J.-M., Harnisch J., Ters C., Kaufeld M., Leisewitz A., Federal
Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Germany, 111.
[5] Hoglund R., (2006), Supermarket refrigerant leak reduction taskforce, FMI Energy and Technical Services Conference,
USA.
[6] Vukovic Z., (2012), Reducing the quantity of freon in cooling systems for supermarkets, Proceedings of the 43rd
International Congress on Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning, Belgrade, Serbia, 5-7.12.2012., 123.

AUTHORS
First author Zeljka Vukovic M.Sc.M.E., University Singidunum, Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected].
Second author prof Dusan Regodic, Dean of Faculty for IT, University Sinergija, Bijeljina, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
[email protected].
Correspodence author Zeljka Vukovic M.Sc.M.E, e-mail: [email protected], contact number:+381 64 826 25 36.

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Distribution of digestive enzymes in the gut of American


cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.)
Oluwakemi Oyebanji*, Olalekan Soyelu*, Adekunle Bamigbade**, Raphael Okonji **
*
Department of Crop Production and Protection, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220005, Osun State, Nigeria
**
Department of Biochemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220005, Osun State, Nigeria

Abstract- Adult male and female cockroaches, Periplaneta into homes and commercial establishments. At least 22 species of
americana (L.) were assayed for the presence of digestive pathogenic human bacteria, virus, fungi, and protozoans, as well
enzymes in the fore-, mid- and hindgut regions. Activities of α- as five species of helminthic worms, have been isolated from
amylase, β-amylase, γ-amylase, proteinase and lipase were field-collected cockroaches (Rust et al., 1991).
detected in the three gut regions except for the absence of γ- The digestive system functions to break down and absorb
amylase and lipase in female hindgut. The presence of these nutrients for maintenance, survival and reproduction in insects.
enzymes partly explains the polyphagous feeding habit of P. The long and somewhat coiled digestive tube in P. americana
americana, enabling the insect species to digest a wide variety of could be divided into three regions: the foregut which includes
food substances. In some instances, significant differences in the mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, crop, and the
enzyme activities were observed between sexes and among gut proventriculus or the gizzard; the midgut which includes the
regions. Generally, enzyme activity was highest in the midgut ventriculus, gastric caeca and malphigian tubules; and the
followed by the fore- and hindgut in descending order. Despite hindgut comprising ileum, colon and rectum. The occurrence of a
this trend, a considerable level of proteinase and male lipase was multitude of digestive enzymes in the gut of cockroaches is
observed in the hindgut suggesting that it might be necessary to consistent with their omnivory and feeding adaptability.
give extra attention to hindgut activities in future studies. Digestive tract of P. americana harbours xylanase, laminaribiase,
cellobiase, maltase, sucrase, α- and β-glucosidase, α- and β-
Index Terms- Digestive enzymes, Foregut, Hindgut, Midgut, glycosidase, β-fucosidase, chitinase and N-acetyl-β-
Periplaneta americana. glucosaminidase that attack various polysaccharides including
those in the plant and fungal cell walls (Scrivener et al., 1998;
I. INTRODUCTION Genta et al., 2003). Similar versatility in the digestion of
proteinaceous substrates is indicated by the presence of 11
C ockroaches (Blattodea) are among the most primitive and
successful insects. Their omnivorous, detritophagous
feeding habit and association with symbiotic bacteria (Cruden
proteinases in the gut of P. americana (Hivrale et al., 2005).
Vinokurov et al. (2007) recorded high proteolytic and amylolytic
and Markovetz, 1987) obviously contributed to their survival for activities in the midgut of P. americana with a moderate activity
at least 350 million years (Thorne and Carpenter, 1992). Many in the crop. Cockroaches have been the most popular group of
modern species have retained the omnivorous nature of their insects for studies of lipid digestion, and a number of early
ancestors and this has no doubt contributed to their success as studies indicated lipolytic activity in the fore- and midgut. It was
obnoxious pests of humanity (Cruden and Markovetz, 1987). also demonstrated that lipase originates in the epithelial cells of
Today there are 3,500 species of cockroaches found on every the midgut and caecae. Thus the presence of lipolytic activity in
continent except Antarctica. Truly representing the diversity of the foregut results from regurgitation of midgut contents into the
insects, the cockroach family provides excellent models for foregut (Downer, 1978).
anatomical and physiological investigations. The American A large number of previous studies have been devoted to
cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.) (Blattidae), is the largest determining enzyme activity in the fore- and midgut. This has
of the cockroaches measuring an average 4 cm in length. Adults been as a result of the assumption that little or no digestion (but
are reddish-brown in appearance with a pale-brown or yellow absorption) takes place in the hindgut. The present work was,
band around the edge of the pronotum. The cockroach is easily, therefore, designed to quantify activities of enzymes in the three
albeit unintentionally and regretfully, spread by human gut regions of adult male and female P. americana. Enzymes
commerce and the species is currently cosmopolitan in hydrolyzing three major classes of food (carbohydrate [α-
distribution. It is found mainly in basements, sewers, steam amylase, β-amylase, γ-amylase], protein [proteinases] and fat
tunnels and drainage systems (Rust et al., 1991) making it [lipases]) were assayed. Information about digestive enzymes is
difficult to control. Periplaneta americana is a voracious of fundamental importance in understanding the digestive
omnivore that feasts on almost anything such as paper, boots, processes, food and feeding habits of insects. Such information
hair, bread, fish, fruit, peanuts, old rice, the soft part on the inside could also assist in formulating sustainable and effective control
of animal hides, dead insects and cloth, thereby causing strategies.
economic loss (Bell and Adiyodi, 1981). American cockroaches
can become a public health problem due to their association with
human waste and disease, and their ability to move from sewers

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II. MATERIALS AND METHODS method of Lowry et al. (1951). One milliliter of the TCA protein
1. Reagents was mixed with 5 ml of Lowry’s reagent C, mixed thoroughly
Casein (1% w/v), Trichloroacetic acid, Lowry’s reagent C, and incubated at room temperature for 10 min. Three fold diluted
starch solution, Folin-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent, iodine mixture, Folin-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent (0.5 ml) was added to the
Dinitrosalycylic acid and olive oil emulsion were purchased from mixture with shaking, and incubated at room temperature for 30
Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, MO., USA. Phosphate and min. The optical density of the mixture was read at 670 nm in a
sodium acetate buffer, and Tris buffer were obtained from Fluka Cintra 101 spectrophotometer. The amount of non-precipitated
(Buchs, Switzerland). Distilled water was prepared in the TCA protein was estimated as tyrosine from a standard curve of
laboratory. All other reagents were of analytical grade and they known concentrations of tyrosine. One unit of protease activity is
were obtained from either Sigma or BDH. defined as the quantity that is required to produce 100 µg of
tyrosine in 1 ml of TCA filtrate under the above conditions.
2. Insect culture in the laboratory
C. α-Amylase assay
The assay method described by Fuwa (1954) was followed
A colony of P. americana was raised on white bread in the
with slight modification. To 0.2 ml 1% (w/v) soluble starch
Insect Physiology Laboratory, Obafemi Awolowo University,
solution was added 0.1 ml of enzyme solution with mixing and
Ile-Ife at 26 ± 2 °C and 73 ± 3% RH. Newly emerged adults (1-3
0.7 ml of distilled water. The mixture was incubated at room
days old) of both sexes were used for the experiment.
temperature for 30 min in a water bath. The reaction was
terminated by the addition of 1 ml Dinitrosalicylic acid (DNSA)
3. Enzyme bioassay
and mixed thoroughly; 0.1 ml of iodine mixture was added to the
mixture. The optical densities of both blank and experimental
Separate bioassays were constituted for male and female samples were read at 670 nm in the spectrophotometer. One unit
cockroaches to determine activities of digestive enzymes in the of the α-amylase activity is defined as the amount of α-amylase
foregut, midgut and hindgut. The assays were replicated three which produced a 10% reduction in the intensity of the blue
times. colour of starch-iodine complex under the specified condition.
A. Preparation of enzyme extract D. β-Amylase assay
Enzyme samples were prepared using the method described The assay method described by Abiose et al. (1988) was
by Cohen (1993). The insects were starved for 24 h before used. The reaction mixture consisted of 0.2 ml 1% (w/v) soluble
dissection to standardize them and to allow the accumulation of starch and 0.1 ml homogenate incubated for 5 min in a water
digestive enzymes. The insects were placed at -20 °C for 4 min bath at 37 °C. The mixture was boiled at 100 °C for 5 min and 8
and then dissected in ice-cold 0.9% NaCl solution under a ml of distilled water was added. The amount of reducing sugar
dissecting microscope. The alimentary tract was removed by produced from the hydrolysis was estimated following Somogyi-
placing the scissors points between the junction of the third and Nelson method (Somogyi, 1945). All tubes (experimental and
second to the last tergites. Two incisions were made along each control) were provided with 1 ml of combined Cu reagent and
laterally arranged spiracle, continuing through to the thorax. mixed thoroughly. They were incubated in a boiling water bath
Once the tergites were freed from the underlying connective for 20 min, cooled in tap water for about 4 min, and then 1 ml of
tissue they can be removed in one piece. By grabbing the head Arsenomolybdate colour reagent was added to each of them
with a forceps and cutting the surrounding neck chitin, the entire while shaken. Lastly, 7 ml of distilled water was added to each
digestive tract was removed by gently lifting the head and freeing tube and mixed thoroughly. The optical densities of both blank
the attached tract moving caudally toward the anus. The and experimental samples were read at 540 nm in the
extracted digestive tubes were separated into the foregut, midgut spectrophotometer. One unit of the enzyme activity is defined as
and hindgut, and each gut region was kept in 1 ml ice-cold the amount of β-amylase which produced 1 mg of reducing sugar
sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.1). The tissues were expressed as maltose under the experimental conditions.
homogenized and ultra-centrifuged at 16,000 rpm for 10 min at 4
°C. The supernatant was placed in a centrifuge tube and kept at 4 E. γ-Amylase (amyloglucosidase) assay
°C. The enzyme was assayed following the method described
for β-amylase except that the reaction mixture was incubated at
B. Proteinase assay 60 °C for 30 min. One unit of the amyloglucosidase activity is
Proteinase activity was quantified spectrophotometrically as defined as the amount of enzyme that produced 1 mg of reducing
described by Morihara and Tsuzuki (1977) with slight sugar calculated as glucose under the above conditions.
modification. The reaction mixture consisted of 1 ml 1% (w/v)
casein and 0.5 ml of the enzyme preparation. This was incubated F. Lipase assay
in a water bath at 35 °C for 30 min. The reaction was terminated The assay method described by Shihabi and Bishop (1971)
by the addition of 3 ml cold 10% (w/v) Trichloroacetic acid was used with little modification. 3.0 ml of olive oil emulsion
(TCA). The mixture was allowed to stand at 4 °C for 30 min, was pipetted into a cuvette and warmed to 37°C. 0.1 ml of the
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min and the supernatant was homogenate was added and mixed by inverting the cuvette. The
collected for the determination of non-precipitated TCA protein. change in absorbance was recorded at 340 nm for 1-min intervals
This was done following the Folin-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent till it became consistent. Lipase activity (µmol triglyceride bonds

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broken/min/litre of homogenate) was calculated by multiplying


change in absorbance per minute (ΔA/min) by the conversion
factor (F). Based on olive oil being pure glyceryl trioleate (mol E. Lipase activity
wt. 880), the value of F was 5400. As in the case of γ-amylase, lipase was not detected in the
hindgut of female cockroaches. Level of activity was low and
4. Statistical analyses comparable in the foregut and midgut of male insects but it
Activities of digestive enzymes were subjected to Analysis increased significantly in the hindgut. On the contrary, enzyme
of Variance (SAS Institute, 2002) and mean values were shown activity was significantly higher in the midgut of females
as bar charts. For each sex, standard error bars (+ s.e.) were used compared to the foregut.
to compare activities of each enzyme across the three gut
regions. Enzyme activities were also separated between male and Table 1: Mean square values of activities of each enzyme in the gut
female cockroaches in each gut region. regions of male and female Periplaneta americana

III. RESULTS Enzyme Male Female

Enzyme activities within each sex differed significantly Gut region Replicate Gut region Replicate
among the gut regions except in female cockroaches where mean
values for proteinase were comparable (Table 1). Hydrolytic df = 2 df = 2
activities between male and female cockroaches were compared
in each gut region as presented in Table 2. Activities of lipase (P α-Amylase 86.81* 1.34 86.64** 0.94
≤ 0.01) and α-amylase (P ≤ 0.05) differed between male and
female P. americana in two regions, the midgut and hindgut.
β-Amylase 91.54* 2.76 60.81* 3.88
Also, sexual effect was significant in β-amylase and proteinase
activities only in the foregut (P ≤ 0.05) while γ-amylase activities
varied with sex (P ≤ 0.05) only in the hindgut. γ-Amylase 104.99* 15.78 126.75* 1.91
Digestive enzymes were detected in the fore-, mid- and
hindgut of P. americana but generally, activities were lowest in
the hindgut (Fig. 1). Activities of female α-amylase were higher Proteinase 0.15* 0.05 0.06 0.07
than those of males in the mid- and hindgut. A similar trend was
observed for proteinase activity in the foregut. On the other hand,
activities in male cockroaches were higher for β- and γ-amylase Lipase 2.62* 0.24 6.40* 0.30
in the foregut and hindgut, respectively. For lipases, activity was
higher in females in the midgut whereas it was higher in males in
*, ** Significant F-test at 0.05 and 0.01 levels of probability, respectively
the hindgut.

A. Proteinase activity Table 2: Mean square values of activities of each enzyme between sexes
Proteinase activity was detected in the three gut regions of in the fore-, mid- and hindgut of Periplaneta americana
adult cockroaches. The midgut and hindgut of male cockroaches
had significantly higher enzyme activities than the foregut while Enzyme Foregut Midgut Hindgut
activities were not significantly different across the gut regions Sex Replicate Sex Replicate Sex Replicate
of female cockroaches.
α-Amylase 0.73 6.11 5.90* 0.05 0.20* 0.01
B. α-Amylase activity
In male cockroaches, activity of α-amylase was significantly β-Amylase 5.34* 1.38 1.68 12.08 0.34 0.04
higher in the foregut followed by the midgut and hindgut in
descending order. On the other hand, enzyme activity was γ-Amylase 5.22 1.89 12.95 25.08 8.55* 0.03
comparable in the foregut and midgut of females but
Proteinase 0.33* 0.09 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.00046
significantly lower in the hindgut.

C. β-Amylase activity Lipase 0.00076 0.000057 0.07** 0.01 0.07** 0.0017

A similar trend was observed in the activities of β-amylase


in male and female cockroaches. Activities recorded in the fore- *, ** Significant F-test at 0.05 and 0.01 levels of probability, respectively
and midgut were comparable but significantly higher than values
obtained in the hindgut.

D. γ-Amylase activity
Amyloglucosidase was detected in all the gut regions except
in the hindgut of female cockroaches. Activities in the foregut
and midgut of each sex were statistically equal but significantly
higher than in the hindgut.

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reduction in fecundity when gut bacteria were eliminated from P.


americana. The detection of these amylases, proteinase and
lipase in the digestive tract of P. americana shows that the
species is well equipped for polyphagous feeding habit.
The absence of lipase activity in the hindgut of females was
preceded by a dramatic increase in the midgut. It is possible that
female wasps made maximum use of lipase substrate in the
midgut in order to meet specific reproductive requirements.
Lipids, mostly triacylglycerol (TAG), and smaller amounts of
phospholipids (PL) and cholesterol, make up 30-40% of the dry
weight of the insect oocyte (Kawooya and Law, 1988; Briegel,
1990). Also, lipids are the main sources of energy for the
developing embryo (Beenakkers et al., 1981) and the PL is
needed for the formation of membranes. Insect oocytes
synthesize TAG using fatty acids (FA) (Lubzens et al., 1981;
Ferenz, 1985) but since the ability of oocytes to synthesize FA de
novo is very limited, Ziegler and Van Antwerpen (2006)
concluded that nearly all the lipids must be imported, especially
from ingested food. This requirement might have necessitated
maximal digestion of lipase substrate in the female midgut.
Generally, enzymatic activities in each sex of P. americana
were, more or less, higher in the midgut followed by the foregut
and hindgut in descending order. This supports previous reports
identifying midgut as the principal site for enzyme secretion and
food digestion in insects (Klowden, 2007; Nation, 2008).
However, activity of α-amylase was relatively higher in the
foregut of P. americana. This may be due to the fact that α-
amylase is secreted by the salivary glands which are situated in
the anterior part of the foregut. Apart from the location of
secretory organs, prevailing conditions in different regions of
insect gut such as redox potential and pH may also have
differential effects on digestive enzymes (Vinokurov et al.,
Figure 1: Activities of the amylases, proteinase and lipase in the fore-,
2007). This may explain in part why hydrolytic activity of each
mid- and hindgut regions of Periplaneta americana. Error bars enzyme varied from one gut region to the other.
compared activities within sex across the three gut regions. Lipase The general tendency of workers to pay little attention to the
activity was measured in µmol/l/min while other enzymes were hindgut because of the assumption that negligible hydrolytic
measured in µg/ml/min activities take place in the region may eventually rob the science
world of some useful pieces of information. In the present work,
a considerable level of proteinase and male lipase activities was
IV. DISCUSSION detected in the hindgut of P. americana, underlying the
Starch consists of two distinct fractions: amylose – linear α- potentials of digestive enzymes in this region. Workers are
1,4-linked glucans, and amylopectin – linear α-1,4-linked encouraged to give adequate consideration to activities in the
glucans branched with α-1,6 linkages (Ball et al., 1996; Mouille insect hindgut in future studies.
et al., 1996), and the enzymes responsible for hydrolysis of
starch and related saccharides are called amylolytic enzymes or ACKNOWLEDGMENT
simply amylases. The three most known amylases (α-amylase, β- The authors are grateful to Mr. Razaq Ajibade of the
amylase and γ-amylase) were detected in the present study. This Department of Crop Production and Protection, OAU for
is an addition to a number of carbohydrases that had been assisting with insect rearing in the laboratory.
reported earlier in P. americana (Scrivener et al., 1998; Genta et
al., 2003). Unlike α- and γ-amylases, β-amylase is not produced REFERENCES
by animals although it may be present in microorganisms [1] Abiose, S.H., Atalabi, T.A., Ajayi, L.O., 1988. Fermentation of African
contained within the digestive tract (Adachi et al., 1998; Mikami locust beans: microbiological and biochemical studies. Nigerian Journal of
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indicates that some symbiotic microorganisms are resident in the [2] Adachi, M., Mikami, B., Katsube, T., Utsumi, S., 1998. Crystal structure of
fore-, mid- and hindgut of P. americana. Zurek and Keddie recombinant soybean β-amylase complexed with β-cyclodextrin. Journal of
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(1996) reported that gut bacteria in P. americana played a
[3] Ball, S., Guan, H.P., James, M., Myers, A., Keeling P., Mouille, G., Buléon,
functional role in the development and survival of the insect A., Colonna, P., Preiss, J., 1996. From glycogen to amylopectin: a model
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in the biosynthesis of cysteine and methionine and subsequent

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[29] Ziegler, R., Van Antwerpen, R., 2006. Lipid uptake by insect oocytes.
[4] Beenakkers, A.M.Th., Van der Horst, D.J., Van Marrewijk, W.J.A., 1981. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 36, 264–272.
Role of lipids in energy metabolism. In Energy Metabolism in Insects, [30] Zurek, L., Keddie, B.A., 1996. Contribution of the colon and colonic
Downer, R.G.H., Ed., Plenum, New York, pp. 53–100. bacterial flora to metabolism and development of the American cockroach
[5] Bell, W.J., Adiyodi, K.G., 1981. The American Cockroach. Chapman and Periplaneta americana L. Journal of Insect Physiology 42, 743–748.
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[6] Briegel, H., 1990. Metabolic relationship between female body size, AUTHORS
reserves, and fecundity of Aedes aegypti. Journal of Insect Physiology 36,
165–172. Oluwakemi Oyebanji – B.Agric., Obafemi Awolowo
[7] Cohen, A.C., 1993. Organization of digestion and preliminary University, Nigeria. [email protected]
characterization of salivary trypsin-like enzymes in a predaceous Olalekan Soyelu – Lecturer, Department of Crop Production and
heteropteran, Zelus renardii. Journal of Insect Physiology 39, 823–829. Protection, [email protected]
[8] Cruden, D.L., Markovetz, A.J., 1987. Microbial ecology of the cockroach Adekunle Bamigbade – M.Sc., Obafemi Awolowo University,
gut. Annual Review of Microbiology 41, 617–643.
Nigeria. [email protected]
[9] Downer, R.C.H., 1978. Functional role of lipids in insects. In Biochemistry
of Insects, Rockstein, M., Ed., Academic Press, USA, pp. 58–93.
Raphael Okonji – Lecturer, Department of Biochemistry,
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[email protected]
Naturwissenschaften 72, 602–603.
[11] Fuwa, H., 1954. A simple new method for microdetermination of amylase Correspondence Author – Olalekan Soyelu,
by the use of amylose as the substrate. Journal of Biochemistry 41, 583– [email protected], [email protected], +234 706 325
603. 0322.
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lytic activities, and physiological role of five digestive beta-glucanases
isolated from Periplaneta americana. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular
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2005. Unraveling biochemical properties of cockroach (Periplaneta
americana) proteinases with a gel X-ray film contact print method.
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insect egg. Journal of Biological Chemistry 263, 8748–8753.
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[17] Lubzens, E., Tietz, A., Pines, M., Applebaum, S.W., 1981. Lipid
accumulation in oocytes of Locusta migratoria migratorioides. Insect
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amylase complexed with maltose. Biochemistry 38, 7050–7061.
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B., Ball, S., 1996. Preamylopectin processing: A mandatory step for starch
biosynthesis in plants. Plant Cell 8, 1353–1366.
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Press Boca Raton, USA, 544 pp.
[22] Rust, M.K., Reierson, D.A., Hansgen, K.H., 1991. Control of American
cockroaches (Dictyoptera: Blattidae) in sewers. Journal of Medical
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[24] Scrivener, A.M., Watanabe, H., Noda, H., 1998. Properties of digestive
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Proteinase, amylase, and proteinase-inhibitor activities in the gut of six
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Improved Cook Stoves and Green House Gas Reduction


in Uganda
Adeyemi Kafayat* and Asere Abraham**
*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Abuja, Nigeria
**
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Abstract- Globally, around 2.6 billion people still rely on Climate change is a global issue that has brought about
traditional biomass fuels for their cooking. This biomass burning noticeable weather change in the past decades in Uganda. Human
produces green house gases and black carbon, which contributes induced climate change is likely to increase average temperatures
to climate change. Uganda’s low level of income as shown by a in Uganda by up to 1.5 ºC in the next 20 years and by up to 4.3
low per capita income (approx. US$300) and its heavy ºC by the 2080s [5]. Ice caps on mount Rwenzori are retreating.
dependence on rain-fed agriculture make it very vulnerable to A recent study carried out by researchers suggests that all
climate change. Uganda like other countries in the least glaciers on Rwenzori Mountains will disappear in the next two
developed Countries (LDC) group, through its energy policies decades. The severe drought in year 2005 contributed to the
emphasizes the importance of access to sustainable energy and reduction of Nile river level with serious impacts on power
affordable energy efficient technologies in order to adapt to generation leading to power rationing in the domestic and
climate change. Although climate change and it effects have commercial sectors, floods cause pollution of drinking water
taken root in most part of the country, there is limited knowledge leading to spread of waterborne diseases. The International
about climate change and its impact. Mitigation and adaptive Climate Risk Report identifies Uganda as one of the most
measures taken by Uganda include but are not limited to creating unprepared and vulnerable countries in the world [6].
a mix of renewable and low carbon technologies, implementation Fuel wood provides more than 90% of Uganda’s energy
of reduce emission from deforestation and desertification needs [7]. An estimated forest surface of 115 football fields is
(REDD) strategy and widespread implementation of energy used for cooking every day either in form of firewood or
efficient measures such as the dissemination of improved cook charcoal [8]. Population increase has brought about deforestation
stoves to households. because of increase in demand for food and fuel. Increased
electricity tariff lead to increased demand for firewood and
Index Terms- Improved cook stove (ICS), Water Boiling Test charcoal leading to increased soil erosion, damage to vital water
(WBT), climate change, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) shed and flooding. By virtue of being a party to the United
Emission Reduction (ER) Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
the government of Uganda recognizes and supports the need to
address climate change. Under CDM, projects that reduce
I. INTRODUCTION greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to sustainable
development can generate Certified Emission Reductions
E nergy is arguably one of the major challenges the world
faces today, touching all aspects of our lives. For those
living in extreme poverty, a lack of access to modern energy
(CERs), a tradable commodity in international carbon markets.
Climate change mitigation through the Clean Development
services dramatically affects health and limits opportunities. The Mechanism and Voluntary Carbon Markets has had a limited
vulnerability of the poor is only worsened with recent challenges impact in Uganda, although it is thought that there is potential for
from climate change, a global financial crisis, and volatile energy Uganda to benefit from these in the future.
prices [1]. Energy is vital to economic growth in Uganda. The
majority of Ugandans are not aware of the resulting 1.1 Country Background
environmental problems or of the need to use modern, affordable Once known as the “pearl of Africa”, Uganda lies in the
and energy-efficient technologies [2]. Climate change is one of heart of sub Saharan Africa. It is located in east Africa and lies
the most critical issues of our time. Global warming, the gradual across the equator about, 800 kilometres inland from the Indian
increase in the average temperature on the earth, affects every Ocean. The country is land locked bothered by Kenya in the
sector of development [3]. Its predicted effects including adverse East, Sudan in the North, Democratic Republic of Congo in the
ecosystem impacts, rising sea levels, increased frequency of West and Tanzania in the South. It has an area of 241,038sqkm
storms, floods, and droughts, and adverse impacts on human [9]. In most parts of the country, mean annual temperatures range
health and agricultural production are expected to cause between 16oC and 30oC. Most of the country receives between
potentially major environmental and economic dislocations 750 mm and 2100 mm of rainfall annually [9]. It has varying
across the globe. Many of these impacts are likely to impinge vegetation with semi arid vegetation in the North. The economy
most severely on the world’s poorest countries, which are least of Uganda is primarily based on the agricultural sector with over
able to cope and adapt [4]. 70% of the working population being employed by the sector.
Agricultural export accounts for over 45% of total export
earnings with coffee, tobacco and fish being the main export.

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II. ENERGY USE PATTERN EF projectedfossilfuel


Is the emission factor for the substitution of
Uganda has a population of about 30.7 million people who
non-renewable biomass
mostly depend on biomass energy for cooking with 85% of its
The quantity of woody biomass saved can be taken as the
population living in the rural area. It has 6.2 million households
difference between the quantity of wood consumed while using
with an average household size of 5 [10]. The household sector
the three stone fire and the quantity of wood used while
represents over 85% of the national energy consumption [11].
employing the improved cook stove.
70% and 15% of urban households use charcoal and firewood
respectively while in the rural areas, 86% use firewood and 10% B y ,savings Bold  B y ,new
=
use charcoal [12]. Over 80% of households use firewood as the (2)
main source of fuel for cooking and about 15% use charcoal. The Biomass saved can also be calculated from
implication is that more than 95% of households in Uganda
  
depend on fuel from wood for their cooking [13]. Emissions
Bold  1  old 
  new 
from burning solid fuels in open and traditional stoves have B y ,savings
significant global warming effects, due to incomplete combustion =
of fuel carbon. Interventions that improve combustion efficiency (3)
and reduce emissions can also mitigate climate change. The Where
Ministry of Energy initially set (ICS) adoption targets of 2.45 Bold Is the biomass consumed while using the three stone fire
million households, but technology limitations and a lack of
resources prevented the government from achieving this target (Baseline situation)
but the bulk of the population (91%) is still using traditional B y ,new
Is the biomass consumed with the use of ICS
biomass [14]. The German cooperation in Uganda has distributed
220,000 ICS to households with the objective of improving  old Is the efficiency of the three stone fire
access to modern energy [15].
 new Is the efficiency of the improved cook stove

III. METHODOLOGY For the ICS (Okelo Kuc Stove), the efficiency was found to
This report is based mainly on current, publicly accessible be 0.35 (WBT protocol) and 0.1 is the efficiency of the three
documents, as well as energy access data made available by stone fire (UNFCCC default values). (Spreadsheet for WBT is
Uganda Bureau of statistics (UBOS), Aprovecho Research available on request). There are 6.2 million households in
Centre and United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Uganda (95% rely on biomass) with the households using either
Change (UNFCCC). WBT protocol version 4.2.2 [16] was used an open fire or a segiri (local charcoal stove). For the three stone
to determine the efficiency of the ICS. Data from baseline study fire, annual fire wood consumption is 3.285 tonnes/stove and
on energy use carried out by the centre for integrated research 0.87 tonnes/stove for charcoal consumption [18]
and community development unit (CIRCODU) were used in the
analysis. The baseline biomass consumption is
Bold 6
= 3.2 x 5.9 x10
= 18.9 million tonnes of biomass
IV. RESULT OF ANALYSIS Biomass saved from the use of ICS is
Emission reduction that can be achieved by using an 0 .1
improved cook stove (e.g Okelo Kuc Stove). The ER can be B y ,savings 6
calculated from equation (1) [17] = 3.2 x 5.9 x10 (1- 0.35 )
ERY  BY ,savings  f RNB, y  NCVBiomass  EF projectedfossilfuel = 13.5 million tonnes of biomass

(1) Emission reduction that can be achieved is calculated from:


Where:
ERY  BY ,savings  f RNB, y  NCVBiomass  EF projectedfossilfuel
ER y
Is emission reduction during the year in tonnes of carbon f RNB, y
tCO2 e ) = 0.82 [19]
dioxide equivalent (
NCVBiomass
B y ,savings = 0.015TJ/tonne (15MJ/kg) [19]
Is the quantity of woody biomass saved in tonnes EF proctedfossilfuel  81.6tCO2TJ
f RNB, y [19]
Is the fraction of woody biomass saved during the year 0 .1
that can be established as non-renewable biomass ER y  6
NCVBiomass 3.2 x 5.9 x10 (1- 0.35 ) x 0.82 x 0.015 x 81.6
Is the net calorific value of the non-renewable = 13.54 x 106 tCO2e
biomass
This achievable ER of about 13.5 million tonnes of carbon
dioxide equivalent is estimated as being equal to offsetting the

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emissions of approximately 2.85 million passenger cars in the [15] Energy Efficiency: Energy Programme Uganda (2012)
http://www.energyprogramme.or.ug/energy-efficiency/ retrieved 15 March
United States. 2013
[16] Aprovecho Research Centre www.aprovecho.org/lab/pubs/testing retrieved
12 Jan 2013
V. CONCLUSION [17] Energy efficiency measures in thermal applications of non renewable
biomass (AMS II.G version 4.0)
Climate change is an emerging issue of enormous http://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/DB/REQC2MYZJJ6I7BC9SKCS32T2
magnitude that needs to be adequately addressed as it affects the K87AOW. Retrieved 2 Dec 2012
economy of Uganda. There is an opportunity for Uganda to build [18] Final Report on Baseline fuel consumption in Households in Gulu, Mbarara
on the strength of its government actions through the climate and Kampala (2010). Centre for Integrated Research and Community
change unit to drive up the adoption of high quality ICS. This is Development Uganda (CIRCODU)
possible through comprehensive market research into consumer [19] Default values of fraction of non-renewable biomass
http://cdm.unfccc.int/DNA/fNRB/index.html retrieved 17 Jan 2013
attitude towards ICS, build demand through cross sector
awareness and campaign and supporting businesses in testing,
developing and producing at scale to drive up the quality of ICS
in the market. These possible ERs can be traded in the carbon AUTHORS
markets (provided approved methodologies, monitoring and First Author – Adeyemi Kafayat, PhD Mechanical Engineering,
verification procedures have been adopted) thereby achieving University of Abuja, [email protected]
sustainable development through carbon finance whilst Second Author – Asere Abraham, Professor of Mechanical
mitigating climate change. Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife,
[email protected]

REFERENCES Correspondence Author – Adeyemi Kafayat, PhD Mechanical


[1] The energy access situation in developing countries (2009) Engineering, University of Abuja, [email protected]
http://content.undp.org/go/cms-service/stream/asset/?asset_id=2205620 +256781678994
retrieved 30 March 2013
[2] Promotion of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Programme
http://www.giz.de/Themen/en/16464.htm retrieved 3 April 2013
[3] Assessing impacts and strategies for mitigation and adaptation to climate
change in Uganda http://www.ccu.go.ug/index.php/resources-publications
retrieved 27 March 2013
[4] The Clean Development Mechanism An Assessment of Progress (2006)
http://assets.mediaglobal.org/documents/UNDP_Environment_and_Energy
_Group_Report_The_Clean_Development_Mechanism.pdf retrieved 19
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[5] Department for International Development Uganda: Climate change
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[6] Climate change: A current and future threat to the socio economic
development of Uganda (2010)
http://ccu.go.ug/images/Publications/Policy_Brief_No.1-2010.pdf retrieved
2 March 2013
[7] Uganda’s ban of fire wood may be unrealistic
http://www.wenatcheeworld.com/news/2012/apr/01/ugandas-ban-on-
firewood-may-be-unrealistic/
[8] Energy saving stoves http://www.energyprogramme.or.ug/energy-saving-
stoves/ retrieved 3 May 2013
[9] Country pasture/Forage resource profile Uganda
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/Uganda/uganda.htm
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[10] Uganda Bureau of statistics (UBOS)
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O%20FINDINGS.pdf
[11] Sebitt, A. Bebett, K. & Higenyi, J. (2004): Household Energy Demand
Perspectives for Uganda in 2025
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bbit.pdf retrieved 6 March 2013.
[12] Uganda National Household survey Report
http://www.ubos.org/UNHS0910/chapter9_Domestic%20Energy%20Resou
rces.html retrieved 28 May 2013
[13] Uganda efficient wood cook stoves
http://www.climatecare.org/media/documents/pdf/PIN_Uganda_0015B_Wo
od%20Stoves.pdf retrieved 16 April 2013
[14] Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) Household survey, 2009/2010

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A REVIEW OF THE ENERGY SITUATION IN


UGANDA
K.O. Adeyemi* and A.A. Asere**

*Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Abuja- Nigeria, [email protected]


**Department of Mechanical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife- Nigeria, [email protected]

Abstract: This paper reviews the energy sector of Uganda. As is slightly above 20% of the country’s total export earnings.
typical of East Africa, it is characterized by excessive use of Biomass constitutes 93% of energy consumption mainly in the
Biomass to provide over 90% of the energy needs. Uganda is one traditional form. Wood fuel will continue to be the dominant
of the least developed countries in the region. Hydropower source of energy in Uganda for the foreseeable future, even if the
provides over 90% of the total electricity generated in the entire hydroelectric potential in Uganda was fully utilized, wood
country while wind, solar and geothermal are under developed. would supply more than 75% of the total energy consumption in
Energy policies are geared towards the use of modern, clean and year 2015 [7]. Ugandan Power Sector Investment Plan estimates
energy efficient technologies. This is stimulating public private that a cumulative investment of close to USD 9 billion (7.2
partnerships, attracting multilateral and bilateral agencies to billion euros) in funding is needed between 2009 and 2030 to
provide funding, grants and technical assistance in renewable accommodate rising electricity demand and to achieve close to
energy projects. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of universal access to electricity [8].
the United Nations avail project developers the opportunity to
obtain carbon finance. Several challenges hindering the II. ENERGY RESOURCES IN UGANDA
development in the energy sector and utilization of renewable 2.1 Hydro
energy resources have been identified. Strategies for achieving Despite Uganda’s vast hydropower potential, estimated at over
the United Nations Sustainable Energy for All Initiative have 2000 MW, less than 10% is currently exploited [9]. Hydropower
been presented. contributes only 1% to Uganda’s energy supply [10]. Uganda has
Index Terms: Renewable Energy; Energy consumption; a hydropower-installed capacity of 683MW with current peak
Sustainable Energy demand of 400MW [5]. This has been growing at an annual rate
of 8% [5]. To meet this growth in demand about, 20 MW of new
I. INTRODUCTION generating capacity needs to be added each year. Given the large

E nergy is the engine for economic growth and development


for any society or country. With a projected population of
34.1 million in mid2012, Uganda is richly endowed with
and growing gap between electricity supply and demand in
Uganda, large-scale hydroelectric development is the most
economical way forward for the country in the short and medium
abundant energy resources that are fairly distributed throughout term. Due to drought, only 135 MW is generated from the
the country [1]. These include hydro, biomass, solar, geothermal, hydropower facility. The generation output might reduce to 80-
peat and fossil fuels. Uganda’s energy matrix is dominated by 90MW depending on the weather situation. 50 MW is obtained
biomass based energy sources contributing about 95% to the total from a thermal power plant installed in May 2005 as a partial
primary energy consumption. Electricity and petroleum products solution to the electricity supply problem.
contribute 4% and 1 % respectively [2]. With a per capita energy The demand for electricity is 260 MW during the day and rising
consumption of 0.3TOE or 12.72 GJ, Uganda’s energy to 350MW in the evening. The evening peak is mainly due to the
consumption is among the lowest in the world [3]. It is amongst domestic users who constitute the bulk of Uganda power
the countries with lowest levels of electricity development as distribution company customers (UMEME). The current power
well as lowest per capita electricity consumption of 72 kWh [4]. shortage has adversely impacted on the industrial and
Over 90% of the country's population is not connected to the commercial sectors. Production has been disrupted. As a result,
national grid, much of the electricity network at present is poorly the GDP, which was expected to grow at 6 – 6.5% in 2012, has
maintained and the country experiences frequent power cuts [5]. dropped to 4.5% [1]. Uganda will require 2,000 Megawatts
The energy resource potential of the country includes an (MW) electricity by the year 2025 to run its industries and homes
estimated 2000 MW of hydro power, 450 MW of geothermal, [3]. To provide access to electricity in the rural areas, the
460 million tonnes of biomass standing stock with a sustainable government with its development partners are constructing 10
annual yield of 50 million tons, an average of 5.1 kWh/m 2/ day mini hydro power plants with each power plant having 1-1.5MW
of solar energy, and about 250 million TOE of peat [6]. In generating capacity [11].
addition, an unspecified amount of petroleum has been
discovered in the western part of the country though all fossil
fuels used in Uganda presently are imported with a petroleum Table 1.0: Current State Of Power Generation In Uganda
import bill of about US$ 120 million per year [3]. This
constitutes about 8% of total national imports and represents Plant/Source Capacity (MW)

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Kiira hydro power station 200 Year 2006 2011 2016


Nalubaale hydro power station 180 Population 28,750,903 33,817,496 39,778,010
Bujagali hydro power station 250 Consumption (tons/yr) 27,525,903 32,699,196 38,893,119
Mpanga small hydro power plant 18 Sustainable supply 27,698,231 28,227,662 28,136,254
Bugoye small hydro power plant 13 (tons/yr)
Mobuku III hydro power plant 10.5 Crop residues 4,400,000 4,730,000 5,084,750
Tronder Ishasha hydro power plant 6.5 Balances (tons/yr) 162,328 4,471,535 10,756,866
Nyagak III hydro power plant 3.5 Balances (when 4,238,000 256,365 5,672,116
Kakira Cogeneration plant 22 residues are included)
Kinyara cogeneration plant 8 Deficit/Surplus (%) 3.2 -13.7 -27.7
Namanve thermal power plant 50 Deficit/Surplus 0.031 -0.132 -0.270
Electro maxx 20 (tons/person)
Source: [21]
Source: [18]
Table 2.0: Hydro Power Projects In The Pipeline 2.3 Geothermal
Plant/Source Capacity (MW) Geothermal resources were estimated at about 450 MW in the
Karuma hydro project 600 Ugandan Rift System and three areas Katwe-Kikorongo (Katwe),
Anyagu hydro project 600 Buranga and Kibiro identified as promising areas for geothermal
Oriang hydro project 400 exploration [12]. To utilize the geothermal resources, the
Isimba hydro project 188 government and the federal Institute of Geosciences and natural
Muzizi hydro project 52 resources Germany, has initiated a project on the rift system. A
model has been developed which suggests a possible drilling
Kigati hydro project 18
location. A 10 MWe binary power plant might be feasible, which
Nyagak III hydro project 4.4
could allocate a local electricity supply in Bundibugyo district
Source: [21]
for more than 200,000 people [19].
2.2 Biomass
2.4 Solar
Bioenergy, apart from hydropower, is considered to be the
The mean solar radiation is 5.1 kWh/m2 per day, on a horizontal
second significant pillar to secure energy supply, particularly in
surface. This level of insolation is quite favorable, for the
rural areas [7]. Biomass contributes over 90% of the total energy
application of a number of solar technologies. An estimated 200
consumed in the country and provides almost all the energy used
MW of potential electrical capacity are available in Uganda [20].
to meet basic energy needs for cooking and water heating in rural
Solar energy is currently used primarily for off-grid
areas, most urban households, institutions, and commercial
electrification for rural communities, as well as for solar cooking,
buildings. Biomass is the main source of energy for rural
and providing water heating and power to public buildings [9].
industries [12]. Biomass alone can produce an estimated 1, 650
megawatts of electricity if exploited [13]. Biomass cogeneration
III. CHALLENGES FACING THE UGANDA ENERGY SECTOR
from agricultural wastes is seen to hold particular promise as a
technology for the country. The total biomass based cogeneration The major challenge in the energy sector revolves around lack of
capacity potential for Uganda is estimated to be 190 MW [14]. a mix of energy sources in power generation, low level of access
To date there are only three known cogeneration facilities, i.e in to modern energy, inadequate infrastructure for generation,
Kakira Sugar Works Ltd, Kinyara Sugar Works Ltd and Sugar transmission and distribution and low level of energy efficiency.
Corporation of Uganda Ltd with total installed capacity of Other challenges include:
30MW mainly for own consumption with about 5MW supplied  Lack of strong legislative framework, practical policy,
to the grid. A significant peat resource also exists, of which legal and regulatory environment for the private sector
approximately 25 million tonnes is feasibly available for power to be attracted to investing in renewable energy
generation, equivalent to 800 MW of potential capacity for 50 development.
years [9]. Trading in biomass especially charcoal contributes to  The high upfront costs of investment in renewable
the rural economy, in terms of rural incomes, tax revenue and energy technologies make them uncompetitive in the
employment [15]. Charcoal production and transportation is not market.
properly regulated and the disposal of biomass waste by burning,  High cost of thermal power generation
without extracting the energy content, is a common practice  Securing financing for small-scale energy projects
countrywide [16]. The government of Uganda through the Africa
Biogas Partnership Programme is promoting the use of biogas as
an alternative source of energy. It is a 4 year project with a target IV. WAY FORWARD
of 20,000 digesters installed in households by the end of 2013.
The biogas digesters are subsidized at approximately 200 euros  Aggressive reinforcement of the grid with the
development of small hydro power plants.
of the plant cost [17].
 Constant review of Power Purchase Agreement (PPA)
Table 3.0 Biomass Energy Projections and Feed-in-Tariff. It mitigates financial risk through
long-term income stream.

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 Campaign and launch the development, adoption and Uganda – Final Report (Jan 2011), Ministry of Energy and
utilization of other modern fuels and technologies in Mineral Development.
order to achieve the objectives of emission reduction, [9] Renewable Energy www.reegle.info/policy-and-regulatory-
protection of the environment and energy conservation. overviews/UG retrieved 25 Feb. 2013.
 Uganda produces a lot of alcohol from sugar molasses, [10] Renewable Energy policy for Uganda. Ministry of Energy
bananas etc containing 6-11% ethanol. This should be and Mineral Development MEMD, 2007
further processed using efficient technology to serve as [11] Uganda Government to build 10 mini hydro plants.
a bio fuel rather than for drinking purposes. http://allafrica.com/stories/201301230054.html retrieved 10 Jan.
 Promote research and development, technology transfer 2013
and international cooperation. [12] Renewable Energy policy for Uganda, 2007.
 Promote Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency [13] The Biomass potential in Uganda
Programs (REEP) such as the distribution of improved http://www.africanreview.com/energy-a-power/renewables/the-
cook stoves and compact fluorescent light bulbs to biomass-potential-in-uganda retrieved 3 March 2013
households. [14] The potential of Renewable Energies in East Africa (August
2007)
 Develop the geothermal energy resource through donor
http://www.renewableseastafrica.de/_uploads/media/1313_Bio%
assistance, bilateral funding etc.
20Energy.pdf retrieved 1 march 2013.
 Cogeneration plants are under developed and generate
[15] The Role and Potentials of Bioenergy in Uganda’s Energy
below optimal capacity, plants need to be upgraded so
sector http://www.sucre-
as to sell power to the grid.
ethique.org/IMG/pdf/uganda_bioenergies.pdf. retrieved 4
 Incorporate Clean Development Mechanism as a
March 2013
component of renewable energy projects for the purpose
[16] The Renewable Energy Policy for Uganda
of getting carbon finance. http://www.rea.or.ug/userfiles/RENEWABLE%20ENERGY%20
POLIC9-11-07.pdf retrieved 18 Jan 2013
[17] Africa Biogas Partnership Programme.
V. CONCLUSION http://africabiogas.org/africa-biogas-partnership-programme/
Uganda has long way to go if it has to key into the sustainable retrieved 25 March 2013
Energy for all Initiative of the United Nations (SE4ALL) and to [18] Ministry of Energy and Minerals Development report.
also achieve the millennium development goals (MDG) by 2030.. MEMD, 2005
Developing and harnessing of the country’s renewable energy [19] Microearthquake survey at Buranga Geothermal prospect.
potential is still demanding if the country’s energy needs are to http://www.bgr.bund.de/EN/Themen/Zusammenarbeit/TechnZus
be met. It has set its objectives in the Energy and Renewable ammenarb/Geotherm/Projects/Uganda/uganda_node_en.html.
energy policies as “to meet the energy needs of Uganda’s Retrieved 4 March 2013
population for socio and economic development in an [20] Alternative Energy Sources Assessment Report, 2004.
environmentally sustainable manner and to increase the use of [21] Godfrey Ndawula (2012) Uganda Energy Sector Review:
modern renewable energy sources from the current 4% to 61%” Public Sector Perspective. A paper presentation at the Energy
respectively. This is an ambitious target that should be backed up Business Dialogue, Dec. 2012.
with capacity building activities in modern energy technologies
and adequate financing.

REFERENCES
[1] Uganda Bureau of statistics (UBOS) 2012 www.ubos.org
retrieved 7 Feb 2013
[2] Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) 2009 www.ubos.org
retrieved 19 Nov. 2012
[3] Energy Systems: Vulnerability- Adaptation- Resilience VAR
(2009) http://www.helio-
international.org/uploads/VARUganda.En.pdf retrieved 10 Dec
2012.
[4] Improving Energy Resilience in Uganda http://www.helio-
international.org/Uganda.En.pdf retrieved 17 March 2013

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AUTHORS
First Author Adeyemi Kafayat, PhD Mechanical Engineering, University of Abuja, [email protected]
Second Author Asere Abraham, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife,
[email protected]
Correspondence Author Adeyemi Kafayat, PhD Mechanical Engineering, University of Abuja, [email protected]
+256781678994

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The Factors that Influenced Consumptive Behavior: A


Survey of University Students in Jakarta
Aldo Enrico*, Ritchie Aron *, Weriyen Oktavia *
*
President University, Department of Business Administration 2011, Jababeka, Cikarang 17550 Indonesia

Abstract- Nowadays, in big cities the consumptive behaviors By knowing this problem that is stated above, the Authors
among university students become common. However this fact hope that it will give more knowledge about factors that
indicates a negative impact for financial performance because influences the consumptive behavior. This research can also be
students have not found their money yet. This journal is used for parents to encourage their children not to have a
conducted with a purpose, to know what the factors that affect consumptive behavior and start to have saving. In University life,
people’s consumptive behavior are. This research journal is students have to manage their own spending, different with the
conducted in Jakarta, Indonesia, and the respondents are students junior high or senior high students whose money still manage by
from several universities that are located in Jakarta. The method Students’ parents.
that we are using is a quantitative research by spreading
questionnaires. The amount of samples that we took in this This research was limited only in Jakarta because:
research is 270. From the research, the authors conclude that 1) Jakarta has many recreation infrastructures such as
Product Usage and Purchasing Power, social status, prestige and malls, cafes, restaurants, theme parks, and nowadays emerge a
satisfaction is related to people’s tendency to have consumptive new entertainment place, the karaoke places. All of that places
behavior. Therefore, by knowing these factors, hopefully people encourage students to spent more money.
will be able to suppress their consumptive behavior or help the 2) Jakarta has a lot of universities, especially universities
people in our surroundings not to be consumptive. which located near an Entertainment places. We will get many
respondents for our researches.
Index Terms- Behavior, Consumptive, Prestige, Saving.
This research was conducted by using quantitative analysis.
The questionnaires were spread to state and private universities
I. INTRODUCTION in Jakarta to find the data used for the researches. The
respondents were the university Students, which are randomly
C onsumptive behavior becomes one of the behaviors that
cannot be separated from the daily life of the people not
only in big country but also growing country such as Indonesia
chosen without seeing the grade (1st year, 2nd year, so on).
This research paper separated in 4 parts. First one is the
(Wahyningtyas, 2011). Consumptive behavior affects the life abstract and introduction of what is the consumptive behavior.
style of the people especially in the growing country because The second part consists of the literature review of research
people in growing country are usually the consumer of the goods topic. Third part contains the analytical review of the data from
that are produces in big countries. (Why do Nations Export, the questionnaire. Last part contains the conclusion of the
2013) research topic.
This phenomenon also impacts the students’ life in
university, students in present days have some additional expense
for students’ life such as Internet provider, copy lesson materials II. LITERATURE REVIEW
or books, and moreover students nowadays have Smartphone that 2.1. Independent Variables
need credit to activate its services (Wahyningtyas, 2011). Humans do the consumption activity everyday for living.
University students, especially in big city like Jakarta also need Consumption is an activity using product or service to achieve
to fulfill their desire and their social need (Campen, Gerlinger, & maximum satisfaction. Human do consumption because they
Reusswig, 2005) by hangout in café and going to the mall. All of have their needs. Every person have their own needs. People
these activities make students to be more consumptive and make usually make the products or ask for services to satisfy their
saving to be a thing that is not in students’ priority list. However, needs. If they cannot produce their own products or ask another
saving is very important for the future because future is full of person to give them service, they cannot fulfill their needs.
uncertainty (Secrets of Mind and Reality, 2009). Unexpected People from the old days trade their products in accordance to
expense will hit student hard if student don’t have any saving. their needs by using the barter method. Nowadays, because all of
For example: if you are a student who come from outside java our activities are related with money, people do not do barter
island and suddenly get sick, they have to pay the medication. If anymore. People will have to purchase with money if they want
the student doesn’t have any saving he or she will not be able to to have a product or service to fulfill their needs. Therefore,
afford the treatment. It will affect his or her study activity in indirectly the purchasing activity has become another
university. comsumption activity. (Waluyo, 2008)
In modern era, consumptive behavior among people grow
quickly. People tend to buy more product than what they really

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needs. Consumptive behavior happen because human have a lot research, family lifestyle will be questioned even more on the
of desire. There are some factors that the writer consider as the impact to consumptive behavior in a person.
variables that caused human to have consumptive behavior, there
are: 2.2. Relations and Hypothesis
2.1.1 Fulfilling Desire 2.2.1. Fulfilling Desire and consumptive behavior
As been said in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Human’s desire, mainly the additional desire is the reason
2000, The desire itself is not only for physical. Desire can also human have consumptive behavior. However, the main desire
come from our mental. There are four basic mental desire that can also be the reason for human to have consumptive behavior,
everyone have, there are: the desire to be treated as human, for example clothes. Human desire, naturally will not be over.
desire to gain control, desire to be consistent, and desire to have Even if someone already fulfill their desire, another desire will
high prestige. In this research, the authors will be focused on the come again. Therefore, the fulfilling desire of human will not be
Physical desire, and the desire to have high prestige because ended. Fulfilling the desires require a consumption, and this
those factors are considered more relevant to the research that the makes human have consumptive behavior. As stated above that
authors conduct. human desire will never ends, therefore, the consumptive
2.1.2 Purchasing Power behavior in human will never ends too (Agustia, 2012).
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, H1: fulfilling desire (X1) is affecting the consumptive behavior
2000, purchasing power is the money that people have to buy 2.2.2 Purchasng power and consumptive behavior
goods with. This explains that the bigger amount of money that Furthermore, this definition can leads to the phenomenon of
people have, the bigger their purchasing power is. Big buying bigger consumptive behavior. It means that the more money that
power means they can fulfill their needs and desire. However, as people got, they tend to be more consumptive. Nowadays,
the authors have stated above that human desire are limitless, especially in urban or city area, parents are more generous to
bigger purchasing power does not means that the person’s desire give their children their allowance. This leads to students given
will be easily satisfied and then they will not desire another more money that they basically needs. The needs needs of the
things. Usually, if the people have bigger purchasing power, that children are usually not so much, because usually they are still
means they are richer, and if they are richer, they usually have staying at their parent’s house and still have treatment like place
more prestige. If they have more prestige, they usually will not to stay and foods everyday from their houses that do not require
buy the cheaper products. Also, richer people could buy much any money. Being given more money makes them to spend their
more products. money more and make students nowadays more consumptive
2.1.3 Product usage (Agustia, 2012).
Product Usage is the time of the item being used until it can H2: Purchasing power (X2) is affecting Consumptive behavior
be used anymore (Aiguier, Bretaudeau, & Krob, 2010). Product 2.2.3 Usage of Product and Consumptive behavior
usage is different between one product and another product. The Every people have their own perspective about how long
Duration, actual contact, frequency, and amount of product being the product still can be used. We related this independent
used show the Product Usage (Karwowsk, Soares, & Stanton, variable (Product Usage) with the Dependent variable
2011). Every people have their own product usage period. One (Consumptive behavior) because the varieties of product usage
person can say that the product is not productive anymore while make some people to be consumptive. For example: non-
the other person says that the product is still usable. Consumptive people tend to use the Smartphone until it can be
2.1.4 Social Status used anymore or broken. Consumptive people tend to buy
Peoples are living within society. They need each other to another Smartphone while their Smartphone still can be used or
helping because they are social being. In society, we know all fully functional (HOTPASCAMAN, 2008, pp. 89-95).
people have status based on their background live such as family, H3: The usages of the product (X3) influence the Consumptive
religious, education, economic. Social status is given by the behavior
people inside the society. According Oxford Advanced Learner’s 2.2.4 Social Status and Consumptive Behavior
Dictionary, 2000, status is the legal position of a person. People Usually, people have higher status has more purchasing
have status when they have role in society. According to power so we can conclude relationship between social status with
Pujiastuti status social means position give to people in society behavior consumptive very strong. For example: when the price
(PUJIASTUTI, 2007) of goods decrease, people who have higher status still to buy
2.1.5 Family Lifestyle product with higher price. This phenomena happen because rich
A person’s lifestyle is the person’s pattern of living in the people or high status tend to show their prestige which different
world as expressed in the person’s activities, interest and opinion with another status (HOTPASCAMAN, 2008, pp. 89-95).
(Kotler, 2003). Every person have different lifestyle, Even in one H4: Social Status (X4) influence the Consumptive behavior
family. However, usually the main factor that influenced a 2.2.5 Family Lifestyle and Consumptive behavior
person’s lifestyle is their family. Furthermore in his book, Kasali As stated above, the lifestyle of a person is affected by their
stated that people will tend to choose products, services, and surroundings, and the authors consider that family is the biggest
activities based on what products, services, and activities can be aspect that impacted the consumptive behavior of our
related to their style. The morphing of somebody’s lifestyle respondents, since our respondents will be college students that
happens since they were little and affected by many aspects such are mostly still close to their family. The likeliness of their
as cultures, norms, neighborhood, friends, way of learning, parents to go shopping will affect the children’s lifestyle to have
personality, and family (Lantos, 2010). Therefore, in this more consumptive behavior (HOTPASCAMAN, 2008).

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H5: Family lifestyle (X5) affected Consumptive Behavior incentive/month, expense/month, and saving/month. To conduct
regression model, authors have to use Normality test,
Heterocedasticity, and multicollinearity; but in this research the
III. RESEARCH DESIGN authors only use Normality test to check the validity of the
3.1. Sampling questions. For Reliability of the assumption, authors sees the
The target populations for this research consist of college result of Cronbach’s Alpha in SPSS. If the Cronbach Alpha value
students in Jakarta. The unit of analysis was the individual is bigger than 0.7, it means the data is reliable, otherwise the data
student. The sampling method that we used in order to collect the is unreliable (Field & Miles, 2010).
data from the respondents that are use for our research are
unrestricted or simple random sampling. The authors used this
method because the authors did not make any restriction of the IV. DATA ANALYSIS
respondent of this research beside college student in Jakarta. 4.1 Demographic
Therefore, any college student in Jakarta can be chosen as the The authors collected the data from 270 respondents which
respondent of this research regardless their batch, age, and are university students in Jakarta, the demographic data of the
academic score. As long as the student is listed in university in respondents that the authors will include in this section include:
Jakarta, they can be the respondent. age, gender, semester, incentive/month, expense/month, and
3.2 Data Collection saving/month.
In research methodology, the authors use personally
administered questionnaires’ method that established rapport and 4.2 Instrument Test
motivate respondent. The authors use this method because this In order to get the result of the research, Authors conducted
method can collect data faster compare with others method. This two tests which are Validity test and Reliability test. Authors
method also provides almost 100% rate of respond compare with does not use Multiple Regression test because there are no
other method such as mail questionnaire and electronic dependent variable.
questionnaire (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009). The data will be
collected within 3 weeks starting from 20 October 2013 until 6 4.2.1 Validity Test
November 2013. The authors appreciates the respondent who The authors use validity test to know the whether the
willing to fill the questionnaire. Variables are valid or not. The Authors use KMO (Kaiser-
3.3 Measures Meyer-Olkin) ≥ 0.5 to see whether the variables are valid or not
Direct single question used to gather all demographic (Warnaars & Pradel, 2007).
variables such as age, sex, semester, Father’s and mother’s job,

KMO and Bartlett's Test


Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .745
Approx. Chi-Square 1096.680
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Df 78
Sig. .000

Validity Test Result for each variable

Communalities
No Variables Extraction Result
a1 Pleasure in buying .817 Valid
a4 Influence of advertising .598 Valid
b3 Buying decision regarding financial power .522 Valid
b4 Buying product using own money or saving .670 Valid
c1 Buying product without using it .633 Valid
Buying product for collection (different color and shape with same Valid
c2 .653
function)
d4 Buying product that usually used by mid-high level person .618 Valid
d5 Buying product that have good reputation .723 Valid
d6 Felling inferior if do not have good product .705 Valid
d8 Buying expensive product to show prestige .831 Valid
e2 Family always remind to buy good product regarding the quality .769 Valid
e3 Parents give freedom to me to use my own money .971 Valid
e4 Family like to shopping .817 Valid

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Those variable is valid because it has value more than or equal to 0.5. Since the KMO ≥ 0.5 is valid, it can pass the validity test
and ready to test the reliability.

Total Variance Explained


Compo Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
nent Loadings

Total % of Cumulativ Total % of Cumulative Total % of Variance Cumulative %


Variance e % Variance %
1 3.851 29.624 29.624 3.851 29.624 29.624 2.910 22.385 22.385
2 1.762 13.557 43.181 1.762 13.557 43.181 2.104 16.186 38.571
3 1.655 12.732 55.913 1.655 12.732 55.913 1.676 12.892 51.463
4 1.154 8.874 64.787 1.154 8.874 64.787 1.615 12.427 63.889
5 .905 6.962 71.749 .905 6.962 71.749 1.022 7.860 71.749
6 .759 5.839 77.589
7 .564 4.335 81.924
8 .558 4.290 86.214
9 .453 3.485 89.699
10 .369 2.840 92.540
11 .344 2.643 95.183
12 .340 2.615 97.798
13 .286 2.202 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

In order to pass the validity test, the percentage of Sums of Squared Loadings is greater than 60% (71.749%) the
cumulative in Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings must be authors assume that the variable is passing the validity test
greater than 60%. Since the percentage cumulative of Rotation (Warnaars & Pradel, 2007).

Rotated Component Matrixa


Component
1 2 3 4 5
a1 .899
a4 .757
b3 .665
b4 .794
c1 .777
c2 .688
d4 .734
d5 .798
d6 .777
d8 .902
e2 .842
e3 .972
e4 .893

The authors will test the reliability test base on the test based on Cronbach’s Alpha cannot be conducted on a
component in the Rotated Component Matrix. For the first variable with only 1 variable, therefore the authors will not
Component the variables are a4, b3, b4, c1, c2. Second conduct the reliability test for fifth component.
components are d4, d5, d6. Third components are a1 and e4. 4.2.2 Reliability Test
Fourth components are d8 and e2. The last component only Reliability is concerned with estimates of the degree to
consists of one variable. The further research, which is reliability which a measurement is free of random or unstable error. To

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measure reliability, the authors used Cronbach’s Alpha 4. Prestige


Coefficient. If the Cronbach’s Alpha value is bigger than 0.7, it The variance of initial Eigenvalues shows that the fourth
means the data is reliable, otherwise the data is unreliable (Field factor has 8.874% of 71.749%. Prestige also become one of the
& Miles, 2010). factor that creating consumptive behavior. To maintain the
prestige, people become more consumptive. Question number 19
Reliability test for Components shows that majority choose agree and strongly agree in respond
Reliability Statistics to the question.
Components Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
1 .824 5 Compare with another journal conducted by
HOTPASCAMAN.S. All of the variables are accepted and it
2 .745 3
related each other. So we can conclude this result of this research
3 .770 2 has the similarity with the result of research conducted by
4 .720 2 HOTPASCAMAN. The difference is in authors result, the family
lifestyle is rejected. Family lifestyle hypothesis is rejected
The Cronbach’s Alpha of the components in this research meanwhile in HOTPASCAMAN result the hypothesis is
are all ≥ 0.7, therefore all the components in this research are accepted.
reliable. Also, all of the Cronbach’s Alphas had been maximized
so that deleting any variables in each component could not 5.2 Suggestion
change the Cronbach’s Alpha to become bigger. 5.2.1. For the university students
The authors hope that by knowing the factors that
influenced consumptive behavior that the authors have shown in
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION this research, the students can be more aware about the
consumptive behavior. The authors conduct this research in hope
5.1 Conclusion
that the students can minimize their consumptive behavior by
Based on the research that the authors have conducted to
270 respondents, the authors conclude the entire variable into 5 knowing the factors that triggered it. The authors also hope that
dominant factors that had influence to their consumptive the students can be more aware about the importance of savings.
As we can see in the demographic part of chapter 4, in the
behavior.
savings graph and table, it is shown that most of the respondents
do not have any savings or only a few amounts of cash from their
1. Product Usage and Purchasing Power
allowance, even if they have allowance above Rp 2,500,000 a
The variance of initial Eigenvalues shows that the first
factor has 29.624% of 71.749%. That shows fulfilling desire is month. Students really should have some money for them to
the most dominant factor that influences the consumptive save; besides they can buy products beyond their buying power if
they save money, but it also can train them to be not too
behavior. Base on the question number 1 (variable 1) in the
consumptive later in the future if they are accustomed to save
fulfilling desire section, the authors can see majority select
some of their allowance.
number 3 (149 choices) and 4 (73 choices) which are agree and
strongly agree. The question refers to the likeliness to spend
money to buy something or to buy product that useful and 5.2.2. For future research
product that suitable with their purchasing power. Question For future research, the authors hope that the respondents
can be added because Jakarta is a big city and the respondents
number 4 (variable 4) also show the same fact that when people
could be more than what the authors have conducted. Also the
buy a product they tend buy another product. It showed in the
location could be bigger than Jakarta, such as Jabodetabek
questioner where the majorities choose number 3 and 4 (138 and
(Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang, Bekasi) or Java Island. Future
64 choices). Product usage and purchasing power (H1) is
affecting the Consumptive Behavior. Therefore, authors’ research could also increase the number of factors and questions
that being used in conducting the research. A future research also
hypothesis 1 (H1) is accepted.
can make the cosncern deeper, as the authors only put concern in
the consumptive behavior can make people will not be able to
2. Social Status
save money. This topic is very vast therefore expanding the topic
The variance of initial Eigenvalues shows that the second
factor has 13.557% of 71.749%. This value shows that social for the future research is much recommended.
status has a big role in creating the consumptive behavior. To
maintain social status people become consumptive.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
3. Satisfaction First of all, the authors want to thank God, for the blessings
The variance of initial Eigenvalues shows that the third that the authors received so that the authors are directed to the
factor has 12.732% of 71.749%. As the third biggest percentage, correct path and can finish this proposal on time. This research
satisfaction becomes one of the key factor of creating would have been near impossible to do without guidance and
Consumptive behavior. In question number eleven we can see support whether it is moral or financial from our parents.
that majority choose agree and strongly agree. Moreover, the authors would like to thank friends and
Satisfaction (H3) is affecting Consumptive Behavior. Therefore, participants of questioners who gave their time and support
authors’ hypothesis 3 (H3) is accepted. through the hardest time. The authors also like to give thank you

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to Mr. Suresh Kumar as advisor, thanks for support, advice,


teaching and guidance that have been given in the making
process of this proposal and research.

Cikarang,October 22 2013
The Authors

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indonesian.html

AUTHORS
First Author – Aldo Enrico, President University, Department
of Business Administration 2011, Jababeka, Cikarang 17550
Indonesia, [email protected]
Second Author – Ritchie Aron, President University,
Department of Business Administration 2011, Jababeka,
Cikarang 17550 Indonesia, [email protected]
Third Author – Weriyen Oktavia, President University,
Department of Business Administration 2011, Jababeka,
Cikarang 17550 Indonesia, [email protected]

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 105
ISSN 2250-3153

Financial Innovation and Poverty Reduction


Mohammed Avais
The Business School, University of Jammu
Bhaderwah Campus (J&K), India

Abstract- Financial sector has witnessed many changes over What is Financial innovation?
the last few decades. The economic development of a country is Financial markets have continued to produce a multitude of new
correlated with the financial sector. For the growth of financial products, including many new forms of derivatives, alternative risk
sector the participation of every individual of a country is needed transfer products, exchange traded funds, and variants of tax-deductible
equity. A longer view suggests that financial innovation like innovation
that is reflected in the motive of financial inclusion. Since in elsewhere in business is an ongoing process whereby private parties
developing countries or LCDs large proportion of population is experiment to try to differentiate their products and services, responding
dependent on agriculture, but in most of rural areas of these to both sudden and gradual changes in the economy.( Miller,1986).
countries financial intermediation has a poor performance and is “Financial innovation is viewed as the “engine” driving the financial
unable to meet sustainable development. Financial inclusion at a system towards its goal of improving the performance of what
broader level for poor is still a dream for most of the countries. economists call the “real economy.”In a wide sense financial innovation
Financial innovation therefore may be the only way to make is the creation of new approaches for the financial industry. It can be in
financial facility available for poor at all levels of income. Some the form of new types of security or money management process. In
of these products are especially designed targeting the poor. financial innovation new instruments are designed for investors that
have never been offered before. Financial markets have continued to
New financial products for poor will be able to remove poverty produce a multitude of new products, including many new forms of
in rural areas and can play a crucial role in socio-economic derivatives, alternative risk transfer products, exchange traded funds,
change in the rural society. This paper discusses literature review and variants of tax-deductible equity. Financial innovation includes:
of financial innovation, its impact on rural areas and discusses “new financial instruments, new decision processes and criteria,
how some of the innovative financial products helped in financial cultivation of new markets for financial instruments, new organisational
inclusion for poor people. Moreover it reflects use of and managerial practices and new institutions” (Bhatt, 1995:9). Frame
technological advancement for innovative financial products that and White (2004) defined financial innovation as “representing
helped in financial inclusion and poverty alleviation. It also gives something new that reduces costs, reduces risks, or provides an
some suggestions for new financial products to bring more rural improved product/service/instrument that better satisfies participants’
demands” (Frame and White, 2004:118). The principal role of financial
poor people in the ambit of financial inclusion for their financial innovation is to make markets more complete so that firms, households
needs. The data and facts used is secondary data from world and governments can better finance, invest and share risk among each
bank and other agencies reports. other (see for example Allen and Gale, 1997, or Acemoglu and Zilibotti,
1997). Zhou and He (1985) remarked that financial innovation is the
Key Words- financial innovation, financial inclusion, poverty diversified economy phenomena, including the appearance of new
alleviation, development financial assets, new financial market and new medium of payment.
JEL Classification- P23, P36, P45, P46 Empirical studies of the adoption of financial innovations have focused
on the introduction of automated teller machines (Hannan and
McDowell (1984, 1987) and Saloner and Shepherd (1995)), patents
(Lerner (2002)),off-balance sheet activities of banks (Molyneux and
I. INTRODUCTION Shamroukh (1996), Obay (2000)),junk bond issuance (Molyneux and

F inancial sector has witnessed many changes over the last few
decades. There was increase in financial institution, large capital
inflows, regulatory bodies, deregulation in the sector and many
Shamroukh (1999)) and corporate security innovations (Tufano (1989).

innovation in financial instruments. All the necessary steps were taken Financial innovation and poverty reduction:
to broaden the scope of the sector and to be accessible for more and Since financial innovation contributed a lot in development of new
more individuals. Developing countries are taking many necessary steps securities and financial market but it also helped financial sector to be
to include the poor in the ambit of financial sector. Research interest in accessible for a common man also. Researches in this area shows that
this sector has been developed because of importance of financial sector development of a viable financial sector is vital for both economic
in the economies of today. There is ample macroeconomic evidence growth and poverty reduction (World Bank, 2004; DFID, 2004a) . After
suggesting that the development of a country is strongly correlated with realising the fact that economic development of a country cannot be
the development of financial markets (see e.g. Banerjee and Duo (2005). possible without the involvement of rural area and poor, many new
Greenbaum and Haywood(1973) reviewed the history of American financial institutions and instruments were framed keeping in view of
financial market and argued that the growth of wealth is the determinant financial inclusion of the poor but even then Financial exclusion was
of demand of financial innovation. Financial markets play critical roles substantiated by the fact that as per the World Bank estimate in 1995,in
in mobilizing savings, evaluating projects, managing risk, monitoring most developing countries the formal financial system reaches only the
managers, and facilitating transactions. Therefore the development of top 25 percent of the economically active population (Sinha, 2004). For
financial markets is critical for a nation’s innovation (Schumpeter, the growth of a country and its overall development financial inclusion
1911). was necessary thus it became the one of priority for rural section of
society thus Financial inclusion has been discussed in recent years,
particularly in banking circles with the main objective of delivering
affordable banking services to the disadvantaged sections of the society,

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i.e. clients who belong to the unorganised segments of the economy and loans. More and more (short message service [SMS]-based) services of
per force have to depend upon non-institutional sources of finance (Rao, relevance to poor rural people are now provided by mobile phone.
2007; Ray and Singh, 2006) . Research also suggest that in many of the (World Poverty Report 2011) .There are 5.6 billion mobile phone users
least developed countries (LDCs) the rural financial market is often in the world. This can help to provide banking services to those who are
fragmented and unable to meet the finance needs of the rural population, presently an unbanked portion of society specially the poor in rural areas
especially for investing in agriculture, the predominant sector. (Besley, of developing countries. The Financial Facility Remittance projects also
1994). Generally rural economy is financially very insubstantial and promote the integration and use of new technologies, such as mobile
there is lack in the availability of credit facility at a reasonable rate. money transfers and mobile banking, that benefit remittance recipients
They need finance for up gradation of method of production and for new in rural areas.(World Poverty Report 2011).Many countries are even
technology. Finance is also required for commodity marketing, concerned in this like The Ministry of Finance has recommended
sometimes through inventory-backed financing, which offers rural consistent tax treatment for mobile banking operations to support
producers, traders and processors the opportunity to improve household national outreach to rural and remote areas. In Mexico, a series of
income through adopting better produce marketing and raw material diagnostic and data gathering exercises carried out by or on behalf of the
procurement strategies (Coulter and Onumah, 2002). According to financial authorities identified both gaps and barriers in critical areas.
world poverty report 2011 there are one billion people who live in These issues were addressed in Mexico`s recently issued regulation on
poverty in rural area and large proportion of poor and hungry are agents, including mobile network operators to set up agent networks and
children and young people. Recent estimates shows that only 2.7 billion manage mobile accounts on behalf of banks; mobile banking scheme
people around the world have no access to formal financial services. and specific regulation for mobile banking accounts (simplified regime)
And only 10 per cent of even the most basic formal financial services and limited scope banks “niche banks”(ATISG Report 2010) . The use
reach rural communities (IFAD,201I). of this service can be availed only if the users are aware of the service
that how to use and are financially literate. Mobile money’s first big
Need of financial service for poor: success in serving poor people came when Kenyans discovered how
The population of the developing world is still more rural than urban: useful it was to be able to “send money home” safely, quickly and
some 3.1 billion people, or 55 per cent of the total population, live in cheaply through M-PESA. As mobile money moves from transfers into
rural areas. Despite massive progress in reducing poverty in some parts savings and loans, it will need to demonstrate a similar leap in the
of the world over the past couple of decades notably in East Asia – there usefulness of its products. (CGAP Microfinance Blog , March 21,2012 )
are still about 1.4 billion people living on less than US$1.25 a day, and What poor people need is: first, convenience, being able to transact near
close to 1 billion people suffering from hunger. At least 70 per cent of where they live and work; second, trust, putting their money with
the world’s very poor people are rural, and a large proportionof the poor organisations that seem to care for them and who they feel are going to
and hungry are children and young people. (Poverty Report 2011)WWB be there for them when they need them the most; and, third, affordability
research shows that the poor save, generally in small amounts, an – being able to transact in small amounts at reasonable cost ( Mas,I).
estimated 10 to 15 percent of their monthly income. The need for formal Branchless Banking
savings options is crucial: without them the poor are forced to keep cash Providing financial services without relying on bank branches is another
at home or in informal savings groups which are risky and money can be step to include more individual to access the financial services in remote
lost. and rural areas. Branchless banking is “the delivery of financial services
The poor need sustainable financial services for different reasons they outside conventional bank branches using information and
need; communications technologies and non-bank retail agents, for example,
Micro savings deposit facilities for: over card-based networks or with mobile phones." (CGAP 2009 ). The
 the safekeeping of savings technological brawn, sophisticated banking and widespread financial
 consumption-smoothing literacy seemingly required to deploy mobile-money programs are, of
 emergencies course, heavily concentrated in the developed world. It can help to
 accumulation of resources access financial services in more convient way and at low cost.
 self-financing of investments According to the World Economic Forum’s “Mobile Financial Services
Microcredit, with access to loans of various sizes and maturities for: Development Report,” roughly 10% of Kenya’s 40 million people use
 external financing of investments mobile-money initiatives like Safaricom’s M-Pesa. The branchless
 consumption-smoothing banking platform enables users, armed with only their mobile phones, to
 emergencies pay bills, deposit and withdraw money as well as transfer funds to M-
Microinsurance, including specialized insurance services (life, health, Pesa’s users and non-users alike. (Wall Street Journal Market Watch 28
accident or cattle insurance) and nonspecialized services (providing Feb. 2012) .The essential proposition of branchless banking that
social protection through access to one’s savings or to credit in cases of financial providers can reduce fixed costs by using existing facilities and
emergency) for: devices, whether owned by the customer (e.g., mobile phones) or by
 risk management agents has caught the attention of providers. Success in branchless
 social security banking ultimately depends on offering customers a service proposition
 loan protection.IFAD,(2000) that is superior to existing options. Poor people in the unserved majority
will use new electronic services when these services meet real needs
New Innovative Techniques and poverty Reduction: (CGAP,DFID 2009) .
Mobile Banking Microfinance:
Mobile banking empowers retail and corporate banking customers to Microfinance services have always focused poor and targeted to make
access the banking services. Information and communication technology productive investments. Ledgerwood defines microfinance as the
(ICT), particularly mobile phones, is bringing a revolution in provision of financial services like savings, credit, insurance and
information even to remote rural areas. Use of mobile phones is payment services to low-income clients, including the self-employed
expanding exponentially, and handsets are now affordable for many (Ledgerwood, 1999). It is thus the provision of a board range of
poor rural people. Mobile phones have greatly reduced market financial services such as deposits, loans, payment services, money
transaction costs for smallholder farmers, making it possible to find out transfers and insurance to poor and low income households and their
product prices from markets (thus reducing risks related to unequal micro enterprises (Sriram and Kumar, 2007).For the last few decades
access to information), contact buyers, transfer money and arrange microfinance has played an important role in meeting the financial needs

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 107
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for the poor. Microfinance institutions provide a variety of financial innovators. Villgro has impacted more than 3.6 lakh lives so
services designed for poor clients like (savings products, microcredit, far.(Villgro). In Tanzania’s Iringa region, an innovative idea to identify
payment services, micro leasing remittances and micro insurance etc.) village volunteers and train them to monitor child growth as part of an
and has emerged an important tool with the use of new technology, integrated nutrition program helped to reduce infant mortality and child
policy reforms and financial innovation across the world. Microfinance malnutrition substantially. Although successful, many of these advances
institutions (MFIs) have multiplied since 1990; despite the high are largely isolated, typically developed as local interventions that target
transaction costs and risks associated with operating in the rural areas, a limited geographic area. (International Food Policy Research Institute
they are getting ever-better at reaching out and responding to demand 2007)
there. The most innovative are experimenting with ways of enabling the Conclusion and suggestions:
poorest rural people to access financial services. (World Poverty Report For the last two to three decades a lot has been done in the field of
2011). Financial Access 2010 reviews that survey responses from 142 financial innovation keeping in view of the demand of particular time
economies and updates statistics on the use of financial services found but its accessibility to a common man is still a dream for many rural
that many nonbank institutions also provide financial services and some poor. There is a substantial gap between demand and supply of financial
even have specific financial inclusion mandates. These include services to poor according to their need and accessibility. Steps are
cooperatives, specialized state financial institutions, and microfinance needed to make people aware of financial services available to them as
institutions. In a number of West African countries—Benin, Burkina most of rural are not financial literate. There can be special awareness
Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, and Niger deposit-taking microfinance institutions camps by financial services provider that enable people to use the
have more depositors than do commercial banks, which suggests that technology for cheaper financial services at their door steps. There is
nonbanks can be an important player in providing basic deposit services. need for more financial services that must be compatible according to
Commercial banks mainly target urban areas. Most bank branches are according to need of people in rural areas. Some of areas that need focus
located in urban areas, representing 88 percent of all financial from this aspects are mentioned below.
institutions in urban areas. On average, only 26 percent of all bank Micro credit cards:
branches are in rural areas, compared with 45 percent for cooperatives, Financial institution should be encouraged to issue micro credit cards to
38 percent for specialized state financial institutions, and 42 percent for rural people that must enable them to use it up to a limit depending upon
microfinance institutions . (Financial Access 2010) creditworthiness of cardholder but at nominal or very low interest rate.
Islamic Microfinance: Camp card or my bonus microcredit cards are examples of it but these
Islamic banking is growing at a rate of 15% for the last three decades. should be made available at large scale to rural people.
Islamic microfinance is a new concept in microcredit that caters needs of Islamic microfinance:
poor all over the world. -Islamic microfinance is becoming an Some people of Muslim community don’t participate in traditional
increasingly popular mechanism for alleviating poverty, especially in banking system because of component of interest involved in it. Since
developing countries around the world. The Islamic finance industry as a interest is strictly prohibited in Islam so they prefer to remain out of
whole is expected to reach over $2 billion dollars in 2012 and is a system of banking. In those cases Islamic banking should be encouraged
continually growing sector due to its ethical principles and prohibition and govt. should incorporate suitable working environment to operate
of riba (interest). (International Islamic News Agency, 22 Feb. 2012). these institution at par with other institutions.
Since traditional microfinance is based on interest though very low in Using bank facility for wages to daily wagers:
some cases where as Islamic microfinance is based on interest free Daily wagers that are employed at low level should be paid cheque or
principle and favours investing only in those projects that are in money should be transferred in their account at all low level so that they
compliance with Shariah principle and benefits society at large. Funds to might withdraw as much money as per their daily need and rest they
Islamic microfinance may be provided by religious contributions should keep with bank. This may inculcate their habit of saving.
through the institutions of Awqaf, Zakat, Sadaqat, Qard-Hasan and other Opening of more microfinance branches at village level:
charities. There should be more microfinance branches at village level that have
Social Entrepreneur: no such branches at present so that it must cater their needs in an
Social entrepreneurs plays an important role in reducing the level of effective way. These branches should be open in those areas that are
poverty among many poor and developing nations. By combining either financially excluded or have low access to it.
innovative ideas from individuals and investments from public, private, Developing financial literacy among rural poor:
and civil society organizations, such entrepreneurs can guide complex Majority of poor are not financially literate they have least knowledge of
global food systems and rural institutions toward their goals. Social working of financial system and particularly financial products and thus
entrepreneurship is a drive for social missions that combine business cannot use which service of medium suits best for their need. So some
principles and motivations are emerging as promising approaches to steps are needed to be taken to make them aware of financial services
international development. Recent experiences have shown that and products that enable them to achieve the most benefits of existing
introducing entrepreneurial spirit into the development process can services.
improve the effectiveness of intervention programs. World history References:
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[19] International Food Policy Research Institute (2007)” SOCIAL
INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP Developing Mohammed Avais, MBA-Financial Management
Capacity to Reduce Poverty and Hunger” 2007. Available at Assistant Professor University of Jammu, Bhaderwah Campus
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Effectiveness of Insecticides and Biopesticides against


Gundhi Bug on Rice Crop in District Rewa (M. P.), India
Dr. Amit Tiwari*, Dr. Jai Prakash Pandey**, Dr. Kalpana Tripathi*, Dr. Dhirendra Pandey*, Dr. Brajesh Pandey*
and Nisha Shukla*
*
Department of Zoology, Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa (M.P.)
**
Department of Biotechnology, Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa (M.P.)

Abstract- An ecofriendly alternative to chemical pesticides is They are laid in batches of 10-20 in one to three rows along the
biopesticides, which encompasses a broad array of microbial midrib on the upper surface of the leaf. [3]
pesticides, biochemicals derived from micro-organisms and other Agriculture has had to face the destructive activities of
natural sources, and processes involving the genetic numerous pests like fungi, weeds and insects from time
incorporation of DNA into agricultural commodities that confer immemorial, leading to radical decrease in yields. With the
protection against pest damage.The field studies were carried out advent of chemical pesticides, this crisis was resolved to a great
for effectiveness of insecticides and biopesticides against gundhi extent. But the over dependence on chemical pesticides and
bug on rice in rewa region. Study of insect pest complex was eventual uninhibited use of them has necessitated for alternatives
done from 2006-07 to 2007- 08. The observations were made mainly for environmental concerns. Degraded soils and
regarding the grain yield monocrotophos was the most efficient groundwater pollution has resulted in nutritionally imbalanced
insecticide where as among biopescides wanis was the best. and unproductive lands. Volatile pesticide residues also
sometimes raise food safety concerns among domestic
Index Terms- Oryza sativa, Biopesticides, Insecticides, Gundhi consumers and pose trade impediments for export crops.
bug, India Therefore, an ecofriendly alternative is the need of the hour.
Biopesticides or biological pesticides based on pathogenic
microorganisms specific to a target pest offer an ecologically
I. INTRODUCTION sound and effective solution to pest problems. They pose less
threat to the environment and to human health. [4]
R ice is the most important staple food crop with more than
half of the world’s population relying on rice as the major
daily source of calories and protein [1]. Asia accounts for about
The present piece of work is attempt to compare the efficacy
of chemical and biopesticides against Gundhi bug on rice field in
90% of world's rice area and production. Among the rice rewa.
growing countries, India has largest area under rice in the world
(about 44.6 mha) i.e. 28% of the worlds area of production, and
ranks second next to China. The share of India to the world's II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
production is near about 22.1 percent. In Madhya Pradesh, the The present study was done in Kuthulia farm of Agriculture
area under rice cultivation is 5144.6 million hectares with College of District Rewa. The study was conducted in the
production of 5748.3 million tonnes with a productivity of 1-2 t seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08. During this time period average
/ha. [2] temperature was 30.4 0C (maximum) and 15.61 0C (minimum).
Gundhi Bug (Leptocorisa varicornis) is a serious pest of During 2007 the monsoon was received on 16th June whereas in
rice and sometimes reduce yield by as much as 30%. The adults 2008 it was on 12th June. Rainfall was adequate in 2007
are slender and brown-green. They measure 19-16 mm long. The (669.5mm) in 41 rainy days but the year 2008 it was
younger instars are pale in color. The nymphs have long comparatively high ranging up to 672.6mm.
antennae. The older instars measure 1.8 - 6.2 mm long. They are
yellowish green. The eggs are oval, shiny, and reddish brown.

Evaluation of insecticides against insect pests of rice :


The field experiments were conducted to evaluate the insecticides against insect pests of rice in the years 2007 and 2008.

Treatments: dose /g. or ml. of formulation/ha


T1 Chlorpyriphos 10.0kg
T2 Chlorpyriphos 12.5kg
T3 Carbofuran 33.0kg
T4 Deltamethrin 150.0ml.
T5 Monocrotophos 1390.0 ml.
T6 Untreated control check
Design RBD (Randomized Block Design)

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Replication 3
Plot size 5x2
Spray 02
Fertilizer NPK 60:40:30 Kg /ha
Variety Pusabasmati
a.i./ha, avermectin 1.8 EC @ 18 ml a.i./ha and DDVP 76 EC @
Ist Spraying of the insecticides was carried out when insect 266ml a.i./ha were field evaluated against mixed population of
pest incidence was and IInd spray observes was done 10days of rice gundhi bug, Leptocorisa sp. during Kharif, 2002 at
Ist Spray. Bhubaneswar, Orissa. The results revealed that all the
insecticides proved significantly effective in controlling the
Evaluation of biopesticides against insect pests of rice : insect as compared to control.
Treatment : Dose
T1 Achook 5 ml. Evaluation of biopesticides against rice gundhi bug on rice:
T2 Neem Azal 3 ml. For the biopesticides against the insect pests 8
T3 Neem Gold 3ml. biopesticides were used namely Achook, Neem Azal , Neem
T4 Spictaf 4.3ml. gold, Spictaf , Tricure , Wanis, Biofer and Biotos. Eight
T5 Tricure 5 ml. biopesticides were evaluated against rice gundhi bug in two
T6 Wanis` 5 ml. consecutive years 2007 and 2008 in high susceptible variety
T7 Biofer 1.5ml. Pusabasmati. It was observed that gundhi bug incidence was 32.8
T8 Biotos 2.5 ml. % and 34.7% in 2007 and 2008 respectively in untreated check.
T9 Control Untreated Among the tested biopesticides Achook was followed by Tricure
Design RBD (Randomized Block Design) and Neem gold. They were found to be significantly superior
Replication 3 than other products. It is obvious from the data (Table No.2) that
Plot size 5x2 minimum gundhi bug population (% incidence) was recorded
Spray 02 (8.85) in Achook which was closely followed by Tricure (12.1)
Fertilizer NPK 60:40:30 Kg /ha and Neem gold (13.1). The effect of biopesticides was seen also
Variety Pusabasmati in regard of grain yield and Wanis was found most effective
showing 30.86% grain yield and lowest yield was recorded by
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the applying Neem azal i.e. 28.51%., Spictaf, Tricure, Biofer, Biotos,
data during experiments. Achook and Neem gold were found in between in an ascending
order at grain yield i.e. 29.88, 30.04, 30.23, 30.41, 30.59 and
30.73% respectively.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Increase in grain yield was recorded highest by application
Gundhi bug (Leptocorisa oratorius), the major insect pest in of Wanis i.e. 18.92%. While it was recorded to be lowest when
upland rice environments causes extensive damage every year. Neem azal was applied i.e. only 9.86%. Increase in grain yield
Population of insect is governed by a number of abiotic and was recorded to be 15.1% by the application of Spictaf, 15.76%
biotic factors [5]. Varieties favourable for the development of the by Tricure, 16.49% by Biofer, 17.18% by Biotos, 17.8% by
insect are also one of the factors. [6] Achook and 18.48% by Neem gold.
According to Murthy 2007 [8], different scientists on eco-
Evaluation of Insecticides against gundhi bug on Rice: friendly practices demonstrated that for managing pest problems
For the evaluation of insecticides against the insect pests 4 pesticides of plant origin like soybean oil, Oxymetrin and
insecticides were used namely Chlorpyriphos, Carbofuran, matrine obtained from Sophoria sp., plant extract (Biotos)
Deltamethrinand, Monocrotophos. Four insecticides at different obtained from Gaultheria spp., essential oils obtained from Vitex
concentrations were evaluated for controlling foliar pests of rice negundo, Pyrethrins present in the seed cases of Chrysanthemum
on most susceptible variety Pusabasmati during the year 2007 plant, the extract of perennial shrub Dodonaea angustifolia,
and 2008 under irrigated ecosystem. It is evident from the data "Saponin" from Sapindus trifoliatus, Pongam seed oil obtained
(Table No. 1 ) that Monocrotophos was found significantly from Pongamia pinnata and P. glabra are useful.
superior in controlling the gundhi bug population (% grain Rice gundhi bug had significant negative correlations with
damage) over untreated check (47.3) and (39.5) during 2007 and minimum temperature, evening relative humidity and rainfall;
2008 respectively. Minimum grain damage (11.1%) was and positive correlations with sunshine hours and maximum
recorded in Monocrotophos followed by Corbofuran (11.8%) temperature.
over untreated check (43.4%). The next effective treatment was
Deltamethrin (25.25%) and Chlorpyriphos 1250g. a i/ha
(27.6%), which were at par and found to be moderately effective
in controlling the gundhi bug population and combating the grain
damage.
According to Mishra, 2003 [7] six insecticides viz.,
fenobucarb 50 EC @ 500ml a.i./ha, imidacloprid 200 SL @ 50ml
a.i./ha, malathion 50EC@ 500ml a.i./ha, carbaryl 50 WP @ 1kg

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Table: 1 - Evaluation of insecticides against gundhi bug Population (2007-2008)

Insecticides Gundhi bug


Common Trade % a.i. Rate %grain damage Grain Yield q/ha (q/ha)%
name name formulation g. g.or ml of 2007 2008 Mean 2007 2008 Mean increase
a.i./ha Formulation in grain
/ha yield

Chlorpyriphos Dursbam 10% 1000 10.0kg 37.6 35.5 36.55 11.48 13.55 12.51 22.52
(a) 10G
Chlorpyriphos Dursban 10% 1250 12.5kg 28.7 26.5 27.6 13.49 15.65 14.57 42.70
(b) 10G
Carbofuran Furadan 3% 1000 33.0kg 12.7 10.39 11.8 19.05 19.20 19.12 87.26
(Check) 3G
Deltamethrin Decis 10% 15 150ml 28.0 22.5 25.25 12.99 13.95 13.47 31.92
10%EC
Monocrotophos Monocrown 36% 500 1390ml 12.0 10.2 11.1 18.92 20.93 19.92 95.10
(Check) 36 WSC
Untreated - - - - 47.3 39.5 43.4 8.44 11.98 10.21 -
Control
Sem ± - - - - 0.813 0.126 - 0.166 16.60 - -

CD (0.05) - - - - 2.563 0.397 - 0.524 52.33 - -

Table: 2 - Evaluation of biopesticides against rice gundhi bug (2007-2008)

Neem products/ Dose/l of Gundhi bug incidence (%) Gain yield (q/ha) Increase in
pesticides water 2007 2008 Mean 2007 2008 Mean grain yield
(%)
Achook 5ml 8.5 9.2 8.85 26.80 34.38 30.59 17.8
Neem Azal 3ml 14.1 16.1 15.1 25.90 31.13 28.51 9.86
Neem gold 3ml 12.7 13.5 13.1 27.50 33.96 30.73 18.40
Spictaf 4.5ml 16.8 14.3 15.55 25.30 34.46 29.88 15.1
Tricure 5ml 11.7 12.5 12.1 24.80 35.29 30.04 15.76
Wanis 5ml 12.6 14.7 13.65 25.90 35.83 30.86 18.92
Biofer 1.5ml 14.2 13.6 13.9 27.1 33.37 30.23 16.49
Biotos 2.5ml 14.8 15.8 15.3 27.7 33.12 30.41 17.18
Untreated check - 32.8 34.7 33.75 24.3 27.6 25.95 -
Sem ± - 0.942 0.767 - 1.070 0.887 - -
CD (0.05) - 2.824 2.302 - 3.208 2.661 - -

IV. CONCLUSION REFERENCES


Agriculture being the backbone for Indian economy, [1] Khanjani, M. Crop pests of Iran. Buali Sina Uiversity Press. 2006. 717 .
accounts for about 30% of GDP and two third of the population [2] Anonymous. Statistics of Agriculture, Volume 1, Agricultural and
Horticultural Crops, Crop year 2009-2010, Ministry of Agriculture,
is dependent on it. After taking various observations we can be to Department of Economic Planning, Bureau of Statistics and Information
concluded that regarding the grain yield monocrotophos was the Technology. 2011.
most efficient insecticide where as among biopescides wanis was [3] John, S. Pest management need for integrated approach. Pesticides. 1981.
the best. Biopesticides provide environment friendly XV (9): 3-5.
alternatives to chemical insecticides but they face a number of [4] Suman Gupta and Dikshit, A. K. Biopesticides: An ecofriendly approach
constraints in their development, manufacture and utilization. for pest control. Journal of Biopesticides. 2010. 3(1): 186-188.
[5] Emmel, T.C. Population Biology. 1976. Harper and Row, New York.
[6] Kennedy, J.S. Mechanism of host plant selection. Ann. Appl. Biol 1965.
56: 317-322.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 112
ISSN 2250-3153

[7] Mishra, H.P. Evaluatin of New isecticides against rice gundhi bug. Indian
Journal of Plant Protection. 2003. 31 (2) : 107-108.
[8] Murthy, K.S.R.K. Modern trends – Demonstrated Eco-friendly
practices/tools for crop protection. Indian Journal of Plant Protection 2007.
35(1): 22-24.

AUTHORS
First Author – Amit Tiwari, PhD, Department of Zoology,
Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa- [email protected]
Second Author – Jai Prakash Pandey, Department of
Biotechnology, Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa-
[email protected]
Third Author – Kalpana Tripathi, PhD, Department of Zoology,
Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa- [email protected]
Fourth Author – Dhirendra Pandey, PhD, Department of
Zoology, Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa-
[email protected]
Fifth Author – Brajesh Pandey, PhD, Department of Zoology,
Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa- [email protected]
Sixth Author – Nisha Shukla, M. Phil, Department of Zoology,
Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa- [email protected]

Correspondence Author – Kalpana Tripathi, email


[email protected], +919009222591

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Fuzzy Controller Design of Lighting Control System by


Using VI Package
*
K.Saravanan,**N.Muthu Prabhu,**B.Raja Rajeswari
*
Assistant professor, department of EEE, Ranganathan Engineering College, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
**
Ug Student, Sasurie Academy of engineering, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

Abstract- This paper describes how we design a lighting control


sys- tem including hardware and software. Hardware includes
Dimmer with relays Bulb light sensing circuit, control circuit,
and 8255 expanding I/O circuit, PC, and bulb. Sensing circuit
uses photo-resistance component to sense the environmental light
and then transmit the signal of the lightness to the computer
through an 8-bit A/D converter 0804. The control circuit applies
reed relay in digital control way to adjust the variable resistor
value of the traditional dimmer. Software incorporates
LABVIEW graph- ical programming language and MATLAB
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox to design the light fuzzy controller. The
rule-base of the fuzzy logic controller either for the single input
single output (SISO) system or the double inputs single output
(DISO) system is developed and compared based on the op-
eration of the bulb and the light sensor. The control system can
dim the bulb automatically according to the environmental light.
It can be applied to many fields such as control of streetlights and
lighting control of car’s headlights and it is possible to save
energy by dimming the bulb. Experimental results show that the
fuzzy controller with the DISO system can make bulb response
faster than with the SISO system under sudden change of
environmental light. The application of fuzzy logic in lighting control has been
presented in a number of papers. For example, it is possible to
Index Terms- LabVIEW, lighting control system, MATLAB save energy by dimming the bulb or the fluorescent lamp.
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, fuzzy logic controller, SISO, DISO. Dimming of the fluorescent lamp can be done by changing the
input frequency of the electronic ballast [1]. A microproces- sor-
based intelligent control device for streetlight control applying
I. INTRODUCTION fuzzy decision theory to distinguish various interfe- rences
accurately and to make it operate reliably, which can turn on or
A fter Lotfi Zadeh had introduced the fuzzy logic in 1965, the
fuzzy control method is extensively used since it has the
advantage of being model-free without any a priori informa- tion
off the transformer automatically according to en- vironmental
light [7].
required. It is easy to design a fuzzy control system with Section II introduces the proposed lighting control system
requisite knowledge and the experience of a skilled operator. including hardware design. One of the important problems
Many issues focus on determining fuzzy control rules, mem- involved with the design of fuzzy logic controllers is the de-
bership functions, and structures of fuzzy controllers [2, 4, 6]. velopment of fuzzy if-then rules for fuzzy controllers. Section III
Various ways of fuzzy logic used to improve industrial control presents the design method of fuzzy logic controllers. The
[5] and methodology to reduce the number of variables experimental results and discussions are shown in Section IV.

II. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION


The block diagram of the proposed lighting control system is
shown in Fig. 1, which can be represented by a simple form like
Fig. 2. The 8255 I/O shown in Fig. 1 is the expanding I/O circuit
of a PC printer port. Originally, only 8-bit I/O in PC

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Fig. 3. The 8255 expanding I/O circuit connected with a PC


printer port.

printer port can be used. After the 8255 expanding I/O circuit
shown in Fig. 3 had been established, we have 24-bit I/O
available now. The bulb drive shown in Fig. 2 is basically
composed of a dimmer with 6 reed relays, and its corres- ponding
hardware circuit is shown in Fig. 4. The reed relays in the bulb
drive are regarded to as digital outputs of the light control
system, thus the D/A converter is unnecessary for our case. One
more thing need to be done is to design a parallel set of resistor
circuit work as the function of the variable resistor in the
dimmer. The main objective of designing a paral- lel-resistor
circuit is to make the total resistance decreases homogeneously
with the increase of the DN value of the con- trol output. Figure
5 shows the hardware layout of the paral- lel-resistor circuit, and
it stands for one of the many possible solutions as long as the
above requirement (homogeneously decreasing) can be met.
The simulation result of the total resistance versus control output
is shown in Fig. 6. The sensor block in Fig. 2 corresponds to the
combination of A/D block and the Light sensor block, its
hardware circuit is shown in Fig. 7, which contains photo-resistor
CdS sensor and an 8-bit A/D converter and LED displaying
circuit. Consequently, the hardware layout of the lighting control
system is shown in Fig. 8. After all the hardware works had been
done, subse- quently, our goal is to design a FLC used to dim the
bulb ac- cording to the environmental light.

III. FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER


In this paper, the single input single output (SISO) system
and

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the double inputs single output (DISO) system are discussed. The inferred by the max-min composition and the fuzzy relation
environmental light is used as input variable x1 for the SISO describes the desired control action. The fuzzy set of the output
system, while another input variable x2 (the changing variable is defuzzified to deliver a crisp numerical value by the
center-of-gravity method. The fuzzy rule base consists of a
collection of fuzzy IF-THEN rules of the form.

R(k): IF x1 is and x2 is F k , THEN y is Gk,


for k = 1, 2, …, n (1)

Where x1, x2 ∈ U, and y ∈ R are the input and output of the


fuzzy sets in U1, U2 and R representing the kth antecedent pairs
and consequent pair respectively and n is the number of rules.
The SISO system and the DISO system will be discussed
and analyzed by using MATLAB Fuzzy Logic Toolbox in the
followings.

1. SISO
rate of the environmental light) is considered for the DISO We assume that the input to the system is the environmental
system. The output variable is the numerical value DN to the light x1. We further assume that the environmental light can be
output circuit. The input variables are fuzzified by assigning Big, Medium, and Small. The output DN can range between 0
them a singleton fuzzy set, i.e. a set with membership function and 63 and is divided into Small, Medium, and Big. Figure 9
µ and zero elsewhere. The fuzzy set of the output variable is shows the fuzzy sets describing the above. Labels for the

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membership functions are given in Table 1. The rules base, with


its 3 rules, is shown in Table 2.

output solved by the center-of-gravity method can also be


checked by hand calculation as follows:

2. DISO
We assume that the inputs to the system are the environ-
mental light x1 and the changing rate of the environmental
light x2. Where the changing rate of the environmental light
ranges between -10 and +10 and is divided into Nega- tive-
Small, Zero, and Positive-Small. We further assume that the
environmental light can be Small, Medium, and Big. To make
the inferred output value homogeneously distribute on all regions
(especially, for dark region), the output DN ranges between -20
and 80 and is divided into VS, S, SB, MB, B, and VB. Figure 11
shows the fuzzy sets describing the above. Labels for the
membership functions are given in Table 3. The rules base, with
Figure 10 shows the results of the simulation of the rule its 9 rules, is shown in Table 4. Figure 12 shows the results of the
base by fuzzy inference development environment (MATLAB simulation of the rule base by fuzzy inference development
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox) software for the input value of the environment (MATLAB Fuzzy Logic Toolbox)
environmental light x1 = 164. The output is 24.22. Here only
two rules are needed to calculate the output. The inferred

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Fig. 13. The result of the simulation of the DISO system


using surface viewer of MATLAB fuzzy logic toolbox.

Fig. 14. Bulb responses for control value DN = 5, 15, 25.

software for the input values of the environmental light x1 = 150


and the changing rate of the environmental light x2 = 5. The
output is about 9.41. Here only six rules are needed to calculate
the output. The surface shown in Fig. 13 is the con- trol surface.
It means that for every possible value of the two inputs, there is a
corresponding output based on the rules. For example, if the
environmental light x1 and the changing rate of the
environmental light x2 are given, the control output DN of the
system can be obtained immediately.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


The light control system is constructed in a PC base using
the 8255 expanding I/O circuit instead of a DAQ card. The 8255 Fig. 15. Bulb output response against different
I/O expanding circuit, sensing circuit, and the output control environmental light.
circuit become the requisite components in the design of a light
control system. The resolution of A/D device is 8-bit and the
digital outputs used only 6-bit. The tasks of acquiring the input
signal, process of the input data, and output of the DN are
commanded by using LabVIEW, which is a graphical
programming language to accommodate the light control system.
Figure 14 shows the corresponding bulb responses for the control
value DN = 5, 15, 25 respectively. Figure 15 shows the change of
the lightness of the bulb against the variations of the environment
lightness.
The front panel and the block diagram of the LabVIEW
program are shown in Fig. 16. At begin, we create a combo box
with two items (SISO and DISO) in the front panel of LabVIEW,
shown in the upper part of Fig. 16. To simplify the whole
program, we make two sub-vi’s icons denoted as FLC

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LabVIEW program incorporated with MATLAB Fuzzy Logic


Toolbox for the FLC is carried out. The experimental results
have shown the satisfactory response of the bulb system against
sudden change of the environmental light. This intel- ligent
dimming device can also be applied to dim the bulb of the
streetlights or car’s headlights automatically according to
environmental light, which worked reliably and had obtained
good effect of energy saving.

REFERENCES
[1] Javidbakht, Saeid, Design of a Controller to Control Light Level in a
Commercial Office, M.S.Egr. Thesis, Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, Wright State University, pp. 1-106 (2007).
[2] Mamdani, E. M., “Application of fuzzy algorithms for control of simple
dynamic plant,” IEE Proceedings, Vol. 121, No. 12, pp. 1585-1588 (1974).
[3] Mamlook, R., Tao, C. W., and Thompson, W. E., “An advanced fuzzy
controller,” Fuzzy Sets and Systems, Vol. 103, pp. 541-545 (1999).
[4] Takagi, T. and Sugeno, M., “Fuzzy identification of systems and its
applications to modeling and control,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man
and Sybernetics, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 116-132 (1985).
[5] Van der Wal, A. J., “Application of fuzzy logic control in industry,” Fuzzy
Fig. 16. Front panel and block diagram in LabVIEW. Sets and Systems, Vol. 74, pp. 33-41 (1995).
[6] Wu, Z. Q., Wang, P. Z., and Wang, H. H., “A rule self-regulating fuzzy
SISO and FLC DISO to do the corresponding job of the controller,” Fuzzy Sets and Systems, Vol. 47, pp. 13-21 (1992).
FLC, shown in the lower part of Fig. 16. After that, we can [7] Zhang, C., Cui, N., Zhong, M., and Cheng, Z., “Application of Fuzzy
easily run the LabVIEW program and choose the item in the Decision in Lighting Control of Cities,” 44th IEEE Decision and Control
Conference, Seville, Spain, pp. 4100-4104 (2005).
combo box and even switch the item to another one during the
ex- ecution of the LabVIEW program.
The main features in the design of the light control system
using the LabVIEW are: AUTHORS
First Author – K.Saravanan, Assistant professor, department of
(1) Low cost. EEE, Ranganathan Engineering College, Coimbatore,
(2) Easy implemented in a PC without any DAQ card. Tamilnadu, India, Email: [email protected]
(3) Incorporate MATLAB Fuzzy Logic Toolbox with Lab- Second Author – N.Muthu Prabhu, UG Student, Sasurie
VIEW program. Academy of engineering, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India, Email:
[email protected]
Javidbakht [1] used fuzzy controller with the SISO sytem to Third Author – B.Raja rajeswari, UG Student, Sasurie
dim the fluorescent lamp based on the availability of the Academy of engineering, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India, Email:
outside light. And Zhang [7] adopted fuzzy controller with the [email protected]
DISO system to distinguish environmental interferences,
avoiding the fault action and jittery and improving the reliability.
In this paper, both the SISO system and the DISO system are
discussed respectively in the fuzzy controller. The experimental
results show, due to the light signal and the changing rate are
considered, the DISO system responses faster than the SISO
system when environmental light changes suddenly. It has also
verified the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed fuzzy
controller.

V. CONCLUSIONS
Important hardware such as the light sensing circuit and the
dimmer with relays (like parallel-resistor circuit) were de- signed
and proved work well. The control device can be used to adjust
the light level of the bulb, making relays engaged or disengaged
and saving the power. The device is reliable and convenient for
maintenance.
The control of the bulb light system using a fuzzy logic
controller is presented. Both the SISO system and the DISO
system are discussed in the fuzzy logic controller and the

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Removal of Chromium (VI) metal ions from waste water


using alternative adsorbents - A comparative study
Sunil H*, Karthik K.V **, Pradeep H N**, Mahesh Kumar Shetty**

* Chemical Engineering Department, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering


** Chemical Engineering Department, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering

Abstract- Alternative adsorbents like Activated charcoal, (4) Non-conventional adsorbents require less maintenance and
modified activated charcoal, wheat bran, activated neem leaf supervision. [13]
powder and groundnut shell powder were used as adsorbents for 1.1 SOURCES OF CHROMIUM
effective removal of Cr (VI) ions and thus a comparative study Chromium emission sources can be divided into two broad
between the adsorbents are presented. Waste water containing Cr classes, direct and indirect. The direct category primarily
(VI) ions was treated with all adsorbents for a calculated amount includes sources that either produce chromium or consume
of time. Further, filtration was carried out and was analysed for chromium or a chromium compound to manufacture a product.
Cr (VI) metal ions using Spectrophotometric method. By varying The sources categories within the direct category are [3]:
the concentration of the solution and studying its effects we have
selected the best result obtained for percentage removal of Chromites ore refining 60 %
Chromium for the different adsorbents. Other parameters like Ferrochromium production 71 %
time of contact, amount of adsorbent used and pH were also Refractory production 3%
varied and the required result i.e. percentage removal of Chromium chemicals 17-18 %
Chromium is shown. Chromium plating 70 %
Steel production 12-28 %
Index Terms- Chromium VI (Cr VI), Waste water, Adsorbents, Leather tanning 90 %
Spectrophotometric method, metal ions.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. INTRODUCTION 2.1. REAGENTS AND APPARATUS
With water pollution increasing as a result of enhanced industrial All the primary chemicals used were of analytical grade.
activities, the problem of removing pollutants from wastewater is Potassium dichromate, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid solution
growing daily. Heavy metal pollution is of great concern, due to and other necessary chemicals were obtained from the college
growing awareness of potentially hazardous effects of elevated laboratory.
levels of these materials in the environment. Toxic metals (i.e.,
A standard solution of 1000 ppm of K 2Cr2O7 was prepared as the
Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cd, Pb) make their way into water bodies via
wastewater from metal plating industries, leather industries, pulp stock solution. This was further diluted to certain concentrations
and paper mills, refineries and steel work foundries, etc. ranging from 50 mg/L to 300 mg/L. The adsorbents used were
The current study focuses on the removal of Cr (VI), heavy metal modified activated charcoal, wheat bran, groundnut shell
ions from industrial waste water using unconventional powder, neem leaf powder, modified neem leaf powder. Conical
adsorbents. Groundnut shells and wheat bran are available
abundantly as agricultural wastes. Neem leaves are available as a flasks were used for the preparation and storage of different
natural adsorbent along with activated charcoal. concentration solutions. Appropriate amount of adsorbents
were weighed and added to each conical flask for shaking in a
The advantages of non conventional adsorbents are as follows: rotary shaker for a given contact time. Spectroscopic analysis
was then conducted to get the final concentrations of the
(1) The efficiencies of various non-conventional adsorbents
towards adsorbate removal vary generally between 50 % and 90 solutions. The percentage removal of Cr (VI) metal ions was thus
% depending on the characteristics and particle size of the obtained.
adsorbent, and the characteristics and concentration of the
adsorbate, etc. Hence, alternate adsorbents can be employed
2.2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
efficiently in removal of heavy metals.
(2) Non-conventional adsorbents are much cheaper relative to
The equipments used were rotary shaker, pH meter, UV visible
conventional adsorbents, and when readily available locally
spectrophotometer. HACH-DR-4000 UV Visible
which leads to much reduced transportation costs.
spectrophotometer was used for determination of chromium
(3) Non-conventional adsorbents require simple alkali/and or
content in standard and treated solutions. The pH of the solution
acid treatment for the removal of lignin before application in
was measured with a EUTECH make digital microprocessor
order to increase their efficiency.
based pH meter previously calibrated with standard buffer

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solutions. The particle size distribution analysis was carried out Groundnut shells were obtained from local markets and were
with the different adsorbents using a particle size distribution washed with tap water. They were then sun dried and ground to
analyzer. The chemical analysis was carried out by standard 200-300 micrometer size. 20 g of the powder was soaked for 24
methods of chemical analysis. hours in 0.1 M concentrated HNO3.This mixture was filtered
using three layers of filter paper. The residue was washed with
UV spectroscopy: distilled water to remove the acid content and dried at room
The solutions were analysed for absorbance at a wavelength of temperature for 1 hour .It was then dried in an oven at 420 0C for
540 nm. 5 hours. [16]
Wheat bran was obtained locally and ground to 200-300
micrometer. It was washed with distilled water and dried for 6
hours under the sun.

2.4 CALCULATIONS:
Using the calibration chart the corresponding values of
concentration were obtained.
The absorbance readings were obtained at 540 nm and they are
noted as shown in the table below:
Fig 1: UV Spectrophotometer
Table 2.1 Absorbance readings
.
Rotary Shaker: SL. Initial Concentration Absorbance
Rotary shaker was applied for shaking to all the solutions in NO. of Cr(VI), mg/L (ABS)
conical flasks for a constant time. The contents of the flask were 1. 50 0.41
shaken at a constant value of 120 rotations per min. 2. 100 0.8
3. 150 1.19
4. 200 1.58
5. 250 1.96
6. 300 2.40

Fig 2: Rotary Shake


2.3 PROCEDURE:
Preparation of standard solution (stock solution)
The stock solution containing 1000 ppm of Cr (VI) was prepared
by dissolving a known quantity of K2Cr2O7 in 500 ml of
deionised , double distilled water.
Activated charcoal was obtained from the laboratory and it was
used directly in the powdered form.
The properties of this activated charcoal were then modified. It
was oxidised with 0.1 N HNO3. 10 ml of this acid was mixed
with 0.2 g of activated charcoal, soaked for 2 hours and sun dried
for 6 hrs. This sample was again mixed with a known quantity of
NaOH and NaCl for 8 hrs. Thus, the activated charcoal was
surface modified and used for the adsorption.
Neem powder was collected from local markets. After collection
Graph 2.1: Absorbance vs Concentration of Chromium (VI)
it was washed thoroughly with double distilled water to remove
water soluble impurities and then sun dried. This was then
ground to pass through 15-20 mesh screens. This was then 2.4.1 BATCH ADSORPTION STUDIES:
treated with HCl in the ratio1:1.8 by weight and dried in the sun All experiments were carried out at room temperature , i.e., 30 
for 24 hrs. This was then washed with distilled water to remove
20 C. Using the 250 ml stopper conical flask containing 50 ml of
the free acid content and then dried in an oven at 400 0C for 4
hrs. To this 100 ml solution, 100 mmol/l copper solution (initial test solution batch adsorption studies were carried out at the
pH 8.5) was added 10 g of treated Neem leaves. The mixture was desired pH value, contact time and adsorbent dosage level. pH of
shaken for 6 hrs at 26+-20 0C. [16] the solution was monitored by adding 0.1M HCl and 0.1 M
NaOH solution as required. Necessary amount of adsorbent

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material was then added and contents in the flask were shaken readings were taken to determine the percentage removal of Cr
for the desired contact time in a rotary shaker working at 120 (VI).
rotations per minute. The time required for reaching the
equilibrium condition estimated by drawing samples at regular 2.5.2 ADSORBENT DOSAGE:
intervals of time till equilibrium was reached. The contents of the 50 ml of different concentration solutions were taken in 250 ml
flask were filtered using three layers of filter paper and the conical flasks and different adsorbents were used for the
filtrate was analysed for remaining Cr (VI) concentration in the adsorption process .The best adsorbent, modified activated
sample using the UV Visible Spectrophotometer with 1,5- charcoal was chosen and its amount was varied ranging from 2
diphenylcarbazide in acid medium by following APHA,AWWA g/L to 20 g/L. Experiments were carried at room temperature at a
standard methods for examination of water and wastewater. The constant pH determined experimentally. The results were
amount of Cr (VI) adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent was obtained showing that with increase in the amount of adsorbents
evaluated by using the following mass balance equation, used, the adsorption increased initially. After a certain point the
q= (Co – Cf) v/w graph was constant meaning no further increase in adsorbent
The percent removal of Cr (VI) was calculated as follows: dosage had no effect on the removal of Cr (VI).
Percentage removal of Cr (VI) =
((Cinitial – Cfinal)/Cinitial) X 100 2.5.3 CONTACT TIME:
Where, qAdsorption capacity (mg/g) Three concentrations were chosen for this experiment, 100 mg/L,
Co initial concentration (mg/L) 200 mg/L and 300 mg/L. The contact time was varied from 5
Cf final concentration (mg/L) min to 140 min keeping the pH value and temperature value
v volume of the solution (L) constant. The results were obtained and it was seen that with the
w weight of the adsorbent (g) increase in contact time, i.e., the shaking time of the samples
Effect on variation of initial concentrations was studied for all with the adsorbent, the adsorption also increases, till a certain
the adsorbents, with the variation of Chromium (VI) ion from 50 time, after which the graph became constant.
mg/L to 300 mg/L with an adsorbent dosage of 4 g/L and shaking
time of 60 minutes. Further parameters were varied for the 2.5.4 pH:
adsorbent showing the best removal percentage of Chromium The concentration of Cr (VI) solution chosen for this experiment
(VI) under the given conditions. was 200 mg/L. The pH was varied from 1 to 11 and the shaking
The effect of adsorbent dosage level on percent removal of time was taken to be 60 minutes. The results were thus obtained
chromium was studied using Chromium (VI) concentration of and it was found that maximum removal took place at a pH of 2.
300 mg/L having adjusted the pH to 2. The selected adsorbent
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
concentration was varied from 4 g/L to 20 g/L.
This chapter deals with the result analysis. A brief discussion on
Adsorption experiments for the effect of pH were conducted by each of the results and the inferences drawn from them are
using a solution having concentration 200 mg/L of Chromium presented. Graphical figures have been plotted to indicate the
(VI) with an adsorbent dosage of 4g/L and shaking time of 60 variations of the percentage removal. The best adsorbent is
minutes. chosen on the basis of percentage removal by varying the
concentrations of initial metal ions in the solutions. Different
parameters such as time of contact, pH, and amount of adsorbent
2.5 PARAMETERS STUDY: are varied for the best adsorbent. Tables show the observations
Various parameters affecting the removal of chromium (VI) from recorded and the calculations performed.
waste water is studied. The parameters include concentration of
Cr (VI) solution, Adsorbent dosage, contact time and the pH. The 3.1 EFFECT OF INITIAL METAL ION CONCENTRATION:
effect of all these parameters on the adsorptive capacity of the The efficiency of removal of Cr (VI) was affected by the initial
different adsorbents used is studied. metal ion concentration, with decreasing removal percentages as
concentration increases from 50mg/L to 300 mg/L at pH of 2-4,
2.5.1 CONCENTRATION OF CR (VI) SOLUTION: adsorbent dosage level of 4 g/L and contact time of 60 minutes.
50 ml solutions were prepared of different concentrations by At low metal ion is to adsorbent ratios, metal ion adsorption
involves high energy sites. As this ratio increases the higher
appropriate dilution of the standard solution. The concentrations
energy sites are saturated and adsorption begins on lower energy
taken were ranging from 50 mg/L to 300 mg/L. The six different sites, resulting in decrease in the adsorption efficiency.
concentration solutions were prepared in 250 ml conical flasks.
The selected adsorbents were used for different contact times to OPERATING CONDITIONS
be shaken with the solution samples and the final concentration
pH 2

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Adsorbent dosage level 4 g/L 1. 50 87.3 10.910


Contact time 60 minutes 2. 100 86.2 21.550
Temperature 32 C (room temperature)
3. 150 84.7 31.770
Sl. Initial % Removal of Adsorptive 4. 200 82.1 41.050
No. concentration Cr(VI) capacity, q (mg/g) 5. 250 80.5 50.325
(mg/L) 6. 300 79.4 59.550
1. 50 69 8.625
2. 150 62.5 5.462
3. 200 57 28.500
4. 250 52.6 32.875
5. 300 51.7 38.775

GROUND NUT SHELL:


Table 3.1: Effect of initial metal ion concentration, Ground nut
shell

Graph 3.2: % removal of Cr (VI) vs Initial conc. of Cr (VI)

MODIFIED POWDERED NEEM LEAVES


Table 3.3: Effect of initial metal ion concentration, modified
powdered neem leaves

Sl. Initial % Removal of Adsorptive


No. concentration Cr(VI) capacity, q (mg/g)
(mg/L)
1. 50 95.7 11.962
2. 100 92.5 23.125
3. 150 89.4 33.525
4. 200 86.3 43.150
5. 250 84.2 52.625
Graph 3.1: % removal of Cr (VI) vs Initial conc. of Cr (VI)
6. 300 81.9 61.425

POWDERED NEEM LEAVES:


Table3.2: Effect of initial metal ion concentration, neem leaves
Sl. Initial % Removal of Adsorptive
No. Concentration Cr (VI) capacity, q (mg/g)
(mg/L)

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MODIFIED ACTIVATED CHARCOAL:


Table 3.5: Effect of initial metal ion concentration, activated
charcoal

Sl. Initial % Removal Adsorptive


No. concentration of Cr (VI) capacity, q (mg/g)
(mg/L)
1. 50 97.6 12.2
2. 100 96.3 24.075
3. 150 94.2 35.325
4. 200 92.7 46.350
5. 250 90.5 56.575
Graph 3.3: % removal of Cr (VI) vs Initial conc. of Cr (VI) 6. 300 89 66.750

WHEAT BRAN:
Table 3.4: Effect of initial metal ion concentration, wheat bran
Sl. Initial % Removal of Adsorptive
No. concentration Cr(VI) capacity, q (mg/g)
(mg/L)
1. 50 83.3 10.418
2. 100 81.2 20.312
3. 150 80.32 30.120
4. 200 79.5 39.750
5. 250 79.2 49.500
6. 300 78.6 59.110

Graph 4.5: % removal of Cr (VI) vs Initial conc. of Cr (VI)


Based on the results, the best adsorbent under the given
conditions was found to be modified activated charcoal. Thus
further experimentation was done by varying various parameters
and analysing their effects on the removal of Cr (VI).

3.2 EFFECT OF INITIAL pH:


The percentage of Cr (VI) adsorbed by modified activated
charcoal decreased from 96.3 % to 50.1 % when the pH was
increased from 1-7 and this value further decreased to 35.5 %
when the pH was further increased to 7-11. The maximum
percent of removal of Cr (VI) was obtained between pH 1-3 at
the initial concentration of metal ion at 100 mg/L, adsorbent was
taken as 4g/L and shaking time of 60 minutes at room
temperature of 28 0C and thus pH of 2 was chosen for the rest of
the experiments.
Chromium exists in two oxidation states which are Cr (VI) and
Cr (III) and the stability of these forms is dependent on the pH of
the system. It is well known that the dominant form of Cr (VI) at
pH 2 is HCrO4- which arises from the hydrolysis reaction of the
Graph 3.4: % removal of Cr (VI) vs Initial conc. of Cr (VI) dichromate ion (Cr2O72-) according to the equation-

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Cr2O72- + H2O 2HCrO4-


Increasing the pH will shift the concentration of HCrO 4- to
Cr2O72- and other forms as CrO4-. Maximum adsorption at pH of
2 indicates that it was the HCrO4- form of Cr (VI), which was the
predominant species at this pH range and adsorbed preferentially
on the adsorbents. Better adsorption capacity observed at low pH
between 2 and 3 may be attributed to the large number of H + ions
present at these pH values, which in turn neutralize the
negatively charged hydroxyl groups (-- OH-) on adsorbed surface
thus reducing the hindrance to the diffusion of dichromate ions.
At higher pH values, the reduction in adsorption may be possible
due to abundance of OH- ions causing increased hindrance to
diffusion of dichromate ions. [25]

3.3 EFFECT OF ADSORBENT AMOUNT:


When the amount of activated charcoal was varied from 2g/L to
Graph 3.7 %removal of Cr (VI) vs Amount of adsorbent (g/L)
20g/L at initial concentration of Cr (VI) at 300 mg/L, contact
time of 60 minutes, pH of 2 was maintained and 50 ml. of sample
was taken, the percentage of Cr (VI) removed increased from 3.4 EFFECT OF CONTACT TIME:
70.1% to 97.44%. The experimental runs measuring the effects of contact time on
the batch adsorption of Cr (VI) was carried out at pH maintained
OPERATING CONDITIONS at 2 and initial Cr (VI) concentrations of 100 mg/L, 200 mg/L
and 300 mg/L.
pH 2 Over the first 20 minutes the percentage removal of Cr (VI) from
Concentration 300 mg/L the solution increased rapidly and reached 82.4 % for 300 mg/L
and 90.3 % for 100 mg/L. After this the percentage removal
Time of contact 60 minutes tapered off until about 70- 80 minutes when it reached about 93
% for the 300 mg/L and 96.8 % for 100 mg/L solution. Further
Temperature 32 C (room temperature)
increase in contact time had a negligible effect on contact time.
Thus taking an optimum time and economic considerations into
account, a contact time of 60 minutes was used for all batch
Table 3.7: Effect of amount of adsorbent used on percentage experiments.
removal
Sl. Amount of % Removal of Adsorptive OPERATING CONDITIONS
No. adsorbent Cr (VI) capacity, q pH 2
(g/L) (mg/g)
Adsorbent dosage 4 g/L
1. 2 70.1 89.98
Temperature 32 C (room temperature)
2. 4 89 66.75
3. 8 92.6 34.72
4. 12 94.7 23.67 Table 3.8: Effect of contact time on percentage removal
5. 16 95.6 18.05
Sl. Time %Removal %Removal %Removal
6. 20 97.4 14.61
No. (min) 100 mg/L 200 mg/L 300 mg/L
1. 5 80.1 75.7 68.8
2. 10 85.3 80.2 74.6
3. 20 90.3 88.3 82.4
4. 40 92.7 90.5 86.2
5. 60 96.7 92.7 92.5
6. 80 96.8 93.3 92.8
7. 100 97.1 94.7 93.4

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Sl.No. Ce Ce/qe
Table 3.9: Langmuir isotherm
1. 1.2 0.098
2. 3.7 0.15
3. 8.7 0.25
4. 14.6 0.31
5. 23.7 0.42
6. 33 0.50
8. 120 97.4 95.2 93.8
9. 140 97.8 95.3 93.9

Graph 3.9: Ce/qe vs Ce


Graph 3.8 % removal of Cr (VI) vs time of contact (min.) 3.5.2. FREUNDLICH ISOTHERM
3.5 ADSORPTION ISOTHERM: The freundlich isotherm is expressed by the equation
The equilibrium of adsorption is an important physio-chemical Log qe = log Kf + (1/nf) log Ce
parameter for evaluation of the adsorption process. To model the Where, Kf (g1-1/nL1/nkg-1) → the freundlich constant which
adsorption behaviour two adsorption studies were studied and indicates the relative adsorption capacity of the adsorbent related
their correlation with the experimental data was assessed. These to the bonding and regime
included the Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms, which are the nf → the heterogeneity factor representing how the adsorption
earliest and simplest known relationships describing the deviates from linearity.
adsorption equation. [13] The value of ‘n’ as shown in the table lies between 1 and 10,
3.5.1 LANGMUIR ISOTHERM: which represents a favorable adsorption.
The linear form of the Langmuir equation is shown in the
following equation Sl. No. Log Ce Log qe
Ce/qe = 1/bqm + Ce/qm
Where, b and qm → constants related to the apparent energy of 1. 0.07 1.08
adsorption and the adsorption capacity, respectively 2. 0.56 1.38
qe → the amount adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent (mg g-
1
) with an equilibrium concentration of Ce (mg L-1). 3. 0.93 1.55
A plot of (Ce/qe) vs. Ce was linear and the constants qm and b 4. 1.16 1.67
were determined from the slope and intercept of the plot. The
correlation coefficient obtained with the Langmuir equation was 5. 1.370 1.75
high, which indicated a good fit between the parameters. The
6. 1.510 1.82
dimensionless parameter((RL = 1/(1+bCo)), which is a measure of
adsorption favourability, was found to be in the range of
0.03105<RLO.OO531(0<RL<1) and confirmed that Cr(VI)
removal using activated charcoal at pH 2 and 27±2 0C was a
favourable adsorption process.

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5) Increase in adsorbent dosage leads to increase in Cr


(VI) adsorption due to increased number of adsorption
sites. Maximum uptake of Cr (VI) was obtained as the
adsorbent dosage was increased from 2 g L to 20 g/L.
6) The contact time, i.e., the time of shaking in the rotary
shaker was varied from 5 min to 140 min for three
different concentrations. The percentage removal
increases as the contact time is increased.
7) The results suggest that adsorption of Cr (VI) on the
selected adsorbents involves a complex mechanism
and in the adsorption process there are two distinct
stages – the initial stages of boundary layer diffusion
due to external mass transfer effects and the later
stages it was due to intra particle diffusion which
Graph 3.10 Log qe vs Log Ce contributes to the rate determining step.
RESULTS 8) The adsorption isotherm studies showed that both
Table 3.11: Linear regression equations, co efficient of Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm model
determination and isotherm constants for Langmuir and fits well with the experimental data.
Freundlich isotherms 9) The adsorption capacities of the adsorbents for the
Langmuir isotherm qm b removal of Cr (VI) have been compared with those of
55.24 0.624 other adsorbents reported in the literature.
10) Modified neem leaf powder can be used as the next
Freundlich Kf nf
best adsorbent according to the comparative study
1.08 1.92 made above.

4. CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Batch adsorption studies for the removal of Cr (VI) from aqueous We thankfully acknowledge the help from Dr. Ravishankar .R,
solutions have been carried out using five different adsorbents. Head of the Department, Chemical Engineering, Professor
The study indicated the suitability of the adsorbents used for D.C.Sikdar, the staff members of the pharmacy department,
removal of Cr (VI) aqueous solution. The selected adsorbents especially Mr. Sunil (Lab technician), entire staff of the
may be viewed as a useful material while considering the Department of Chemical Engineering and authorities of
economic aspects of wastewater treatment. The obtained results Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering for their support.
may be summarised as follows:
1) The concentration variation studies showed that REFERENCES
percentage of Cr (VI) removal from waste water using [1] World Health Organization, Environmental Health Criteria 61, Chromium,
groundnut was found to be ranging from 51.7% to 69%, WHO, Geneva, 1988.
[2] G. Saner, Alan R Liss Inc., Chromium in Nutrition and Disease New
for neem powder 79.4% to 87.3%, for modified neem York, 1980.
leaf powder 81.9% to 95.7%, for wheat bran 78.8% to [3] US Department of Health and Human Services, Toxicological Profile for
Chromium, Public Health Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases
83.35%, and for modified activated charcoal the Registry, Washington, DC, 1991.
percentage removal was found to be ranging from 89% [4] M. Cieslak-Golonka, Toxic and mutagenic effects of chromium (VI),
Polyhedron
to 97.6%. (1995).
2) The best results were obtained by using modified [5] C. Raji, T.S. Anirudhan, Batch Cr (VI) removal by polyacrylamide-grafted
Sawdust: kinetics and Thermodynamics, Water Res. 32 (1998).
activated charcoal in quantities that are economical for [6] EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Pollution Control
large scale purpose. Alternatives. Cincinnati, US, 1990.
[7] MINAS, Pollution control acts, rules, and notification there under Central
3) Other parameters such as pH, amount of adsorbent, Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
contact time were varied for this particular adsorbent. India, New Delhi, 2001.
[8] Indian Standard, 1991. Drinking water—specification (first revision), IS
4) The pH variation studies showed that the adsorption 10500, 1991.
process is highly pH dependent. The pH was varied [9] K. Pagilla, L.W. Canter, Laboratory studies on remediation of chromium
contaminated soils, J. Environ. Eng. 125 (1999).
from 1 to 11 and the optimum removal was found to [10] C.F. Lin, W. Rou, K.S. Lo, Treatment strategy for Cr (VI) bearing wastes,
Water Sci. Technol. 26, 1992.
be at pH 2.

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[11] L. Dupond, E. Guillon, Removal of Hexavalent chromium with a


lignocelluloses substrate extracted from wheat bran, Environ. Sci. Technol.
(2003).
[12] M.P. Candela, J.M.M. Martinez, R.T. Macia, Chromium (VI) removal with
activated carbons, Water Res. 29 (1995) .
[13] V. Sarin, K.K. Pant, Removal of chromium from industrial waste by using
eucalyptus bark, Bioresour. Technol. 97 (2006) 15–20.
[14] Rais Ahmad, Rifaqat Ali Khan Rao and Mir Mohammad Masood, Removal
and Recovery of Cr (VI) from Syntheticand Industrial Wastewater,Environmental
ResearchLaboratory, Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering
and Technology,Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh – 202 002 (UP), India.
[15] Suresh Gupta, B V Babua, Adsorption of Cr (VI) by a Low-Cost Adsorbent
Prepared from Neem Leaves Chemical Engineering Group, Birla Institute of
Technology and Science, Pilani-333 031, Rajasthan, India.
[16] K. Periasamy, K. Srinivasan, P.R. Murugan, Studies on chromium (VI)
removal by activated ground nut husk carbon, Indian J. Environ. Health (1991)
husk and palm pressed fibres, Environ. Technol. 14 (1993) 277–282.

AUTHORS
First Author – Sunil H, M.Tech, Dayananda Sagar College of
Engineering and [email protected].
Second Author – Karthik K V, M.Tech, Dayananda Sagar
College of Engineering and [email protected] .
Third Author – Pradeep H N, M.Tech, Dayananda Sagar
College of Engineering and [email protected]
Fourth Author – Mahesh Kumar Shetty, B.E, M.Sc, Dayananda
Sagar College of Engineering and [email protected]

Correspondence Author – Sunil H, [email protected],


[email protected], +91 9886486545

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INTELLIGENT VEHICLE TRACKING FOR DETECTION OF


OBJECTS
P. Venkateshwari

Abstract- This paper introduces the real time implementation of levels in static as well in dynamic condition. A final
a vehicle in the changing environment, changes in the and fine decision is made by the monitor or user. It is
environment is notified through video motion transmitter and
not an autonomous robot; it is controlled and
receiver. The receiver takes snapshot of an image to detect
threatening objects in the environment. Those images are trained monitored by the user. A robot is an electro-
and tested by using Associative memory. The runtime image has mechanical machine that is guided by a computer
been trained, tested and quickly retrieved for fast decision program or electronic circuitry. Robot may be fully
making. This robot detects threatening objects in the autonomous or partially autonomous such as ASIMO
environment with HAM network. After making decision the
to Nano robots and industrial robots. The robot
remote control access is done through Zigbee device to monitor
and control the speed of a Roving robot in an accurate path. conveys its purpose through sense of intelligence. It is
Supervised learning method has been applied to detect the object an electrical product coated with physical object and it
correctly. Delta learning rule is applied in HAM network to test is programmed to do specific task and action. It is has
and train the image. some sensors and actuators to do task in the
environment. Sensors monitor the environment and
Index Terms- HAM, Associative memory, Supervised
produce logic output that is processed by the robot.
Learning, Delta learning rule and roving robot.
Motors and actuators are used for motion control and
to rectify the problem acquiring in the environment.
I. INTRODUCTION
The video transmitted to the PC is changed to a
N avigation of a robot in real time environment is
possible and it should be adaptable to the
continuous video motion frames. Those image frames
are stored in the memory to recognize an object using
changing environment [1]. CIR is the Compact Bayesian method [4]. Instead of Bayesian method,
Internal Representation method. This method creates HAM network is used to train and test the image to
IR of an arena; sub-conscious and conscious pathway recognize an object. Test and train process is not
has been created to move in the path with CNN [1]. In possible by using Bayesian method. Haar like
this paper real time changes are continuously structure is taken over full image to recognize object
monitored and controlled, when there is a loss of using Bayesian method. In this work whole image is
control Cognition is a group of mental processes that taken to recognize object in an image. Haar structure
includes attention, memory, producing, problem takes some height and width to partition the image.
solving, and decision making. Cognition is the Image database is created and computed image is
development of a rigorous method of analyzing compared with those images to recognize an object,
behavior and a character [2]. The roving robot is threatening objects such as gun, bomb, etc. The object
designed and trained and the objects in the area are in various views such as in top, bottom, right and left
found and trained using this cognition method. Proto- side views has been stored to detect the object.
cognition is the word meant for its structure and Morphological structures of an object can be stored
model. There is a necessary to set trajectory for the and recognized easily [5]. Hetero Associaitve
navigation purpose to launch the vehicle in specified Memories are usually used as content addressable
path. In our work, we proposed to find the track of memories. The most likely applications for the neural
robot in the dynamic environment. Dynamic neural networks are (1) Classification (2) Association and
network is used to train the robot in each level of Reasoning. One of the applications of neural networks
motion [3]. Trajectory setting is controlled by the user is applied in the field of object recognition. Object
or the person who is monitoring the environment. In recognition is a branch of artificial intelligence
this work the robot is trained and controlled at two concerned with the classification or description of
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observations. The images are classified based on Video Tx section is fixed to the robot. Video Rx
shape, texture, color, etc. Statistical pattern section is fixed to the PC through cable. Video Tx and
recognition method is used to test and train pattern Rx communicates through ISM band. Roger Robot is
using probability density function. Probability a type of a robot; its purpose is to make a Human –
function is similar to Bayesian method. In syntactic Robot interactions. IR sensor is an Infrared sensor,
pattern recognition method sub-patterns are used to these sensors has been used in the front and back of a
recognize, it is used for grammatical error checking robot to detect the obstacles. Once the obstacle is
purpose. In Knowledge-based pattern recognition detected, the robot stops in that location, until the
rules are laid down to check an output . The signal comes from the Host device. These Infrared
datasets are paired to estimate the correct output [6]. sensors are installed in the robot to avoid hitting the
The ANN type of method is used to recognize an wall when there is a loss of a signal. Host device
object. Instead of pattern recognition, object signals to the client device, the serially transferred
recognition is focused on in this paper. Object data is stored in the RAM of AT89C52µc. Host
recognition technique is used here to recognize device and Client device communicates through the
threatening objects. The novelty of this paper ISM band. Roger robot is composed of
approach is to detect and recognize threatening microcontroller and motor. Microcontroller controls
objects in space using HAM network. Eye-bots and the motion and direction of a robot. The command
foot-bots are placed in the arena. Foot-bots sense the from Host device is received by client device, serially
signal of eye-bots by this sensing effect; it could reach communicated data is fed to the microcontroller. Then
the destination [7]. Instead of this sensing effect, real microcontroller controls the motor of a robot as per
time monitoring is done to control the robot to reach coding in the device. The Snapshot image is taken
the target. from the video; those images are fed to the HAM
network. HAM network test and train the images.
II. METHODOLOGY HAM network compares the real time images with the
2.1 Proposed work: database to recognize the object. The robot is
controlled and monitored.
2.2 HAM Architecture:

Fig1:This is the general architecture of real time


implementation of robot.

Visual input is a OEM capture device as input. Fig2: This figure shows the architecture of HAM. Hidden
Snapshot type of camera is taken and fixed to the neurons are not fixed, it is dynamic in nature.
Robot. This camera transfers real time motion to the
PC through video motion transmitter and receiver.

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HAM is a Hetero-Associative memory. It is Fig3: This shows a simple prototype model of a line
called as content addressable memory. It maps one tracking robot. This robot is designed by using
pattern to another. One type of format to another microcontroller AT89C52. This atmel chip is
format. Values of red frame are mapped with an programmed by using Keil software.
image. Input is fed as values and output as image.
Step 1: Weights are initialized using Hebb or delta rule. The goal of this prototype model is to design a
Step 2: For each input vector do steps 3 to 5. robot that can follow a line. The track is created on a
Step 3: Set the activation for input layer units equal to the current
vector xi.
white (reflecting) surface. White shiny chart can be
Step 4: Compute net input to the output units used. A black line is created by using paint (optically
Y-inj = Σ xi wij (1) absorbing). The turning ratio should be smooth
Step 5: Determine the activation of the output unit. enough, so that robot won’t have to back up while
The simple method for determining the weights for an following the line. The contrast colors are large
associative memory neural network is Hebb rule (HR). The other
learning rule that can be used with Associative memory is Delta
enough to determine the robot over the track. The
Learning Rule (DLR). The algorithm is as follows: robot could be configured for a one track and a timed
Step 1: Initialize all weight to random values. race, or configured to make two closed loop tracks for
Step 2: For each training input-target output vector, do steps 3-5. head-to-head racing. The robot will have two optical
Step 3: Set activations for input units to present training input. sensors placed close together on the bottom. Each
Step 4: Set activations for output units to current target output.
Step 5: Adjust the weights.
sensor will return a logic signal depending on whether
it senses those contrast colors. If both sensors expose
Wij(new) = wij(old) + Δw (2) with black color, then the robot is properly positioned
on the track. When the left sensor is exposed to a
Weight correction Δw is white signal (and the right sensor still sees black) then
Δw = α(tj – y inj)xi (3)
the software knows the robot is veering off to the left.
Similarly, when the right sensor is exposed to a white
Where i= 1 to n, j= 1 to m signal then the robot is veering off to the right. It is
t- target vector, important to note that the two sensors should be close
yinj– actual output vector enough so that both will be black when the robot is on
α- learning rate. the track, but far apart to avoid optical crosstalk.
Crosstalk occurs when the infrared transmission of
III. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP one sensor is sensed by the receiver of the other
3.1Prototype model creation: sensor.
This is the first stage of this
paper. A prototype robot model has been created for a 3.2 Image Preprocessing techniques:
simple application. In the second stage of this work, image could be
taken from the cited environment. Those images are
treated or preprocessed to remove unwanted noise
present in it. Original image is taken Gaussian noise,
salt and pepper noise is removed from those images.
The unwanted signals and noise is removed by using
filtering techniques [8]. Neural Network are non-
linear statistical data modeling tools and can be used
to model complex relationships between inputs and
outputs or to find patterns in a dataset [9]. Salt and
pepper noise is a form of noise seen on images. The
image contains randomly occurring white and
black pixels. Salt and pepper noise occurs on images
in situations where quick transients, such as faulty
switching, take place. Gaussian noise is statistical

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 131
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noise that has its probability density function equal to Image has RGB frame. RGB refers to Red,
that of the normal distribution, which is also known as Green and Blue frame. Original image is taken and it
the Gaussian distribution. In other words, the values is blurred by adding noise. Gaussian noise is used to
that the noise can take on are Gaussian-distributed. blur the original image. Gaussian noise is a statistical
Image is blurred to reduce noise and details in the noise, its probability density function is equal to
image. normal distribution. Blurrednoisy image value is
taken. Red frame is first frame so, when the program
is runned, in the command window variable values are
available. Those values are fed as input to the HAM.
HAM accepts input in numeric value format. It
displays the output in image format. Here the images
are represented and stored in jpeg format. JPEG is a
Joint Photographic Experts Group. This is commonly
(a) Blurred Image (b) Gaussian noise
used method for lossy compression of digital
Image
photogrpah. An eigenvector of a square matrix is a
non-zero vector t, when multiplied by the matrix
yields a vector that differs from the original at most by
a multiplicative scalar.Specifically, a non-zero column
vector v is a right eigenvector of a matrix A if (and
only if) there exists a number λ such that Av = λv. If
the vector satisfies vA = λv instead, it is said to be
a left eigenvector. The number λ is called the eigen
(c) Salt & Pepper noise Image (d) Original value corresponding to that vector. The set of all
Image eigenvectors of a matrix, each paired with its
Fig4: This Image shows Original, Blurred, Gaussian corresponding eigen value, is called the eigen
noise and Salt & pepper noise image. system of that matrix.
The eigen values of a matrix A are precisely the
In this stage, the preprocessed image is taken. solutions λ to the equation
The RGB value of an image could be noted. Any one
frame value can be loaded into the network. The det(A-λI)=0.
network goes for several iterations and it finds out the (4)
original image. The database should be created. The Here det is the determinant of the matrix formed by A-λI and I is
HAM network associates frame values with those the n×n identity matrix. This equation is called
images to recognize original image from the database.
the characteristic equation (or, less often, the secular
equation) of A. For example, consider the special case of
a diagonal matrix A:

Input Image Gaussian Noisy


Image
A=
HAM
Network (5) HAM Network

The characteristic equation of A would read:


Output Image
Fig5: This architecture is used for training image det (A-λI) =det(
using HAM.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 132
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=det

=(a1,1- )(a2,2- )…..(an,n- )


(6)

The solutions to this equation are the eigenvalues


λi = ai,i (i = 1, ..., n).
the characteristic equation (or, less often, the secular equation)
of A.
The data base is created to recognize image. The
threatening objects are stored in a database for future recognition.
The object in the environment is captured and matched with the
database image[11]. Instead of using markov chain model ANN
used to recognize an image.

Fig7: R frame value of an object image.

Variable editor in command window is used to


show the gray scale value of an image in matrix
format. Gray scale Value ranges from 0 to 255. Color
image is three types RGB, CMY and CMYK. RGB
consist of three frames they are R-frame, G-frame and
B-frame[10]. Variable editor displays R frame value
in the window. The Euclidean distance is calculated
between train and test part of an image. If both the
images are same and the distance calculated is less, it
Fig 6: This is the database of a set of threatening would recognize the opted image from the database as
objects. equivalent image. The computation time is calculated
for each image. The computation time is also called as
IV.SIMULATION RESULTS elapsed time.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 133
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P matrix shows the Rframe value of an image.


S1 and S2 are the number of nodes in the hidden and
output layer they are 90 and 3. Since it is a matrix
form, output layer has 3 nodes, because of matrix
dimension. Iteration limit is 120000 and the maximum
error limit is kept as 10e-5. For the 90 hidden neurons
the elapsed time is 7.2 seconds, iteration reaches 3,
MSE is 0.000048. We can select the image to be
tested. Image classification is done to train and test
the image. Elapsed time is the CPU usage time.

Fig8: Simulation result of Object recognition using


HAM with 10 hidden neurons.

During the execution of the program the


necessary file directory is checked. The MSE is
calculated for several epochs. The elapsed time to
recognize object for 10 hidden neurons are
approximately 6 seconds. Iterations achieved are 13
and MSE is 0.000090.

Fig 10: Simulation result of Object recognition using


HAM with 100 hidden neurons.

In this number of hidden neurons are set as 100. The test


image is changed. The user suggest some other image, if it is
unknown to him, the user can select and test the image randomly
from the database. The elapsed time to recognize object using
100 hidden neurons is 4.7 seconds. Since the network is
dynamic in nature the elapsed time, Iterations and MSE(Mean
Square Error) also varies dynamically with respect to an images.

V. Conclusion and Future work


Thus the robot is programmed and real time
controlling has been done through that the arena or
area is surveyed continuously. The object in the
environment is tested and trained using HAM
network. This Associative memory associates the
image and detects the object present in the
Fig9: Simulation result of Object recognition using environment. It could be used for detecting
HAM with 90 hidden neurons. threatening objects in the unarmed space and area.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 134
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This type of robot is useful for military purpose to [11] T. Mori, Y. Segawa, M. Shimosaka, and T. Sato, “Hierarchical
recognition of daily human actions based on continuous hidden
detect threatening objects in opponent place. markov models”, In Proc. of IEEE Int. Conf. on Automatic Face and
The input window contains more background Gesture Recognition page 779-784.
pixels. Because of those pixels have less stable
features. So, it is tuff to view objects and detect it.
AUTHOR
Simultaneously background separation could be done
to capture same object in different environment and to P.VENKATESHWARI Received the B.E. degree in
detect those objects in real time. Electronics and Communication Engineering from
V I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Mepco Schlenk Enginnering College, sivakasi, India
The images used in this project are real time in 2011 and the M.E. degree in Embedded System
captured image and those objects used in this work are Technologies from Anna University Tirunelveli,
dummy toy objects. Tirunelveli, India 2013. The area of research interests
are Image Processing, Embedded Sytems and
VII.REFERENCES
Computational Intelligence.
[1] Jose Antonio, Villacorta-Atienza, and Valeri A. Makarov,
“Navigation in TIme-Evolving Environments Based on Compact [email protected].
Internal Representation: Experimental Model” in IEEE Transaction
Neural Networks and Learning systems,, May 2012.

[2] Brenda Milner, Larry R. Squire and Eric R. Kandel, “Cognitive


Neuroscience and the study of memory”, Neuron, Vol. 20, 445–
468, March, 1998.

[3] Stephan K.U.Zibner, Christian Faubel, Ioannis Iossifidis, and


Gregor Schöner, “ Dynamic Neural Fields as Building Blocks of a
Cortex-Inspired Architecture for Robotic Scene Representation” in
IEEE Transactions on autonomous mental development, VOL. 3,
NO. 1,March 2011.

[4] Yuhua Zheng1 and Yan Meng “Object Detection and Tracking
using Bayes constrained Particle Swarm Optimization” IEEE Correspondance author: P.VENKATESHWARI,
transaction on computer intelligence in robotics and automation., [email protected], Contact number 9626060121.
978-992., 2007.

[5] B.Raducanu, M.Grana, F.X.Albizuri, A.Anjou, “Face localization


on morphological multiscale fingerprints” in Elsevier jornal paper
on pattern recognition letters vol 22 , page359-371, 2001.

[6] Yash Pal Singh, V.S.Yadav, Amit Gupt, Abhilash Khare, “


Bidirectional Associative Memory Neural Network Method in
Character Recognition” Journal of Theoretical and Applied
Information Technology, 2005 - 2009 JATIT.
[7] Frederick Ducatelle.Gianni A.Di Caro. Carlo Piciroli.Luca
M.Gambardella “Self-organised cooperation between robotic
swarms” in springer journal paper on Swarm intelligence, 73-96.,
March 2011.

[8] Tuba Kurban and Erkan Besdok, “A Comparison of RBF Neural


Network Training Algorithms for Inertial Sensor Based Terrain
Classification”, in sensor journal, 2009.9.6312-6329;
doi:10.3390/s90806312.

[9] Yu, B.; He, X. “Training Radial basis Function Networks with
Differential Evolution”. In proceedings of IEEE conference on
granular computing, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2006; 369-372.

[10] Quraishi, M.I. , Choudhury, J.P. ; De, M. , “Image recognition and


processing using Artificial Neural Network” in ieee paper on
Recent Advances in Information Technology (RAIT), 2012 1st
International Conference on march 2012, pages 95-100.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 135
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Production and optimization of cellulase enzyme by


Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 4643 using sawdust as a
substrate
Tanuja Agarwal*, Manjula K. Saxena*, Chandrawat M.P.S.**
*
Department of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
**
Department of Applied Science, Eternal University, Baru Sahib, H.P., India

Abstract- The main objective of the study is to explore easier and distill water until the washed water become neutral (Soloman et
cost effective method to produce the cellulase enzyme by using al., 1999 and G. Immanuel et al., 2007)and then dried at 500C for
sawdust as a substrate, which is an industrial waste. In the overnight.
present investigation, different cultural conditions (Concentration
of sawdust, pH, Temperature and Inoculum size) were examined Microorganism:Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 4643,used for
to assess their effect for optimum cellulase production using the present study was procured from the Microbial Type Culture
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 4643. Pretreated sawdust Collection and Gene Bank (MTCC), Chandigarh, India.
produced highest cellulase activity (12.08 U/g)at 5%
concentration. Optimum pH and temperature for cellulase Culture condition and Inoculum Preparation:The bacterial
production was observed 6.0 and 300C respectively. culture received in vials from MTCC, Chandigarh was mixed
into 1 ml saline solution and vortexed for 20 seconds.
Index Terms- Cellulase, Lignocelluloses, Pseudomonas P.aeruginosawas sub cultured on Nutrient Agar (NA) plates at
aeruginosa, Sawdust 30oC for two days and stored thereafter in refrigerator at 4ºC till
further use. Inoculum for bacterium was prepared in Nutrient
Broth. About 100 ml of inoculum was prepared for bacterial
I. INTRODUCTION culture in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Few colonies were picked up
from two days old culture and were inoculated at 30ºC on a
I n recent years, growing attention has been devoted to the
bioconversion of lignocellulosic materials to energy.Several
researches have shown that the production cost of ethanol is
rotary shaker (200rpm) for twenty four hours, before it was used
for the saccharification process.
tightly associated with the production of cellulase
enzyme.Accountable studies were carried out to produce ethanol Minimum Culture Medium Preparation: The media contained
by a wide range of cellulase producing microorganisms using following chemicals (g/l) in distilled water:NaNO3 (4.0),
different types of lignocellulosic material as a substrate including NaHPO4 (3.0), KH2Po4 (3.0), CaCl2. 2H2O (0.1),
bacteria such as Pseudomonas sp. from CMC (Bakare et al., FeSO4.7H2O(0.001), NaCl (1.0), KCl (1.0). The pH of culture
2005), Cellulomonas sp. from CMC, cellulose, Acacia medium was set as 7.2±0.2.
auriculiformis Cunn.’s leaves and sugar cane (Siddiqui et
al.,1997; Rajoka, 2004 and Sankharak et al., 2011) , Bacillus sp. Saccharification of substrate: 100 ml of the media was taken in
from CMC, coir wastes and saw dust (Ariffin et al., 2006; 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and sterilized by autoclaving 121°C for
Verma et al., 2012 and Shanmugapriya et al., 2012). 15 min and cooled. Autoclaved sawdust was added in flask
In this present study, Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation before inoculation then inoculated with 2ml of inoculum of P.
(SHF) method was adopted and sawdust was used as a carbon aeruginosa MTCC 4643, under controlled conditions and
source under different environmental parameters (i.e., incubated at 30ºC for twenty four hours. This culture was
Concentration of saw dust, pH, Temperature, Inoculum size). harvested after 24 hours by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 10
The objective was to optimize the enzymatic hydrolysis min at 4°C using refrigerated ultracentrifuge. The supernatant
conditions and maximize enzyme production. was used as the crude extracellular enzyme source. Three
replicates were set for each treatment.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Cellulase assay: A reactive mixture contains supernatant (1 ml)
Substrate:Sawdust was used as a carbon source collected to 1 ml volume of CMC substrate solution. We mixed the
aseptically from M/S Sharma Hardware Pvt. Ltd., District Alwar, resulting solution thoroughly and transfer to a water-bath
Rajasthan, India-301001 and sun dried to reduce the moisture maintained at 40.0 ± 0.1°C then after 10 minutes (reaction
content. step),we removed the test tube from the water bath and add 4 ml
Pretreatment of Substrate: Sawdust was soaked in 1% sodium of DNS-Lactose solution and mix to stop the enzymatic reaction.
hydroxide solution (NaOH) in the ratio 1:10 (sawdust: solution) We covered the tubes and placed in a boiling water bath for 15
for two hours at room temperature and autoclaved at 121 0C for min and cooled to room temperature with a cooling water bath
one hour. The treated sawdust was then filtered and washed with

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 136
ISSN 2250-3153

and then it was used for measuring optical density at 540 nm


against water blank and standard graph was made (Ghose, 1987).

Optimization of substrate concentration: To study the effect of


saw dust concentration, the minimal culture medium was
prepared in 250 ml conical flasks by setting the different
concentrations of saw dust such as 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5%
respectively in triplet. The pH of minimal culture medium was
set as 7.2±0.2. About 2 ml of 24 h old inoculum suspension was
inoculated and placed at 30 0C for 24 h. The initial saw dust
concentration that was efficiently utilized by microbe was
observed and the same concentration of saw dust was used for
setting experiments for optimization of other factors.

Optimization of pH: Minimal culture medium was prepared and


pH was set at different level such as 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 and 9.0 by Figure1: Impact of concentration of sawdust on cellulase activity
adding 1% NaOH and concentrated HClrespectively, were tested (U/g) at pH7.0±0.2; 30 0C.
for saccharification using initial saw dust concentration.About 2
ml of 24 h old inoculum suspension was inoculated and placed at
30 0C for 24 h.

Optimization of temperature:To optimize the saccharification


temperature, saccharification was carried out at 25, 30, 35, 40
and 45ºC.

Optimization of inoculum size: To study the effect of inoculum


sizes on saccharification process, the pH of minimal culture
medium was set 7.2±0.2 and using the 24 h old inoculum was
inoculated, by setting the different sizes of inoculum such as 1%,
2%, 3%, 5% and 10% respectively in triplet and the all flasks
were placed in an incubator at 30 0C.
Figure 2: Impact ofpH on cellulase activity (U/g) at 30 0C using
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5% substrate concentration.
A.Optimization of substrate concentration:
The effect of various concentrations of substrate (1-5%) on
cellulase activity in the presence of bacteria Pseudomonas
aeruginosaMTCC 4643 is shown in Figure 1. The maximum
cellulase activity (12.08 U/g) was found at 5% concentration of
saw dust at temperature of 300C and pH of 7.2± 0.2.Shabeb et
al.(2010) reported that Bacillus subtilis KO exhibited maximum
activity at 10% concentration of molasses. Similarly Harchand
and Singh (1997) investigated that S. albaduncusshowed highest
level of cellulase activity with 3% concentration of cotton used
as a substrate.
B.Optimization of pH:
The effect of pH-value by Pseudomonas aeruginosaMTCC
4643 on cellulase activity was examined at various pH values Figure 3: Impact of temperature on cellulase activity (U/g) using
ranging from 5-0 to 9.0 as shown in Figure 2. The cellulase 5% substrate concentration.
activity was found at a broad range of pH values (pH 5-0 to 9.0)
with optimal pH of 6.0(19.99 U/g). Cellulase activitywas reduced
to 49% at pH 9.0.This result was approximately in correlation
with the findings of many other workers. Bakare et al. (2005)
found pH 6.5-7.0 optimum for the production using the CMC as
a substrate by Pseudomonas fluorescens.Shankar andIsaiarasu
(2011) and Ariffin et al. (2006) revealed that Bacillus pumilus
produced maximum cellulase at pH 6.0.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 137
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two improved mutants of Pseudomonas fluorescens” in African


Journal of Biotechnology, 2005; vol. 4(9); pp. 898-904.
3. Eshaq F.S., Ali M.N., Khan M.M., “Production of bioethanol from
next generation feed-stock alga Spirogyra species” in International
Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 2011; vol.3(2); pp.
1749-1755.
4. Ghose T.K., “Measurement of cellulase activities” in Pure and
Applied Chemistry; 1987; vol. 59 (2); pp. 257-268.
5. Harchand R.K. and Singh S., “Extracellular cellulase system of a
thermotolerant streptomycete: Streptomyces albaduncus”inActa
Microbiol Immunol Hung. 1997; vol. 44(3); pp.229-39.
6. Immanuel G., Akila Bhagavath C.M., Lyappa Raj P., Esakkiraj P.,
Palavesam A., “Production and partial purification of cellulase by
Aspergillus niger and A. fumigatusfermented in coir waste and saw
dust” in The Internet Journal of Microbiology, 2007; vol. 3(1); pp.1-
17.
Figure 4: Impact of Inoculum size on cellulase activity (U/g) at 7. Rajoka M.I., “Influence of various fermentation variables on exo-
pH7.0±0.2; 30 0C and 5% substrate concentration. glucanase production in Cellulomonas flavigena” in Electronic
Journal of Biotechnology, 2004; vol. 7(3); pp. 256-263.
8. Sangkharak K., Samae R. and Wangbua C., “Conversion of leafwaste
C.Optimization of temperature: to sugar and ethanol by SHFand SSFfermentation using cellulase from
The observations were carried out by P. aeruginosaMTCC Cellulomonas Sp.” in International Journal Of Advanced
4643 on cellulase activity at various temperatures ranging from Biotechnology And Research, 2011; vol. 2(3); pp. 345-349.
9. Shabeb M.S.A., Younis M.A.M., Hezayen F.F. and Nour-Eldein
25-450C at 5% concentration of saw dust with pH of 7.2± 0.2 as M.A., “Production of cellulase in low-cost medium by Bacillus
shown in Figure 3. Temperature strongly affects the conversion subtilis KO strain” in World Applied Sciences Journal, 2010; vol.
of lignocellulosic substrate into end product, which varies 8(1); pp. 35-42.
according to the organism involved even slight changes in 10. Shankar T. and Isaiarasu L., “Cellulase production by Bacillus
pumilus EWBCM1 under varying cultural conditions” inMiddle-East
temperature can affect cellulase production. (Vuet al.2011).The Journal of Scientific Research, 2011; vol. 8 (1); pp. 40-45.
optimum cellulase activity (15.12 U/g) was observed at 11. Shanmugapriya K., Saravana P.S., Krishnapriya, Manoharan M.,
Mythili A. And Joseph S., “Isolation, screening and partial
30 C.Bakare et al. (2005) recorded the optimum temperature of
0
purification of cellulase from cellulase producing bacteria” in
350C for best production of enzyme by Pseudomonas International Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Research, 2012;
fluorescensusing CMC as a substrate.Rajoka(2004) showed that vol. 3(1); pp. 509-514.
an optimum temperature for Cellulomonas flavigenawas 300C 12. Siddiqui K.S., Rashid M.H., Ghauri T.M., Durrani I.S. and Rajoka
M.I., “Purification and characterization of an intracellular β-
when cellulose and sugar cane bagasses used as a substrate glucosidase from Cellulomonas biazotea”inWorld Journal of
respectively. Microbiology and Biotechnology, 1997; vol. 13; pp. 245-247.
13. Solomon, B.O., B. Amigun, T.V. Betikue, T. Ojumu and S.K.
D.Optimization of inoculum size: Layokun, “Optimization of cellulase production by Aspergillus flavus
The initial inoculum level in the media is a critical factor in Linn. isolates NSPR 101 grown on baggase” in JNSCHE, 1999; vol.
18; pp. 61-68.
fermentation process (Shankar and Isaiarasu, 2011).The effect of 14. Verma V., Verma A and Kushwaha A., “Isolation and production of
various inoculum size of 1-10% was tested as presented cellulase enzyme from bacteria isolated from agricultural fields in
inFigure4. The maximum cellulase activity (18.83 U/g) was district Hardoi, Uttar Pradesh, India” in Advances in Applied Science
found at 1% v/v using 5% of saw dust with temperature of 30 0C Research, 2012; vol. 3 (1); pp. 171-174.
15. Vu V.H., Pham T.A. and Kim K., “Improvement of fungal cellulase
and pH of 7.2± 0.2. Decline productions were observed by production by mutation and optimization of solid state fermentation”
increasing the inoculum’s concentration of 2% v/v.Shankar and in Mycobiology, 2011; vol. 39(1); pp. 20-25.
Isaiarasu (2011) found 2% inoculum size optimum for the
cellulase activity when CMC used as a substrate byBacillus AUTHORS
pumilus.
First Author – Tanuja Agarwal,Research Scholar, Department of
Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Second Author – Manjula K. Saxena, Associate Professor,
IV. CONCLUSION Department of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan,
In conclusion, Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 4643 is capable IndiaThird Author – Prof. M.P.S. Chandrawat, Director,
of producingcellulases from sawdust. Sawdust is low-cost Department of Applied Science, Eternal University, Baru Sahib, H.P.,
lignocellulosic waste materialand potentially useful India
forcommercial cellulase production.
Correspondence Author – Tanuja Agarwal, email id:
[email protected], contact number: +91
References
9765831206.
1. Ariffin H., Abdullah N., Umi Kalsom M.S., Shirai Y. and Hassan
M.A., “Production and characterizationof cellulase by Bacillus
pumilus EB3” in International Journal of Engineering and
Technology, 2006; vol. 3(1); pp.47-53.
2. Bakare M.K., Adewale I.O., Ajayi A. and Shonukan O.O.,
“Purification and characterization of cellulase from the wild-type and

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 138
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Synthesis and Characterization of Mixed Ferrites


Nawal Kishore* and S. Mukherjee**

* Dept. of Electronics and Communications, University College of Engineering and Technology.


Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag-825301, Jharkhand, India

** Dept. of Applied Physics, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi - 835215, Jharkhand, India
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract- In this work we prepare nanocrystalline mixed spectroscopy .Electrical properties of samples were studied by
ferrites by equilibrated low entropy routes with generic formula dielectric studies and porosity of the samples derived from x-ray
of MnxNi1-xFe2O4. Two series of samples have been prepared densities which utilizes structural parameters obtained through
where “x” varies as 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 the samples XRD measurement. The nanocrystalline mixed spinel ferrites
have been prepared by chemical co-precipitation route. For the materials used in various technological issues like nano ferrite
first calculated amount of salts of Mn, Fe and Ni were dissolved doped microstrip patch antenna for improved the overall antenna
in deionized water and stirred for a few minutes. 0.1 M NH4OH performance, microwave dielectric property study and antenna
solution was then slowly added drop-wise under vigorous miniaturization [3,4] .Application of nano ferrites are in fashion
stirring. The alkali addition was continued till the pH of the these days because of its simple preparation, compatibility with
solution was 10 and was left undisturbed for 1hour for complete electrical circuits, low overall cost and light weight these have
digestion. The precipitate was then washed thoroughly till pH 7 numerous application in almost every field some of them like
and then heated to 600 0C. For the next series “x” was kept fixed medical, electric, power, communication, mechanical etc.
at 0.5 and the same synthesis steps were repeated. The sample
was divided into three batches and heat treatment was performed II. EXPERIMENTAL
at 600 0C, 900 0C. The samples were checked for their phase
purity by x ray diffraction which confirmed the spinel phase The nanocrystalline mixed ferrite material of manganese nickel
without any impurity. Dielectric measurements were performed ferrite of formula MnxNi1-xFe2O4 prepared by chemical co-
within a frequency window of 1 Hz to 1 MHz the dielectric precipitation method, Solution of MnCl2 .4H2O ,
dispersion can be well explained by Koops and Maxwell – Ni(No3)2.6H2O and Fe(No3)3.9H2o with distilled water is
Wagner theory. Raman spectroscopy also gave detailed prepared The main solution of Ni2+,Fe3+,Mn2+ were Mixed
information about the structural order of the samples. according to the calculated weight of samples. Calculated
amount of salt of Mn, Fe, and Ni were dissolved in deionized
Index Terms- Nanocrystalline, spinel structure, chemical water and stirred for a few minutes. 0.1M NH4OH solution was
coprecipitation, Raman spectroscopy, XRD (x-ray diffraction), then slowly added drop-wise under vigorous stirring the alkali
JCPDS (joint committee for powder diffraction standards) addition was continued till pH of the solution was 10 and was left
undisturbed for 1 hour for complete digestion. The reactions
I. INTRODUCTION involved are
Ferrites are mixed metal oxides with iron (III) oxide as main
component it is a magnetic material exhibit in ferrimagnetic 1. MnCl2 + 2NH4OH → Fe (OH)3 + 2NH4NO3
ordering and magnetism due to the super exchange interaction
Mn (OH)2 →Heat→ MnO + H2O
[1]. Present day’s nanocryastalline mixed spinel structure ferrites
are the particular research topic for the researcher all over the 2. Ni (NO3)3 + 2NH4OH →Ni (OH)3 + 2NH4NO3
world, because of large variety of unique results associated with
Ni (OH)2 →Heat→ NiO + H2O
electric, dielectric, magnetic properties. MnxNi1-xFe2O4
manganese nickel ferrite belongs to the class of mixed spinel 3. Fe (NO3)3 + 3NH4OH→Fe (OH)3 + H4NO3
ferrite where “x” varies from 0.0 to 0.5 (variation of cation)
2Fe (OH)2 →Heat→ Fe2O3 + H2O
shows unexpected properties at nano regime due to the re-
distribution of cations, cation ionic radii, crystal field effect, After calculation we have Fe, Ni, Mn in 250 ml for 0.04M is
presence of ion to specific site, ionic charge are the main factors 0.7985gm, 0.7469gm, 0.7093gm respectively. After chemical co-
that causes distribution of cation in mixed spinel ferrites [2]. precipitation process we separate nanoparticles formed in the
Spinel ferrites structures partially determine by oxygen ion in a bottom of beaker from supernatant by centrifuge machine
cubic arrangement there are two types of interstitial spaces operating at a speed of 2200 rpm and duration is fixed at 4 or 5
between the anion tetrahedral co-ordinate site and octahedral co- minutes, the centrifugal process is continued till the pH reached
ordinate site [1]. For the satisfactory results of cation distribution at 7 after this we done the centrifugal process with alcohol we
in tetrahedral and octahedral sites we prepare the series of sample repeat this process at least 2 times with alcohol and then obtained
varying the no. of cations and studied through Raman the final product but it is still in wet condition so left it for whole

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day to dried it. By repeating whole process we prepare two series No. 074-2082) and the formation of single phase cubic
of samples in first series where “x” varies as 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 MnNiFe2O4 nanoparticles in all the samples except x=0.1 and
and 0.5 is heat treated at 600 0C for 8 hours and for second series x=0.4 was confirmed. The mean particle sizes (D) were
where x=0.5 kept constant The sample was divided into three calculated from the X-ray line broadening of the (311) diffraction
batches and heat treatment was performed at 300 0C, 600 0C, 900 peak using the Scherrer’s equation:
0
C for 8 hours respectively and finally we obtained our desired
nanocrystalline manganese nickel ferrite material.
D = k λ / β cosθ
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Where D is the crystallite size, λ is the wavelength of X-ray
3.1 XRD: radiation, θ is the Bragg angle and β is the full width at half
maximum (FWHM). From the analysis of the XRD spectra we
found that the mean particle diameter (D) is nearly the same for
all synthesized specimens, ranging from 18- 22 nm which shown
in table 3.1. Broad peaks indicating the fine grain size of the
samples. With higher annealing temperature, powders have
stable structure and fine crystallization, when the annealing
temperature is increases Intensity of the peaks in all XRD spectra
is increased and the sharpness of peaks indicated the highly
crystalline nature of the precipitate. The results indicate that the
crystalline sizes increase with the annealing temperature. The
crystallite sizes of annealed powder increase from 21 to 51 nm
with the annealing temperature increase from600 0C to9000C. The
reason why the grain sizes increase dramatically at annealing
temperature of 9000C might be due to the dominance of the
activation energy during the grain growth process [5]. At the
higher temperature the removal of extra undefined phases also
noticed.
Table 3.1– Average particle size estimated from the
Fig1.1 XRD pattern of MnxNi1-xFe2O4, (Manganese Nickel
diffraction spectrum in Figure 1.1 by using FWHM.
Ferrite) where “x” varies as 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5.

SAMPLE NAME 2Θ FWHM (Β) AVERAGE


IN SIZE OF THE
RADIANS PARTICLE

(NM
APPROX.)

Mn0.0Ni1Fe2O4 36.16 0.40 21

Mn0.1Ni0.9Fe2O4 36.06 0.38 22

Mn0.2Ni0.8Fe2O4 36.27 0.46 18

Mn0.3Ni0.7Fe2O4 36.24 0.41 20


Fig1.2 XRD pattern of Mn0.5Ni0.5Fe2O4, (Manganese
Mn0.4Ni0.6Fe2O4 36.14 0.39 21
Nickel Ferrite) at 600°c and 900 °c
The X-ray diffraction patterns of the synthesized ferrite nanocrystals Mn0.5Ni0.5Fe2O4 36.20 0.39 21
have been shown in Fig 1.1 and 1.2
The peaks in XRD patterns illustrate the characteristic peaks of
single phase cubic spinel structure. Peak intensity is indicative of Table 3.2– Average particle size estimated from the
high degree of crystallinity of prepared ferrites. The existence of diffraction spectrum in Figure 4.2at 600 0C and 9000C by
the (220), (311), (222), (400), (422), (511) and (440) major using FWHM.
lattice planes in the XRD patterns confirms the formation of
spinel cubic structure with the Fd3m space group, which is
consistent with the powder diffraction file of JCPDS. The Mn0.5Ni0.5Fe2O4 36.20 0.39 21
patterns were compared with standard data (JCPDS PDF card [6000C]

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Mn0.5Ni0.5Fe2O4 36.05 0.17 51


[9000C]

3.2 Dielectric study


The samples for dielectric measurement were pressed by
applying a pressure of 120-150 Kg/cm2 tones to get compact
circular pellets with dimensions 12mm in diameter and
approximately O.5mm to 2 mm in thickness. The LCR meter is
compactable with such dimension of the pellets. The dielectric
constant measurements of the samples at low and high
frequencies from a few Hz to 10MHz were carried out by a
Alpha-A High Performance Modular Measurement System
(NOVOCONTROL).The temperature variation studies are also
carried out..The dielectric constant of the sample can be
calculated using the equation,
Fig (a): permittivity vs. frequency plot
εr=(c d/ ε0 A)
Where, A= area of sandwiched structure
c= Capacitance measured by LCR
d = Thickness,
ε0 = Absolute permittivity
Koop’s and Maxwell Wagner theory well explain the dielectric
behavior of ferrites [6], the variation of Mn concentration on
dielectric properties of mixed ferrites explain here,. fig (a) shows
the dielectric permittivity decreases with the increase in
frequency the reason behind of it is with the increase of Mn
concentration decrease in Ni+2nickel ions concentration
consequently the Fe+2 ions results less no. of pairs for hole and
electron hopping as a result charges getting build up across the
grain boundaries and resistance increases, this may be the reason
behind low permittivity value in Mn rich concentration. From Fig (b): loss tangent vs. frequency plot
fig.(b) it is observed that tanϨ decreases with increase of
frequency and at high frequency it is constant for all samples,
dielectric relaxation occure in the frequency range of 100Hz to
1000Hz due to the hopping frequency of charge carriers equal to
the applied field frequency[1]. It is seen that from fig. there is
absence of relaxation in Mn rich concentration due to the
unavailability of hopping charges, for manganese nickel ferrite
conductivity and resistivity can be explain on the basis of
hopping of electron and hole charges on the octahedral site fig
(c) and fig (d).for the second series the fig (e) and fig (f) shows
the changes in loss tangent and dielectric permittivity and it can
explain as the temperature increases from 300 0C to 600 0C and
900 0C there is decrease in permittivity in great extent due to
charges accumulation on grain boundaries.

Fig (c): conductivity vs. frequency plot

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Fig (d): resistivity vs. frequency plot

Fig.(h) Raman spectra for the second set of series

According to the literature five Raman active bandsA1g, Eg, and


three T2g[7].fig (g) shows the room temperature Raman spectra
3.3 Raman Spectroscopy of MnxNi1-xFe2O4 sample where “x’ varies from 0.0 to 0.5
observed in the range of 0-1500 cm-1, the vibrational modes are
around at 222cm-1, 291cm-1, 480cm-1, 693cm1,since modes above
600 cm-1 corresponds to the tetrahedral sub lattice (A1gsymmetry)
and due to the motion of the oxygen atoms in tetrahedral group
and below refers octahedral sub lattice (T 2gsymmetry) [8,9].
Broadening of modes in Raman spectra is due to the strain
development and reduction in grain size [9,10] in Nano
crystalline ferrites phonons with q (phonons) > 0 involves in
scattering so that broadening and shift of Raman spectra
observed. The mass difference between the three ions
(Ni2+,Fe3+,Mn2+) splits the A1g mode in three different energy
value the lightest ion Ni2+ responds to around 693 cm-1 for x= 0.3
to 0.5 the heaviest one i.e. Fe 3+ respond to around 617 cm-1 and
an intermediate mode of Mn2+ ion around 663 cm-1.On relative
intensity and peak position can be explained considering alloy
effects, resulting from the introduction of a new ion at increasing
content. Further, the Raman frequency depends on the Fe(Ni)–O
and bond length. The intensity of the highest wavelength Raman
mode (initially around 693 cm-1) decreases with increasing Mn-
content the intensity of the Raman mode peaking around 617 cm-
1
increase proportionally. Those with q(phonons)>0 take part in
the Raman scattering process, resulting in the of the peak
position and the broadening of the peak width.The Raman
Fig.(g) Raman spectra for the first set of series
intensity of the signal increases as the sintering temperature is
increased, as shown in figure (h) the intensity of Raman mode
617 cm-1 increases at 9000C and mode 693 cm-1 is disappeared at
9000C in fig (h) The shift toward lower wave number is
attributed to the crystalline disorder and also to the presence of
grain boundaries, which are large in small-sized nanomaterials.
Another important parameter of Raman signal, i.e. the
bandwidth, shows broadening for the small-sized nanomaterials
(∼20 nm), which also supports the crystalline disorder. The
Raman shift toward lower wave number and the line broadening

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are generally observed in polycrystalline materials and are AUTHORS


attributed to the confinement of optical phonons in a small 1. Nawal Kishore, Master of Engineering, University college of
crystalline particle [11]. Engineering, Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag- 825301
Jharkhand India, [email protected]
2. Dr. Samrat Mukherjee, Dept. of Applied Physics, Birla
IV. CONCLUSION Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi - 835215, Jharkhand,
Nanocrystalline manganese Nickel ferrite particles for x=0 to India
x=0.5 and europium and terbium doped Nickel ferrite for x= CorrespondenceAuthor–Nawalkishore,
0.02, 0.05, 0.1 were prepared using wet chemical co-precipitation [email protected], 09334261468
technique. The particles were found to be exhibiting a spinel
structure with sizes varying from 21nm - 51nm. Overall result of
xrd pattern confirms the spinel cubic structure with high high
degree of crystallinity of prepared ferrites. The result of Raman
modes confirms the five Raman modes and distribution of cation
distribution in octahedral and tetrahedral sub lattices in
agreement with the as-synthesized samples. The frequency and
temperature dependence of the dielectric parameters of. The
mechanism of dielectric polarization was found to be similar to
that of conduction process involving the hopping of charge
carriers. The decrease in ɛ with Mn substitution point to the
decrease in availability of Ni2+/Ni3+ and Fe2+/ Fe3+ pairs with
increasing Mn. The tanϨ and exhibit strong relaxation peaks and
relaxation time (Г) was estimated from these relaxations.
.

REFERENCES
[1] Veena Gopalan E. “on the synthesis and multifunctional properties of some
Nano crystalline spinel ferrites and magnetic Nano composite” Ph.D. thesis
(department of Cochin university of science and technology) 14, 16, 18
[2] Sakurai j and Shinjo T.J phys. Soc. Japan 23 (1967) 1426 S.A Oliver, H.H
Hamdesh, J.C Ho; phys. Rev. B60 (1999)3400
[3] JeongKeunJi, Won Ki Ahn, Jun Sig Kum, Sang Hoon Park, Gi Ho Kim, and
Won Mo Seong “Miniaturized T-DMB Antenna With a Low–Loss Ni–Mn–
Co Ferrite for Mobile Handset Applications”(IEEE MAGNETICS
LETTERS, Volume 1 (2010) Soft Magnetic Materials By Research and
Development Center, E.M.W. Antenna Company,
[4] John Jacob, M Abdul Khadar, Anil lonappan and K. T Mathew “Microwave
dielectric properties of nanostructure nickel ferrite” (Bull. Mater. Sci., Vol.
31, No. 6, November
[5] G..Nabiyouni et al., “Characterization and Magnetic Properties of Nickel
Ferrite Nanoparticles Prepared by Ball Milling Technique”, CHINS PHYS.
LETT.Vol. 27, No. 12 (2010) 126401.
[6] P. Chandra Mohan, M.P Srinivasan, S Velmurugan and S.V Narasimhan J.
Solid State chemistry 184, 89(2011).
[7] White WB, DeAngeli BA (1967). “Interpretation of vibrational spectra of
spinels” SpectrochimActa 23A:985–995. doi: 10.1016/0584-
8539(67)80023-0.
[8] Y.Qu, H.Yang, N. Yang, Y.Fan, H Zhu and G. Zou Mater, Lett. 60, 3548
(2006).
[9] P. Chandra Mohan, M.P Srinivasan, S Velmurugan and S.V Narasimhan J.
Solid State chemistry 184, 89(2011).
[10] T.Yu, S.C Tan, Z.X Shen, L.W Chen, J.Y Lin and A.K See, Applied
physics Lett. 80, 2266(2002).
[11] Jitendra Pal Singh, et al. “Micro-Raman investigation of nanosized zinc
ferrite: effect of crystallite size and fluence of irradiation”, J. Raman
Spectrosc.(2011) (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jrs.2902.

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Research on ADR in in-patients using Naronji's and who


scale: A basic necessity for better therapeutic outcomes
and rational drug use
CH.PRAGATHI1, S.MAHESH KUMAR2, CH.ANAND KUMAR3, PRAVEEN KUMAR4

Department of pharmacy practice, Smt. Sarojini Ramulamma College of Pharmacy, SVS Hospital
Department of pharmacy practice, Smt. Sarojini Ramulamma College of Pharmacy, SVS Hospital
Department of pharmaceutical science, J.J.T.UNIVERSITY, Ph.D Scholar
Department of pharmacy practice, Smt. Sarojini Ramulamma College of Pharmacy, SVS Hospital
Email:[email protected].

INTRODUCTION: This research aims at enlightens and emphasizing the most prevailing disease conditions
and disorders which are most common in mahabubnagar locality ,were category A(augmented) type ADR are
more followed by type C(continous).
METHODS: A retrospective research study was conducted using Naronji's and WHO standard scales have
been used to categorise the ADR into category A, category B, category C and category D for the given cases.
Epidemological data like age, ADR, and disease condition prevailing in hospitalised patients are noted and
categorised department wise.
RESULTS: In 290 females and 310 males cases high percentage of ortho related medication ADR (10.61%) in
males than in females were reported followed by CV 63cases (10.5%) in arrythmias, MI, CAD in ratio of
1:2.5:1. It is suceeded by gynaecological medicational ADR accounting for 8.6% and goitor 3.8% are found
which is followed by paediatric cases occupying 6.3% in 600case studies. Naronji's and WHO standard scales
have been used to denoted the ADR category.
Based on age CV are more compared to pulmonary, hepatic, ortho, neurologic, GI, circulatory , renal, and
others.
S.no Conditions No. of pediatrics No. of adult No. of geriatrics
1 CV 38 42 1
2 Endocrine 5 49 56
3 Pulmonary 19 8 15
4 Hepatic 5 10 6
5 Ortho 10 28 43
6 Neurologic 57 19 20
7 GI 13 43 37
8 Circulatory 5 9 3
9 Renal 0 8 6
10 Others 8 20 17

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Among all cases the common avoidable ADR are seen in pulmonary,GI, anaphylaxis, neurologial, CV,
haematological and renal, hepatic and others( HTN, skin rashes, urticaria).
CONCLUSION: The statistical data from the research study is useful in different fields of pharmacy like
pharmacovigilence, clinical pharmacy and pharmacoedidemological studies. Taking this into consideration
pharmacovigilence department has taken measure and considerable decrease in ADR's have been noted. All
hospital organisations need a pharmacist team responsible for medical prescription analysis before preparation,
dispensing and administration of drugs to inpatients. This study provides the significance of highly notable
diseases and related disorders along with common ADR in a given area providing statistical data useful in
different pharmacy and medical fields with main aim of improving the quality of life through rational drug use.
REFERENCES:
Brennan TA, leape ll.laird NM .et al.I ncidence of ADE and negligence in hospitalised patients, N Engl J
Med.1991;324;370-376.
Leap LL, Bates DW, Cullen DJ. et al. Systems analysis of ADR JAMA.1995;274:35-43.
Kohn LT, Corrigan GM Donaldson MS, To err is human ;building a safer health system. Institute of medicines,
Washington DC: National Academy Press;1991.

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Chemical Analysis of Leaf Extracts of Calotropis procera


Dr. Amit Tiwari*, Sanchita Singh*, Suchita Singh**
*
Department of Biotechnology Govt. T.R.S. College. Rewa India
**
A.P.S. University Rewa India

Abstract- Since ancient time plants have been used as source of


therapeutic agents, plants play a significant role in the indigenous
system of medicines to combat diseases. Plants are richest source II. MATERIAL AND METHODS:
of bioactive organic chemicals on earth. Phytochemical 1. Plant material:
properties of leaf of Calotropis procera obtained from methanol Calotropis procera leaf collected in January 2013 from
and petroleum ether extracts were investigated .The results Rewa. The plant material was identified at the field using
suggest that the Phytochemical properties of the leaf for using standard keys and descriptions.
various ailments.
2. Method of extraction:
Index Terms- Calotropis procera, Phytochemical Solvent – Petroleum ether, Methanol
Method – Maceration
Procedure:
I. INTRODUCTION Leaf powder was weighed 500 gm and kept in a container

“P hyto” is the greekword for plants. There are many


“families” of phytochemicals which helps the human
body in variety of way. Phytochemical are non-nutritive plant
in contact with pet ether for seven days, with vigorous shaking at
regular interval. Material was filtered a first with muslin cloth
and then with filter paper. Filtrate was collected and dried in
chemicals that have protective or disease preventive properties. water bath till no further reduction in mass of extract was
Plant produce these chemicals to protect themself but recent observed. Dried extract was weighed and packed in air tight
research demonstrate that many phytochemicals can protect container and the marc was air dried then kept in a container in
humans against disease (Srivastava et al, 2010). contact with methanol for seven days, with vigorous shaking at
Calotropis procera commonly known as Aak is used in regular interval. Material was filtered a first with muslin cloth
many Ayurvedic formulations like Arkelavana. The medicinal and then with filter paper. Filtrate was collected and dried in
potential of Calotropis procera has been known to traditional water bath till no further reduction in mass of extract was
system of medicine . The use of the plants, plant extracts and observed. Dried extract was weighed and packed in air tight
pure compounds isolated from natural sources has always container.
provided a foundation for modern pharmaceutical compounds (
Murti et al, 2012). Plants have been a rich source of medicines 3. Phytochemical Screening-
because they produce wide array of bioactive molecules, most of Phytochemical Screening was carried out using standard
which probably evolved as a chemical defence against predation methods to detect the bioactive compounds like alkaloids,
or infection (Ramaprabha et al, 2012). It is estimated that only tannins, phenols, steroids, flavonoids, saponins (Trease et al,
one percent of 2,65,000 flowering plants on earth have been 1989).
studied exhaustively for their chemical composition and potential
against important medicinal value (Cox et al, 1994). Here an
attempt has been made to investigate the chemical present in the III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
leaf for curing various diseases.

TABLE 1: Phytochemical Screening of Calotropis procera Leaf

Phyto chemicals Petroleum ether extract Methanol extract

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Alkaloids - -
Carbohydrates - +
Reducing Sugar’s - -
flavonoids - +
Glycoside + +
Tannin and Phenolic - +
saponin - -
Protein and amino acid + +
Fats and oils - -
Triterpenoids and steroids + +
(+) indicates presence (-) indicate absence

The result of Phytochemical screening of Petroleum ether REFERENCES


and methanol leaf extracts of Calotropis procera revealed the [1] Srivastava, M., Kumar, A. and Pal, M. 2010. Phytochemical investigation
presence of Glycosides, Protein, Triterpenoids, Steroids, on Jatropha curcas seed cake. Int. J. of Pharmacy and Life science,
Flavonoids (Table1). The presence of these components in this 1(6):357-362.
species is an indication that it may have some medicinal [2] Murti, Y., Yogi, B. and Pathak, D. 2010. Pharmacognostic standardization
of leaves of Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae). Int. J.
potential. The parts of the plant used in Ayurvedic medicine are Ayurveda Res, 1:14-7.
leaves, the roots, root bark and the flowers. The powered leaves [3] Ramaprabha, M. and Vasantha, K. 2012. Phytochemical and antibacterial
are used for the fast healing of wounds, as a purgative and to activity of Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. flowers. Int. J. of Pharma and
treat indigestion. They are used to treat skin disorders and liver Biosciences, 3(1):1-6.
problems. The dried leaves are used to promote sexual health [4] Cox, P. A. and Balick, M. J. 1994. The ethnobotanical approach to drug
including Penile dysfunction and are reputed to be an discovery. Scientific American, 270:60-65.
aphrodisiac. The leaves of Calotropis procera are used by [5] Trease, G. E. and Evans, W. C. 1989. A Textbook of Pharmacognosy.
Bacilliere tinal Ltd., London, 13th edition.
various tribes of Central India as a curative agent for jaundice
[6] mainasarsa, M. M., Aliero, B. L., Aliero, A. A. and yakubu, M. 2012.
(Sharma et al, 2011). The leaves are used to treat joint pain and Phytochemical and antibacterial properities of root and leaf extracts of
reduce swelling. It is also used as a homeopathic medicine Calotropis procera. Nigerian J. of Basic and Applied Science, 20(1):1-6.
(Meena et al, 2011). It is also used by traditional medicine [7] Varahalarao, V. And Chandrashekhar, N. 2010. In vitro bioactivity of
practitioners in Gwari communities for the treatment of Indian medicinal plant Calotropis procera. J. of global Pharma technology,
2(2):43-45.
ringworms (Kuta, 2008).Tannins have been reported to have
[8] Sharma, A. K., Kharib, R. and Kaur, R. 2011. Pharmacognostical aspects of
antibacterial potential due to their basic character that allows Calotropis procera. Int. J. of pharma and biosciences, 2(3):480-488.
them to react with proteins to form stable water soluble [9] Meena, A. k., Yadav, A. and Rao, M. M. 2011. Ayurvedic uses and
compounds thereby killing bacteria by directly damaging its cell pharmacological activities of Calotropis procera Linn. Asian J. of
membrane (Mainasara et al, 2012). Murti et al (2010) analysed traditional Medicines, 6(2): 45-53.
pharmacognostic standardization of leaves of Calotropis [10] Kuta, F. A. 2008. Antifngal effect of Calotropis procera stem bark on
procera. Varahalarao et al (2010) examined bioassays for Epidermophyton flocosum and Trichophyton gypseum. African J. of
Biotechnology, 7:2116-2118.
antimicrobial activities using stem, leaves and flowers of
Calotropis procera.
This research has been proved as a path to many scientists
who may implement the result of the present work in developing AUTHORS
drugs from Calotropis procera against human pathogenic First Author – Dr. Amit Tiwari Department of Biotechnology.
microorganisms. Govt. T.R.S. College. Rewa India.
Second Author – Sanchita singh Govt. T.R.S. College. Rewa
India.
IV. CONCLUSION Third Author – Suchita singh. A.P.S. university. Rewa India.
Empirical knowledge about medicinal plants plays a vital
role in primary health care and has great potential for the Correspondence Author – Suchita singh. Research scholar.
discovery of new herbal drugs. Calotropis procera leaf extract A.P.S. university. Rewa India. [email protected],
made in methanol and petroleum ether contains different 09893056514
secondary metabolites with biological activity that can be of
therapeutic index.
Table 1 showed preliminary Phytochemical screening of
Calotropis procera. It is interesting to note that the action of the
extracts of Calotropis procera is non-toxic. The obtained results
provide a support for the use of this plant in traditional medicine.

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Effects of Resistance Training with Different Nutrient


Supplementation on Muscle Strength
Ali Faleh Salman *, Qays Chyad Khalaf **
*
Ph.D in sport medicine, Director and founder of the Iraqi Specialist Handball Center & Researcher at Umeå University, Sweden
**
Ph.D and Assistant professor in physical education college, Diyala University, Iraq.

Abstract- A large body of scientific evidence holds that a In light of this background, the present study was
combination of carbohydrates and protein/essential amino acids conducted as an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of
is more efficient than carbohydrates alone when in optimal supplementing macro-nutrients during the training itself, i.e.
muscle strength and size gains through resistance training is the between sets. The purpose was to assess whether an experimental
goal. However, there is much less consensus on what the optimal combination of carbohydrates and proteins could prove more
timing of administration is, with conflicting reports regarding efficient than carbohydrates alone in the context of assisting
consumption of supplements before, during, and after training. strength and muscle size gains in conjunction with resistance
To try and answer some of these questions, a study was training over a period of time. The nutritional solution was
conducted using 23 volunteers performing resistance training for designed to be consumed during the individual training bouts,
8 weeks, and consuming either a combination of carbohydrates similar to the studies by Bird et al (2006 a,b,c), to provide
and protein or carbohydrates alone. Measurements of body subjects with a near-constant flow of nutrients during resistance
composition, limb circumference and strength were performed training. This in turn would provide a scientific basis on which to
both before and after. No significant differences could were be evaluate whether supplementation of nutrients during resistance
found observed in any of the measurements between the two training is a valid strategy when pursuing maximal muscular
groups after 8 weeks of training. While this was unexpected, a strength. Previous research in the matter (Dreyer et al, 2008;
closer look at the data, as well as an evaluation of the training Kerksick et al, 2008; Aagaard, 2004; Wolfe, 2000; Bird et al,
methods and nutrient supplementation used in the study in 2006 a,b,c, Rennie & Tipton, 2000; Cribb & Hayes,
comparison with by other studies in the field, revealed that issues 2006)indicates that a synergistic effect between carbohydrates
such as nutrient composition, dosage and the training process and proteins on the processes regulating muscular strength and
(directly supervised or not) training may have a strong influence size ought to occur, leading to greater adaptations than
on the results of a training study. Thus, in order to conclusively supplementation of carbohydrates alone would provide. Thus, the
answer the question of which training and nutritional strategy hypothesis was that a combination of carbohydrates and proteins
produces were the best results, first of all, a more standardized would prove superior to carbohydrates alone, and provide both
training methods are is required. greater gains in lean mass and muscle strength. The study was
conducted using a randomized double-blind model on
volunteering human subjects.
I. INTRODUCTION
Nutritional supplementation protocol
M uscle strength is a topic of great interest for scientific
research, whether the goal is to improve quality of life in
the elderly or seriously ill, or to maximize athletic performance.
Using a double blind protocol all subjects were randomly
assigned into two groups: CHO group and CHO+PRO group. In
It is widely accepted that the maximal force output of a muscle is the CHO group, thirteen subjects (25 ± 3 yr; 79 ± 7 kg; 182 ± 7
dependent on several different factors, such as motor neuron cm) consumed a carbohydrate solution at 0.6667g cho/kg of body
activation and muscle size. A popular strategy to increase muscle weight whereas in the CHO+PRO group, 10 subjects consumed a
strength is resistance training, which is known to act on both of carbohydrate and protein solution at 0,1667g pro/kg and 0,5g
these factors (Phillips et al, 2005; Weinert, 2009; Andersen et al, cho/kg of body weight (25 ± 3 yr; 79 ± 8 kg; 181 ± 6 cm). The
2005; Aagaard, 2004), albeit non-linearly, with increases in beverage was consumed during training sessions for both groups.
actual protein content and cross-sectional area believed to occur Additionally, all subjects were fed a commercially available
later than neuronal adaptations (Fleck & Kraemer, 2004; recovery drink (Gainomax) at 0.5g of cho/kg and 0.25g of pro/kg
McArdle et al, 2010). To strengthen the effects on muscle size, of body weight twenty-five minutes after a completed session.
resistance training is often accompanied by supplementation of Subjects were instructed to avoid all other commercial and non-
carbohydrates and/or proteins or amino acids (Andersen et al, commercial supplements during the course of the study. A
2005; Kerksick et al, 2008; Aagaard, 2004). Evidence has shown scheme of the CHO and CHO +PRO groups pre-training
that a combination of resistance training and proper nutrient statistics is given.
supplementation can provide superior results than either alone
(Dreyer et al, 2008; Kerksick et al, 2008; Aagaard, 2004; Wolfe, Training protocols
2000; Bird et al, 2006 a,b,c, Rennie & Tipton, 2000; Cribb & Over the course of eight weeks, the subjects were given a
Hayes, 2006). choice of three different resistance training programs based on
predilection and available time. The programs varied in training

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days per week (2,3 or 4), sets and reps in order to periodize an additional 10 minutes of standardized warmup before, and 25
training loads, in general, all programs offered a blend of guided- minutes of rest after each session. A scheme of a typical
motion machines and free weights, and targeted all major muscle resistance training session is given as figure 1. All participants
groups in the body, with a certain emphasis of the legs, were instructed to avoid excessive endurance training during the
particularly the quadriceps. Both the 2 and 3 sessions/week duration of the study, to avoid a potential negative effect on
programs re-used the training schedule of weeks 1 through 4 with adaptations to resistance training (Fleck & Kraemer, 2004). All
increased loads for weeks 5 through 8. The 4 sessions/week training schedules, as well as a more detailed explanation of each
program, however, featured a different set of exercises for weeks of the 3 programs.
5 through 8. Each session lasted approximately 60 minutes, with

Warmup (stationary bike) First training period Second training period Third training period Fourth training period Recovery
¼ of beverage Resistance training ¼ of beverage Resistance training ¼ of beverage Resistance training ¼ of beverage Resistance training 25 min rest, recovery drink

10 min, 50 rpm, 1,5 kpa 2 exercises, 2-4 sets 2 exercises, 2-4 sets 2 exercises, 2-4 sets 2 exercises, 2-4 sets

Figure 1. Typical resistance training protocol for this study. Depending on which program subjects chose, the precise number of
exercises could vary. Nevertheless, the basic schedule of warmup – ingestion of beverage – resistance training – ingestion of beverage
was the same for all three programs, and recovery drinks were provided to all participants regardless of group assignement (i.e. CHO
or CHO+PRO)
After the 8 weeks training, both groups showed significant
(P<0.05) increase in overall weight and whole body lean mass
II. RESULTS: (Table 1a).
Body composition
Table 1a. Body composition statistics for the CHO and CHO+PRO groups before and after exercise as well as P-values for both
within group- and between group analyses. All data are presented ± SD. An indicates that P<0,05.

CHO CHO+PRO P-values


PRE POST PRE POST Within groups Between groups
CHO CHO+PRO PRE POST
Weight (kg) 78,67 ± 8,44 80,8 ± 8,86 78,87 ± 6,87 81,24 ± 6,95 0,0004* 0,0005* 0,9518 0,8984
Whole body lean mass (kg) 61,02 ± 6,96 63,06 ± 6,91 59,72 ± 5,44 61,92 ± 5,16 0,0001* <0,0001* 0,6323 0,6655
Whole body fat mass (kg) 14,37 ± 3,45 14,45 ± 3,93 15,83 ± 3,61 15,98 ± 4,05 0,7710 0,6475 0,3378 0,3701
Whole body fat % 19 ± 3,91 18,51 ± 4,17 20,88 ± 4,22 20,4 ± 4,47 0,1064 0,1475 0,2832 0,3075
Fat mass torso (kg) 6,98 ± 1,91 7,15 ± 2,32 7,41 ± 1,94 7,56 ± 2,24 0,4079 0,5031 0,6016 0,6739
Lean mass torso (kg) 27,92 ± 3,26 28,4 ± 3,11 26,86 ± 2,6 27,38 ± 2,31 0,0660 0,0438* 0,4114 0,3977
Fat mass legs (kg) 5,02 ± 1,29 4,93 ± 1,28 5,92 ± 1,38 5,91 ± 1,51 0,2830 0,9374 0,1217 0,1085
Lean mass legs (kg) 21,39 ± 2,67 22,52 ± 2,84 21,46 ± 1,72 22,62 ± 1,8 0,0001* <0,0001* 0,9425 0,9252
Fat mass arms (kg) 1,5 ± 0,51 1,5 ± 0,49 1,57 ± 0,4 1,6 ± 0,46 0,9671 0,4742 0,6998 0,6082
Lean mass arms (kg) 8,34 ± 1,27 8,8 ± 1,27 7,84 ± 1,14 8,41 ± 1,12 0,0006* <0,0001* 0,3412 0,4547

Table 1b. Delta values in body composition for the CHO and CHO+PRO group after 8 weeks of training. A double asterisk indicates
a non significant advantage for one group over the other.

CHO Delta ± SD CHO+PRO Delta ± SD


Weight (kg) 2,13 ± 1,6 2,37 ± 1,41**
Whole body lean mass (kg) 2,05 ± 1,25 2,2 ± 0,65**
Whole body fat mass (kg) 0,08 ± 0,92 0,16 ± 1,05**
Whole body fat % -0,5 ± 1,03 -0,48 ± 0,96
Fat mass torso (kg) 0,17 ± 0,71** 0,15 ± 0,68
Lean mass torso (kg) 0,48 ± 0,85 0,52 ± 0,7**
Fat mass legs (kg) -0,08 ± 0,26** -0,01 ± 0,33
Lean mass legs (kg) 1,13 ± 0,75 1,16 ± 0,2**
Fat mass arms (kg) 0 ± 0,12 0,03 ± 0,13**
Lean mass arms (kg) 0,46 ± 0,36 0,57 ± 0,18**

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Strength
As seen in table 2a, no significant differences were
observed in any of the strength parameters between the two
groups either before or after the 8 weeks of training.

Table 2a. Strength results for the CHO and CHO+PRO groups before and after exercise, as well as P-values for both within group-
and between group analyses. All data are presented ± SD. The CHO group had 11 subjects complete measurements for peak torque
values, and 12 subjects complete the bench press 3 RM test. For the CHO+PRO group, one subject failed to complete measurements
on his left leg post-exercise, thus bringing the number of completed measurements for peak torque in the left leg to 9. An * indicates
that P<0,05.

CHO CHO+PRO P-values


PRE POST PRE POST Within groups Between groups
CHO CHO+PRO PRE POST
Peak torque extension R (Nm) 241,36 ± 48,16 257,75 ± 54,63 246,03 ± 29,84 263,55 ± 39,87 0,0672 0,0248* 0,7950 0,7862
Peak torque extension L (Nm) 242,58 ± 37,28 259,66 ± 42,23 231,82 ± 30,58 245,12 ± 34,88 0,0606 0,0425* 0,5046 0,4192
Peak torque flexion R (Nm) 122,95 ± 21,97 129,79 ± 24,79 129,53 ± 14,91 133,54 ± 11,84 0,1307 0,3247 0,4371 0,6688
Peak torque flexion L (Nm) 121,3 ± 21,01 124,96 ± 23,49 118,81 ± 10,69 125,84 ± 12,97 0,3074 0,0481* 0,7528 0,9212
Benchpress 3RM (kg) 79,17 ± 14,16 84,38 ± 14,15 75,25 ± 17,26 79,75 ± 19,16 0,0411* 0,0642 0,5649 0,5225

Table 2b. Delta values in strength for the CHO and CHO+PRO group after 8 weeks of training. A double asterisk indicates a non
significant advantage for one group over the other.
CHO Delta ± SD CHO+PRO Delta ± SD
Peak torque extension R (Nm) 16,39 ± 26,48 17,52 ± 20,59**
Peak torque extension L (Nm) 17,08 ± 26,8** 13,3 ± 16,55
Peak torque flexion R (Nm) 6,84 ± 13,77** 4,01 ± 12,17
Peak torque flexion L (Nm) 3,66 ± 11,3 7,03 ± 9,05**
Benchpress 3RM (kg) 5,21 ± 7,8** 4,5 ± 6,75

Limb circumference
In both groups, overall limb circumference at all measuring
points for both arm and leg increased following the training
period (table 3a).

Table 3a. Limb circumference results for the CHO and CHO+PRO groups before and after exercise, as well as P-values for both
within group- and between group analyses. All data are presented ± SD. An * indicates that P<0,05.

CHO CHO+PRO P-values


PRE POST PRE POST Within groups Between groups
CHO CHO+PRO PRE POST
Arm 40 % (cm) 33 ± 2,18 33,79 ± 2,13 32,11 ± 1,9 32,87 ± 1,92 0,0654 0,1033 0,4254 0,3638
Arm 50 % (cm) 32,46 ± 2,51 33,15 ± 2,33 30,93 ± 1,71 31,82 ± 1,48 0,2283 0,0035* 0,2304 0,1759
Arm 60 % (cm) 31,16 ± 2,17 32,24 ± 2,49 30,01 ± 1,79 30,92 ± 1,61 0,0867 0,0014* 0,3438 0,2099
Leg 40% (cm) 57,64 ± 3,32 59,55 ± 3,21 58,47 ± 2,79 60,41 ± 3,04 0,0030* 0,0019* 0,5548 0,5781
Leg 50% (cm) 54,85 ± 2,79 56,58 ± 3,36 55,67 ± 3,31 57,94 ± 3,06 0,0094* 0,0094* 0,6361 0,3935
Leg 60% (cm) 50,88 ± 3,34 52,53 ± 2,7 51,54 ± 3,04 54,61 ± 3,6 0,0135* 0,0025* 0,6635 0,2011

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Table 3b. Delta values in limb circumference for the CHO and CHO+PRO group after 8 weeks of training. A double asterisk **
indicates a non significant advantage for one group over the other.
CHO Delta ± SD CHO+PRO Delta ± SD
Arm 40 % (cm) 0,79 ± 1,02** 0,76 ± 1,23
Arm 50 % (cm) 0,69 ± 1,47 0,89 ± 0,65**
Arm 60 % (cm) 1,08 ± 1,53** 0,91 ± 0,58
Leg 40% (cm) 1,91 ± 1,22 1,94 ± 1,28**
Leg 50% (cm) 1,73 ± 1,38 2,38 ± 2,1**
Leg 60% (cm) 1,65 ± 1,42 3 ± 2,17**

al, 2009; Weinert, 2010; Andersen et al, 2005; Willoughby et al,


III. DISCUSSION 2006), it seems that essential amino acids, in particular leucine,
Overall, the results of this study showed that there are no have a similarly potent effect (Dreyer et al, 2008; Greiwe et al.,
statistically significant differences between the CHO and the 2001; Karlsson et al., 2004; Rennie, 2005; Smith et al., 2005;
CHO+PRO group after 8 weeks of training. Comparison within Bohé et al., 2003; Hara et al., 1998; Weinert, 2009). In particular,
each of the two groups confirmed this result. However, a closer the studies published by Bird et al (2006 a,b,c) obtained
inspection of the data revealed that the CHO+PRO group hypertrophic responses from their subjects with dosages of 6g
exhibited slightly better, albeit not significantly so, results in essential amino acids. Other studies report similar effects when
body composition and limb circumference than the CHO group. essential amino acids are supplemented (Børsheim et al., 2002;
Karlsson et al., 2004). Perhaps a higher concentration of these
Body composition essential amino acids instead of mixed protein would have been
As shown in table 1a, in the 10 parameters measured in the more beneficial. Alternatively, a higher dosage of protein might
study, none of them showed significant difference between the also have led to more clearly defined results, such as those of
two groups, indicating extra supplementation of protein in the Hulmi et al (2009) (30g), Hartman et al (2007) (35g) Willoughby
CHO+PRO group did not bring more effectiveness in improving et al (2006) (40g) and Andersen et al (2005) (50g). This is further
body composition compared to carbohydrates alone in the CHO supported by the lack of significant differences post-exercise
group. This is confirmed by comparisons of the parameters between test subjects in a study by Rankin et al (2004), who used
within each group (shown in table 1a). The CHO+PRO group a low dosage of protein (0,21g/kg body weight).
reached statistical significance in 5 parameters, whereas the CHO
group reached significance in 4. Similar results were obtained Strength
when comparing the delta values of the two groups. As shown in Comparison in results of all parameters between groups
table 1b, the CHO+PRO group obtained slightly better results in showed no significant difference in results, suggesting no effect
lean mass accretion, both at the whole body level and in on muscle strength with extra protein supplementation during
individual segments, but this did not reach a significant level. resistance training. However, within group analyses showed that
A very important consideration when examining these the CHO+PRO group obtained slightly better results than the
results is the nature of the nutritional supplement that was CHO group, with the former presenting 3 statistically significant
provided. As was mentioned earlier, carbohydrates are capable of changes and the latter only 1 statistically significant change (see
influencing protein accretion in the muscles, mainly through their table 2a). This result suggests that the extra protein
effect on insulin, and the subsequent decrease in catabolism supplementation during resistance training in this study is indeed
observed in the muscle cells (Bird et al, 2006 a,b; Aagaard, 2004, more effective in improving muscle strength, albeit not
Lemon et al, 2002) Thus, it is not the increase in lean mass significantly so. Further analysis of the delta values of both
exhibited by the CHO group that is unexpected in itself, but groups, as seen in table 2b, revealed no trend towards either
rather the lack of significant difference with the CHO+PRO group becoming better in results than the other, thus supporting
group, since combination of both carbohydrates and protein is our conclusion based on comparisons between groups.
widely considered to be more efficient than either nutrients alone As seen in table 2a, both groups exhibit strong trends
(Volek, 2003; Dreyer et al, 2008; Kerksick et al, 2008; Aagaard, towards increases in the parameters where statistical significance
2004; Wolfe, 2000; Bird et al, 2006 a,b,c, Rennie & Tipton, was not reached, with the exception of flexion for both legs. It is
2000; Cribb & Hayes, 2006). possible this is a result of the training programs mainly focusing
Also of interest when analyzing these results is the actual on exercises targeting the quadriceps, responsible for extending
dosage of nutritional supplementation that the subjects were the knee joint, as well as the fact that the hamstring muscles, the
given. The dosage of nutritional supplementation received by the main knee flexors, are generally smaller muscles when compared
test subjects were relatively modest, and, as described in the against the quadriceps (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006). However,
methods section, both groups received the same post-exercise the effect of directly supervised training could also be an
supplement. This means that the difference between both groups important factor, as directly supervised resistance training has
was a small amount of mixed protein over each training session. been shown to produce better effects than unsupervised training
While mixed protein is known to have an anabolic effect in in moderately trained young men (Mazetti et al, 2000). In
combination with resistance training (Hulmi et al, 2010; Hulmi et particular Mazetti et al. (2000), demonstrated that mean training
loads, expressed in kg per set, as well as rates of increase and

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maximal 1 RM strength in the squat and bench press were greater increase of CSA in both type I and II fibers. This study
significantly higher in a group training for 12 weeks under direct also used a large (35g of protein) dosage of nutrient
supervision, when compared to another unsupervised group. The supplementation (Hartman et al, 2007). In comparison, Bird et al
difference in duration notwithstanding, the method used by (2006 c), who also used directly supervised training report a
Mazetti et al. (2000), is quite similar to the method in this study significant difference between their CHO+EAA and CHO only
regarding the use of direct supervision. In that study, the author group only in type Iia fiber CSA. In that study, the nutritional
concluded that the reason direct supervision was more efficient dosage was low (6g of essential amino acids). Similar results are
than unsupervised was because of the increased training loads also reported by Rankin et al (2004), who used direct supervision
supervised subjects was exposed to, due to a faster weekly and a low dosage of nutrient supplementation.
progression. This may have been caused by two separate factors
working in a feed-forward fashion, with the presence of a
personal trainer increasing motivation and competitiveness in the IV. CONCLUSION
supervised subjects, thus enabling the use of higher loads, which In conclusion, no significant differences were observed in
in turn would have caused a higher recruitment of fast-twitch any of the measurements between the two groups after 8 weeks
motor units. Over a period of 12 weeks, these factors working in of training. a closer look at the data generated by this study
tandem are a probable explanation to the results displayed, as the shows that supplementation of protein and carbohydrates at a
author his selve theorize (Mazetti et al, 2000). Working on this dosage of 1,667 and 0,5g/kg body weight during training bouts
assumption, it is quite possible that the positive psychological, produces slightly better results than supplementation of
motivational, and logistical aspects, such as spotting, of the direct carbohydrates at 0,667g/kg body weight, in young healthy men
supervision that both the CHO and CHO+PRO groups were with resistance training experience. However, while within-group
subject to may have had similar effects on the end results analyses show a trend for the CHO+PRO group to exhibit better
displayed. Thus, it is a possibility that this also could have acted results than the CHO group, between-group analyses show no
in a manner that would have decreased differences between the significance. Examining the results shown by this study and
two groups. This is not supported by the results of Hartman et al those of others suggest several factors, like nutrient dosage and
(2007), who reported significant differences between a group composition, as well as training duration, periodization and
consuming fat-free milk and two other groups consuming soy or supervision, all influence the final results. Adaptation to training,
carbohydrate after 12 weeks of directly supervised training. although what, if any degree of synergy there is between these
However, as mentioned earlier, Hartman et al (2007) also used a factors is hard to assess because of dissimilar methods and
relatively large dosage of protein (35g), which may partially results. Thus, any future studies aim to examine nutritional
account for the discrepancy with our results. In comparison, Bird supplementation during resistance training to improve muscle
et al (2006) also used direct supervision for 12 weeks, but strength and size should take precautions to avoid such
reported few significant differences between treatment groups, mitigating factors, in order to insure more clearly defined
likely because of low nutrient dosage. Similar results are answers
exhibited by Rankin et al (2004), who report no significant
differences between a group consuming fat-free milk and a group
consuming carbohydrates only after 10 weeks of supervised
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ISSN 2250-3153

Electrical Resistivity as a Geophysical Mapping Tool; A


Case Study Of The New Art Department, Knust- Ghana
Aning A. A., Sackey N., Jakalia I. S., Sedoawu O., Tetteh E. H., Hinson G., Akorlie R. K., Appiah D., Quaye E. K.

Geophysics section, Department of Physics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi – Ghana

ABSTRACT
Continuous vertical electrical sounding (CVES) surveys were carried out on KNUST campus to ascertain the electrical properties of
the formations in the area in order to determine its suitability for the construction of heavy structures. Eight 2D CVES profiles were
conducted at the site in the study area with a wenner array using electrode separations of 1, 2.5 and 4 m. The apparent resistivity data
were inverted using the least square inversion technique into subsurface electrical structures. The results on the profiles running N-S
indicate a well defined boundary in the electrical resistivity structure between the wet granites at the base and the dry undifferentiated
granites on top of it.

Keywords; continuous vertical electrical sounding (CVES), KNUST, resistivity, Wenner array, inversion, imaging

INTRODUCTION
Electrical resistivity surveys are based on the response of the earth to the flow of electrical current. Artificially generated electric
currents are introduced into the ground and the resulting potential differences are measured at the surface (Telford et al., 1990; Lowrie
2007). All materials, including soil and rock, have an intrinsic property- resistivity that governs the relation between the current
density and the gradient of the electrical potential. In general, the main principle in any geophysical explorations is to non-intrusively
gather data on the area of interest (Scollar et al., 1990). Variations in the resistivity vertically or laterally produces variations in the
relation between the applied current and the potential distribution as measured on the surface and thereby reveal something about their
composition, extent, and physical properties of the material. Resistivity is therefore, one of the most variable physical properties
(Keary et al., 2002) ranging between 1.6×10-8 Ωm for native silver to about 1016 Ωm for pure sulphur.
The resistivity method has varied applications in mining, groundwater detection, and subsurface geological structure among others.
The use of geoelectrical method as an effective tool for gaining knowledge into the subsurface structure, in particular, for identifying
anomalies and defining the complexity of the subsurface geology and is fast gaining grounds (Lapenna et al., 2005; Siddiqui and
Osman, 2012). This may mainly be due to the fact that on electrical resistivity tomographies, faults lines and other geological
formations such as fractures etc, easily stand out due to their low resistivity values compared to the surrounding (Aning et al., 2013).
These features are normally identified as anomalies in the electrical resistivity tomographies as they differ from the host material.
Field studies by Ozegin et al., (2011) predicted that a geologic structure which was most probably a fracture was established and
confirmed to be a potential source of building failure in a site, and this happens when building is constructed across the geologic
structure. Garg (2007) found that if a building is constructed at a site, without properly considering the underground strata or its load-
bearing capacity, it may settle excessively or differentially, causing development of cracks in the building which may ultimately lead
to its failure and collapse. Subsurface geological features such as fractures, voids, and nearness of water table to the surface are among
the inconveniences that pose constraint to constraint to building constructions especially to their foundations (Andrews et al., 2013).
The electrical resistivity method is very good tool for resolving geological problems ranging from the delineating of hidden
underground structures (i.e. fractures, faults water accumulation etc.). It has also made the spatiotemporal evolution of groundwater
flow relative to landslide occurrence to studies improve greatly (Aning et al., 2013).
In this work, the electrical resistivity distribution of the subsurface of the site would be measured by the application of the CVES
method for imaging the subsurface of study area.

STUDY AREA

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The survey site can be located behind the Engineering labs close to the new college of Arts building at the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology in Kumasi – Ghana. The project site falls within the wet sub-equitorial setting with mean
minimum temperature of about 21.5 oC and maximum average temperature of 30.7 oC. The estimated area of the site is (160x100) m2
with the land sloping gently in the South-North direction.
The area is underlain by Dahomeyan formation, mainly granitoid undifferentiated rocks as shown on fig. 1 and can be located on
6.6849083 °N and 1.5705194 °W. The Dahomeyan formation, consisting of mainly metamorphic rock such as gneiss and schist,
occupies the south-southeastern corner of Ghana and occurs as four alternate belts of acid and basic gneisses, trending south-
southwest to northeast direction (Griffis et al, 2002).

Fig. 1: Geological map of Kumasi Metropolis showing the study area in red (Geological Survey Department, Ghana, 2009)
DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING

The multi-electrode ABEM Lund Resistivity Imaging System was used to carry out the electrical resistivity measurements on 8
profiles (Fig.2). The system operates automatically once the geometrical parameters (array type, electrode separation and minimum
current) are set. The Wenner array with 41 electrodes connected to four 40 m long multi-core cables was used to collect the data. This
configuration (Wenner array) is able to give better resolution of the subsurface resistivity distribution (Hamzah et al., 2006).The
Continuous Vertical Electrical Sounding (CVES) was used to acquire the data on the field. The equipment used for the survey
includes the ABEM terrameter SAS 4000, power supply (car battery), electrodes and multi-conductor cables. For this survey, the
electrode separations were as shown in Table 1.

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Figure 2 Profile layout


Table 1: Table showing electrode spacing and length of profile lines

Lines Electrode separation /m Length of line /m


1, 2, 3 and 4 4 160
5 and 6 2.5 100
7 and 8 1 40

The electrode separation was chosen in other to get a better resolution of the near surface structures so as to properly interpret the
resistivity tomograph and advice the authorities on where to put up structures in future.

The resistivity measurements was taken along the profile lines as shown in Fig. 2, with 4 automatically selected electrodes according
to the configuration protocols set on the ABEM terrameter. Each electrode position is uniquely identified at a takeout on the cable.
This helps in identifying the required current and potential pairs during the measurement at various data levels as ‘a’ (electrode
separation) is increased by a factor.

Fig. 3: Sketch of the electrodes for 2D geoelectrical resistivity survey and the sequence of measurement for building the
pseudosection (Loke, 2011)

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As a precaution for the acquisition of reliable and accurate resistivity data, the cables are checked for cuts and on every line, the
electrodes are checked for contact resistance. Where the ground contact resistance is bad, salt water is sprinkled around the electrodes
and lowered deeply into the ground.

The processing of the electrical resistivity measurements was done using the Res2DINV software, after the data was topographically
corrected. The data was first read in and bad datum point (which usually shows as spikes) were then exterminated to enhance the data.
Inversion was then carried out to estimate the true resistivity structure of the subsurface. The L 1 norm (robust inversion technique) of
the least square inversion technique was used to allow the modeling of relatively sharp changes in resistivity because the inversion
algorithm aims to minimize the absolute value of data misfit (Loke et al. 2003).

Model refinement option of the “Inversion” menu was used to take care of the large resistivity variations near the ground surface.
With this option, the program automatically reduces the unit electrode spacing it uses by half of that given in the data. The user
defined logarithmic contour intervals option was used for easier comparison of the images.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 4: Models for lines running North-South

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Fig. 5: Models for lines running East-West


On lines 1and 2, apparent resistivity generally decreases with depth. High resistive materials are found at the top with patches of low
resistivity materials on the surface to an elevation of about 260 m. The high resistive materials in the subsurface can be found to
depths of about 10 m. A slab-like material of a very high resistivity situated beneath the 96 m and 128 m marks occurs at an elevation
of about 262 m to 255 m above sea level.
Line 3 however, shows the high resistive material exposed at the surface at depths of about 0.3 m at the 92 m mark through to the 140
m mark in the south. The most resistive material on the site is recorded on this line at 88 m and found at depths of 3 m to 7 m.
However, low resistivity is recorded directly above this material. The fourth line records high resistivity at the center of the profile line
and stretches to the end of the line to depths of about 10 m.

The profile lines 5, 6, 7 and 8 in Fig. 5, run from the East to the West at varied depths due to the profile lengths. Line 5 probes to a
maximum depth of 15.5 m. It therefore does not provide any information on the low resistivity layers encountered in the first four
lines. However, the high resistive materials are exposed at the surface on this line. The most resistive material in the area is found at
the 15 m mark.
At about 30 m from line 5 in the north direction, profile line 6 shows relatively low resistivity materials on the surface at an average
depth of about 3 m with the high resistive material directly below it. This line also provides information to depths of about 15.5 m.
The seventh line which is 40 m from the sixth shows similar resistivity distribution as line 6. Low resistivity materials encountered at
the center and the depth of probe is about 6.7 m from the surface. The final line, line 8 at the north shows low resistivity distribution in
the region.

In general, the resistivity values of the subsurface materials at the site are in the range of resistivity of granitic materials. The upper
layer is made of highly resistive materials to a depth of about 10 m and it can be infer to be disseminated granitic material. From
careful observation, the yellowish feature that stretches from north to south at a depth of approximately 10 m is likely to be the water

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table. Beneath this feature is fresh granitic material. The top part of the fresh granite just below the water table is saturated with water
giving it a low resistivity as compared to the whole fresh granite.

The models that stretch from east to west could not provide information on the water table and the fresh granite owing to their short
lengths, in other words the depth of investigation of these profiles were shallow (<16m). Resistivity values of materials from these
models correspond with that of the upper part of the models that runs from north to south which are in the range of the resistivity of
granites.
It is very evident, especially, from the profiles at the south that the area is made up of high resistive materials and towards the north,
resistivity decreases.

CONCLUSION
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study conducted at the site in front of the new college of Art Building, KNUST.
 The relatively low resistivity data recorded below 10m depths at these areas were generally due to a highly conductive
material likely water saturated granitic rocks.
 The highly resistive materials area could be the undifferentiated granitoids (resistivity of 100Ωm to 1×10 Ωm).
6

 Possible weathering of the granitoid could have resulted in formation of lateritic soils especially at the south of the site
forming a hardpan in which the soil grains become cemented by iron-oxides.
 The cemented soils contain few pores hence are resistive to the flow of current and can be said to be the most compacted
areas on the site.
 At an elevation of 255 m can be inferred to be a water table and it runs across the four lines (1, 2, 3, and 4).
 The southern section of the site can be said to mechanical stable to hold a heavy surface structure compared to the north
and is highly recommended for construction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The effort of the Physics Department for the release of the Abem Terrameter SAS 4000 Equipment for the work is immensely
appreciated.

REFERENCES

Andrews N.D, Aning A.A, Danuor S.K and Noye R.M (2013) Geophysical investigations at the proposed site of the KNUST teaching Hospital building using the 2D
and 3D resistivity imaging techniques. International Research Journal of Geology and Mining (IRJGM) (2276-6618) Vol. 3(3) pp. 113-123, April 2013
Aning A. A. Tucholka, P. and Danuor, S. K. (2013) The Bosumtwi Meteorite Impact Crater, Ghana: New Results on the impact direction of the meteorite from 2D
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Survey.
Dahlin, T., (1996) 2D Resistivity surveying for environmental and engineering applications. First Break, 14, 275-284.
Garg S. K. (2007), “Physical and Engineering Geology”, Khanna Publisher, Delhi, India pp. 338 – 348
Ghana Geological Survey (2009). Geological map of Kumasi Metropolis.
Griffis J. R, Barning K., Agezo L. F, Akosah K.F (2002). Gold Deposit of Ghana, mineral commission. Gandalf Graphics Limited, 605 Alden Rd., Markham, Ontario,
Canada L3R 3L5.
Griffiths D.H. and Barker R.D.,(1993). Two-dimensional resistivity imaging and modelling in areas of complex geology. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 29, 211-226.
Hamzah, U., Yaacup, R., Samsudin, A. R. and Ayub, M. S. (2006). Electrical Imaging of the Groundwater Aquifer at Banting, Selangor, Malaysia, Environmental
Geology 49, Issue 8, pp. 1156–1162.
Kearey, P. and Brooks, M., (2003), An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration: Blackwell Scientific Publications
Lapenna V, Lorenzo P, Perrone A, Piscitelli S, Rizzo E, Sdao F (2005). 2D electrical resistivity imaging of some complex landslides in the lucanianapennine chain,
southern Italy. Geophysics, 70(3).
Loke M. H, (2011). Tutorial: 2-D and 3-D Electrical Imaging Survey Manual.
Loke M. H, Acworth I, Dahlin T (2003). A comparison of smooth and blocky inversion methods in 2-D electrical imaging surveys. Explora. Geophysics, 34:183–187.
Lowrie W. (1997). Fundamental of geophysics, Cambridge University Press, Switzerland, pp. 254
Ozegin K. O., Oseghale A., Okolie E. C. & Ujuanbi O. (2011), “Integration of very low-frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) and electrical resistivity methods in
mapping Sub-surface geologic structures favourable to road failures”, Int’l Jour. of Water Res. and Environ. Eng. 3(6): 126-131.
Scollar, I., Tabbagh, A., Hesse, A., Herzog, I.,( 1990). Archaeological Prospecting and Remote Sensing. pp. 674.
Siddiqui, F. I. and Osman, S .B.A.B .S.,(2012). Integrating Geo-Electrical and Geotechnical Data For Soil Characterization, International Journal of Applied Physics
and Mathematics, Vol. 2, No. 2

Telford W. M., Geldart, L.P, Sheriff, R.E. (1990). Applied geophysics, Cambridge University Press,
pp. 522.
Telford, W. M., Geldart, L. P., Sheriff, R. E., and Keys, D. A., (1976). Applied geophysics: Cambridge University Press.

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ISSN 2250-3153

Ward, S. H., (1990) Resistivity and induced polarization methods: in Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Vol. 1, Ward, S. H., Ed: Society of Exploration
Geophysicists.

First Author - A. A. Aning, PhD,


Second Author – N. Sackey, MPhil Student
Third Author – I. S. Jakalia, MPhil Student
Fourth Author – O. Sedoawu, MPhil Student
Fifth Author – E. H. Tetteh, MPhil Student
Sixth Author – G. Hinson, MPhil Student
Seventh Author – R. K. Akorlie, MPhil Student
Eighth Author – D. Appiah, MPhil Student
Ninth Author – E. K. Quaye, MPhil Student

Correspondence Author - A. A. Aning, PhD, [email protected]. +233 277 340186

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Packaging as an Attractive Language to Stimulate


Consumer Preference on Perfume: A Survey on Young
Adult Respondents in the Area of Jabodetabek
(Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Bekasi)
Indonesia
FebiValentya*, Ni WayanAyu Lestari*, Timothy Gotama*, Suresh Kumar*

* Department of Business Administration, President University

Abstract- Indonesia is one of the biggest exporters of perfume raw materials to the world. However the local industry of perfume
cannot compete with international imported brand. This journal research is supposed to find out the role of packaging on consumer
preference on perfume, and wasconducted in the area of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi (Jabodetabek) by spreading the
questionaire with the utilization of electronic mail and conventional way. From this research, relationship between independent
variables (design, color and innovation, information specified and material used) towards dependent variable (consumer preference)
was found and can be conclude that packaging has an important role to increase purchase decision of perfume, not for women only but
also for men in young adult. Therefore, by paying more attention to perfume packaging, opportunity to increasesales of perfume that
targeting young adult consumer will be higher.

Index term- Color and Innovation, Consumer preference, Design, Information specified, and Material used.
1. Introduction
Packaging is a serious issue nowadays because it can influence buying decision of consumer until 74% (Harminingtyas, 2013).
Previously, people perceived “the cover” or commonly known as the packaging as only for the sake to protect the product it wrapped
from damage and hazardous materials, but its function now hadevolved as the marketing tools(Silayoi & Speece , 2007 ). One product
could have mirror characteristics with its competitors, but the thing that can differentiate them is the packaging (Grundvåg & Østli,
2009).
According to Schulz (2003), the best way to have a communication with the consumer is through packaging. There is some
information attached in the packaging to communicate the consumers what the products stands for.Consumers buy perfume not only
for making them smell good, but also there is a tendency of people to keep the bottle of their perfume as a collection mostly for the
decorative and commercial ones (Husfloen, 2009).
Speaking of perfume, Indonesia as a big country has a huge ability to make a world-class perfume as one of prime industries that can
compete with other world welll-known perfume makers. Indonesia has huge number of natural resources for making perfume, such as
patchouli essential oil which is a the most important ingredient in the process of making perfume (Suhendra, 2009). More importantly,
competing with China, India, and Brazils, Indonesia’s export of this particular oil can reach ninety percent (90%) of the total
production, reaching the number of USD42.185.294,00 in 2004(Tresnasih, 2011). Since the packaging can influence the consumer to
make a purchase up to 74% summed up with the fact the Indonesia has huge number of exported patchouli essential oil to abroad to be
produced as perfume, this excites the authors to help the local perfume producers to be able to win the local market through
packaging. Therefore, this journal research would like to find out what are the factors of the packaging that consumers like for the
packaging of perfume.
This research journal will contain the literature review that discuss about the importance of packaging and the things contains in the
packaging, which makes packaging become unique factor for marketing andhow the influence of this packaging related with consumer
behavior and preferences. This journal will contain of the data and quantitative methodology which will help the writer to support the
analysis about the relationship between the packaging and consumer preference since the first time they see the product from its
packaging.
II. Literature Review
In the eyes of people, the first thing they will see when they are looking around for something is the outer appearances of a product.
This outer appearance is the packaging, which wraps the product and has main function to hold and protect the product(Kotler &
Gary, 2008). In recent days, packaging holds even more responsibility as one of marketing tools in marketing mix. In the era when
consumers have many varieties of product to choose, packaging is becoming the communication language that are attracting consumer
to making purchase decision through it(Keegan & Green, 2012).

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2.1 An overview of perfume and its packaging


Packaging in its marketing roles can gain people awareness and recognition which give the class differentiation of the product and the
competitors, create reinforce favorable attitude toward the product, encourage the willing of people to purchase and occasionally
increase the amount of purchase(Ampuero & Vila, 2006).
2.2Variables that are contained in the packaging
As promotional tools, design, color and innovation, information specified and material used are several major ingredients that can lead
to the successful and effective packaging.

2.2.1 Design of Packaging


This visible language communicates thoughts and information through human sights (Carter, Day, & Meggs, 2007). A good design
should be able to give additional value to the product. Marketers should manage the design process in packaging because it shows
professionalism of the product and sets its target (Design Council, 2013).

2.2.2Color and Innovation of Packaging


According to Raisanen (2010), some specific color remind consumer to specific brand. So, in choosing color for packaging of
product, company should prefer to what color can stimulate consumer to sophisticated experiences which people usually attracted to.
Together with color, Innovation is the change and development of new product and services which supposed to fulfill the unmeet or
unknown needsof consumer that have not been found by product or service before (Brand Packaging, 2013). As a great and innovative
packaging, packaging should results in higher sales, multifunctional, durable and efficient because people respect more value in every
pusrchase(Lockman, 2012).

2.2.3Information specified on Packaging


Packaging typically has three information which are; first, guidance how to use the product which tell the consumer the instruction of
usage. Second is legal recruitmentsuch as official label and environmental friendly and other symbols which proving the product is
meet legulatory rules. The third information is about the net weight of the contain (Stewart, 2004).

2.2.4Material used
Paper box, and crystal bottle often used as ellegant perfume packaging. Considering about the function of packaging as the protector
of the product, high quality, performance and functinality are the requirement for the material used in order to influence consumer
purchase decision (Deliya & Parmar, 2012).
2.3Consumer Preference
In International Communications Research, consumerpreference is defined as “The power or ability to choose one thing over another
with the anticipation that the choice will result in greater satisfaction, greater capability or improved performance.”(53 West Baltimore
Pike). In order to understand the preference and the function of it; the desire emotive outcomes and primary assumption that influence
consumer to make purchase are what important here as well as consumer behavior.
2.4 Hypothesis
H1: There is a relationship betweenConsumer Preference and packaging design
H2: There is a relationship betweenConsumer Preference and packaging color and innovation.
H3: There is a relationship betweenConsumer Preference and packaging information specified
H4: There is a relationship betweenConsumer Preference and packaging material used

III. Methodology
3.1 Sampling
The targeted population of this research journal consisted of young adult in Jabodetabek who use perfume on daily basis and praise the
aesthetic of the packaging of perfume. The unit analysis was end consumers. In gathering the data through spreading questionnaires,
the researchers were using non-probability sampling method. The researchers combined several branches of non-probability sampling
method, which were judgmental sample and snowball sample.
Those two method samplings were combined because they were suitable and supported this research journal. The respondents required
were selective limited to people who use perfume from limited age, therefore judgmental sampling was chosen because it can
eradicate people who did not meet the criterions.Since the number of the population is unknown, according to (VanVoorhis& Morgan,
n.d), the sample size suggested can be determined by Statistical Rule of Thumbs where the number of respondent can be got using this
formula; N> 50 + 8m where N is the respondents and m is the number of questions in variable. Here are 16 questions so, 50 + 8(16) =
178. Based on this formula, the number of sample size is rounded up to 300 respondents to overcome response error as well.The
socio-demographic information of the respondents could be seen in table 1.1.

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1.2 Data Collection


To gather the data, it was approximately needed six weeks started from October until November of 2013 with the utilization of
electronic mail and conventional way, which Authors spread questionnairedirectly to the respondents. In the process, there were no
incentives given to the correspondents.
The data were measured by using likert scale from one to five with five as strongly agree, for as agree, three as moderate, two as
disagree, and one as strongly disagree. This is how to measure how big the influence of the variables following: design, color and
innovation, size, and material used of packaging towards the consumers’ preference. In making the questionnaire, the researchers
relied in several sources like online journal, neither English nor Bahasa Indonesia and also from online survey.
3.3 Measures

3.3.1 Validity
To check the validity of data, the researchers must check the data convergent and data divergent. Data convergent is when two same
likely questions have the same answer and data divergent is when two conflicting questions have conflicting result (Survey Method
Blog , 2011). Factor Analysis is a method to reducing and removing the redundancy or the variable which actually duplicate from
another variable. These factors will become relatively independent from each other (Mayer, 2006).

3.3.2 Reliability
Reliability is processes to check whether the questions that are being asked are reliable or not. Since the data gathered was five
hundred in total the result of Cronbach’s alpha must show at least 0.6 to state if the questions are valid and reliable to be asked and can
be used for further process(Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).

3.3.3 Multiple Regressions


MultipleRegressions is a statistical method used to measure the values of the independent variables toward dependent variable.

3.3.4 F-Test and T-Test


F-test is used to show if the independent variable can give significant influence to dependent variable (Levigne, 2004). T-Test is used
to find out whether individually independent variable influences the dependent variable Invalid source specified.
IV. Implication and Discussion
4. 1 Data Analysis
Before running the statistic data analysis and multiple regression, KMO and communalities test should be conducted before. Here are
the result for both independent and dependent variables.

4.1.1 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Test


KMO test tells whether the sample size used for the reseach is enough or not to covered the questions in the variable. If the KMO is
greater 0.5, it means the sample size usedfor this research is enough for factor analysis and reability. The significant of Barlett’s test
should be less than 0.05 in order to prove null hypothesis as stated are correct. In this result the KMO value is 0.771 and barlett’s
value is 0.00 which means that the factor model is appropriate for further analysis process. KMO Test result for Four Independent
Variables and Dependent Variablecould be seen in the table 1.2.

4.1.2 Communalities
Communalities test is used to test whether the questions for the variable is sufficient to explain the variable itself. Value of
communalities of each questions must be greater than 0.5, and from the table above shows that the value of communalities is all
greater than 0.5. Therefore, the variable is highly represented by the questions.

4.1.3 Total Variance Explained


The Variance is to explain the eigenvalue of the factors. That eigenvalue itself having a relation with the number of variables. SPSS
extract only total value more than 1.0, because if the total value less than 1.0 it means the contribution of the variance is not sufficient
or it causing redudancy. From the figure 1.3, the variables is explained with strong relationship as 64.7% and can be extracted because
the total value is greater than 1.0.
4.2 Factor Loading and Cronbach Alpha
To see the close relationship between the questions in the same group variable, Cronbach Alpha is used as the standard measurement.
As high the result, it means the relationship is measuring real parts to form something as a whole. The value of Chronbach Alfa and
Loading factors in rotated component matrix is all above 0.6, showing close relationship between the questions in variables.
4.3 Multiple Regression
As stated before in chapter 3, Multiple regression is used to measure the value created from independent to dependent variable.
However, before Multiple regression executed, the data should passed three Classical Assumptions.

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4.3.1 Normality
To ensure that the inferences of F-test and T-test are valid, the distribution of residuals should follow a normal distribution. Second
measurement is called as normal probability plot.Without the exact calculation, the assumption of normal probability plot must
supported the normal distribution of residuals by the plot point close to the straight line from which is drawn from the lower left to the
upper right of the graph.

4.3.2 Heterocedacsticity
The residuals scatterplots are spread randomly above and under zero line which means the data have no heterocedasticity problem.
Heterocedasticity can make the statistical test of significant become invalid. Since there is no heterocedasticity, the next process need
to be done is the multiple regression.

4.3.3 Multicolinearity
Multicolinearity is a correlation between all independent variables. It makes difficulty in the process of making inferences and
multiple regression. There is a strong relationship between independent and dependent variables if the value of tolerance close to 1
and the VIF should be around 1.
The values of all VIFs are around 1 which means the independent and dependent variable have strong relationship. The significant
interval on the table shows the significant possobility of the independent variable in influencing the dependent variable. Looking at the
numbers constanta of the variables, those numbers are all positive, means that thosee four variables giving positive impact toward the
dependent variables.
From the variables that shows in the coefficient table 1.4, started from design, color and innovation, information specified and
material used, all have the significance below >.005 which means that all of these variables has a really strong affect to the consumer
preference.

4.3.4 F-test and T-Test


F-test or simultaneous test which used to check whether all the independent variable simultaneously influence the dependent variable.
The requirement is P-value or the significant of the variables must be less than 0.05. With this result of significant, the hypothesis
stated before is accepted. The F-test result could be seen in table 1.5.T-test is used to test whether particially of each independent
variables are influenced the dependent variable. The requirement is that the significance in Coefficient Table 1.4 is less than
0.05means each independent variable strongly influenced dependent variable.

4.3.6 AdjustedR-square Table


Table 1.6 shows the relationship between all the independent variables’s portion contributed for dependent variable. In Multiple
regression, the precentage shown by Adjusted R-square. The value is 0.415 which means all the independent variables (design, color
and innovation, information specified, material used) contributed 41,5% to dependent variable (consumer preferences).

V. Conclusion and Recommendation


5.1Conclusion
Hypothesis H1, H2, H3, and H4 are focussing on the factors that affecting why packaging can attract consumer preferences. The
variables are design, color and innovation, information specified, and material used. To prove that the research result is supporting the
variables, as mentioned before, the T-test values should be less than 0.05.
According to the result of the T-Test, Authors came to the conclusion of hypothesis. With the significance about .00,all the hypothesis
is accepted. As the result in R-square table, the precentage of overall variables is influencing 41.5% of consumer preferences. It
means, in buying a perfume, consumer’s decision on preferences is 41.5% influencing by the packaging meanwhile the rest 58.5% is
influnced by other factors (it could be original fragrance, brand, etc).
5.2 Recommendation
The result of this research is proving that the packaging takes 41.5% of 100% consumer preferences toward perfume packaging.
Considering there are still many factors outside this model that influencing consumer buying decision towards perfume (such as
fragrance, brand, etc), this result is giving quite strong influences. Therefore, to the local perfume producer, here are some future
recommendation that can be apllied to secure the 41.5% opportunity of increasing the sales of perfume.
First, man and woman young adult who use perfume are considering the design, color and innovation, material used, and information
specified. Authors recommend that the design of perfume should adjust with the gender of the user. If the target user is women make
sure to have ellegant and feminine packaging. while for men, the packaging should give masculine impression.
Second, the opportunity to make sales of perfume that targeting young adult consumer is high. Therefore, if local perfume producer is
targeting young adult consumer which mostly student, price is need to be considered because their income and allowance is not so
high. The producer can set cheaper price for the perfume, but the packaging should not give poor impression. The packaging should be
nice in order to build competitive advantages for local perfume producer. Especially in this research location which covered Jakarta,
Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi, the most populated cities in Indonesia.

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Compare to the one research of role of packaging on cunsumer behavior in Patan district, Western India by Deliya and Palmar (2012),
it is also stated that packaging contribute 50.7% of consumer buying decision for any product and commodity. In this research, for
only perfume product, packaging contribute 41.5%, and it is not far from what was established by Deliya and Palmar. Based on this
discovery, the authors believe that Packaging contribute stable influence of customer preference. Therefore, the authors strongly
suggested to local perfume producer to take care better of the packaging because it must bring significant progress on the sales.

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Notes:

Table 1.1

Table 1.2
KMO Dependet Variable Sig .771
KMO Independent Variable Sig .683

Table 1.3Total Variance Explained


Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings (Total) Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings (Cumulative %)
1.131 64.778

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a. Dependent Variable: AVERAGE CONSUMER PREFERENCE


b.Predictors: (Constant), AVERAGE MATERIAL USED, AVERAGE INFORMATION SPECIFIED, AVERAGE DESIGN,
AVERAGE COLOR AND INNOVATION

Table 1.6
Std. Error of Change Statistics
Adjusted R
Model R R Square the
Square R Square Df Df Sig. F
Estimated F Change
Change 1 2 Change
1 .650a .423 .415 .52094 .423 54.226 4 296 .000

a. Predictors: (Constant), AVERAGE MATERIAL USED, AVERAGE INFORMATION SPECIFIED, AVERAGE


DESIGN, AVERAGE COLOR AND INNOVATION
b. Dependent Variable: AVERAGE CONSUMER PREFERENCE

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The Impact of Marketing Promotion through Social


Media on People’s Buying Decision of Lenovo in Internet
Era: A Survey of Social Media Users in Indonesia
Felix Pratama Chianasta1, Sandy Wijaya2
*
Department of Business Administration, President University, Indonesia
**
Department of Business Administration, President University, Indonesia

Abstract- In today’s marketing, promotion has become one of the having a big opportunity in promoting their brand or product
most important factors in doing business. Hereby, the aim of this through social media. Not only advertising, social media also
research is to identify and find out how is the social media have enable Lenovo to have more personalized relationship with their
impact on marketing promotion in Indonesia. This survey has customers which can increase their brand image as well as brand
been done with a descriptive analysis, with reliability test, awareness to Indonesian as they like to have more personal
classical analysis which includes normality test, relation (Brittanyh, 2013)[2]. Lenovo are also able to give
heteroscedasticity test, as well as the multicollinearity test, with knowledge about their products to the customers who have less
the data from 205 samples. With the result of this survey, the knowledge and wanted to know more.
impact of marketing promotion through social media is not In this research paper the authors used descriptive research.
positive for Lenovo this far. The survey shows that Lenovo has The authors have spread the questionnaire through several social
not done an effective marketing promotion through social media media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, so the authors
in Indonesia, as we compare it to the studies before that shows are able to show that social media is a good way for Lenovo to
great influence of social media to people’s buying decision from market their products and brand. The questionnaire was made
the other brand. Thus, Lenovo’s marketers have to do a better job with Google Drive.
in order to attract Indonesian attention to their brand and There are four parts of this research paper. First part is the
products in the social media. abstract and introduction of the impact of social media on
marketing in Indonesia. Second part the authors share the
Index Terms- Buying Decision, Indonesia, Marketing, literature review of the research. Third part the authors share the
Promotion, Social Media descriptive review that the authors get from the questionnaire.
Lastly the authors have conclusion from the research and future
implementation.
I. INTRODUCTION

M arketing is considered as one of the most important aspects


in retail business. Many of companies all over the world
are using internet to promote their products and social media is 2.1 Promotion
II. LITERATURE REVIEW

one of their biggest role in internet marketing. Social media are Promotion is the way of communicating between product
being used to promote or advertise their products. With high and customers to influence their buying decision (Kotler &
number of social media users, it has great advantage for the Armstrong, 2010)[6]. Another definition of promotion is to
company as a lot of people will recognize or see what their communicate with customer with the similar caption like
markets. The previous studies show that social media have really advertisement, sales promotion, public relation, exhibitions, and
huge impact in human lifestyle (Clarfloaty, 2012)[1], thus direct mail (Baker, 2003)[7].
marketing in the social media is an easy mass communication for Nowadays promotion has really big impact towards
the company’s marketing. people’s buying decision. A good promotion can help a company
By knowing that social media have a big impact in to be success in doing business. A good company will always
marketing (Brittanyh, 2013)[2], the authors would like to show have a lot of promotion in order to attract their customers so that
the power of social media in Indonesia. Internet in Indonesia is they are able to recognize the brand awareness of the company as
spreading very quickly towards most of the part of the country well as their products. In this internet era, social media is one of
(Pitoyo, 2013)[3]. Even though it has spread at a good pace, the the best ways that can be used to promote the company’s brand
development of the technology itself is not as sophisticated as awareness as social media is used throughout the world, and
other countries, even compared to their neighboring countries Indonesia is one of the biggest social media users in the world
(DailySocial, 2013)[4]. Even with their lacks of supporting with 96% of social media users in Indonesia (Reed, 2013)[5], so
technology, Indonesian has used social media daily. Social media that it will be good opportunity for company to implement social
contributed big part of internet usage, as most of Indonesian like media as their marketing strategy.
to communicate and socializing with each other. With 96% of
Indonesian are social media users (Reed, 2013)[5], Lenovo

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The authors have considered some social media that mostly understand about it. To understand the factors that influence
used in Indonesia and can be used to promote their image or buying decision the company should figure out through research.
product in each media: By doing research the company will understand about what the
2.1.1 Promotion through Facebook customers will buy, when they buy, where they buy, and why
Facebook is one of the most popular social media in the they buy the products (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010)[6]. There are
world with around 1.15 billion users worldwide. According to some elements that affect on customer’s buying decision, which
kompas.com (Deliusno, 2013)[8] there are 33 million users are the consumer’s consciousness of a product so that they are
logged in to Facebook everyday and 28 million of them access it willing to find more information, the consumer’s consideration
through their mobile device. People used Facebook to connect of many alternative products to choose, and the process from
and communicate with other users. In Facebook people are able consciousness through consideration until purchasing the product
to upload their photos and videos, play games, join groups, (Dave, 2008)[16].
chatting, personal message, like (Facebook terms to show your
favorite page) a fan page. With the help of Facebook, people are
able to reach and stay connected with millions of users and III. METHODOLOGY
shares information amongst them (Gurnelius, 2011)[9]. 3.1 Sampling
There are two advantages of Facebook that really useful for The population used for this survey is the users of
company’s marketing promotion. First, through social media Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram in Indonesia. The unit of
such as Facebook, the company is able to promote their products analysis is the users of Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram that
to customers who use Facebook, and it only requires a little ever looked at Lenovo’s promotion in Facebook, Twitter, and
amount of expense. Second, it is easier to identify the target Instagram. The authors spread the questionnaire throughout the
market by joining the groups which has similar needs and internet, through social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and
interests, and there are some features that really helpful for Instagram. There is a problem that faced by the authors which is
companies which are, status updates, photos and videos upload, the difficulty to have valid respondents because the authors do
wall, and chat (Puntoadi, 2011)[10]. not know each respondents profile before the respondents filled
2.1.2 Promotion through Twitter the questionnaire. To know the minimum number of
Twitter emerged as a social media that enables its users to questionnaires, the authors will use the following formula:
send a 140 character text to express their thoughts and share it to (N> 50 + 8m)
their friend, or in twitter they call it ‘tweets’. Twitter is the Explanation:
second largest social media in the world with their more than 500 N = Sample Size
million users tweeting 58 million tweets in a day. Twitter was m = number of questions available in the questionnaire
launched in 2006 by Jack Dorsey and now it is included in the There are 16 questions available in the questionnaire, so N>
top ten most visited websites in the world (Huffington Post, 50 + 8(16). The result is N>178, it means the authors have to find
eMarketer, 2013)[11]. Indonesia is the fourth largest twitter users more than 178 respondents. Therefore, the authors prepare
worldwide, and Jakarta is the number one city in terms of minimum number of 200 questionnaires.
number of tweets per second as 87% of twitter users in Indonesia The authors asked about the respondents’ name, age, and
are using mobile devices to access their twitter account (Reed, gender. The authors also asked about the frequency of the
2013)[5]. There are some features that are provided by twitter, respondents visiting each social media and if they had followed
such as following, which enables the users to follow other users, or liked Lenovo’s official account in Facebook, Twitter, and
twitting, so that the users can express about what happened. Instagram. Lastly, the respondents were asked if they owned a
There are others features such as replies, retweets, and trending Lenovo’s smart phone.
topics (Brown, 2011)[12]. The benefit that users can have from 3.2 Data Collection
twitter is that they can share contents and get involved in To collect the data, the questionnaire was spread through
conversations thus it gives values to the users. internet with third-party survey, which is Google Drive. The
2.1.3 Promotion through Instagram questionnaire shared in social media which are Facebook,
Instagram was founded by Kevin Systrom and Mike Twitter, and Instagram and the qualified potential correspondents
Krieger in October 2010. Instagram is social media that are those who use Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram and had
specialized in sharing pictures. The purpose of instagram itself is seen Lenovo’s promotion on each social media.
to share moments that happened around the user. Instagram have
grown very quick, as they already have around 150 million users
to date (TeknoUp, 2013)[13]. They also have a rapid growth as
IV. RESULT
the only had 100 million users in February 2013 (Panji,
2013)[14]. Instagram have some features that attracts the users, 4.1 Descriptive Analysis
one of the feature is to help the users to have better looking This descriptive analysis is to explain the result of the data
photos with their specialized photo filter. Another feature is the from the questionnaires that have been fulfilled by survey’s
ease of sharing photos and fast & efficient photo upload respondents. The total sample of this survey is 205 respondents
(Stephanie, 2012)[15]. which have seen Lenovo’s promotion in Facebook, Twitter, and
2.2 Buying Decision Instagram. The variables that will be discussed are gender, age,
Customer buying decision is the important factor for the frequency of visited Facebook, the frequency of visited
company’s revenue and it is important for the marketer to Twitter, the frequency of visited Instagram, like-ing the Lenovo’s

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fan page or not, following the Lenovo’s twitter or not, following 4.1.6 Respondents’ Description based on like-ing Lenovo’s
the Lenovo’s Instagram or not, and owning a Levono’s Facebook Fan Page
smartphone or not. The result of the survey shows that there are 42 out of 205
4.1.1 Respondents’ Description Based on Gender respondents are like-ing Lenovo’s Facebook fan page and the
The respondents’ data from the surveys’ questionnaire rest, 163 respondents have not like-ing Lenovo’s Facebook fan
shows that there are 103 male respondents and 102 female page.
respondents which have seen Lenovo’s promotion on Facebook, 4.1.7 Respondents’ Description based on following Lenovo’s
Twitter and Instagram. This shows that the ratios of male and Twitter
female respondents are almost equal. The result of the survey shows that there are 38 respondents
4.1.2 Respondents’ Description Based on Age are following Lenovo’s Twitter and 167 respondents have not
The age is categorized as below 20 years old, 21 to 25 years following Lenovo’s Twitter.
old, 26 to 30 years old, and above 30 years old. The respondents’ 4.1.8 Respondents’ Description based on following Lenovo’s
data from the survey’s questionnaire shows that there are 120 Instagram
respondents are below 20 years old, 61 respondents are The result of the survey shows that there are 9 respondents
categorized as 21 to 25 years old group, 16 respondents are are following Lenovo’s Instagram and 196 respondents have not
categorized as 26 to 30 years old group, and lastly there are 8 following Lenovo’s Instagram
respondents are above 30 years old. This shows that the majority 4.1.9 Respondents’ Description based on Ownership Status
of the respondents are people who aged below 20 years old. The result of the survey shows that there are 45 respondents
4.1.3 Respondents’ Description Based on the Frequency of own Lenovo’s smartphone while the other 160 respondents do
Visiting Facebook not have Lenovo’s smartphone. From the data, the majority of
The frequencies of visiting Facebook are separated into the respondents do not own Lenovo’s smartphone.
three options, which are everyday, 2 – 4 times in a week, and 1 – 4.2 Variable Descriptive Analysis
2 times in a month. The respondents’ data from the survey’s The purpose of descriptive analysis is to figure out the
questionnaire shows that there are 79 respondents are visiting reaction of respondents from the answers that respondents have
Facebook everyday, 74 respondents are visiting Facebook 2 – 4 fulfilled from the questions in the questionnaire. The variable of
times in a week and 52 respondents are visiting Facebook 1 – 2 promotion through Facebook (X1) consist of 4 questions, variable
times in a month. of promotion through Twitter (X2) consist of 3 questions,
4.1.4 Respondents’ Description Based on the Frequency of variable of promotion through Instagram consist of 3 questions,
Visiting Twitter and Buying Decision (Y) consist of 6 questions.
The frequencies of visiting Twitter are separated into three To interpret the average, the interval is made with this
options, which are everyday, 2 – 4 times in a week, and 1 – 2 following formula:
times in a month. The respondents’ data from the survey’s
questionnaire shows that there are 159 respondents are visiting ( )
Twitter everyday, 30 respondents are visiting Twitter 2 – 4 times
in a week and 16 respondents are visiting Twitter 1 – 2 times in a With the interval, the range scale can be made to find out
month. Most of the respondents are visiting twitter daily. how the respondents average grade of every differentiation and
4.1.5 Respondents’ Description Based on the Frequency of variation element. The range scale is as follows:
Visiting Instagram 1.00 – 1.80 = very unsuitable
The frequencies of visiting Instagram are separated into 1.81 – 2.60 = unsuitable
three options, which are everyday, 2 – 4 times in a week, and 1 – 2.61 – 3.40 = adequate
2 times in a month. The respondents’ data from the survey’s 3.41 – 4.20 = suitable
questionnaire shows that there are 77 respondents are visiting 4.21 – 5.00 = very suitable
Instagram everyday, 44 respondents are visiting Instagram 2 – 4 4.2.1 Promotion Variable through Facebook
times in a week and 84 respondents are visiting Instagram 1 – 2
times in a month. The distribution of respondents answer on promotion
variable through Facebook can be seen in the table below:

Table 4.1
1 2 3 4 5
Question F % F % F % F % F % Score Average
1 13 7,3% 26 14,5% 76 42,5% 69 38,5% 21 11,7% 3,29
2 11 5,7% 13 6,8% 84 43,8% 62 32,3% 35 18,2% 3,47
3 13 6,8% 15 7,9% 83 43,7% 63 33,2% 31 16,3% 3,41
4 12 6,8% 28 15,8% 78 44,1% 53 29,9% 34 19,2% 3,34
Total Average 3,38

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From Table 4.1 there are some statements made, which are: 4. The average of the forth question is 3.34 which means
1. In the first question, the average score is 3.29 which banner is one of the advertisement media in Facebook
means Lenovo’s promotion in Facebook is made to show Lenovo’s latest product is suitable with the
consumer and potential consumer connected easier with respondents answers
Lenovo marketing is adequate with respondents’ 5. Overall, the respondents’ response of promotion
answers through Facebook is 3.38 which mean it is adequate
2. The average of the second question is 3.47 which means with respondents’ answers. Thus, Lenovo’s promotion
Lenovo inform their products by posting status and through Facebook is not effective enough to grab
upload photos is suitable with the respondents answers Facebook’s users’ attention.
3. The average of the third question is 3.41 which means 4.2.2 Promotion Variable through Twitter
illustration/pictures in Lenovo advertisement in The distribution of respondents answer on promotion
Facebook are interesting is suitable with the variable through Twitter can be seen in the table below:
respondents answers

Table 4.2
1 2 3 4 5
Question F % F % F % F % F % Score Average
1 12 6,7% 25 13,9% 80 44,4% 54 30,0% 34 18,9% 3,36
2 10 5,5% 23 12,6% 67 36,8% 59 32,4% 46 25,3% 3,53
3 12 6,7% 27 15,2% 69 38,8% 66 37,1% 31 17,4% 3,38
Total Average 3,42

From table 4.2 there are some statements made, which Lenovo to give benefit to their followers is adequate
are: with respondents’ answers
1. In the first question, the average score is 3.36 which 4. Overall, the respondents’ response of promotion
means Lenovo promotion in Twitter made consumer and through Twitter is 3.42 which mean it is suitable with
potential consumer connected easier with Lenovo respondents’ answers. Lenovo’s promotion through
marketing is adequate with respondents’ answers Twitter have drawn enough attention from Twitter’s
2. The average score of the second question is 3.53 which users, but it could be improve
means Posting tweets, retweet, are used by Lenovo to
inform their products is suitable with the respondents’ 4.2.3 Promotion Variable through Instagram
answers The distribution of respondents answer on promotion
3. The average score of the third question is 3.38 which variable through Instagram can be seen in the table below:
means Twitter is one of the advertisement media used by

Table 4.3
No. 1 2 3 4 5
Item F % F % F % F % F % Score Average
1 13 7,4% 29 16,5% 92 52,3% 48 27,3% 23 13,1% 3,19
2 12 6,5% 19 10,2% 82 44,1% 73 39,2% 19 10,2% 3,33
3 14 7,9% 27 15,2% 88 49,4% 51 28,7% 25 14,0% 3,22
Total Average 3,25

From table 4.3 there are some statements made, which are: 4. Overall, the respondents’ response of promotion
1. In the first question, the average score is 3.19 which through Instagram is 3.25 which mean it is adequate
means Lenovo promotion in Instagram made consumer with respondents’ answers. Lenovo’s promotion through
and potential consumer connected easier with Lenovo Instagram has drawn the least attention compared with
marketing is adequate with respondents’ answers Facebook and Twitter. Lenovo need to readjust their
2. The average score of the second question is 3.33 which promotion strategy through Instagram to gain more
means Posting photos in Instagram are used by Lenovo attention from Instagram users.
to inform their products is adequate with respondents’
answers 4.2.4 Buying Decision Variable
3. The average score of the third question is 3.22 which The distribution of respondents answer on buying decision
means Photos shared by Lenovo is interesting is variable can be seen in the table below:
adequate with respondents’ answers

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Table 4.4
No. 1 2 3 4 5
Item F % F % F % F % F % Score Average
1 26 15,9% 41 25,0% 67 40,9% 38 23,2% 33 20,1% 3,05
2 28 16,4% 34 19,9% 74 43,3% 45 26,3% 24 14,0% 3,01
3 40 24,4% 41 25,0% 71 43,3% 38 23,2% 15 9,1% 2,74
4 18 10,8% 39 23,5% 64 38,6% 51 30,7% 33 19,9% 3,20
5 20 11,4% 29 16,5% 59 33,5% 45 25,6% 52 29,5% 3,39
6 29 16,3% 27 15,2% 61 34,3% 60 33,7% 28 15,7% 3,15
Total Average 3,09
From table 4.4 there are some statements made, which are: after seeing Lenovo's promotion in the social media is
1. In the first question, the average score is 3.05 which adequate with respondents’ answers
means the statement of I observed Lenovo's promotion 7. Overall, the respondents’ response of Buying Decision
in Facebook to get updated news of Lenovo is adequate Variable is 3.09 which mean it is adequate with
with respondents’ answers respondents’ answers. Thus, Lenovo’s promotion
2. The average score of the second question is 3.01 which through Facebook, Twitter and Instagram did not
means the statement of I observed Lenovo's promotion effective enough to attract and influence people buying
in Twitter to get updated news of Lenovo is adequate decision of Lenovo.
with respondents’ answers
3. The average score of the third question is 2.74 which Based on Grace’s study on 2013[17] about promotion
means the statement of I observed Lenovo's promotion through social media of Samsung, it shows that Samsung’s
in Instagram to get latest news of Lenovo is adequate promotion through social media has good impact on people’s
with respondents’ answers buying decision of Samsung. It means that Lenovo has a good
4. The average score of the forth question is 3.20 which opportunity to be successful in promoting their products through
means the statement of I am interested with Lenovo social media as well. In order to be successful in promoting
after seeing Lenovo's promotion in the social media is through social media, Lenovo has to improve by being more
adequate with respondents’ answers aggressive and giving more promotion through social media just
5. The average score of the fifth question is 3.39 which like Samsung or if possible be better than Samsung’s promotion.
means the statement of I have the self cautions to look 4.3 Reliability Test
for further information of Lenovo after seeing Lenovo's Reliability test is done with SPSS and it is considered as
promotion in the social media is adequate with reliable if the Cronbach’s Alpha value is more than 0,7
respondents’ answers
6. The average score of the sixth question is 3.15 which
means the statement of I have attracted to buy Lenovo

Table 4.6 Reliability Test

Variable Cronbach’s Alpha 0.7 N of Item Reliability


Promotion through 0,877 0,7 4 Reliable
Facebook
Promotion through 0,871 0,7 3 Reliable
Twitter
Promotion through 0,823 0,7 3 Reliable
Instagram
Buying Decision 0,886 0,7 6 Reliable

According to Table 4.6, the reliability test shows that all Based on the result of the survey there are some conclusion
four variable are reliable since all four variable have Cronbach’s that has been made by the authors. The survey result shows that
Alpha value more than 0,7 which means the questionnaire are promotions through social media which are Facebook, Twitter,
reliable. and Instagram simultaneously have no significant effect for
Lenovo’s promotion. Many people have not known about
Lenovo’s activities and have no attraction in social media. From
V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION the three social media that the authors used for this research,
5.1 Conclusion Twitter have the most impact towards Lenovo’s promotion,
because Twitter have the most active users amongst other social

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media in Indonesia, whereas, Instagram have the least impact as [5] Reed, C. (2013, May 9). Indonesia – the world’s most social mobile centric
country. Retrieved October 10, 2013, from The Wall Blog:
not many people visit Instagram as much as Facebook and http://wallblog.co.uk/2013/05/09/indonesia-the-worlds-most-social-mobile-
Twitter. centric-country/
From the survey the authors can conclude that Lenovo’s [6] Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (2010). Priciples of Marketing 13th edition.
promotion is social media have made some people recognize New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
their brand and influence their buying decision, although some of [7] Baker, M. (2003). The Marketing Book Fifth Edition. London: Butterworth
the people show no interest in buying Lenovo’s product even Heinemann.
after they have seen Lenovo’s promotion in social media. [8] Deliusno. (2013, September 20). Tiap Hari, 33 Juta Orang Indonesia Buka
Facebook. Retrieved October 10, 2013, from kompas.com:
5.2 Suggestion http://tekno.kompas.com/read/2013/09/20/1629066/Tiap.Hari.33.Juta.Orang
The authors have made some suggestions so that Lenovo .Indonesia.Buka.Facebook
are able to perform better. First, the authors suggest Lenovo to [9] Gurnelius, S. (2011). 30-minute Social Media Marketing. United States:
make more attractive promotion in social media. It is true that McGraw-Hill Companies.
Indonesia have a big number of social media users, unfortunately [10] Puntoadi, D. (2011). Menciptakan Penjualan Melalui Social Media. Jakarta:
it is not easy to make them get attracted to a specific promotion. PT Elex Komputindo.
However, if Lenovo are able to make some attractive promotion, [11] Huffington Post, eMarketer. (2013, July 13). Twitter statistics. Retrieved
October 10, 2013, from Statistic Brain:
it will spread very quickly as they tend to promote whatever they http://www.statisticbrain.com/twitter-statistics/
like to the social media. Second, there are other promotional [12] Brown, A. (2011). The Tricky Business of Business Tweeting. The Irish
tools to help them to increase their brand awareness and it can Time.
influence people’s buying decision. Other promotional tools such [13] TeknoUp. (2013, September 9). Yahoo News Indonesia. Retrieved october
as billboards, TV, Radio, Magazine advertisement are very 10, 2013, from Instagram Tembus 150 Juta Pengguna:
http://id.berita.yahoo.com/instagram-tembus-150-juta-pengguna-
popular in Indonesia 043001923.html
Lastly the authors would like to recommend for those who [14] Panji, A. (2013, February 28). Kompas.com. Retrieved October 10, 2013,
want to do research with similar topic, it is best to include other from Pengguna Aktif Instagram Tembus 100 Juta:
variables that have not been taken in our concern that might http://tekno.kompas.com/read/2013/02/28/16120251/pengguna.aktif.instagr
affect buying decision, for example promotion through other am.tembus.100.juta
social media such as, Youtube, Forums, Blogs, and Instant [15] Stephanie, B. (2012, May 29). Yahoo news. Retrieved October 20, 2013,
from The Beginner's Guide to Instagram: http://news.yahoo.com/beginners-
Messenger. guide-instagram-220028085.html
[16] Dave, E. (2008). Social Media Marketing An Hour A Day. Canada: Wiley
REFERENCES Publishing.
[1] Clarfloaty. (2012, November). StudyMode. Retrieved October 10, 2013, [17] Grace, A. (2013). PENGARUH PROMOSI MELALUI MEDIA SOSIAL
from The Impact of Social Media on Human Resources: TERHADAP MINAT BELI SAMSUNG BERBASIS ANDROID PADA
http://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Impact-Of-Social-Media-On- MAHASISWA UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA. 51-54
1229381.html
[2] Brittanyh. (2013, July 31). SocialSpark. Retrieved October 10, 2013, from
Social Media Marketing: Benefits and Impact:
http://socialspark.com/social-media-marketing-benefits-and-impact/ AUTHORS
[3] Pitoyo, A. (2013, September 12). merdeka.com. Retrieved October 10, First Author – Felix Pratama Chianasta, President University,
2013, from IGF, Indonesia bisa jadi contoh perkembangan internet dunia: Email: [email protected]
http://m.merdeka.com/teknologi/igf-indonesia-bisa-jadi-contoh-
perkembangan-internet-dunia.html Second Author – Sandy Wijaya, President University, Email:
[4] DailySocial. (2013, October 17). TRENOLOGY. Retrieved October 20, [email protected]
2013, from Kecepatan Internet Indonesia Meningkat Dua Kali Lipat, Masih
Tertinggal di ASEAN: Correspondence Author – Sandy Wijaya, Email:
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meningkat-dua-kali-lipat-masih-tertinggal-di-asean/

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The Influence of Family Backgrounds toward Student’s


Saving Behavior: A Survey of College Students in
Jabodetabek
Danny Firmansyah

Faculty of Business and International Relation, President University

Abstract- Parents are the primary community for their children, saving behavior to the children? In this case, students in
and parents are the key education of their children. Poor President University” and also lead to its study objective, which
management income is related to how parents teach their is to analyze the correlation of student’s economic background
children on doing saving. They often confident about their saving with their saving behavior.
whereas they do not focus on educating their children on In addition, this research is expected to be used as
managing income. This research is conducted to find the comparative source for those who study the related topic or for
influence of family’s backgrounds toward student’s saving parents that may start teaching their children to do saving from
behavior, which in this research college student in Jabodetabek, early stage. Since from Benartzi’s research (2012) found that
Indonesia is chosen as the source of information. Using many youth generations do not know the importance of saving
quantitative data analysis, 300 questionnaires are spread to and they are also less aware with their future consumptions.
Jabodetabek area to obtain information about their saving In this research, quantitative analysis is used as the method
behavior. The discussion is the correlation of family’s and also some supporting valid data from some experts to help
background, including parents, toward their children’s saving the research. Because this data is using quantitative data analysis,
behavior. questionnaires are used and spread to college students in
Jabodetabek. Questionnaires are spread directly by using random
Index Terms- Saving behavior, Family’s background, Cash sampling and by the help of Google Drive application to reach
management, Finance, Financial experience. 300 respondents.
As the guidance, this article is structured as mentioned here.
First, the idea and literature of family’s backgrounds in daily life,
I. INTRODUCTION then followed by the literature of saving behavior. Second, the
research methodology and data analysis that are using
C ommon people usually do not have the access of knowledge
about saving behavior in their activity; specifically youth
generations do not aware about the uncertainty in the future life
quantitative analysis method is showed and discussed. The last is
conclusion of the research based on the analysis that has been
(Benartzi, 2012). As students nowadays, they often forget that done, supported by the secondary data from the related research,
they also grow up whereas they do not prepare themselves for not to mention all theories from the literature also used to support
their future, especially in term of material things. the data result and conclusion. From the data result, conclusion is
The backgrounds that come from the family are one of the expected can be used for those who want to do further research.
aspects that can influence student to make a saving behavior
(Purwanto, Prinsip-Prinsip dan Teknik Evaluasi Pengajaran,
2009). Students that are coming from a wealthy family have II. LITERATURE REVIEW
already get the support to do saving, while other students with 2.1 Saving
lower parent’s income are having a poor source to do saving. Many researches have been done to find out the influences
Some motivations that can become the reason why student of student saving behavior. But parents are the major influence
do saving, meanwhile they still have their parents to support their for the children toward their saving behavior (Purwanto, Prinsip-
allowance are pre-caution and foresight (Keynes, Johnson, & Prinsip dan Teknik Evaluasi Pengajaran, 2009). The research
Moggridge, 2012). The meaning of pre-caution by Keynes et al. found that family education is the foundation for their children in
itself is kind of preventive action, in case they will use it in the their future, so they become something based on what they got
future and foresight as an imagination of future life so they can from the family. This matter becomes important since university
prepare themselves to face it. A research in Indonesia that has students are righteously mature and they are not supposedly good
been done by Brata found that income, education level, and in knowledge and skill only, but also they have to control
gender can influence positive saving behavior, but age and themselves in controlling their financial problems (Salikin,
amount of income do not have any correlation to the saving Wahab, Masruki, Zakaria, & Nurulhuda, 2012). Other research
behavior. Other factors are job classification and job level can about saving behavior that has been done by Sabri M. and
lead to negative influence, means it can reduce the willingness of Macdonald M. (2010) said that people who have earlier
saving behavior (Harrington, 2005). consumer behavior (since the childhood) are likely to have more
This research has come up with the research question of: saving behavior, but also they face more financial problems.
“To what extent do family’s backgrounds can influence the 2.1.1 Definition

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Saving in a simple definition is ‘the excess of income over education the parents have, the more likely they can teach the
all expenditures’, where the expenditures are also mentioned as children toward the pressures and stresses of life, because the
consumption, which is life contributions and insurance (if any), parents have at least the experience of being in the same position.
and the saving behavior is the money keeping activity after they Lifestyle
use it for their own wealth (Denton, Fretz, & Spencer, 2011). But Lifestyle is kind of human consumption behavior to decide
in the further explanation, there are more clarifications needed their identity in the environment toward the product they can
for the ‘income’. For instance, money that a student finds in the afford (Krishnan, 2011). Research done by Krishnan (2011)
way back home is included as income or not. found that in the market segment, lifestyle becomes the tool to
2.1.2 Problems of Saving define target customer by classifying the level of the product.
There are many aspects that related to the saving behavior. 2.3 Relations and Hypothesis
Research about students’ saving behavior in Malaysia that has In this chapter, all variables are related from the
been done by Salikin, et al. (2012) mentioned about the problems independent variables (Xn) to the dependent variable (Y). Here
of doing saving in university life, such as the uncertain about independent variables are mentioned as followed: Parents’
where the money spent, or even about taking money from parents Motivation (X1), Parents’ Experience (X2), and Lifestyle (X3).
or others without permission for the spending that driven by their Hypothesis is explained in the each relation between X n and the
desires than their economic needs. From previous research, dependent variable, which is Saving Behavior (Y).
students have some reasons of doing saving, such as to achieve 2.3.1 Parents’ Motivation
goal, do saving until the end of semester (most are for vacations), Parents are the primary teacher for their children, they teach
and do saving for paying down debts. their children to be something in mind. In this research, parents’
2.1.3 Factors That Influence Saving Behavior motivation is considered as one aspect which influence student’s
In this research, some aspects that may influence student’s saving behavior. Whether more motivation from parents can
saving behavior are given as the variable. Aspects for this make their children to do saving or not.
research are from the family’s background of the student, and it H1: Parents’ motivation (X1) affected the saving behavior (Y).
has come up with parents’ income, parents’ age, number of 2.3.2 Parents’ Experience
siblings, and student’s gender. Those are the demographic Parents with high educational background are supposedly
aspects from the respondent. tend to teach the children about the importance of do saving.
Variables used in this research are parents’ motivation, parents’ Advises about saving from them might slightly lead their
experience, and family lifestyle. Those variables are chosen children to do saving, or at least they remember that their parents
based on the theory of saving, which is influenced by them has give the advise. With more knowledge about saving, parents
(Sheldon, 2006). ought to have more experiences and knowledge about financial
2.2 Family’s Background problems and the pressure about it that can be shared to their
2.2.1 Definition children.
Family is the first environment of every individual human. H2: Parents’ experience (X2) affected the saving behavior
They also the first teacher for the children, where there is a quote (Y).
from The Westcoast Reader (2012) said “A child becomes a 2.3.3 Lifestyle
good reader because people at home read to him, and read often. As an adult, saving has to be common in their mind. When
A child learns to speak when family members talk with him.” students get older, so does their consumption, which means when
With interfacing the saving behavior, family becomes the first they want to fulfill their needs, they need more financial support.
source for student to learn it, the more family members, the more In this research, saving as lifestyle means students think their
sources for the children to learn (Cronqvist & Siegel, The needs and consumptions are lifestyle, as well as their way to
Origins of Savings Behavior, 2010). fulfill it.
2.2.2 Family’s Background Variables H3: Lifestyle (X3) affected the saving behavior (Y).
Parents’ Motivation
Generally, motivation defines itself as guidance and an
orientation to reach the goal behavior (Shah & Gardner, 2008). It III. METHODOLOGY
also refers to the action or activity that people do often to get 3.1 SAMPLING
kind of reward. This study is targeting college students in Jabodetabek area
Based on the definition of motivation, parents’ motivation as the respondents. Each individual becomes the unit analysis
to their children is more like guidance to their children to reach with range border between batches 2011 until batch 2013
certain goals. Perhaps parents want their children to get a good students to know their saving behavior in the university life.
grade and they come up with actions in order to make their Respondents are chosen by using purposive selection, which is
children reach the parents want, which is good grade. each respondent is willing to answer the questionnaire, and also
Parents’ Experience by using Google Drive application. The variables in this research
Parents are the first children’s teacher; the education that include the saving behavior and the characteristic of each
children receive at the first time is more dependent on the individual.
education that his or her parents received when they are children In this research, random sampling is used to collect the
(Gratz, 2006). Research says this is important to give at least the respondents. In the random sampling, each individual has equal
children the adequate education following their age. The higher probability to be chosen in the sampling process (Yates, Moore,

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& Starnes, 2008). Thus, 300 questionnaires are given on the is far from .049 such as by using data transformation or adding
sampling frame. observation data.
3.2 DATA COLLECTION Multicollinearity test also be conducted to see the
In this research, data is targeted to be collected from 24 th correlation between the free independent variables in multiple
October 2013 until 3rd November 2013 and spreads randomly for linear regression model. If there is a high correlation between
college students by directly give the questionnaire to them and by two or more variables, the alternatives are either replacing or
using Google Drive as the third party agent to collect removing the variables with high correlation, or by adding more
respondents. Respondents are only for those who are willing and respondents.
qualified to become the potential correspondents, which are 3. Hypothesis Test
college students in Jabodetabek area. This research also uses T-Test
random sampling that conducted in President University area, as T-test is used to analyze the correlation value of each
Yates et al. (2008) mentioned that by using random sampling, independent variable as individual, toward the dependent
each President University student has the same probability to variable. The T-test result can be seen by using SPSS, in the
become the respondent. Coefficient table in the SPSS output. To find each of independent
3.3 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY variable’s t-test, can be found in ‘Sig’ column. T-test formula can
Validity refers to the compatibility between the research be written as below:
idea and concept with the containing of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire validity can be seen from the correlation value (r)
between total score and score from each question. After validity
testing, it is followed by reliability testing just after the questions F-Test
are affirmed as valid. Reliability itself reflects the consistency of F-test result is used to test whether each independent
correspondent in responding the question. To test the reliability, variable affects the dependent variable or not. By using SPSS
this research is using Cronbach’s Alpha technique. The founder, software, F-test can be found in ANOVA table. Each
Lee Cronbach (1951), mentioned that reliability of the research independent variable is stated as linier relationship with
can be stated when the alpha (α) is more than 0.7. There are dependent variable if the value in Sig table is below 0.05.
many ways to measure validity of data. One of the ways is by
using factor analysis. Factor analysis is one method to measure
whether the independent variables that have been given are IV. DATA ANALYSIS
linearly correlated with the dependent. Factor analysis is a data 4.1 Questionnaire distribution
reduction tool to removes redundancy or duplication from a set It had been started from the beginning of October to
of correlated variables (Mayer, 2006). There is a KMO (Kaiser- November 2013 in conducting this research. In the previous
Meyer-Olkin) test in the factor analysis, which represents the chapter mentioned the total sample is 300 and for that, 300
correlation between pairs of variables. If the value of KMO is questionnaires spread to around Jabodetabek and 276 were given
below .5 factory analysis is not necessary needed. back to be used for the analysis. The respondents are university
3.4 MULTIPLE REGRESSION students around 19 to 22 years old that lived around Jabodetabek.
The purpose of multiple regressions is to analyze more To reach the area, the author used Google Drive application and
about the relationship between several independent variables spread the link to forum of some Universities around
with the dependent variable (Keith, 2006). In this research, Jabodetabek. For the samples that lived in Bekasi, the author also
multiple regressions is used to analyze the influence of gave the questionnaire directly to them.
independent variables, which is parents’ motivation (X1), 4.2 Instrument test
parents’ experience (X2), and lifetstyle (X3) toward student’s The questionnaire was spread once to each university’s
saving behavior (Y). The formula of multiple regressions is: forum, and to determine the validity and reliability of the
Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + e questionnaire, SPSS 20 software was used. Below are the result
Explanation: of instrument test of validity and reliability.
Y : dependent variable 4.2.1 Validity test
a : constant number Validity test is used to find out whether the independent
X1-X3 : independent variable variables can be used to determine the correlation with the
e : error term dependent variable or not. Factor analysis is chosen as the
method to determine the validity, which includes KMO (Kaiser
In this research, there are two classical assumption tests to Meyer Olkin), Bartlett’s Test and communalities. KMO and
be used, first by using normality test, and second by using communalities value are used as the standard of validity, with the
multicollinearity test. To see whether the residual values are standard value KMO ≥ 0.5 (Pett, Lackey, & Sullivan, 2003).
normally distributed or not is by using normality test. The
residual value can be justified as normally distributed if it has the
critical value closed to .049. Some steps can be done if the value

Table 4.1
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. ,625

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Approx. Chi-Square 208,522


Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Df 15
Sig. ,000
Table 4.4
In the table 4.1 KMO value of sampling adequacy is .625 Parent’s experience
which is above its standard (.05). Bartlett’s Test value can be
seen in Sig. (Significant) column, which is .0001. This data is Case Processing Summary
determined as valid data and proper to follow the next test, which N %
is Communalities of the questions of each variable. Valid 276 100,0
Table 4.2
Cases Excludeda 0 ,0
Communalities Total 276 100,0
Initial Extraction a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the
procedure.
support1 1,000 ,740
support3 1,000 ,708
Table 4.5
support4 1,000 ,582
Reliability Statistics
exp1 1,000 ,672
exp3 1,000 ,869 Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
exp4 1,000 ,673 Based on
Standardized
Extraction Method: Principal
Items
Component Analysis.
From the previous chapter, there are 3 independent variables ,621 ,625 2
related with the dependent variable. After doing the analysis, one
independent variable was determined as not has high correlation Parents’ support
with the dependent variable; therefore that oneTable 4.6
particular
independent (Lifestyle) was deleted. In table 4.2 support1, Case Processing Summary
support3, and support4 represent one variable which is Parents’ N %
Support and so the exp1, exp3, and exp4 represent the variable of Valid 276 100,0
Parents’ Experience. All variables have value more than 0.5 and Cases Excluded a
0 ,0
determined as valid data.
Total 276 100,0
Table 4.3
Rotated Component Matrix a a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the
procedure.
Component
Table 4.7
1 2 Reliability Statistics
support1 ,859 Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
support3 ,826 Based on
support4 ,646 Standardized
exp1 ,781 Items
exp3 ,919
exp4 ,804 ,648 ,664 4
Extraction Method: Principal Component
Analysis. From the result of reliability, variable parents’ experience
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser (table 4.4 and table 4.5) has value of 0.621, and variable parents’
Normalization. support (table 4.6 and table 4.7) has value of 0.648 after spread it
a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations. to 276 respondents. Because of the value of Cronbach’s Alpha is
Table 4.3 is showing the rotated component matrix that more than 0.6 (α ≥ 0.6), this shows that the indicators are reliable
shows all factors loading in each variable. In the table, each and the analysis can be continued.
factor represents in one variable and it means those factors have 4.3 Demographic
strong load in the variable of the factor belongs. In this research, all the 276 respondents are from
4.2.2 Reliability test Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi).
SPSS 20 software is used to find the reliability, which is The demographic data that spread to the respondents are genders,
using Cronbach’s Alpha. This reliability test has purpose to find age, allowance, average spending, father’s and mother’s
the level of consistency of respondents in answering the occupation, and the number of siblings.
questions. Data can be considered as acceptably reliable if 4.3.1 Genders and age
Cronbach’s Alpha value is more than 0.6, and if more than
0.7 can be considered as good (George & Mallery, 2011).
Table 4.8

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Gender
Male Female

50% 50%

Table 4.9 IDR 1,500,001


Age Frequency Percentage – IDR 24 9%
< 20 53 19% 2,000,000
20 184 67% > IDR
22 8%
21 25 9% 2,000,000
22 1 4% Total 276 100%
> 22 3 1%
Total 276 100% Based on table 4.11 from 276 respondents, mostly they
have spent around IDR 500 – IDR 1,000,000 (36%). Only 22%
From 276 respondents, genders were spread equally 50% of the respondents spent less than IDR 500,000. From the table
male and 50% female which is 138 respondents. The 19% also can be found that respondents who spend around 1 million
respondents are below 20 years old, and mostly respondents are to one and half million are 25%, and who spend money around
20 years old with the percentage of 67%. The rest respondents IDR 1,500,001 to 2,000,000 are 8% and 9% for those who spend
are 21 years (9%), 22 years old (4%), and more than 22 years old more than 2 million.
(1%).
4.3.4 Parents’ occupation
4.3.2 Allowance Table 4.12
Table 4.10 Father’s occupation
Respondents’ allowance Occupation Frequency Percentage
Allowance Frequency Percentage State employee 63 23%
≤ IDR 1,000,000 114 41% Private 88 32%
IDR 1,000,001 – employee
91 33% Entrepreneur 82 30%
IDR 1,500,000
IDR 1,500,001 – Other 43 16%
42 15% Total 276 100%
IDR 2,000,000
> IDR 2,000,000 39 11%
Total 276 100% Table 4.13
Mother’s occupation
From the table 4.10 found that mostly respondents have Occupation Frequency Percentage
allowance of IDR 1,000,000 or less (41.67%), respondents with State employee 31 11%
allowance around IDR 1,000,001 to 1,500,000 are 98 (32.67%), Private 33 12%
this means less than 30 percents of respondents have allowance employee
around IDR 1,500,001 to IDR 2,000,000 (15.67%) and only few Entrepreneur 49 18%
respondents who have allowance more than IDR 2,000,000 Other 163 59%
(10%). Total 276 100%

4.3.3 Average spending In table 4.12 there are 23% of father’s respondent who
Table 4.11 work in state employee, 32% work in private employee, 30%
Respondents’ average spending work as entrepreneur, and others contribute 17% which mostly
Spending Frequency Percentage respondents’ father who already retired from working. Different
< IDR 500,000 62 22% with father, respondents’ mother mostly work as house wife
IDR 500,000 – (represented in table 4.13, ‘other’ column) with the rate of 59%,
99 36% the rest are state employee (11%), private employee (12%), and
IDR 1,000,000
IDR 1,000,001 as entrepreneur (18%).
– IDR 69 25%
1,500,000 4.1 Number of siblings

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Table 4.14 process of this report. He’s been contributing many ideas and
Number of Frequency Percentage shown professional way of lecturing. Without his guidance and
siblings advices, this report will be even more far from perfection.
0 27 10% Family is the party whose been always supporting the writer to
1 95 34% keep doing this report even in the hard time. Motivations that
2 99 36% have been given by family makes the writer have big willingness
3 45 16% to give all the best in every part of this report. The writer does
4 10 4% not forget to thank all friends and relatives who have been
Total 276 100% involved in finishing this report.

From 276 respondents, the result showed that 10% of the Bekasi, 23th October 2013
respondents are the only children, 34% have one sibling, 36% Danny Firmansyah
have two siblings, 16% have three siblings, and only 4% of them
who have 4 siblings in the family.
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attention about their saving behavior, as related to this research, [14] Sclafani, J. D. (2004). The Educated Parent: Recent Trends in Raising
their behavior and support in saving lead to their children in Children. Praeger Publishers.
doing saving for their future. For the future research, it is [15] Shah, J. Y., & Gardner, W. L. (2008). Handbook of Motivation Science.
recommended to add more variables and questions. Furthermore, New York: Gulford Press.
selecting higher educated respondents can be used for the future [16] Sheldon, C. (2006). Savings Behavior and Asset Choice of Households in
research. Germany. Munich Center for the Economics of Aging , 21-103.
[17] Yates, D. S., Moore, D. S., & Starnes, D. S. (2008). The Practice of
Statistics. Freeman.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In this opportunity the writer wants to express deep grateful AUTHORS
to The Almighty Allah for His bless so this report can be done on
time. Without His involvement, this report would not have been First Author – Danny Firmansyah, Faculty of Business and
possible to be done. International Relation, President University, Email-
The writer also wants to deliver big appreciation to Mr. [email protected]
Suresh Kumar as the lecturer who has been guiding the making

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A Case Report of treatment of a 16-year old girl with


Amelogenesis Imperfecta
B.Vardhana1, Babu GKL2, Vijetha KR3
*
Senior Lecturer, Department of Pedodontics & Preventive Dentistry, Dr Syamala Reddy Dental College, Hospital & Research Center, Bangalore,
India.
**
Reader, Department of Pedodontics & Preventive Dentistry, The Oxford Dental College, Hospital & Research Center, Bangalore, India.
***
Tutor, Department of Pedodontics & Preventive Dentistry, Sharavathi Dental College, Shimoga, India

right posterior segments and occlusion established. Within two


I. CASE REPORT weeks the entire set of PFM’s were cemented. Occlusion was
established, with good aesthetics and patient satisfaction was
A melogenesis Imperfecta is a developmental disturbance that
interferes with normal enamel formation in the absence of a
systemic disorder. In general, it affects all or nearly all of the
seen. Follow up was done for nearly up to 8 months post
operatively and patient was given oral mouth rinses and was
teeth in both the primary and permanent dentitions1. reiterated with the oral hygiene measures especially brushing
A 16-year old patient with a history of brown-stained teeth technique and brushing frequency. After which patient moved to
reported to the Dental office. She complained of stained teeth another location and was not in touch.
ever since it erupted and parents noticed similarly stained teeth
with her deciduous teeth as well. On clinical examination the
teeth were found to have yellowish to brown stains (internal) that III. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
did not remove with gentle probing. She was found to have This condition can be easily diagnosed as a fluorosis lesion
Amelogenesis Imperfecta Hypoplastic Type (Witkop’s but they can be clearly differentiated since AI cases have
classification)2 with pitting and flakes of enamel chipping off on discoloration at random points or on all areas of the tooth as
probing. The enamel exposed the underlying whitish dentine in compared to teeth with fluorosis and family history wherein only
some areas and made it sensitive to the patient. In terms of one or few specific members of the family may phenotypically
investigation, there was no DNA analysis done to isolate the exhibit this condition whereas fluorosis is seen with all members
defective gene, due to non-feasibility and non-compliance of the of the family who may or may not be genetically linked, it is
patient with regards to drawing blood. The condition was geographical. AI will affect all teeth similarly and can have a
analyzed purely of the basis of clinical analysis. Since she had no familial history. Fluorosis can mimic AI, but usually the teeth are
other systemic abnormality, any syndrome(s) was ruled out. Her not affected uniformly, often sparing the premolars and second
dental age was corroborated to her chronological age and she had permanent molars. A history of fluoride intake can aid in the
complete set of 28 permanent teeth erupted with a Class I diagnosis1.
occlusion and no orthodontic anomaly recorded. The treatment for such conditions is best recommended after
occlusion is properly established after eruption of all the
permanent teeth.
II. TREATMENT
Since the patient was 16 years old and had complete set of
permanent teeth with 2nd molars erupted and Class I Molar IV. COMMENT
relation, Porcelain fused to Metal (PFM) crowns were chosen to Patient’s oral condition was good due to adequate oral
provide respite to the patient in terms of aesthetics, masticatory hygiene measures that was stressed and impressed upon
abilities, relief of sensitivity and comfort and happiness4,5. The periodically during the follow up of 8 months post operatively.
shade was chosen based on the skin tone of the patient6. The There were instances of gingival inflammation due to non-
treatment was carried out in a phased manner- First, preparing compliance on part of the patient in maintaining oral hygiene but
the upper anterior teeth from canine to canine6, after injecting the was rectified soon with adequate oral hygiene measures.
required nerve blocks and then a coat of varnish was applied with The point to be learned from this case is that since multiple
cotton wool sticks to prevent sensitivity. Within 24 hours a 6-unit crowns and bridges have tendency for accumulation of food and
PFM crown and bridge was fabricated in the laboratory and can cause halitosis if not properly maintained and since they
cemented. This gave adequate psychological advantage to the require quite a lot of maintenance and compliance from the
patient and motivated her for further appointment(s). patient, it would be better if individual crown(s) be given to the
Then this was followed by the required nerve block, preparation teeth which would be easier to maintain and would cause less
of crown structure and cementation of the lower anterior segment accumulation of food and lesser tendency to cause halitosis and
with PFM crown and bridge and occlusion was established with deterioration of oral health in general.
the upper and lower 6-unit PFM bridges. Thereafter, the upper
left posterior segment was prepared and cemented with PFM
crown and bridge followed by lower left posterior segment and
occlusion was established. Followed by, upper right and lower

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT ABBREVIATIONS
I would like to thank the patient Muthulakshmi (name 1. AAPD: American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry
changed for protecting privacy of the patient) and her parents for 2. AI: Amelogenesis Imperfecta
their constant support and compliance with the treatment. Also 3. PFM: Porcelain fused to metal
would like to thank the Dental Laboratory in delivering the
crown and bridges on time for every appointment. I would like to
thank all concerned in helping me publish this study. Lastly, I AUTHORS
would like to thank my parents and my brother in helping me First Author – Dr Bharath Vardhana S, Senior Lecturer,
inspire and fund this study. Department of Pedodontics & Preventive Dentistry, Dr Syamala
Reddy Dental College, Hospital & Research Center, Bangalore,
India., E-mail: [email protected], Mobile: +91-98865-
REFERENCES 88595.
[1] AAPD Guideline on Oral Health Care/Dental Management of Heritable Second Author – Dr Girish Babu KL, Reader, Department of
Dental Developmental Anomalies 2012-13; 4(7): 252-257. Pedodontics & Preventive Dentistry, The Oxford Dental
[2] CJ Witkop Jr. Amelogenesis Imperfecta, Dentinogenesis Imperfecta and College, Hospital & Research Center, Bangalore, India.
Dentin Dysplasia Revisited: Problems in Classification. J Or Pathol and
Med 1988; 17(9,10): 547-553. Third Author – Dr Vijetha KR, Tutor, Department of
[3] Aldred MJ, Savarirayan R, Crawford PJ. Amelogenesis Imperfecta: A Pedodontics & Preventive Dentistry, Dr Syamala Reddy Dental
Classification and Catalogue for the 21st Century. Oral Dis 2003; 9(1): 19– College, Hospital & Research Center, Bangalore, India.
23.
[4] Tugrul Sari, Aslihan Usumez. Restoring function and esthetics in a patient Correspondence Author – Dr Bharath Vardhana S, Senior
with Amelogenesis Imperfecta: A Clinical Report. J Prosthetic Dent 2003;
90(6); 522-525.
Lecturer, Department of Pedodontics & Preventive Dentistry, Dr
[5] Yip HK, Smales RJ. Oral Rehabilitation of Young Adults with
Syamala Reddy Dental College, Hospital & Research Center,
Amelogenesis Imperfecta. Int J Prosthodont 2003; 16(4): 345-349. Bangalore, India., E-mail: [email protected], Mobile:
[6] Rosensteil. Contemporary Fixed Prosthodontics 2006. +91-98865-88595.

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Figure 1: Pre operative image

Figure 2: Intra operative image

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Figure 3: Post operative image

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Online Stroke and Akshara Recognition GUI in Assamese


Language Using Hidden Markov Model
SRM Prasanna, Rituparna Devi, Deepjoy Das, Subhankar Ghosh, Krishna Naik *
*
Department of EEE, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Abstract-The work describes the development of Online set and behavior of Assamese is derived from Sanskrit and it is
Assamese Stroke & Akshara Recognizer based on a set of written using the Assamese script. The script presently has a total
language rules. In handwriting literature strokes are composed of of 11 vowel letters, around 41 consonants, 10 numerals and a
two coordinate trace in between pen down and pen up labels. The number of conjuncts, vowel modifiers, consonant modifiers and
Assamese aksharas are combination of a number of strokes, the other symbols. The vowels, consonants and numerals are already
maximum number of strokes taken to make a combination being defined in the language. However frequency of using conjuncts is
eight. Based on these combinations eight language rule models not well defined and hence the Assamese script has been
have been made which are used to test if a set of strokes form a carefully analyzed to prepare a list of valid conjuncts.
valid akshara. A Hidden Markov Model is used to train 181
different stroke patterns which generates a model used during 1.2 Assamese Handwritten symbol database
stroke level testing. Akshara level testing is performed by
integrating a GUI (provided by CDAC-Pune) with the Binaries The preparation of Assamese database begins with the scanning
of HTK toolkit classifier, HMM train model and the language of the words in the pages of Hemkosh Dictionary by Hem
rules using a dynamic linked library (dll). We have got a stroke Chandra Barua which yields 185 conjuncts. Meanwhile, a list of
level performance of 94.14% and akshara level performance of 147 conjuncts prepared by the Resource Centre for Indian
84.2%. Language Technology Solutions (RCILTS), IITG is decoded
after discussing it with Mr. Pallav Barua, RCILTS, and IIT
Index Terms- Strokes, Akshara, Assamese handwriting, Guwahati. This document when compared with our document on
HMM, Handwriting Recognition, GUI list of conjuncts gives us another list of commonly used
conjuncts. Thus, the Assamese script of 241 aksharas is formed
consisting of 11 vowels, 41 consonants, 147 conjuncts, 10
I. INTRODUCTION numerals, 10 vowel modifiers, 2 consonant modifiers and 20
additional symbols, which are then sent for data collection. The
O nline Handwriting recognition also termed as character
recognition is the task of recognizing written message by
processing handwritten data. For development of automatic
list of 241 symbols is depicted in Figure 1.

handwriting recognition system a basic unit has to be selected. In


Assamese handwriting recognition the components of the
Assamese symbols are taken as the basic units and are commonly
termed as strokes. For online handwriting recognition the two
coordinates trace composed between one pen down to one pen up
is termed as stroke. For Assamese handwriting recognition a set
of 181 strokes were identified as valid strokes. An akshara may
comprise of a single stroke or multiple strokes from the set of
181 strokes. Analyzing the data from a large number of writers it
was found that almost all Assamese aksharas can be written as a
combination of maximum 8 strokes based on which 8 language
rule models have been created using which a symbol written by
an user can be identified.

1.1 Assamese Language

Assamese is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language mainly used Figure 3: 241 Assamese Aksharas
in the state of Assam in North-East India and is the official
language of this state, spoken by around 13 million people. Tablet PC is used to collect data with a sampling rate of 120 Hz.
Recognition of handwritten Assamese script is complicated as it The captured information contains the sampled x, y coordinate
is primarily a cursive language with a large number of ligatures values along with the writer information. Based on writer
formed by the combination of potentially all the consonants with feedback a final list of 147 Assamese symbols is created which
one another. Vowels can either be independent or dependent consists of 11 vowels, 41 consonants, 55 conjuncts, 10 numerals,
upon a consonant or a consonant cluster. The phonetic character 23 special symbols and 5 characters whose shape change on

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addition of modifiers. The list of 147 symbols is shown in Figure II. AKSHARA RECOGNITION SYSTEM
2.
The schematic block diagram of Online Assamese Handwriting
Recognition system is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: 147 isolated aksharas

1.3 Basic components of Assamese handwriting

The basic component of aksharas is termed as strokes. In


handwritten literature the coordinate trace between one pen down
to pen up is termed as stroke. However in case of Assamese Figure 6: Block Diagram of Recognition System
handwriting which is a case of cursive handwriting several
components may be merged in one pen down to its pen up. Some 2.1 Preprocessing
components may also be broken by infrequent writers. So data In online mode, the handwritten pattern is captured as a series
grouping has been done in 3 different ways namely strokes, of (x, y) coordinates. The preprocessing stage performs size
substrokes and suprastrokes. The Class-A data or strokes consists normalization, smoothing, interpolation of missing points,
of a typical basic component of aksharas agreed naturally by removal of duplicate points, and resampling of the captured
majority of non-cursive writers. The Class-B data or substrokes coordinates [1].
contained components are formed by merging several
components or strokes. There are 263 distinct substrokes. Again 2.1.1 Size Normalisation
some infrequent writers break the components of the .stroke into Size normalization normalizes the variations in the size
more than one component. The splitted components form the of the pattern, due to the various writing styles and size of the
Class-C data or suprastrokes. There are 104 distinct suprastrokes. box provided for writing. It is performed by scaling each pat-
A list is prepared combining all the above strokes of different tern both horizontally and vertically [2]
data groups and we have a final list of 203 distinct strokes in
Assamese handwriting. The final strokes list is depicted in Figure 2.1.2 Smoothing
3. Smoothing eliminates the noise captured during the
data collection process. It is performed using a moving average
. filter of size three. Each pattern is smoothed both in x and y
directions separately

2.1.3 Removal of duplicate points


Duplicate points results in data redundancy and does
not contain any information for recognition. These points are
removed before feature extraction

2.1.4 Resampling
Resampling removes the variations in the data due to
the writing speed of the writers. It is performed by linear
interpolation of missing points which results in a sequence of
equidistant points

2.2 Feature Extraction


Figure 5: 203 isolated assamese strokes
The preprocessed x, y coordinates, first and second derivatives
of x, y coordinates are considered as features. The first and
second derivatives interprets the change and change of change

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in x, y coordinates, respectively. The significance of calculating and six dimensional features are extracted from the
first derivative is to observe the change in the trajectory at preprocessed coordinates .All the test examples corresponding
current point. A window size of two is considered for to each stroke class are tested against all the stroke models. If
calculating first derivative. The second derivative is calculated misclassification arises due to similarity in shape between two
in order to examine the change of change in trajectory at strokes those stroke classes are merged stroke classifier
current point. Here also, a window size of two is considered. performance is evaluated. A stroke classifier with 181 HMM
models is finally developed.
2.3 HMM Modelling and Testing

The variations in each stroke class are modeled using Hidden


Markov models (HMM). One HMM is constructed for each
stroke, by training on example strokes. Seven state HMM is
used to test and train the models which is determined
experimentally. The number of Gaussian mixture is optimized
to the better recognition accuracy. HTK tool is used to test and
train the models [3].
HMM models a doubly stochastic process, one observable and
the other hidden [4]. The observable stochastic process
contains information about the hidden stochastic process. In
Figure 5: Block diagram of stroke classifier
our work, the sequence of feature vectors from the online
handwriting is the observable stochastic process and the
underlying hand movement is the hidden stochastic process. 2.5 Akshara Recogniser using HMM Stroke Classifier
The basic assumption for using HMM for handwriting
recognition is that there are unique handwriting movements for The basic block diagram of akshara recognizer is shown in
writing each of the basic components, namely stroke [5]. Figure 6.
Further, the left to right structure is used assuming unique
directions of handwriting movements. In the present work, one
left to right, continuous density HMM is developed for
modelling each stroke.

2.3.1 Training
A HMM consists of a set of states and the transitions
associated with it and are trained using Baum-Welch re-
estimation or expectation maximization (EM) approach [4].
The procedure starts with some initial model and improved
model parameters are re-estimated using the given set of Figure 6: Block diagram of Akshara Recognizer
feature vectors. For the next iteration, the most recent model is
the initial model and again re-estimation is done using the An Akshara is a combination of different strokes. During testing
same set of feature vectors. This process is repeated until of akshara, the strokes of an akshara are preprocessed and the
model parameters become static and the model of the last features are extracted. The features of preprocessed coordinates
iteration is stored as the model for the given class. are then tested against the developed stroke classifier. The
recognized stroke labels along with the language models are used
2.3.2 Testing for the recognition of an akshara. Language model refers to the
Testing involves finding out the class information for the combination of strokes which form the akshara. The isolated
examples that are unknown to the trained model. The Akshara recognizer makes use of a language rule model for the
likelihood probability of the given testing example against recognition of the akshara label. First the strokes of the akshara
each of the trained HMM models are found out and the model are recognized and then the akshara, using the language rule. If
with the highest likelihood is hypothesized as the class. The the stroke classifier recognizes all the strokes correctly then only
process is repeated for all the testing examples and the class we consider it as recognized akshara.
information is noted.
2.5.1 Language Rule for Akshara Recogniser
2.4 Stroke Classifier
An akshara can be a single stroke or a combination of
The basic block diagram of the stroke recognizer is shown in multiple strokes. Also the same akshara can be written as a
Figure 5. combination of two strokes, three strokes, four stroke and so on.it
The stroke classifier has been built using HMM modelling is observed that all aksharas can be formed using a maximum of
technique. 203 HMM models have been built for each of the 8 strokes. Hence 8 language rule models have been created. For
203 strokes finalized during script analysis prior to which the this the combination of strokes that form a particular akshara are
database is annotated with the annotation tool at stroke level

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found out by studying the handwritten data of a large number of shows the interaction of GUI with the Dynamic linked library
users. Of all the combinations only those are retained that have (dll).
been used by more than 5 % writers.
Probable Stroke
Akshara
Combinations

Figure 7: Handwritten Assamese Akshara with different


stroke combination

But this level of akshara recognition gives poor recognition


accuracy as the individual strokes that form an akshara regularly
confuses with other strokes. So a refined language model is
created which includes the combination obtained by considering
the confused stroke. Confusions of individual strokes of each
akshara are determined. If one stroke regularly confuses with
other stroke then the new combination obtained by considering Figure 9: Block Diagram of Akshara Recognition with GUI
the confused stroke is added into the refined language model. and DLL. Akshara 1 recognized with stroke 2, 3 and 61.
Hence the final language rule model includes the combination of
confused strokes as well. 2.6.1 Akshara Recognition using Graphical User Interface

When an akshara is written on GUI the parameters of API


provide the basic data like 2-dimensional coordinate traces of
each stroke, the number of stroke etc. Our recognition system is
integrated with the GUI using a dynamic linked library (dll). The
dynamic linked library when provided with handwritten trace,
performs classification tasks with HTK toolkit and delivers the
recognized stroke sequence along with a Unicode character of
valid akshara (if any) to the API for display. Figure 9 shows the
entire process.

The essential functions performed with the dynamic linked


library are as follows:
i) Preprocessing of the coordinate trace given by the API
of GUI. Preprocessing involves removing duplicate
Figure 8: Akshara 1 with primary stroke combinations and points, size normalization, smoothing, interpolation
stroke confusions of missing points & re-sampling.
ii) Features extraction.
For eg, ak1 can be written as a combination of st1, st2, st3. Here iii) Binaries of HTK Classifier is executed with the training
st2 is confused with st144 in majority cases. And st1 is confused model file & the extracted features.
with st4, st61, st32, etc. hence according to the new language iv) The recognized strokes by HTK classifier are then read
rule ak1 is not only a combination of st1,st2, st3 but also of from .rec file.
(st1,st144,st3), (st4,st2,st3), (st61,st2,st3),(st4,st144,st3) and so v) Language rules prepared for the language are searched
on as shown in Figure 8 for a valid akshara using the set of strokes
recognized by HTK classifier.
2.6 Graphical User Interface (GUI) vi) Stroke sequences recognized by HTK classifier with a
Unicode symbol of the akshara (if a valid akshara
GUI of testing tool developed by Center for Development of exists for the stroke sequence) are stored in a string
Advanced Computing Graphics and Intelligence based Script data type and displayed into the GUI.
Technology Group (CDAC), Pune, India is provided with API.
We have integrated our stroke and akshara recognition system
with the GUI using a dynamic linked library (DLL). Figure 9

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III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS of 94.14 % which is used to test combination of strokes from
For the stroke classifier, initially data is collected from 100 isolated aksharas. The akshara recognizer is evaluated by
native writers in two sessions using a data collection tool considering all strokes in an akshara. The reported recognition
provided by CDAC, Pune in a Tablet PC with stylus by HP Labs. accuracy is 84.2 %. It is observed that, the performance is high at
Strokes from first session aksharas are used for training and stroke level in comparison to akshara level performance as
strokes from second session aksharas are used for testing. Later misclassification of the complete akshara may occur due to the
on another two sessions of data are collected so that we have a single stroke mismatch. The possibility of akshara
minimum of 200 examples per akshara for training and 200 for misclassification reduces with less number of strokes.
testing. Strokes from this session of collected data are added with
the previous set of data to increase the number of examples per REFERENCES
stroke. A stroke classifier is built using HMM technique with [1] V. J. Babu, L. Prasanth, R. R. Prasanth, R. R. Sharma, G. V. P. Rao and A.
181 stroke classes. Hidden Markov Models are trained & tested Bharath, “HMM-based online hanwriting recognition system for telugu
symbols,” in Proc. of 9th Int. Conf. on Document Analysis and
by considering number of states as seven and Gaussian mixtures Recogntion Brazil, 2007, pp. 63-67..
are optimized for best recognition accuracy Average recognition [2] X.‘Li and D. Y. Yeung, “Online handwritten alphanumeric character
accuracy of the stroke classifier is 94. 91 %. The confusion recognition using dominant points in strokes”, Pattern Recognition, vol. 30,
matrix for the first 10 classes out of 181 classes is shown in no. 1, pp. 31-44, 1997.
Figure 9. [3] http://htk.eng.cam.ac.uk/
[4] L. R. Rabiner, “A tutorial on Hidden Markov Models and selected
applications in speech recognition,” Proc. Of IEEE, vol. 79, no. 2, pp. 257-
286, 1989.
[5] S.K.Parui,K.Guin,U.Bhattacharya,andB.B.Chaudhuri, “OnlineBangla
HandwrittenCharacterRecognitionusingHMM,”inProc. Of19thInt.
Conf.onPattern Recognition, pp.1-4, 2008.
[6] G. S. Reddy, P. Sharma, S. R. M. Prasanna, C. Mahanta and L. N. Sharma,
“Combined Online and Offline Assamese Handwritten Numeral
Recognizer”, in Proc. of 18th National Conference on Communications, pp.
1–5, 2011.
[7] G. S. Reddy, B. Sarma, R. K. Naik, S. R. M. Prasanna and C. Mahanta,
“Assamese Online Handwritten Digit Recognition System using Hidden
Markov Models”, accepted at the Workshop on Document Analyisis &
Recognition, 2012.
[8] Sarma, Bandita, et al. "Handwritten Assamese numeral recognizer using
Figure 9: Confusion matrix for the first 10 classes of stroke HMM & SVM classifiers." Communications (NCC), 2013 National
classifier Conference on. IEEE, 2013.
.
For evaluation of akshara recognizer performance, users are
asked to give handwritten data in the data collection tool AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY
provided by CDAC. The data saved in .xml format are annotated
Prof. Dr. SRM Prasanna has done his MTech from National
by which the actual class labels are attached to the akshara. A Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal in Industrial
confusion matrix has been made comparing the output class label
Electronics and obtained his PhD degree in CSE from Indian
predicted by our system with actual class label using a script. The
Institute of Technology, Madras. He is currently working as
akshara level performance is 84.2% for all Assamese akshara
Professor in department of EEE at Indian Institute of
used by our study.
Technology, Guwahati. His research interests include Speech
Signal Processing, Speech Enhancement, Speaker Recognition,
CONCLUSION Speech Recognition, Speech Synthesis and Handwriting
This work describes the development of online Assamese Recognition. E-mail: [email protected]
character recognition system using HMMs. A large database of
handwritten Assamese numerals is collected and partitioned into Mr. Subhankar Ghosh has completed his Master of Technology
two parts. One part is used for developing HMMs. The states and from Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati. His research
number of Gaussians per state are optimized by conducting large interests include Optical Character Recognition.
number of experiments. Finally, 7 states and 20 mixtures per E-mail: [email protected]
state are used in the HMMs. The performance evaluation is then
made for different choices of feature set, namely, only (x, y) Mr. Krishna Naik has completed his Master of Technology
coordinates, (x, y) coordinates and their first and second order from Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati. His research
temporal derivatives. The last case provided the best interest includes Handwriting Recognition.
performance. Again, bottom-up approach is used in the E-mail: [email protected]
development of akshara recognizer. First strokes corresponding
to aksharas are recognized and then the aksharas. The final stroke Ms. Rituparna Devi has completed her Bachelor of Technology
classifier is developed for 181 distinct stroke classes and this from Tezpur University, Tezpur, India and held the post of
final stroke classifier is used for Akshara recognition. The Assistant Project Engineer for one year in the project
developed stroke classifier gives an average recognition accuracy “Development of Online Handwriting Recognition System in

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 188
ISSN 2250-3153

Assamese” under the guidance of Dr. SRM Prasanna, Dept. of


EEE, IIT Guwahati, India. E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Deepjoy Das has completed his Bachelor of Technology


from Tezpur University, Tezpur, India and held the post of
Assistant Project Engineer for one year in the project
“Development of Online Handwriting Recognition System in
Assamese” under the guidance of Dr. SRM Prasanna, Dept. of
EEE, IIT Guwahati, India. E-mail: [email protected]

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A Research Study on Software Quality Attributes


Dr.A.Chandrasekar *, Mrs.SudhaRajesh **, Mr.P.Rajesh ***
*
Professor, CSE Department, St.Joseph’s College of Engineering
**
Asst. Prof, CSE Dept., SRR Engineering College
***
Asst. Prof, IT Dept, M.S.A.J College of Engineering

Abstract- Software quality is becoming an important part in Software functional quality reflects how well it complies
software design, helping the designer to handle the complexity of with or conforms to a given design, based on functional
large systems. While designing, the architect should analyze the requirements or specifications. That attribute can also be
system requirements before committing the resources to it. The described as the fitness for purpose of a piece of software.
analyzing process helps us to ensure the high quality of Software structural quality refers to how it meets non-
architecture design. For the past decade, there were many functional requirements that support the delivery of the
analyzing methods are used, which in turn to analyze only the functional requirements, such as robustness or maintainability,
views of single stakeholder. By doing so, there are many the degree to which the software was produced correctly.
limitations that lead to critical situation in the development
process. They elaborated this situation to excessive amount of Quality Attributes
time to perform the complete analysis. The scope of finding the Software quality is defined as the degree to which software
key architectural decision is very difficult. Intend of these types possesses a desired combination of attributes. [1]The quality
of analysis gives the detailed information only after the designing requirements to build the software architecture have to fulfill the
phase, which makes the software unusable and not satisfied by stakeholders. They are commonly divided in two main groups
the end-users. Generally, unusable software is useless. Customers based on the quality they are requesting, i.e., development and
and users won’t accept un¬usable software, even if it provides operational qualities. A development quality requirement is a
the required features with the required operations. requirement that is of importance for the developers work, e.g.,
This paper gives the survey on software quality attributes. It maintainability, understandability, and flexibility. Operational
is also used to manage the conflicts in views by analyzing it, with quality requirements are requirements that make the system
finest software quality attributes such as Performance, better from the user’s point of view, e.g. performance and
Dependability and Safety concerns. It represents one or more usability. Depending on the domain and priorities of the users
structural aspects, which illustrate how the architecture addresses and developers, quality requirements can become both
the concerns such as requirements, objective, intention of development and operational, such as performance in a real-time
stakeholders for the architecture design. This paper also gives the system.
stakeholder’s views with preeminent quality attributes, which A quality attribute is the property of a software system. A
meets the non functional requirements (such as reliability, quality requirement is a requirement that is placed on a software
usability, maintainability and portability). Thus by having the system by a stakeholder; a quality attribute is what the system
centric-view of stakeholders with superlative software quality actually presents once it has been implemented. During the
attributes, guarantees an optimum quality for software development of the architecture it is therefore important to
architecture design. validate that the architecture has the required quality attributes,
this is usually done using one or more architecture evaluations.
Index Terms- Quality Attributes
Quality Attributes in Focus
The focuses are on the following quality attributes:
I. INTRODUCTION performance, maintainability, testability, and portability.
The IEEE standard 610.12-1990 [2] defines the four quality
T here are many different definitions of quality. For some it is
the "capability of a software product to conform to
requirements." (ISO/IEC 9001) while for others it can be
attributes as:
Maintainability: This is defined as: “The ease with which a
synonymous with "customer value" (Highsmith, 2002) or even software system or component can be modified to correct faults,
defect level. improve performance or other attributes, or adapt to a changed
The first definition of quality history remembers is from environment.”
Shewhart in the beginning of 20th century: There are two Maintainability is a multifaceted quality requirement. It
common aspects of quality: one of them has to do with the incorporates aspects such as readability and understandability of
consideration of the quality of a thing as an objective reality the source code. Maintainability is also concerned with testability
independent of the existence of man. The other has to do with to some extent, as the system has to be re-validated during the
what we think, feel or sense as a result of the objective reality. maintenance.
In the context of software engineering, software quality
refers to some relations but distinct notions that exist wherever Performance: Performance is defined as:
quality is defined in a business context:

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“The degree to which a system or component accomplishes root-cause analysis to prevent further defects, especially for those
its designated functions within given constraints, such as speed, that were most costly to fix. Other problems included as
accuracy, or memory usage.” incomplete data, inconsistent data, mixed data. The DTS
There are many aspects of performance, e.g., latency, improvement aimed to reduce the defect density and to improve
throughput, and capacity. defect-fixing efficiency. To achieve this goal, the DTS must
provide supplementary information that the quality assurance
Testability: Testability is defined as: “The degree to which a (QA) managers could use to answer the following questions:
system or component facilitates the establishment of test criteria  What are the main defect types?
and the performance of tests to determine whether those criteria  How the companies prevent defects in a project’s early
have been met”. stages?
The effort needed to validate the system against the  What are the reasons for the actual defect-fixing effort?
requirements. A system with high testability can be validated
quickly. C. Guideline-Based Approach
Malik Hneif and Sai Peck Lee[5], their approach is to
Portability: Portability is defined as: “The ease with which a achieving Non-Functional Attributes (NFA) quality is
system or component can be transferred from one hardware or preventive, as opposed to curative- that is, it focuses on
software environment to another.” preventing defects associated with NFAs during the software
The portability is not only between different hardware development life cycle, rather than identifying and correcting
platforms and operating systems, but also between different defects after testing. Practical implementation is done through an
virtual machines and versions of frameworks. optimal set of prioritized guidelines that software engineers can
identify and apply efficiently throughout system development.
The approach has two steps as
II. RELATED WORK  Selecting Guidelines
The quality attributes are very important for the software  Using Guidelines to Prevent NFA Defects
design to satisfy the users. The quality attributes are measured in Three factors affect the guideline selection - NFA priorities,
different ways as follows, Guideline effects on NFAs, Guideline interrelationships. After
selecting guidelines there should not be any overlapping or
A. Architecture Quality Revisited conflicts. Then there are two stages to prevent NFA defects as
Frank Buschmann, David Ameller, Claudia P. Ayala, Jordi preparation stage and application stage.
Cabot, and Xavier Franch [3], a study that says “Non-Functional
Requirements in Software Architecture Practice,” investigates D. Software Components Quality in Bayesian Networks
how architects deal with nonfunctional requirements (NFRs) in M. F. Bertoa, M. A. Moraga, M. C. Morcillo and C.
their daily practices. The results appear contradictory to the Calero[6], they suggests to improve the quality of software
common belief that nonfunctional quality is fundamentally products, which traditionally focused on improving the Internal
important for architecture sustainability and project success. or External Quality based on the idea that a good External
They raised some questions as, Quality guarantees a good Quality in Use. To analyze the
 What types of NFRs are relevant to software architects? relationships between External Quality and Quality in Use with
 How are NFRs elicited? the external quality sub characteristics Bayesian Networks is used
 How are NFRs documented? to model these relationships and provide a method to define them
 How are NFRs validated? in a measurable way.

They also suggest that nonfunctional quality is of little E. Risk-based requirements model
relevance to users and customers but mainly a concern for Martin S. Feather, Steven L. Cornford, and Kenneth A.
architects. Nontechnical constraints appear to be driving design Hicks, James D. Kiper, Tim Menzies[7], they proposed the
as prominently as quality requirements. Defect Detection and Prevention(DDP) model to make the early
decision of requirements in the software development phases.
B. Defect Tracking Systems They populate this model with three concepts as Requirements:
Jan M.W. Kristiansen, Steria [4], introduced Defect What are the functional and nonfunctional requirements of the
Tracking Systems (DTS), to facilitate software quality project, system, or technology? How might they factor into its
improvement. The focus is mainly on either revising the values development? Risks: What might delay attaining these
of existing defect classification attributes in an existing DTS or requirements? Mitigations: What to reduce risks?
introducing new attributes. Primarily, they wanted to give project
managers and developers more current, relevant, correct, and F. Issue-Oriented Approach
easy-to- analyze defect data for assessing software quality and Norman F. Schneidewind [8], suggested this approach is to
finding potential SPI measures in a cost-effective way. A case measure the software quality in two ways that address nine issues
study is done by collecting some data from companies to track in software companies. The first approach derives knowledge
the defects in the quality attributes. None of the companies requirements from a set of issues identified during two standards
recorded the actual effort used to fix a defect, so they perform efforts—IEEE Std. 1061-1998 for a Software Quality Metrics
Methodology and the American National Standard

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Recommended Practice for Software Reliability (ANSI/AIAA R- software quality Return On Investment
013-1992). The second approach ties these knowledge assessment. (ROI)
requirements to phases in the software development life cycle. Guideline- an approach for However, some NFAs
Together, these approaches define a body of knowledge that Based improving NFA might require a specific
shows software engineers why (issue-oriented) and when (phase- Approach quality by quality level.
oriented) to measure quality. By answering these issues the [5] identifying guide - Quantification
software engineers perform the function in life-cycle quality lines to help techniques could enable
management plan. The issues are goals, Cost and risk, context, software engineers achievement of a
Operational profile, model, data requirements, Measurement better meet non targeted NFA quality
types and granularity, Product and process test and evaluation, functional requ- level though not
Product and process quality prediction. It also accounts for time, irements during necessarily the highest
with measurements obtained during the early part of the life system design, level.
cycle being generally less quantitative than those obtained later. implementation,
Both the product and process evolve over the lifecycle phases, so and deployment.
the objects measured during test and operation are not the same Software The aim is to avoid Sometimes there will be
objects measured during requirements analysis. Not only are the Components un -necessary costs confusion in choosing
objects different but requirements and design approaches can Quality in or irrelevant sub characteristics of
change many times during the life cycle. Bayesian characteristics for quality attribute, that
Networks the end users who lead to more cost, which
G. Software Quality Measurement [6] un -necessarily dissatisfy the end users.
Ho-Won Jung and Seung-Gweon Kim, Chang-Shin Chung raise the cost and
[9], a survey is made on software quality measurement and to effort of product
address the issues of software product quality, which is defined development.
by the Joint Technical Committee 1 of the International Risk-based The method’s name As a future research,
Organization for Standardization and International Electro requirements reflects its purpose: they planned to continue
technical Commission published a set of software product quality model to help developers in studying the
standards known as ISO/IEC 9126. These standards specify [7] cost-effectively requirements needs of a
software product quality’s characteristics and sub characteristics select assurance wide
and their metrics. However, some in the software engineering activities and variety of technologies
community have expressed concerns thereby both as software, hardware,
about a lack of evidence to support such standards. User prevent the and combinations of the
satisfaction is often considered a critical outcome of quality introduction of two.
management, and studies show it as having a positive impact on hardware defects
organizational cost, profit, and sales growth. The defined and detect and
Characteristics are Functionality, Reliability, Usability, correct existing
Efficiency, Maintainability, and Portability. ones.
Issue-Oriented The approach They suggested in
Table I. Scope and Limitations of Existing Methods Approach derives knowledge giving the requirements
[8] requirements from a high priority in the
Method Scope Limitations/Future a set of issues core body of knowledge
Name Enhancements identified and ties for software
Architecture the study suggests The practitioners these knowledge engineering, adding it to
Quality that nonfunctional consider non -functional requirements to the requirements for
Revisited quality is of qualities as an phases in the certification and
[3] little relevance for afterthought, rather than software licensing. So doing
users and as a prime driver of development life would help advance
customers, and is architecture design. cycle. Together, it quality measurement
instead primarily a Development teams define a body of from a craft to a
concern for underestimate the knowledge to profession
Software architects. contribution of software engineers
nonfunctional qualities why and when to
to a system’s success measure quality.
Defect The improved DTS In future it continuous
Tracking provided valuable the work to collect more Software A survey is made to The survey data should
Systems(DTS) inform –ation to cost and benefit data of Quality empirically be augmented with more
[4] initia -lize and these DTS Measurement investigate whether comprehensive measures
justify software improvements to get a [9] the ISO/IEC 9126 of product quality in
process comprehensive categorization is future studies.
improvements and understanding of their correct and reliable Replications of study

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in evaluating user using other statistical REFERENCES


satisfaction with the analytic methods such as [1] L. S. Maurya et al,” Comparison of Software Architecture Evaluation
judgment of a confirmatory factor Methods for Software Quality Attributes”,Journal of Global Research in
packaged software analysis are also Computer Science, 1 (4), November 2010.
product’s quality. necessary to substantiate [2] IEEE std 610.12-1990 (n.d.). , “IEEE Standard Glossary of Software
Engineering Terminology”, 1990. Retrieved January 19, 2006. Web site:
or clarify the present http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/.
results. [3] Frank Buschmann, David Ameller, Claudia P. Ayala, Jordi Cabot, and
Xavier Franch,” Architecture Quality Revisited”, IEEE Software | published
by the IEEE computer socie ty, 2012.
III. PROBLEM STATEMENT [4] Jan M.W. Kristiansen, Steria,” Enhancing Defect Tracking Systems to
Facilitate Software Quality Improvement”, IEEE Software
From the above study of various people’s views, it is clearly www.computer.org/ software, 2012.
shown that quality attributes are very important for the software [5] Malik Hneif and Sai Peck Lee, University of Malaya,” Using Guidelines to
development phase. The main purpose of the quality is to satisfy Improve Quality in Software Nonfunctional Attributes”, IEEE Software |
Published by The IEEE Computer Society,2011.
the users and it is precious in all products. But in most of the
[6] M. F. Bertoa, M. A. Moraga, M. C. Morcillo and C. Calero,” An Analysis
time the software architects are not serious with this quality of the Software Components Quality in Use using Bayesian Networks”,
attributes. So here the problem is to IEEE Latin America Transactions, vol. 8, no. 2, April 2010.
[7] Martin S. Feather, Steven L. Cornford, and Kenneth A. Hicks, James D.
1. Identify the preeminent quality attribute to evaluate Kiper, Tim Menzies, “A Broad, Quantitative Model for Making Early
efficient software architecture which also to meet the Requirements Decisions”, IEEE software, March/April 2008.
non-functional requirements [8] Norman F. Schneidewind, Naval Postgraduate School,” Body of
Knowledge for Software Quality Measurement”, IEEE research feature,
2. Identify the measuring tools to estimate the non 2002.
functional quality attributes. [9] Ho-Won Jung and Seung-Gweon Kim, Korea University, Chang-Shin
Chung, “Telecommunications Technology Association, Measuring
Proposed Solution Software Product Quality: A Survey of ISO/IEC 9126”,” IEEE software –
IEEE computer society ” , 2004.
According to the problem statement, a view “Quality Centric
[10] Leire Etxeberria MU, ”Method for analysis-aided design decision making
Architectural Views (QCAV) “ is proposed in which there is a and quality attribute prediction”, Embedded System for energy efficient
need to identify potential issues in an architecture, its feasibility building, 2010.
and to evaluate its ability to meet its quality requirements and to [11] Juha Savolainen, “Conflict – Centric Software Architectural Views:
generate the centric view for designing the architecture with the Exposing Trade - Offs in Quality Requirements”, IEEE 2010.
improved quality attributes to satisfy the stakeholders. [12] Alexander Egyed , “Automatically Detecting and Tracking Inconsistencies
in software Design models”, IEEE 2010.
[13] Frank Buschmann, “Unusable Software is Useless, Part1”, IEEE 2011.
[14] Frank Buschmann,“Unusable Software is Useless, Part2”, IEEE 2011.

AUTHORS
First Author – Dr.A.Chandrasekar, Professor, CSE Department,
St.Joseph’s College of Engineering, OMR, Chennai, India.,
[email protected]
Second Author – Mrs.SudhaRajesh, Research Scholar,
Sathyabama University, Assistant Professor, CSE Dept, SRR
Figure1.Proposed Model Engineering College OMR, Chennai, India,
[email protected].
Third Author – Mr.P.Rajesh , Assistant Professor, IT Dept.,
IV. CONCLUSION M.S.A.J College of Engineering, OMR, Chennai, India.,
[email protected].
Quality is the main focus of any software engineering
project, because it is transparent when presented, but easily
recognized in its absence [10]. Software quality is the degree to
which software possesses a desired combination of attributes. A
quality attributes is a property of a work product by which its
quality be judged by stakeholders [10]. Without measuring, we
cannot be sure of the level of quality in software architecture
design. So a model is proposed to identify preeminent quality
attribute and to identify the measuring tools to estimate the non
functional quality attribute.

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Prosthodontic Rehabilitation of Different Clinical


Situation
1
Dr. K. Raghavendra Reddy, 2Dr. Prafulla Thumati
1
Department of Prosthodontics, Sri Sai College Of Dental Surgery
2
Department of Prosthodontics, Dayananda Sagar College Of Dental Sciences

Abstract- The goal of dentistry is for patients to keep all of their 4. Implant supported prosthesis-Removable or Fixed
teeth throughout their lives in health and comfort. If the teeth are Prosthesis.
lost despite all efforts to save them, a restoration should be made 5. Any combination of 1,2,3 and 4.
in such a manner as to function efficiently and comfortably in
harmony with the stomatognathic system and the
temporomandibular joints. Tremendous progress has been made II. METHODS FOR VARIOUS CLINICAL SITUATIONS
in procedures for rehabilitation over the past few decades. Swift [1] FULL DENTURES: Made Easy, Predictable, and Successful
increase in research work in the recent past leaves many options The life expectancy of the Indian population is steadily
for clinicians, to be updated and to possess optimum knowledge increasing, which could lead to a rise in the number of complex
to select the use of materials and techniques that are employed complete denture cases. The treatment of these complex cases
for rehabilitation in proximity to both health as well as comfort. may need to move away from traditional denture construction.
While the copy technique serves an excellent role, there is a need
Index Terms- Metal based dentures, Stomatognathic system, for an alternative approach when continued bone resorption has
Hollow denture, Anthropoidal pouch technique, Precision led to a progressively unsatisfactory denture or in cases where
attachments, Hemimandibulectomy dentures have been lost (2).

A. Immediate and conventional complete dentures


I. INTRODUCTION Complete dentures can be either "conventional" or

T he success of any Prosthesis depends upon many factors of a


purely technological nature, some of which are carried out at
the chairside and some in the laboratory. It is dependent also
"immediate." Made after the teeth have been removed and the
gum tissue has begun to heal, a conventional denture is ready for
placement in the mouth about 8 to 12 weeks after the teeth have
upon the knowledge of the practitioner and technician, and upon been removed.
the skill with which they each carry out their respective tasks. Unlike conventional denture (fig.1), immediate dentures
However, unless the mouth upon which they work presents (fig.2) are made in advance and can be positioned as soon as the
conditions favourable for denture construction, there is little that teeth are removed. As a result, the wearer does not have to be
their efforts will be successful. The problems that should receive without teeth during the healing period. However, bones and
attention before actual Prosthesis construction is commenced, gums shrink over time, especially during the healing period
must therefore be considered. The ultimate success or failure of following tooth removal. Therefore a disadvantage of immediate
the Prosthesis may well depend upon the initial diagnosis and dentures compared with conventional dentures is that they
treatment planning (1). require more adjustments to fit properly during the healing
Consideration must be given not only to the purely dental process and generally should only be considered a temporary
factors involved but also to the personal factors appertaining to solution until conventional dentures can be made.
the particular patient, for any one of the following reasons:
(a) To restore or improve the ability to masticate; B. Balanced complete dentures
(b) To restore or improve appearance; Balanced complete dentures are required for the bilateral,
(c) To maintain the oral tissues in as healthy a simultaneous anterior and posterior occlusal contacts of the teeth
condition as possible. in centric and eccentric positions. To minimize the dislodging
forces, the occlusion should be balanced throughout the
Obviously there will be many situations where a functional range of movements of the patient (fig.3).
combination of two or all of these requirements are met by the
provision of dentures. C. Metal-based denture
When teeth have been lost or it is planned to remove them a. Metal-based denture is one in which a portion of the
there are five alternatives: denture body is made of a substantial metal casting rather than all
1. Complete upper and/ or lower dentures. plastic (acrylic resin). There are two types of metal-based
2. Removable Partial dentures. dentures. a. Standard metal-based denture: The metal base
3. Fixed Partial Dentures (Bridges). portion of the denture is in direct contact with underlying
supporting tissues. (fig.4)

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b. Modified metal-based denture: The metal base portion of the simple in design and should permit the easy addition of further
denture is not in direct contact with underlying supporting teeth, which may be immediate replacements of condemned
tissues. A soft or hard plastic liner may be interposed between teeth. This type of denture has been aptly called the “additive”
the metal and supporting tissues. partial denture by De Van (fig 7).
The additional weight of a metal base also contributes to
lower denture stability by causing the denture to settle down onto B. Planned partial dentures/ Cast partial dentures
a jaw ridge. Proper treatment planning is essential for cast partial
denture. The concepts of guiding planes, rigid major and minor
Treatment options for Resorbed Ridges connectors, and indirect retention are important components in
In the highly atrophic mandible muscular control over the cast partial denture designs. In addition,the correctable cast
denture is the main retentive and stabilising factor during impression procedure that maximizes the areas of soft tissue
function (3). Dental implants may provide stabilisation of coverage without impinging on movable tissue attachments is
mandibular complete dentures for the atrophic mandible, also a most important adjunct to the use of cast partial dentures
however there may be situations when it is not possible to (fig 8).
provide implants on the grounds of medical, surgical or costs
factors. The severely atrophied jaw can have various treatment C. Flexible dentures (Soft dentures)
options such as: Polymerization shrinkage encountered in conventionally
cured PMMA led to the development of a special injection
A. Anthropoidal pouch technique moulding technique. Soft dentures are an excellent alternative to
The neutral zone (NZ) technique is an alternative approach traditional hard-fitted dentures. It is an alternative denture
for the construction of lower complete dentures. It is most prosthesis design in which optimal flange height and thickness
effective for dentures where there is a highly atrophic ridge and a can be achieved is by using flexible denture base material.
history of denture instability. The technique aims to construct a Flexible dentures use a special flexible resin that prevents them
denture that is shaped by muscle function and is in harmony with from chafing the gums, allows the wearer to chew properly (7). It
the surrounding oral structures (4). The technique is not new but also provides a soft base that prevents the gums from being
is one that is valuable and yet not often practiced (Fig.5). The rubbed raw. Some of the commercially available products are
dentures will have other advantages: (a) Improved stability and Duraflex, Flexite (fig.9), Proflex, Lucitone, Impak, valplast
retention (b)Posterior teeth will be correctly positioned (fig.10).
allowing sufficient tongue space (c) Reduced food trapping
adjacent to the D. Precision attachments
molar teeth (d) Good aesthetics due to facial support. Misconceptions about the use of attachment retained
removable partial dentures have discouraged many practitioners
B. Hollow denture technique from using these kinds of prostheses in their dental practices. The
For more than 150 years, it was believed that the weight of desire to balance between functional stability and cosmetic
the lower denture contributes to both retention and stability. appeal in partial dentures gave rise to the development of
However, studies have shown that retention and stability can be Precision Attachments. The precision attachment is sometimes
achieved by improving the fit of the denture bases rather than said to be a connecting link between fixed and removable partial
addition of extra weight to the dentures and also the weight of the denture as it incorporates features common to both types of
lower denture may not affect its retention and stability (5). construction.
Hollowing the denture so as to reduce the weight of the The decision to use an intracoronal or extracoronal
denture, thereby enhancing stability and retention, reducing the attachment should be based on the size and shape of the
further resorption of the jaws. (Fig.6) abutment teeth. Intracoronal attachments require more tooth
preparation and tooth reduction than extracoronal attachments. If
[2] PARTIAL DENTURES intracoronal attachments are used where there is insufficient
Basic principles of dental treatment for a partially space, the abutment retainer will be overcontoured on the
edentulous arch are 1. to stabilize the individual arch and 2. to proximal surface, resulting in a restoration that can create
organize interarch function by control of interarch contacts (6). periodontal problems.
Achieving these conditions requires use of all methods of When there is adequate space available, intracoronal
dental treatment including 1. Periodontal therapy 2. Orthodontic attachments are preferred to extracoronal attachments because
treatment to reposition the teeth 3. Individual tooth restorations intracoronal attachments more ideally direct the forces of
to stabilize the arch 4. Fixed partial dentures 5. Orthognathic function along the long axis of the abutment teeth. When there is
surgery where indicated 6. Establishment and control of the inadequate space, an extracoronal prosthesis (fig 11) may be
occlusal plane 7. Removable partial dentures. employed (8).

A. Interim Removable partial denture or Transitional Removable [3] FIXED PARTIAL DENTURES (BRIDGES)
partial denture In many cases a fixed bridge is superior restoration to a
The more common type of removable partial denture is the partial denture. In many cases more efficient mastication is
interim removable partial denture or transitional removable possible than with any removable type of restoration (9). A fixed
partial denture. Partial denture construction should be relatively bridge will give superior splinting and will prevent increasing

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 195
ISSN 2250-3153

tooth mobility (fig.12.a & 12.b). Metal free ceramic crowns and [7] Lowe LG. Flexible denture flanges for patients exhibiting undercut
tuberosities and reduced width of the buccal vestibule: A clinical report. J
bridges have high esthetic value where patients “feel natural”. Prosthet Dent 2004, 92(2): 128-31.
[8] Preiskel, H.W.: Precision attachments in dentistry, ed. 3, St. Louis,1979,
[4] IMPLANT SUPPORTED PROSTHESIS The C.V. Mosby Co.
Modern Implantology has moved into the mainstream and [9] Hausman M, Hobo S. Occlusal reconstruction using transitional crowns. J
has lit up the lives of millions of individual across the world. Prosthet Dent 1961, 11: 278-87.
Implant supported prosthesis can be of following types: [10] Robinson JE, Rubright W.C. Use of a guide plane for maintaining the
a. Implant supported crown (Screw or cement retained) (fig.13.a residual fragment in partial or hemimandibulectomy. J Prosthet Dent 1964,
14: 992 -9.
& 13.b)
b. Implant supported bridge (Screw or cement retained) (fig.14.a
& 14.b)
c. Tooth-Implant supported bridge (fig.15.a & 15.b) AUTHORS
d. Implant supported overdenture (fig.16.a & 16.b) First Author – Dr. K. Raghavendra Reddy M.D.S, Senior
e. Fixed complete denture (fig.17.a & 17.b) Lecturer, Department of Prosthodontics, Sri Sai College of
Dental Surgery, Vikarabad, Andhra Pradesh,
Treatment options for Complex Clinical Situation [email protected]
Use of a Guide plane for maintaining the residual fragment Second Author – Dr. Prafulla Thumati M.D.S., Ph.D , Professor
in partial or Hemimandibulectomy & HOD, Department of Prosthodontics, Dayananda Sagar
Mandibular resection leads to altered mandibular College Of Dental Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka,
movements, disfigurement, difficult in swallowing, impaired [email protected]
speech and articulation, and deviation of the mandible towards
the resected site (10). Numerous prosthetic methods employed to Correspondence Author – Dr. K. Raghavendra Reddy M.D.S,
reduce or minimize deviation and improve function include Senior Lecturer, Department of Prosthodontics, Sri Sai College
maxillomandibular fixation, implant supported prosthesis, palatal of Dental Surgery, Vikarabad, Andhra Pradesh,
based guidance restoration and removable mandibular guide [email protected], contact no - +91880143156
flange prosthesis (fig.18.a & 18.b).

III. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY


For many years, traditional complete denture designs have
been modified to gain additional support and stability from a few
retained and suitably prepared natural teeth. The argument was
made that, if the prosthesis were inseparable from the patient, it
would be perceived as part of the patient and would therefore be
the best solution to the problem of unsatisfactory adaptation of
the complete denture experience. The biotechnological
achievement of osseointegration was justifiably heralded as a
major therapeutic breakthrough for edentulous people.
Experience and observation had taught prosthodontists that the
vast majority of their patient’s early years of denture wearing
were without major problems. With the use of implants more
stable and retentive dentures can be given to the patient
preserving the underlying alveolar bone and increasing the
proprioception.

REFERENCES
[1] Binkley TK, Binkley CJ.A Practicle approach to full mouth rehabilitation. J
Prosthet Dent 1987, 57: 216-6.
[2] Charles M. Heartwell – Syllabus of complete dentures – 4th Edition.
[3] McCord JF,Tyson K.W. A conservative prosthodontic option for the
treatment of edentulous patients with atrophic mandibular ridges. BDJ
1997, 182: 469-72
[4] M.J.Gahan and A.D.Walmsley. The neutral zone impression revisited. BDJ
2005, 198: 269-272.
[5] Raleigh A. Holt Jr. A hollow complete lower denture . J Prosthet Dent.
1981, 4: 452-45.
[6] DeVan MM: The nature of the partial denture foundation: suggestions for
its preservation. J prosthet Dent 1952, 2: 210.

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FIGURES

Fig.1: Conventional complete denture Fig.2: Immediate complete denture

Fig.3: Extra oral Gothic arch tracers Fig.4: Standard metal-based denture
attached to occlusal rims

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Fig.5: Establishing the correct Fig.6: Hollow denture


occlusal height

Fig.7: Removable partial denture Fig.8: Cast partial denture

Fig.9: Flexite plus sectional partial Fig.10: Valplast RPD showing thickness and
clasps of same material

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Fig.11: Male and female parts of extracoronal attachment Fig.12.a: Pre-op without crown and bridge

Fig.12.b: post-op with crown and bridge Fig.13.a: Missing anterior

Fig. 13.b: Implant supported crown Fig. 14.a: Abutments placed on implants

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Fig.14.b: Implant supported bridge Fig.15.a: Pre-op (tooth-Implant supported


bridge)

Fig.15.b: post-op (tooth-Implant supported Fig.16.a: Implant supported overdenture


bridge)

Fig.16.b: Dentures for Implant Fig.17.a: Fixed complete denture (screw retained)
supported overdenture

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Fig.17.b: Fixed complete denture after Fig.18.a: Deviated mandible towards left
Ceramic build-up (screw retained)

Fig.18.b: Removable mandibular guide


flange prosthesis

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Theoretical Study of the effects of solvents on global


properties of 1,10-phenanthroline
K.K.Srivastavaa, Shubha Srivastavab , Md. Tanweer Alamc, Riturajd
a,c,d
Department of Chemistry, Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribagh
b
Department of Chemistry, KBW College, Hazaribagh

Abstract- Quantum mechanical calculations of different energies theoretically calculated in this paper.
components of 1,10-phenanthroline in ground state were carried
out by DFT method , in isolated state and in various solvents to
study the effects of solvents on various energy components and II. COMPUTATIONAL METHODS
global properties. The solvation energy, chemical potential, The initial structure of 1,10-phenanthroline was built with
hardness, electrophilicity of 1,10-phenanthroline were calculated Chem-Draw ultra 8.0 and the structure was optimized on
with the help of computed HOMO-LUMO gap of 1,10- Chem3D ultra 8.0. The structure was exported to Maestro 9.3 of
phenanthroline in different solvents in the ground state .The Schrodinger 2012 version. The optimization of the structure was
plots of energy components and thermodynamic parameters done on the Jaguar panel of the Maestro 9. The DFT-BPLY-3
against the dielectric constant of the corresponding solvents were method of theory was chosen. 6-31g ## basis set was selected and
found to be polynomial of higher order. The solvation energy of 255 basis functions were created for calculation. The molecule
1,10-phenanthroline is found to be highest in acetonitrile. was assigned net zero charge and singlet multiplicity. In the
solvent menu of the jaguar panel PBF solver was used for
Index Terms- DFT, Ground state, 1,10-phenanthroline, energy optimization of the structure in both the gaseous and solution
components, HOMO, LUMO, solvation energy, dielectric phase. The optimization the gaseous state and in the different
constants. solutions were done in ground state of the molecule.

I. INTRODUCTION III. GEOMETRY OPTIMIZATION

P hysical and chemical properties of a molecule depend on the


structure and the various kinds of energies of the molecule.
Chemical reaction of a molecule in solution is affected by the
for perform a geometry optimization one needs to guess at
the geometry and the direction in which to search, a set of co-
ordinates to optimize, and some criteria for when to optimization
nature of the solvent; solvent affects not only the energies of is complete. The search direction is obtained from the gradient of
HOMO and LUMO of the molecule, but also other kinds of the energy and the initial Hessian. An initial Hessian (second
energies. Energy of a molecule may be considered to have derivative matrix or force constant matrix) and the gradient are
various energy components such as reaction field energy, total used to define search direction that should result in lowering of
zero-electron terms, Nuclear-nuclear, Nuclear-solvent, total one- energy. The choice if co-ordinate systems have a substantial
electron terms, Electron-nuclear, Electron-solvent, Kinetic, total impact on the convergence of the optimization. The ideal set of
two-electron terms, Electronic energy, total quantum mech. Co-ordinate is one in which the energy change along each co-
energy, Gas phase energy, Solution phase energy, total solute ordinate is maximized, and the coupling between co-ordinates is
energy, total solvent energy, Solute cavity energy, minimized. Jaguar chooses the coordinate system by default. It
Reorganization energy, Solvation energy total internal energy , has two options Cartesian and z-matrix that produces an efficient
total enthalpy, total Gibbs free energy, and zero point energy. optimization requires an understanding of the coupling between
1,10-phenanthroline is a white crystalline solid, It is used in simple internal co-ordinates
preparation of Charge transfer complexes[1-5] of various For optimization to minimum energy structures , the
utilities. 1,10-phenanthroline is also one of the most versatile convergence criterion for SCF calculation is chosen to assure
reagent because it forms complexes with metals and organic accurate analyses gradients. For these jobs, a wave function is
acceptors. 1,10-phenanthroline has a rigid framework and considered converged when the root mean square (RMS) change
possesses a superb ability to chelate many metal ions via two in density matrix element is less than the RMS density matrix
nitrogen donors, which show potential for technological element change criterion, whose default value is 5.0x10-6. The
applications, due to their high charge transfer mobility, bright geometry is considered to have converged when the energy of
light-emission and good electro- and photo-active properties successive geometries and the elements of analyze gradients of
[6–11] the energy and the displacement has met convergence criteria.
Keeping in view the utility of 1,10-phenanthroline various For optimization in solution, the default criteria are multiplied by
kinds of energies of 1,10-phenanthroline in the ground state in a factor of three, and a higher priority is given to the energy
gaseous phase and in different kinds of solvents have been convergence criterion. Thus if the energy change criterion is met

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before the gradient and displacement criteria have been met, the solv follows the Poisson-Boltzmann solver results, giving the
geometry is considered converged. The optimized geometry may number of point charges provided by the solver to model the
not have a local minimization energy i,e it may have reside on a solvent, the sum of the surface charges, the nuclear repulsion
saddle. To know whether it is global minimization we look for energy already calculated by Jaguar, the nuclear-point charge
the value of vibrational frequencies. If all the vibrational energy representing the energy of interaction between the
frequencies are real (i,e +ve) then it represents global minimum , molecule’s nuclei and the solvent point charges, and the point-
but if any of the vibrational frequencies is negative (i,e charge repulsion energy, which is calculated but not used
imaginary) then it is local minimum. because it is irrelevant to the desired solvation results. After this
output, the output for the second solvation iteration begins. The
output from scf comes first, giving the results for the molecule-
IV. PERFORMING A SOLVATION CALCULATION and-solvent-point-charges system. Total quantum mech. energy
It involves several iterations in which the wave functions for corresponds to the final energy from the scf energy table for that
the molecule in the gas phase are calculated. The program ch iteration, and includes the entire energies for the molecule-
performs electrostatic potential fitting, which represents the wave solvent interactions. The output next includes the gas phase and
function as a set of point charges on the atomic centers. The the solution phase energies for the molecule, since these terms
interactions between the molecule and the solvent are evaluated are, of course, necessary for solvation energy calculations. The
by Jaguar’s Poisson-Boltzmann solver [12-13], which fits the first solution phase energy component is the total solute energy,
field produced by the solvent dielectric continuum to another set which includes the nuclear-nuclear, electronnuclear, kinetic, and
of point charges. These charges are passed back to scf, which two-electron terms, but no terms involving the solvent directly.
performs a new calculation of the wave function for the molecule The second component of the solution phase energy is the total
in the field produced by the solvent point charges. Electrostatic solvent energy, which is computed as half of the total of the
potential fitting is performed on the new wave function, the nuclear-solvent and electron-solvent terms, since some of its
solvent-molecule interactions are reevaluated by the Poisson- effect has already changed the solute energy. Third, a solute
Boltzmann solver, and so on, until the solvation free energy for cavity term, which computes the solvation energy of a nonpolar
the molecule converges. solute of identical size and shape to the actual solute molecule, as
For solvation calculations on neutral systems in water the described in reference [12], is included. This is only done for
program pre evaluates the Lewis dot structure for the molecule or water as solvent. The last solution phase energy component
system and assigns atomic van der Waals radii accordingly. (shown only if it is nonzero) is term (T), the first shell correction
These van der Waals radii are used to form the boundary factor, which depends on the functional groups in the molecule,
between the solvent dielectric continuum and the solute with atoms near the surface contributing most heavily. Finally,
molecule. The Lewis dot structure and van der Waals radii the list ends with the reorganization energy and the solvation
information both appear in the output from the program pre. The energy. The reorganization energy is the difference between the
radii are listed under the heading “vdw2” in the table of atomic total solute energy and the gas phase energy, and does not
information below the listing of non-default options. After the explicitly contain solvent terms. The final solvation energy is
pre output, the usual output appears for the first, gas-phase calculated as the solution phase energy described above minus
calculation, except that the energy breakdown for the scf output the gas phase energy. The solvation energy is listed in Hartrees
also describes the electron-nuclear and kinetic contributions to and in kcal/mol,
the total one-electron terms in the energy, as well as the virial
ratio –V/T, where V is the potential energy and T is the kinetic Chemical potential () [14]
energy. This ratio should be –2 if the calculation satisfies the HOMO as ionization energy(IE) and LUMO as electron
virial theorem. After the first scf output, the output from the first affinity (EA) have been used for calculating the electronic
run of the program ch appears. Since performing a solvation chemical potential (m) which is half of the energy of HOMO and
calculation enables electrostatic potential fitting to atomic LUMO
centers, the usual output for that option is included every time = (EHOMO+ELUMO)/2
output from the program ch appears in the output file. The post
program writes out the necessary input files for the Poisson- Hardness ()[15]
Boltzmann solver; this step is noted in the output file. The next
The hardness (h) as half of the gap energy of HOMO and
output section comes from the Poisson-Boltzmann solver. The
LUMO has been calculated using the following equation
output includes information on the area (in Å2) of the molecular
Gap= EHOMO-ELUMO
surface formed from the intersection of spheres with the van der
Waals radii centered on the various atoms; the reaction field  =Gap/2
energy in kT (where T = 298 K), which is the energy of the
interaction of the atom-centered charges with the solvent; the Electrophilicity ()[16]
solvent-accessible surface area (in Å2), which reflects the surface The electrophilicity (  has been calculated using equation
formed from the points whose closest distance from the
molecular surface is equal to the probe radius of the solvent; and
= 2/2
the cavity energy in kT, which is computed to be the solvation
energy of a nonpolar solute whose size and shape are the same as Reaction field energy ( in KT)
those of the actual solute molecule. The output from the program

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ethanol>benzene=carbontetrachloride=cyclohexane=dichlorom
This gives us the energy of the interactions of atom centred ethane >chloroform>THF,
charges with the solvent; Solvent accessible surface area (SASA
02
in A ) reflects the surface formed form the points whose
closest distance from the molecular surface is equal to the probe
radius of the solvent. Therefore, if it is desired to stabilize 1,10-phenanthroline in the
ground state then out of ten solvents studied water is the best.
Cavity energy (in KT) The plot of the energy gap between HOMO and LUMO versus
This is solvation energy of a non-polar solute whose size and dielectric constant of solvents in ground state have been shown
shape are the same as those of actual solute molecule. in the fig 1. The dependence of the energy gap (y) on dielectric
constant (x) in ground state follows the equation y = -5E-10x5 +
Quantum mechanical energy 1E-07x4 - 8E-06x3 + 0.0002x2 - 0.002x - 4.8374,(R² = 0.9988)
This term corresponds to the entire energies for the molecule
solvent interaction and is equal to the sum of total zero electron Figure 1. Effect of dielectric contant on the HOMO-LUMO gap of 1,10-
terms and electronic energy. phenanthroline in the GS

Reorganisation energy
This is the difference between the total solute energy and the
gas phase energy, and does not explicitly contain solvent terms.

I. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Solvent parameters:
Table-1 summarizes the solvent parameters such as dielectric
constants, molecular weight, density and polarity of the solvents
used for the present theoretical study by Poisson-Boltzmann
solver.

The chemical potentials ( of 1,10-phenanthroline in the


ground state increases in the order;
Cyclohexane>
carbontetrachloride>benzene>chloroform>THF>dicloromethan
e >dmf>methanol>acetonitrile>water.
Therefore, if it is desired to have highest chemical potential,
1,10-phenanthroline in the ground state, then out of ten solvents
studied cylohexane is the best.
The plot of the chemical potential versus dielectric constant
of solvents in ground state have been shown in the fig2. The
dependence of the chemical potential (y) on dielectric constant(x)
Table2 summarizes values of HOMO-LUMO energy, μ, η, ω of follows the equation y = -1E-08x5 + 2E-06x4 - 0.0001x3 +
1,10-phenanthroline calculated by DFT -B3LYP/6-31G- level 0.0032x2 - 0.0347x - 3.8416,(R² = 0.998)

In table-3 the energy components calculated by DFT method on


Figure 2.Effect of dielectric contant on the chemical potential of 1,10-
Jaguar panel of the Maestro 9.3 with 6-31g## basis set utilizing phenanthroline in the GS
255 basis functions for 1,10-phenathroline in the ground state
have been incorporated. The pictures of HOMO and LUMO of
1,10-phenanthroline in gaseous state and in various solvents have
been shown in fig.6.
An electron acceptor represents the ability to obtain an
electron in the LUMO and HOMO represents the ability to
donate electron.
The (EHOMO-ELUMO) gap is an important scale of stability
[17] and compounds with large (EHOMO-ELUMO) gap value tend to
have higher stability. The perusal of the table-2 indicates the
stability of 1,10-phenanthroline increases in the solvents in the
ground state in the order; water>dmf>

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The hardness() of 1,10-phenanthroline increases in


the ground state in the following order;
THF=benzene=chloroform>cyclohexane>carbontetrachloride=
dichloromethane >dmf=methanol=acetonitrile>water

The 1,10-phenanthroline molecule has been found to be hardest


in THF,,benzene and chloroform in the ground state. Therefore,
if it is desired to increased hardness of 1,10-phenanthroline to
largest extent in the ground state then out of ten solvents studied
THF,,benzene and chloroform are the best

The plot of hardness versus dielectric constant of solvents in the


ground state have been shown in the fig3. The dependence of
hardness (y) on dielectric constant(x) follows y = 3E-10x5 - 6E-
08x4 + 4E-06x3 - 0.0001x2 + 0.001x + 2.4187,(R² = 0.9988) The Solvation energy of 1,10-phenanthroline in the
Figure 3.Effect of dielectric contant on the hardness of 1,10-phenanthroline in ground state are in the following order; acetonitrile>
the GS dmf>methanol>dichloromethane>THF>water>
chloroform>benzene >carbontetrachloride> cyclohexane
The plot of the solvation energy versus dielectric constant of
solvents in ground state have been shown in the fig-5. The
dependence of the solvation energy(y) on dielectric constant(x)
follows y = -1E-06x5 + 0.0002x4 - 0.0117x3 + 0.2835x2 - 2.8834x
+ 0.3553, (R² = 0.9993)

Figure 5.Effect of dielectric contant on the solvation energy of 1,10-


phenanthroline in the GS

The electrophilicity ( )of 1,10-phenanthroline molecule has


been found to possess high electrophilicity in the ground in
acetonitrile, methanol,dmf, dichloromethane and THF
Therefore, if it is desired to increase electrophilicity of 1,10-
phenanthroline to larger extent in the ground state, then out of ten
solvents studied acetonitrile, methanol,dmf, dichloromethane and
THF are the best.
The plot of electrophilicity (y) versus dielectric constant(x)
of solvents in ground state have been shown in the fig4. The
dependence of the electrophilicity on dielectric constant follows Thus, it was found that 1,10-phenanthroline is most
the y = -3E-11x6 + 6E-09x5 - 3E-07x4 + 9E-06x3 - 0.0001x2 + highly solvated in the ground state in acetonitrile than other
0.0007x + 0.0237,(R² = 0.9992)in the ground. studied solvents.

Figure4.Effect of dielectric contant on the electrophilicity of 1,10-phenanthroline


in the GS

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Figure6.Picture of HOMO-LUMO of 1,10-phenanthroline in the ground state in gaseous and ten various solvents

State HOMO LUMO State HOMO LUMO

dichloromethane
Gaseous state

cyclohexane
methanol

carbontetrchlorid
e DMF

benzene
acetonitrile

chloroform
water

THF

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Table 2. Values of HOMO-LUMO energy, μ, η, ω of 1,10-phenanthroline calculated by DFT -B3LYP/6-31G- level

=(Lumo-
Solvents Gap =Ehomo+Elumo/2 Electrophilicity
HOMO LUMO Homo)/2
=2 
acetonitrile -6.422 -1.600 -4.823 -4.011 2.411 0.026
benzene -6.328 -1.487 -4.841 -3.907 2.421 0.025
carbontetrachloride -6.325 -1.484 -4.841 -3.905 2.420 0.025
chloroform -6.370 -1.528 -4.842 -3.949 2.421 0.025
cyclohexane -6.318 -1.477 -4.841 -3.897 2.420 0.025
dichlormethane -6.395 -1.554 -4.841 -3.975 2.420 0.026
dmf -6.416 -1.593 -4.822 -4.005 2.411 0.026
methanol -6.420 -1.598 -4.823 -4.009 2.411 0.026
THF -6.388 -1.544 -4.843 -3.966 2.422 0.026
Water -6.466 -1.660 -4.806 -4.063 2.403 0.027
(energy in eV)

Table 3. Values of energy components of 1,10-phenanthroline in gaseous state and various solvents in ground state calculated by DFT -B3LYP/6-31G- level
Energy components , in eV Gas-phase Acetonitrile Benzene Carbon Chloroform Cyclohexane Dichloro dmf methanol THF Water
tetrachloride methane
(A)Total zero electon terms 21386.60 21396.75 21388.79 21387.36 21388.26 21387.95 21387.31 21387.98 21388.19 21402.40
(B)Nuclear-nuclear 21390.87 21350.21 21381.96 21374.32 21362.70 21375.47 21357.62 21351.70 21351.86 21359.35 21360.45
(C)Nuclear-solvent 36.39 14.79 14.47 24.65 12.78 30.33 35.62 36.11 28.84 41.96
(E)Total one electron terms -63.44591 -63425.75 -63460.52 -63437.23 -63431.14 -63436.68 -63430.44 -63427.66 -63428.57 -63431.49 -63451.77
(F)Electron-nuclear -78791.35 -78855.77 -78827.22 -78809.84 -78828.51 -78802.90 -78794.14 -78794.57 -78805.55 -78812.48
(G)Electron-solvent -37.80 -15.27 -14.95 -25.54 -13.20 -31.46 -37.02 -37.51 -29.92 -43.45
(H)Kinetic 15403.40 15404.87 15404.94 15404.24 15405.03 15403.91 15403.50 15403.52 15403.98 15404.16
(I)Total two electron terms 26500.63 26483.51 26493.45 26493.58 26488.57 26493.62 26487.08 26484.72 26484.97 26487.93 26493.69
(L)Electronic energy (E+I) -36945.8 -36942.24 -36943.76 -36943.65 -36942.57 -36943.06 -36943.36 -36942.94 -36943.60 -36943.56 -36958.09
(N)Total quantum mechanical
-15554.86 -15554.81 -15555.41 -15555.63 -15555.62 -15555.36 -15555.68
energy(A+L) -15554.41 -15555.63 -15554.87 -15555.21
(O)Gas phase energy -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41 -15554.41
(P)Solution phase
-15554.62 -15554.60 -15554.84 -15554.92 -15554.92 -15554.83 -15554.81
energy(Q+R+S) -15554.93 -15554.63 -15554.77
(Q)Total solute energy(N-C-G) -15554.22 -15554.38 -15554.38 -15554.33 -15554.39 -15554.28 -15554.22 -15554.22 -15554.29 -15554.19
(R)Total solvent energyC/2+G/2) -0.71 -0.24 -0.24 -0.44 -0.21 -0.56 -0.70 -0.70 -0.54 -0.75
(S)Solute cavity energy 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13
(U)Reorganization energy(Q-O) 0.19 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.02 0.13 0.19 0.19 0.12 0.22
(V)solvation energy(P-O) (kj/mol) -11.89 -4.92 -4.87 -8.20 -4.30 -9.95 -11.79 -11.78 -9.57 -9.14

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CONCLUSION
The present study on solvent effect on the energy components of 1,10-phenanthroline in ground state by ten different solvents has
lead us to conclude it is highly solvated in acetonitrile while lowest in cyclohexane. It has been found that 1,10-phenanthroline is
most hard, in cyclohexane and least hard in water. The chemical potential of 1,10-phenanthroline is found to be highest in THF and
lowest in water.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are thankful to Will Richard, Raghu Rangaswamy, Vinod Dewarjee for providing the Shrodinger2012 software.

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AUTHORS
First Author – K.K.Srivastava, Department of Chemistry, Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribagh, E-mail:
[email protected]
Second Author – Shubha Srivastava, Department of Chemistry, KBW College, Hazaribagh
Third Author – Md. Tanweer Alam, Department of Chemistry, Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribagh
Fourth Author – Rituraj, Department of Chemistry, Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribagh

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A study to assess the effectiveness of planned teaching


programme on knowledge of staff nurses regarding
prevention of urinary tract infection among patients with
indwelling catheter
Vijay Purbia1, Himanshu Vyas2, Maneesh Kumar Sharma3, Devashri Rathore4
1
Lecturer, Geetanjali College of Nursing, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
2
Tutor, College of Nursing, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
3
Tutor, College of Nursing, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh,Uttarakhand,India
4
Lecturer, Geetanjali College of Nursing, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

Abstract- A One group pre-test post-test experimental study to antibiotic resistance in India are few. The present trends of the
assess the effectiveness of planned teaching program on uro-pathogens and their susceptibility to various antibiotics are
knowledge of staff nurses regarding prevention of urinary tract essential to formulate guidelines for the empirical treatment of
infection among patients with indwelling catheter. The sample UTIs while awaiting the culture sensitivity.
consisting of 90 staff nurses was selected by using simple A study was conducted on “Candiduria in catheterized
random sampling. The tool comprised of structured self- intensive care unit patients: emerging microbiological trends” at
administered questionnaire. The pretest was conducted and the Department of Microbiology, GB Pant Hospital, New Delhi,
planned teaching program was administered. The post test was India. The study on Urinary tract infection (UTI) as a result of
conducted after one week. The data obtained were analyzed by Candida spp. is becoming increasingly common in hospitalized
using differential and inferential statistics.The mean score of setting. Clinicians face dilemma in differentiating colonization
post-test knowledge 21.53 (71.76%) was apparently higher than from true infection and whether to treat candiduria or not. The
the mean score of pre-test knowledge 13.51 (45.03%), suggesting patients admitted in the ICUs and perform microbiological
that the planned teaching programme was effective in increasing characterization of yeasts to guide treatment protocols. The result
the knowledge of the staff nurses regarding prevention of urinary of the study Candiduria was more common at extremes of age.
tract infection among patients with indwelling catheter. The The mean duration of catheter days was 11.1 ± 6 days.
mean difference 8.02 between pre-test and post-test knowledge Concomitant candidemia was seen in 4.3% of cases. Non-
score of the staff nurses was found to be significant. albicans Candida spp. (71.4%) emerged as the predominant
pathogen causing nosocomial UTI8.
Index Terms- Urinary tract infection, Indwelling catheter,One The urinary system is the most common site for all hospital-
group pre – test post – test experimental study acquired infections, accounting for approximately 40% of all
nosocomial infections. The knowledge of staff nurses regarding
prevention of urinary tract infection in patients with indwelling
I. INTRODUCTION catheter can help patients prevent urinary tract infection.
Therefore the researchers were interested to take on the study.
U rinary tract infection (UTI) usually refers to the presence of
bacteria (> 105 bacteria per ml of urine) in the urinary tract
together with symptoms, and sometimes signs, of inflammation.
It is characterized by frequency of micturation, dysuria, Pyuria, II. RESEARCH ELABORATIONS
nucturia, fever, occasional suprapubic pain, and haematuria. UTI Statement of problem –
is one of the most commonly occurring bacterial Infections “A study to assess the effectiveness of planned teaching
among men and women programme on knowledge of staff nurses regarding prevention
Empirical antibiotic therapy is usually applied here and for of urinary tract infection among patients with indwelling catheter
this, knowledge of the common uro-pathogens and their in selected hospital at Udaipur, Rajasthan, India”
susceptibility to commonly used antibiotics is needed. Treatment
becomes even more challenging in the presence of risk factors III. OBJECTIVES
such as higher age, co morbidity, and immunosuppressant. Many 1. To assess the pre-test knowledge of staff nurses on
times, physicians resort to prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics prevention of urinary tract infection among patients
over specific antibiotics in the view of resistance of the causative with indwelling catheter
organism to the antibiotic. Poor patient compliance and 2. To administer the planned teaching programme on staff
incomplete course of antibiotic therapy have resulted in the nurses to prevention of urinary tract infection among
evolution of resistance to many of these antibiotics. Various patients with indwelling catheter
studies done worldwide have shown changing patterns in the
etiology of UTIs. However, studies on UTI and the pattern of

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3. To assess the post-test knowledge of staff nurses on V. MATERIALS AND METHODS


prevention of urinary tract infection among patients Population – Staff Nurses
with indwelling catheter Sample – Staff Nurses working in Geetanjali Hospital, Udaipur
4. To compare pre-test and post-test knowledge score of Sample size – 90 staff nurses
staff nurses on prevention of urinary tract infection Setting – Geetanjali Hospital, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
among patients with indwelling catheter
Conceptual framework –the conceptual framework for this
study was derived from General System Theory. According to
IV. HYPOTHESIS General System theory, a system is a set of components or unit
H1 - There will be a significant difference between pre-test interacting with each other within a boundary that filters the kind
knowledge scores and post- test knowledge scores of staff nurses and rate of flow of inputs and outputs to and from the system.
regarding prevention of urinary tract infection among patients
with indwelling catheter.

Figure 1 – Conceptual framework

VI. RESEARCH DESIGN


The research design selected for the present study was a one
group pre-test post-test research design

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GROUP PRE-TEST TREATMENT POST –TEST

(Dependent (Independent variable) (Dependent


variable) variable)
RE O1 X O2
RE Knowledge of Planned teaching programme regarding prevention of UTI Among patients with Knowledge of
Staff Nurses indwelling catheter Staff Nurses
Table 1: One group pre and post-test research design

The interpretations of the symbol are as below:


RE - Randomized experimental group
O1 - Administration of pre-test knowledge questionnaire
O2 - Administration of post-test knowledge questionnaire
X - Intervention, treatment (independent variable) i.e. PTP.

Ethical Consideration
After obtaining permission from research committee of VII. RESULTS
Geetanjali College of Nursing, prior permission was obtained Table 2: Frequency and Percentage distribution of
from nursing superintendent Geetanjali medical college and respondents to their level of knowledge score
Hospital at Udaipur. Consent was taken from each participant N=90
who had participated in the study.
Respondents
Description of the Tool Level of
The structured knowledge questionnaire consisted of two Score Pre-test Post-test
Knowledge
parts i.e. Part – I & II. Percent Percent
Part - I: consisted of 6 items on demographic data such as Frequency Frequency
(%) (%)
Age, Gender , Religion, Educational Qualification ,Working Inadequate
Experience, Attended any seminar or workshop related UTIs. <50% 53 58.88 0 0
knowledge
Part - II: consisted of 30 knowledge items. Each item was Moderately 50-
multiple choices in nature with 4 choices. 11 12.22 60 66.66
knowledge 75%

Scoring Adequate
>75% 26 28.88 30 33.33
The knowledge of Staff Nurses regarding the outcomes of knowledge
Urinary Tract Infection was scored as follows, one mark for each
correct answer and zero marks for incorrect answer. The Total 90 100 90 100
maximum score was 30, to interpret level of knowledge the score
was distributed as follows; Table 2: The result showed that, in pre-test out of 90
Interpretation of knowledge: respondents 53 respondents (58.88 %) belongs to inadequate
knowledge and 11 respondents (12.22%) belongs to moderate
Level Range knowledge and 26 respondents (28.88%) belongs to adequate
Inadequate knowledge <50 % knowledge regarding prevention of urinary tract infection among
Moderate knowledge 50-75 % patient with indwelling catheter.
Adequate knowledge >75 % In post-test 60 (66.66%) respondents belongs to moderate
knowledge and 30(33.33 %) respondents belongs to adequate
An answer key was prepared for scoring answer to the knowledge.
structured knowledge questionnaire.

Data Collection and Data Analysis


The data was presented under the following sections
Section-I: Description of demographic variables of the
respondents.
Section-II: Distribution of Respondents according pre-test
and post-test level of knowledge score.
Section-III: Effectiveness of planned teaching programme
on knowledge of staff nurses on prevention of urinary tract
infection among patients with indwelling catheter

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PREVENTION OF URINARY TRACT INFECTION AMONG


PATIENTS WITH INDWELLING CATHETER.
The paired “t” value was computed to determine the
effectiveness of planned teaching programme on knowledge of
staff nurses on prevention of urinary tract infection among
patients with indwelling catheter.

The following research hypothesis was stated


H1 - There is a significant difference between pre-test
knowledge scores and post- test knowledge scores of staff nurses
regarding prevention of urinary tract infection among patients
with indwelling catheter.

Table 3: Effectiveness of planned teaching programme on


knowledge of staff nurses on prevention of urinary tract
infection among patients with indwelling catheter.

N=90
Paired
Knowledge Mean P
Mean SD Df “t”
Assessment Difference Value
test
Pre-test 13.51 3.70
8.02 89 17.06 <0.05
Post-test 21.53 2.74

Table 3: The result showed that that the mean post-test


knowledge score (21.53) was higher than the mean pre-test score
(11.13). The mean difference pre-test score (8.02) of knowledge
Figure 2: Frequency and Percentage distribution of was significant at 0.05 % level at the “t” = 17.06 *P<0.05. Hence
respondents to their level of knowledge score research hypothesis H1 was accepted. This indicates that the PTP
was effective in increasing the knowledge of staff nurses on
SECTION: III prevention of urinary tract infection among patients with
EFFECTIVENESS OF PLANNED TEACHING indwelling catheter.
PROGRAMME ON KNOWLEDGE OF STAFF NURSES ON

Table 4: Area wise comparison between pre-test and post-test


N= 90

Pre-test Post-test
Max.
Area of Knowledge Mean Mean
Score Mean % Range SD Mean % Range SD
score score
Concept and
5 2.66 53.2 4 1.0 3.88 77.77 3 0.72
definition of UTI
Causes & risk factor
5 2.05 41 5 0.92 3.42 68.44 3 0.76
of UTI
Pathophysiology and
Sign & symptoms of 3 1.72 57.33 3 0.87 2.18 72.96 2 0.68
UTI

Diagnostic test of
4 1.85 46.25 4 1.06 2.8 70 3 0.83
UTI

Management &
4 1.58 39.5 4 0.99 2.63 65.83 3 0.79
treatment of UTI

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Complications of
1 0.22 22 1 0.41 0.63 63.33 1 0.48
UTI
Prevention of UTI 8 3.4 42.5 8 1.38 5.96 74.58 5 1.13

Table 4: The result showed that the mean, standard deviation and percentage of pre-test and post-test knowledge score on
different areas of prevention of urinary tract infection.
[4] Chedi, B.A.Z. et.al. “A seven months retrospective study on urinary tract
infection” December 2(2).p. 95 – 98
In the area of Concept and definition of Urinary tract
[5] Ann Pallett, et.al. “Complicated urinary tract infections” November 2010,
infection in the pre-test knowledge mean score 2.66 and SD 1.0 65(3).p. 25-33
range 4 in pre-test experimental group and mean value 3.88 and [6] PendseAK et.al. “The etiology of urolithiasis” 1986; 14(2).p.59-62.
SD 0.72 range 3 in post-test experimental group. [7] GauravDalela, Sweta Gupta, et.al. “Antibiotic Resistance Pattern in
In the area of Causes & risk factor of UTI, the mean score Uropathogens” May (2012):6(4).p. 645 – 651
2.05 and SD 0.92 range 5 in pre-test experimental group and [8] Jain M, Dogra V et.al. “Candiduria in catheterized intensive care unit
mean score 3.42 and SD 0.76 range 3 in post-test experimental patients: emerging microbiological trends” 2011 Jul-Sep;54(3).p.552-5
group. [9] Burns N, Grove SK. Understanding Nursing Research. 2nd Edition.
In the area of Pathophysiology and Sign & symptoms of Philadelphia: Saunders; 2004.p.742-58.
UTI, mean score 1.72 and SD 0.87 range 3 in pre-test [10] Polit DF, Hungler B.P. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods.
6th Edition: Philadelphia: Lippincott; 2000.
experimental group and mean score 2.18 and SD 0.68, range 2 in
post-test experimental group.
In the area of Diagnostic test of UTI, mean score 1.85 and
SD 1.06 range 4 in pre-test experimental group and mean score AUTHORS
2.8 and SD 0.83 range 3 in post-test experimental group First Author – Vijay Purbia, Lecturer, Geetanjali College of
In the area of Management & treatment of UTI, mean score Nursing, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
1.58 and SD 0.99 range 4 in pre-test experimental group and Second Author – Himanshu Vyas, Tutor, College of Nursing,
mean score 2.63 and SD 0.79 range 3 in post-test experimental All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
group. Third Author – Maneesh Kumar Sharma, Tutor, College of
In the area of Complications of UTI, mean score 0.22 and Nursing, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh,
SD 0.41 range 1 in pre-test experimental group and mean score Uttarakhand, India
0.63 and SD 0.48 range 1 in post-test experimental group. Fourth Author – Devashri Rathore, Lecturer, Geetanjali College
In the area of Prevention of UTI, mean score 3.4 and SD of Nursing, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
1.38 range 8 in pre-test experimental group and mean score 5.96
and SD 1.13 range 5 in post-test experimental group.
Therefore the results confirmed that the planned teaching
program was highly effective in improving the knowledge of
staff nurses regarding the prevention of urinary tract infection in
patients with indwelling catheters.

VIII. CONCLUSION
The study aimed at testing the effectiveness of planned
teaching program on knowledge of staff nurses regarding
prevention of urinary tract infection among patient with
indwelling catheters. The result showed that the planned teaching
program was highly effective. The implications of this study
emphasize on inclusion of teaching programs on prevention of
urinary tract infection in clients with catheters in the hospital
continuing education programs, so that the nosocomial infections
can be prevented.

REFERENCES
[1] M Eshwarappa, et.al. “ Clinico-microbiological profile of urinary tract
infection”: 2011.p.30-36
[2] Parker D, et.al. “Nursing interventions to reduce the risk of catheter
associated urinary tract” Jan-Feb 2009; 36(1); p. 23-34.
[3] Edward s. Wong, M.D., “Urinary Tract Infections in Adults” 1999 Mar 1;
59(5). p. 1225-1234.

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Germplasm evaluation in genus Carex of family


Cyperaceae
Paramjeet Cheema

IAS & Allied Services Training Centre, Punjabi University, Patiala-147002, India

Abstract- To prepare a database of germplasm diversity in the al. (1982; 1986; 1988a, b; 1990a,b; 1991; 1992a,b; 1993a,b;
Indian sedges, cytological studies were initiated on population 1996), Cheema and Bir (1994a,b; 1995; 1996; 1997), Wujek et
basis from Punjab plains and adjoining areas. About 2000 al. (1997), Kaur and Gupta (2008-2009), Cheema and Gupta
taxonomical species have been recorded for major genus Carex (2011, 2012) from Punjab state of NW India.
but the cytological picture is quite dismal at the world level with There has been a considerable confusion about phylogenetic
chromosome records for only 579 species and 14 out of about and systematic position of the family as well as delimitation of
148 Indian species. The chromosome number varies from 2n=12 some genera within family. Frequently different members
to 2n=114 on worldwide basis. Polyploids, intraspecific and belonging to one genus are transferred to another. Hooker (1897)
aneuploid cytotypes are very common. Data suggest the divided the family into four sections Cypereae including tribes
existence of x=6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17 and 19. Chromosome Eucypereae, Scirpeae and Rhynchosporeae; Hypolytreae;
numbers 2n=60 is most frequent which support x=6 as the Sclerieae and Cariceae. To assess the evolutionary patterns of
primary base numbers for Carex. The genus is dominated by sedges, in present communication an attempt has been made to
polyploids with 98.96% of the taxa being polyploid ranging from elucidate the total chromosomal diversity in the Carex at India
4x-12x ploid level. The chromosome size of the genus is small and world level based on chromosomal data available till date.
which support the breakage of diffuse centric chromosomes to Approximately 16% of described Carex species have been
account for existence of high %age of chromosome number sampled (Roalson, 2008).
variations which are perpetuated through vegetative
multiplication prevalent in the family.
II. COLLECTION OF CHROMOSOMAL DATA
Index Terms- Aneuploidy, Diffuse centric chromosome, All the available information on chromosome numbers of
Germplasm, Polyploidy, Sedge, Vegetative propagation. Carex has been documented and analysed from Darlington and
Wylie (1955); Fedrov (1969); Index to Plant Chromosome
Numbers (1970–2003)compiled by Goldblatt (1973-2003); IOPB
I. INTRODUCTION chromosome number reports published in Taxon from 1965

F amily Cyperaceae to which belong the sedges is one of the


largest and widely distributed families of the monocots
represented throughout the world by about 4000 species
onwards and Biological Abstacts from 1971 onwards; Roalson
(2008) and other recent papers published in different journals and
internet sites.
(Santapau and Henry 1973). In India around 400 species of the
family are found as dominant constituent of the marshy flora.
Due to prevalence of chromosomal diversity, polyploidy and III. CHROMOSOME NUMBERS
aneuploidy coupled with vegetative means of propagation, the Carex Linn. with an estimated 2000 species is the largest
family forms a very good object to understand the various genus of the family Cyperaceae. In India, it is represented by 148
evolutionary processes involved in speciation. Some of the species of which 22 occur in South India (Clarke 1894 , Fischer
genera like Carex, Cyperus, Scirpus,etc. show high polyploid and 1931). On the basis of inflorescence morphology, Kükenthal
aneuploid series. (1909) divided this genus into four subgenera and reorganized 69
The importance of cytology as one of the parameters to solve sections. In addition, Carex has remained a classic example of
the problems related to interrelationships and evolution of plant cytotaxonomic confusion (Heilborn 1939). A perusal of literature
groups, their reproductive behaviour and their systematic pertaining to the cytology of Carex revealed that a majority of
disputes has been realized long ago. Sedges have also attracted the species investigated are from temperate zones and many
good attention particularly from Japan, Europe and North tropical ones have remained either untouched or insufficiently
America. As far as Indian sedges are concerned cytological examined. Considering the size of this genus, the cytological
studies have been done by Sharma and Bal (1956), Sanyal and work done in India is very inadequate.
Sharma (1972), Rath and Patnaik (1974, 1978), Mehra and The variation of chromosome numbers within the genus and
Sachdeva (1975a,b; 1976) from Eastern India; Nijalingappa even within the species is quite common in Cyperaceae. At world
(1972, 1973, 1975, 1977), Nijalingappa and Leela Bai (1990), level 249 species out of 579 and at India level 7 species out of
Nijalingappa et al. (1978), Tejavathi and Nijalingappa (1990), 14 show either intraspecific or aneuploid cytotypes as reflected
Subramanium (1988) from Southern India and Bir and Cheema in Table 1. Further Carex is characterized by very high
(1994), Cheema (1991), Cheema et al. (1992a,b; 1993a,b), Bir et aneuploid chromosome numbers. These range from 2n=12 in

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Carex ciliato-marginata, C. siderosticta Hance to 2n=114 in C. x=44 in Uncinia of Cyperaceae. Stebbins (1950) considered
cuspidata Host, C. hirta Linn. and C. pilosa Scop. Thus like x=10 or lower numbers as the base numbers of the primary origin
Poaceae, the Carex and in turn Cyperaceae represents a group of and all the other numbers as secondary base numbers. It may be
flowering plants with highly variable chromosome numbers. stressed here that adequate data pertaining to chromosome
From Fig.1, it is concluded that chromosome number in the numbers is a foremost necessity for deducing base number of a
genus ranges from 2n=12 to 2n=114 with 2n=60 (75 taxa) being genus.
the most frequent followed by 2n=56 (62 taxa), 2n=58 (60 taxa) As far as family Cyperaceae is concerned, a lot of confusion
and 2n=68 (58 taxa). The variation on the lower and higher side exists about the base numbers. According to Wulff (1939), x=5 is
might have been due to phylogenetic decrease and increase in the supposed to be the original base number of the whole family and
chromosome numbers at diploid level. it is also supported by Mehra and Sachdeva (1975b) where as
Subramanium (1988) considered the existence of x=8 as the
primary base number for the family. According to him x=8
IV. DIFFUSE CENTROMERE should have given rise to other basic numbers x=9, 10, and 11 by
Chromosomes in Cyperaceae are diffuse centric or means of aneuploidy. An analysis of various basic chromosome
holocentric or polycentric meaning that centromeric activity is numbers on world-wide basis reveals that many genera show
distributed along the entire chromosome (Håkansson 1954). dibasic, tribasic or polybasic nature.
Heilborn (1928) noted that Carex chromosomes lack an obvious Various base numbers reported in the largest genus of the
constriction, but it took more precise studies (Sharma and Bal family, Carex are x=6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17 and 19. The
1956) to demonstrate that this was due to lack of a localized chromosome numbers recorded for this genus range between
centromere. Holocentry had previously been identified in the 2n=12 to 2n=114. The occurrence of this unusually wide range of
chromosomes of the Juncaceae (De Castro 1950; La Cour 1952), chromosome numbers which are not in multiples of any common
the sister family to the Cyperaceae. In holocentric chromosomes, basic number led earlier workers to postulate different basic
fragments that arise by breakages are retained during meiosis and numbers. Heilborn (1924) inferred the base number of Carex to
inherited in Mendelian fashion (Faulkner 1972; Luceño 1993). be 7 while Wahl (1940) suggested x=5, 6, 7 and 8. Supporting
Consequently, breakages may result in viable gametes with Heilborn, he believed that many of the species are derived by
aneuploid numbers that can become stabilized through secondary polyploidy balancing at a number just below or just
backcrossing or selfing. Holocentric chromosomes occur above the real euploid numbers from the species with a basic
throughout the Cyperaceae and Juncaceae as well as in four other number 7 which is the most common. Löve et al. (1957) argues
Angiosperm genera Cuscuta L. subgenus Cuscuta (Pazy and for a base number of x=5. Both Heilborn and Löve et al.
Plitmann 1994; Guerra and García 2004), Drosera L. (Sheikh et however, believed that chromosome numbers were essentially
al. 1995), Chionographis Maxim. (Tanaka and Tanaka 1977), invariant within species, and consequently they considered base
and Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Flach 1966). It has been numbers within the genus to be readily inferable from counts of
suggested that non-localized centromeres, i.e. holocentric individual species. A more recent study finds majority of the
chromosome structure appears to be uniform across the chromosome numbers as multiples of 6 (Roalson et al. 2007).
Cyperaceae. Present analysis also support 6 as base number as reflected by
chromosome maxima at 2n=60 (Fig. 1). According to Hipp et al.
(2009) the concept of base numbers may not be useful in Carex
because of the uncertainty in chromosome numbers due to
V. POST-REDUCTIONAL MEIOSIS
intraspecific variation prevalent in the genus.
Unlike most groups of organisms, the Cyperaceae undergo Large variation in basic numbers clearly reflect the role of
post-reductional meiosis. In pre-reductional meiosis, which is the aneuploidy and neopolyploidy in the origin of these numbers.
more common type, homologous chromosomes segregate in the
first round of meiosis, and sister chromatids segregate in the
second. In post-reductional meiosis, this order is reversed VII. POLYPLOIDY
(Battaglia and Boyes 1955). Post-reductional meiosis was first
observed in Carex by Heilborn (1928) and demonstrated Sedges exhibit a wide range of chromosome numbers which
conclusively by Wahl (1940) whereas Tanaka (1941) had is clear indication of the prevalence of polyploidy. On world-
reported pre-reductional meiosis from the Cyperaceae. The order wide basis the overall polyploidy in Cyperaceae has been
of meiosis has been confirmed, however, using molecular estimated to be 77% (Goldblatt 1980) and 94.7% (Bir et al.
cytogenetic methods (Hoshino et al. 1999). Invariably associated 1988a). As far as Indian sedges are concerned 89% of them are
with post-reductional meiosis in angiosperms is the absence of noticed to be by Bir et al. (1988a), 85.5% by Cheema (1991),
localized centromeres (Battaglia and Boyes 1955). Chromosomes 72.3% by Cheema and Bir (1997) and 90% at world level and
in sedges and other organisms that undergo post-reductional 87.64% by Cheema and Gupta (2012).
meiosis are holocentric. In Carex, 98.96% at world level and 100% Indian species
are found to be polyploidy (Table 1). Various levels of ploidy in
the tribe are 2x, 4x, 5x, 6x, 7x, 8x, 9x, 10x, 11x and 12x with 10x
being the most frequent. So it can be concluded that higher
VI. BASE NUMBERS
grades of polyploidy are very common in the genus.
A perusal of literature reveals that the basic number in
Angiosperms vary from x=2 in Haplopappus of Compositae to Autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy

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Polyploidy has been demonstrated in a few species in the of the main factors responsible for aneuploidy in Cyperaceae
genus (Tanaka, 1949), though it plays a much more important with diffuse nature of centromere.
role in chromosome evolution in the rest of the family (Luceño et Chromosome number change in most angiosperms proceeds
al. 1998; Vanzela et al. 2000; Yano et al. 2004; Yano and by duplication of chromosomes, but in Carex these are primarily
Hoshino 2005). Yano et al. (2013) has reported polyploidy as by fission and fusion (Wahl 1940; Davies 1956; Hoshino 1981,
significant player in the chromosomal variations in Siderostictae Hipp et al. 2009). Malheiros-Gardé and Gardé (1950) coined the
section of Carex. According to Löve et al. 1957 the only case of term agmatoploidy to describe chromosome number changes via
polyploid speciation with invariant chromosome numbers in fission in Luzula (Juncaceae). The term has subsequently been
Carex is in section Chlorostachyae Tuck. Ex Meinsh. used to describe decreases due to fusion as well (Löve et al.
(=Capillares (Asch. and Graebn.) Rouy). However, this study, 1957; Luceño 1994). Agmatoploidy contrasts with strict or
which suggests speciation associated with autopolyploid changes quantitative aneuploidy, which refers to chromosome number
in chromosome number, is based on mitotic counts, and it is changes due to duplication of single chromosomes. Heilborn
difficult to interpret type of ploidy in Carex except in species (1924) held that although chromosome fission probably played a
with the lowest numbers (Hipp et al. 2009). role in the origins of Carex, more recent chromosome number
Autopolyploidy is well documented in just three carices increases in the genus must be a consequence of chromosome
(Tanaka 1949) e.g. Carex siderosticta Hance. (2n=12, 24), C. duplications. Further, according to Rothrock and Reznicek
dolichostachya Hayata subsp. dolichostachya (=C. multifolia (1998) the presence of only even-numbered haploid counts and
Ohwi) (2n=30, 60, 64, 65, 66). As hypothesized by Heilborn tetravalents in most individuals counted suggests that
(1924) and supported by most subsequent workers, chromosome number change in that species may be associated
allopolyploidy is rare if present at all in Carex. Only two taxa, C. with chromosome duplication rather than or in addition to
jacIkiana Boott subsp. parciflora (Boott) Kük. (=C. parciflora agmatoploid changes.
Boott) and C. roraimensis Steyerm. have been proposed to have
allotetraploid origin.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Infraspecific Polyploidy While there have been more than 4,000 chromosome counts
Infraspecific cytotypes have been observed in about 20 in the family, these only represent approximately 16% of the
species (table 1) e.g. C. filicina Nees (2n=14, 42), C. flacca species currently recognized in the Cyperaceae. Further, the
Schreb. (2n=38, 76), C. humilis Leyss. (2n=36, 72), C. insniae maximum counts have been made in Carex, with few or no
Koidz. (2n=50, 60) etc. Infraspecific agmatoploidy or aneuploidy counts made in many genera. Assessment of the counts presented
is widespread in Carex (Tanaka 1940a,b, 1948, 1949; Wahl here is also complicated by questions of specimen identification
1940; Faulkner 1972; Whitkus 1981, 1988, 1991; Cayouette and accuracy and a lack of vouchers in some prominent studies of
Morisset 1985, 1986a, b; Luceño and Castroviejo 1991; Hoshino chromosome number variation in the family. Despite this, the
et al. 1994; Hoshino and Waterway 1994; Rothrock and patterns of chromosome number distributions within family
Reznicek 1996, 1998; Naczi 1999). Some species exhibit suggests that while aneuploidy may dominate the overall pattern
variation within populations (Luceño and Castroviejo 1991) or of chromosome number there is evidence for both aneuploid and
even individual plants (Schmid 1982; Luceño 1994). The polyploid chromosome number changes within the genera. From
different euploid chromosome races within species all show the above discussion it is clear that the chromosomal variations
regular meiosis and are indistinguishable from one another in number have played a major role in the speciation and genetic
morphologically (Schmid 1982; Cayouette and Morisset 1986b; diversity in the Carex. Further to elucidate the relationships in
Whitkus 1988; Rothrock and Reznicek 1996, 1998), though some this complex group, there is a need for integration of
chromosome races exhibit disrupted meiosis (Cayouette and biosystematic, cytogenetic and genomic studies across the genus
Morisset 1986b). and to have more information from the modern tools of genetic
A few studies demonstrate apparent correlations between markers at DNA level.
geography and infraspecific chromosomal variation. While the
incidence of polyploidy across angiosperms increases with
latitude (Grant 1981) there is not a general correlation between
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
latitude and chromosome number in Carex ( Hipp et al. 2009).
I am greatly thankful to Dr. R.C. Gupta, Professor,
Aneuploidy Department of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala for his
Cyperaceae is characterized by extensive aneuploid series as constant help in bringing out this article.
stated by Stebbins (1971). High aneuploid series of chromosome
numbers found in the family are probably modified form of
polyploidy through increase or decrease in chromosome number REFERENCES
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[78] Sachdeva SK 1972 Cytomorphological studies on West Himalayan AUTHORS
monocots with particular reference to species of economic importance, PhD First Author – Paramjeet Cheema, M.Sc. Ph.D., Assistant
thesis Punjab University, Chandigarh.
Professor, IAS & Allied Services Training Centre, Punjabi
[79] Santapau H and Henry AW 1973 A Dictionary of Flowering Plants of India.
Publ. and Infor Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi. University, Patiala-147002, India [email protected]
[80] Sanyal B and Sharma A 1972 Cytological studies in Indian Cyperaceae I
tribe Scirpeae. Cytologia 37 13-32. Correspondence Author – Paramjeet Cheema, M.Sc. Ph.D.,
[81] Schmid B 1982 Karyology and hybridization in the Carex flava complex in Assistant Professor, IAS & Allied Services Training Centre,
Switzerland. Feddes Repert. 93 23-59. Punjabi University, Patiala-147002, India
[82] Sharma AK and Bal AK 1956 A cytological investigation of some members [email protected]
of family Cyperaceae. Phyton 6 7-22.
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nature of Drosera chromosomes. Cytologia 60 43-47.
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I Species from plains. Cytologia 53 67-72.
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310.

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Table 1 Data on total number of taxonomically and cytologically known species, level and frequency of polyploidy, frequency of different cytotypes and probable
base number/ in genus Carex Linn. on World basis (+) and from India (++)

No. of species
Total no No. of species
No. of cytologically worked out with
of with more than
species %age of Total Known chromosome number (2n) intraspecific
taxono- Levels of one base Probable
poly- number of Fig. in parenthesis represent the cytotypes at the
mically ploidy number or base
Genus

ploidy cytotypes no. of cytotypes same base


known aneuploid numbers*
number which
species Total Diploid Polyploid cytotypes
is in parenthesis

+ 1500- 579 6 573 98.96 2x, 4x, 5x, 1144 12(2),14(2), 16(2), 18(6), 20(2), 2(6), 3(7,9,19), 249 6, 7, 8, 9,
2000 6x, 7x, 8x, 24(3), 25(1), 26(10), 28(3), 4(8), 10(10), 10, 11, 13,
9x, 10x, 30(12), 32(14), 33(3), 34(19), 1(13,17) 17, 19
11x, 12x 35(4), 36(20), 38(26), 39(3),
40(27), 41(1), 42(15), 43(1),
44(24), 46(20), 48(33), 50(35),
52(53), 54(49), 55(2), 56(62),
58(60), 60(75), 61(2), 62(43),
63(2), 64(46), 65(1), 66(42),
67(5), 68(58), 69(6), 70(52),
71(2), 72(37), 73(4), 74(45),
75(3), 76(48), 77(6), 78(30),
79(4), 80(41), 82(1), 84(32),
85(3), 86(10), 88(7), 90(5), 92(3),
94(1), 98(2), 100(1), 104(2),
105(1), 106(2), 108(1), 110(1),
112(4), 114(3)

++ 148 14 - 14 100.00 6x, 8x, 10x, 19 42(2), 44(3), 46(3), 48(2), 52(1), - 7 6, 7, 8, 9,
12x 58(2), 60(2), 68(1), 74(1), 84(1), 10, 13
104(1)

*Base numbers in bold are more common

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Child Labour - Social and Economic Realities Which


Effecting Child Development
Mrs.P.G.Sunandamma

Principal, Roda Mistry College of Social Work and Research Center, Hyderabad

examine the social situation which makes the children work


I. INTRODUCTION (Mohisin’ 1980: 27-2). The child labour could be defined as an
activity of earning of supporting self or family which directly or
C hild Labour is a harsh reality and unavoidable in the present
scenario of social and economic realities. Child Labour is
not a new problem. It is a age old problem and it is perceived as a
indirectly comes into conflict with the opportunities for further
physical and mental growth of the child. In India the term child
social evil in present situation. The Encyclopedia of social labour refers to those engaged in earnable work. Child labour
sciences (1959) defines child labour as “When the business of includes working in all forms of non industrial occupations
wage earning or of participation in work, conflicts directly or which are injurious to their physical, mental, moral and social
indirectly with the business of growth and education of children development.
the result is child labour. “Any work by children that interfere with their full physical
The child labour is essentially a development problem. It is development, their opportunities for a desirable minimum of
prevalent in all the developing countries. The problem of child education or their needed recreation”. Home folks (1979),
labour is an universal phenomenon. It is in existence in one form chairman US National Child Labour Committee.
or another since historic times. However it is perverted as a The term child labour basically means the children below the
social problem. The child labour problem is significantly acute in age of fifteen who are employed for hire or reward in occupation
the developing countries than in the developed nation with the that are injurious to their physical, mental, intellectual, moral and
increasing rate of industrialization and modernization. The social development due to depression and exploitation internet in
incidence of child labour in all the developing countries has been that employment (Patel, B.R; 1988:2) , hence the term child
growing at an alarming rate. labour is not applicable to children working in all for an hour or
The child labour concept leads to confusion as it is guided by two to earn their pocket money or assisting their parents in house
various individual considerations. So a standard has to be work.
accepted to determine an age range for defining a child labour is According to child labour prohibition and regulation act of
one of the oldest profession of the world and has remained as the 1986 employment of children up to the age of 14 years and in the
most neglected part of population for the last few centuries case of hazardous employment up to 18 years is define as child
(Misra, K.K; 1990). In mid 20th century social references Jurists labour and is banned.
began to bring reforms against such neglected and exploited class Poverty relating to child labour: Poverty can be characterized
of human labour consideration their tender age. as a state of deprivation, dependence and degradation below
Child labour is a ubiquitous and persistent problem of our physically and socio culturally acceptable standards. It associated
country and has been a given subject of grave for administrators, with a level of living below a set of norms held necessary for
policy makers, academicians and jurists for the last couple of human beings. These norms are related to the basic physiological
years. The problem of child labour has been tackled to certain need like caloric intake, clothing, shelter, drinking water, medical
extent through legislation and countries of the world have aid and education etc it also includes some special needs like
enacted certain laws and regulations restricting the employment participation, human dignity, self esteem and status etc.
of children below certain age and specifying the conditions The issue of poor/poverty has different dimensions. The
restricting the employment of children below certain age and poorest of poor are beggars, pavement dwellers, sick people etc.
specifying the conditions allowing minors to work in certain The ducted and politically conscious poor vary from the socially
profession. isolated poor in villages. We may find various categories of poor
Child labour refers to the employment of children in a such as bonded labourers, landless labours, and manual labourers
cartable occupations or national contribution to the income of the with a little land. Scheduled castes, backward castes and upper
family. It is both an economic and social evil in that it leads to castes, poor differ among themselves on different social and
serious health hazards and denies them opportunity for physical psychological dimensions.
and mental development. The term child labour is commonly The concept of poverty from a different angle. He was with
interpreted in two different ways, first as an economic evil and the opinion that a family with more dependent children is poor.
secondly as a social evil. In the first context it signifies But when the children become independent and earners the
employment of children to earn the livelihood for them or for income of the family increases and naturally the family comes
their family. In the second context it is said to restrict on children out of poverty. The family even with substantial income becomes
obstructing them to develop academically. poor because of its poor financial management. Hence all these
Definition of child labour in terms of age or which reference factors may have their influence in different contexts whether
to occupation will not be adequate it will be necessary to directly for the incidence of child labour.

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Child Abuse: - Child labour is one form of child abuse. equipped with skills for the future but practically. The task
Children are abused by parents, employers, anti social elements allotted to child workers is simple and repetitive such as
etc. by subjecting them in unfavorable living and working cleaning, serving helping and minor repairing. Skills are a
conditions. Parents do not treat their children properly due to misnomer when related to the toil and drudgery children engage
some economic, social and psychological constraints. Employers in many things that children prefer to work. In many cases lack
do not treat the child labour properly as they want extract more of interest in schooling is making the children to prefer for work,
work with low wages. because of their inability to conceive of an alternative.
Many believe that there is nothing wrong in allowing
Theories to study child abuse:- children to work in non hazardous occupations. Even jobs which
1) Psychiatric theory: The theory gives the explanation of are not inherently hazardous become hazardous for children,
child abuse in term of deviant parental behavior. The when they are made to do the job for long periods defying their
school underlying parents emotional disturbance in rights of recreation leisure and play.
abuse come to be known a psychiatric problems. There is a general believe that child labour is inevitable in
2) Socio Cultural Theories: - The sociological theory is certain fields. But the fact is that child workers may be replaced
based on the assumption that external forces with in the with adults which naturally enhance the cost of a product or
society are responsible for child abuse. Socio cultural service. This consequence is not acceptable to all concerned.
theories may be divided in to three categories viz.,
3) Socio situational theory: - This theory says that normal
parents may be sociolised in to abusive child care III. ABOUT THE PROBLEM
practice through the interaction of cultural community To any economy the child can be natural resources. The child
and families influences. Factors such as low income, can be compared with a bud. It is the responsibility of any
unemployment, isolation, conflict with spouse and other society to provide a necessary atmosphere and opportunities to
members of the family etc. lead to violence against transform the bud into a blossom flower. However it is most
children at home. unfortunate and heart burning to listen that millions of children in
4) Social habitability theory: - According to this theory the age of 5 to 14 in many Asian, African and Laten American
the nature of child maltreatment depends up on the countries are attending to work. In fact the statistics relating to
environmental circumstances in which the individual magnitude of incidence of child labour are not exact, in view of
and family developed. the fact that legislation is not controlling the unorganized sector
5) Exchange on social control theory: - This theory says in various countries. The estimates are only an indication of
that parents use violence against their children because growing child labour issue.
the children don’t react and hit back. Certain types of The reasons for child labour are many. In some cases it is the
children like handicapped, ill, ugly , demanding, and social backwardness, but in many cases more than economic
premature children are at great risk of being abused by reasons, lack of interest in formal schooling and child
there parents. development programmes pushing the children to work. For
6) Resource theory: - According to this the use of force or example certain communities in the society treat begging as their
threat by an individual depends up on the extent to profession. Inspite of having significant properties they continue
which he can demand the resources – social, personal begging, which may be called as culture poverty. On the same
and economic. lines the problem of child labour is wide spread among low
7) Social Learning Theory: - This theory holds that income groups who are also educationally backward. Many
people learned to be violent when they grown up in people from upper castes are in a better position in social and
violent homes and violent environment. A history of educational aspects in spite of their economic backwardness.
abuse and violence in the family does increase in the High caste parents show significantly greater interest in the
risk that an individual will be violent as an adult. educational progress.
A long percentage of working children belong to Hindu
religion and the percentage of backward classes and scheduled
II. MYTHS AND REALITIES OF CHILD LABOUR castes children among them is significant. The main reason for
Traditionally poverty is considered as the major cause of the low proportion of scheduled castes child workers more in
child labour contrary to this belief many studies established the agricultural sectors. It is generally observed that there is religious
fact that child labour also comes from improvised families. In conversion from Hinduism to Christianity among the scheduled
some case exploited child labour perpetuates poverty. castes in rural areas.
Even though child labour is generally considered as a
problem of the enveloping world. The reality is children of
different ages routinely work in different forms in all IV. CONCLUSIONS
industrialized countries. The child is a natural resource for an economy. It is the
Child Labour is considered as the result of the poor having responsibility of the society to provide necessary atmosphere and
more number of children. The reality is more than the number of opportunities to transform children into potential human
children it is the parental discretions about the child is priorities resource. They are the future makers of the nation. Childhood is
and lack of faith in the formal education is causing the child
labour. Many parents believe that working children will be

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understood to cover the period of the first 14 years in India.


(Article 24 of Indian Constitution).
The most important cause of widespread child labour is the
chronic poverty which forces the parents to send their children to
seek employment parents are not only incapable of investing in
their children’s development due to poverty but also reluctant to
support them and went them to starting earning as soon as
possible. The tendency of the employers to attract children for
economic reasons is also resulting in child labour problem.
Limited success in providing compulsory education in all
children below the age group of 14 as stipulated in the directive
principals of state policy is another important factor.
Families migrated from rural areas to urban centers for
livelihood could not bear the cost of living and all the family
members have to work and this caused for the child labour
illiteracy and ignorance of parents and large size of the family is
forcing child to work. Lack of schooling facilities and high rate
of school dropouts is also leading to child labour.
Various theories of poverty gave explanation to the incidence
of the child labour in different sectors caused by cultural of
poverty and economic necessities. Social and cultural deprivation
in some communities is also forcing the children to go for work.
Lack of family harmony and child abuse is making the to
discontinue schooling and start working for livelihood.

AUTHORS
First Author – Mrs.P.G.Sunandamma, Principal, Roda Mistry
College of Social Work and Research Center, Hyderabad

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TOXICITY OF CYPERMETHRIN INFLUENCED BY


PH AND TEMPERATURE ON THE FRESHWATER
FISH OREOCHROMIS MOSSAMBICUS
A.PARITHABHANU* and M.DEEPAK**

Associate Professor, P.G And Research Department Of Zoology, Chikkaiah Naicker College, Erode – 638004, Tamil Nadu, India
P.h.D Research Scolar, P.G And Research Department Of Zoology, Chikkaiah Naicker College, Erode – 638004, Tamil Nadu, India
Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract- The influence of PH and temperature on the toxicity of cypermethrin has been evaluated by using freshwater fishes.
H
Both P and temperature were found to affect significantly the toxicity of pesticide by altering the physiological responses of fishes
resulting in mortality. The adverse effects of the P H and temperature were decreased oxygen consumption, acceleration of chemical
reaction, impaired respiratory activities, insufficient energy liberation and so on. In general these environmental factors could lead to
a higher level of bioaccumulation of the toxic chemicals, thus causing the chemical stress, which affecting the normal functioning of
the body.

Index Terms: Oreochromis mossambicus, cypermethrin, PH, temperature and mortality.

I. INTRODUCTION

C ypermethrin is one of the synthetic pyrithroid which are most extensively used for more than two decades as possible alternative
to the organophosphate, organochloride and carbomate pesticides. The synthetic Pyrithroids are reported to more toxic than other
pesticides and are widely used in crop protection, home pest control, forestry and in public health. But the pyrethroids are shown to
produce toxic effects on biochemical, haematology of various aquatic animals [1],[2]. Among them cypermethrin is very toxic to the
fish population and aquatic invertebrates [3]. The toxic effect of pyrithroids in mammals, birds, fishes, amphibians and invertebrates
have been reviewed by [4].
In aquatic ecosystems PH and temperature are important environmental variables which adversely affect the fish and fisheries
[5], and [6] has recorded that the health of fishes is mostly influenced by the P H, which would affect the reproduction and growth of
fishes. Temperature is one of the most fundamental stressors altering the biological systems. This is because the water quality is
greatly affected by temperature, PH, hardness etc which influence the rate of bioaccumulation of the pollutants Literature are available
in plenty with reference to PH and hardness [7]. But limited reports are available on the toxicity of pollutants in relation to
temperature, in aquatic organisms [8],[9]. The interaction of P H and temperature related to pesticides are seldom let known and the
role of these influencing factors on pesticide toxicity is not eloborated. Therefore the present investigation has been made to evaluate
the influence of PH and temperature with reference to cypermethrin toxicity in the freshwater teloest fish Oreochremis mossambicus.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS


The experimental fishes collected from local reservoir were acclimatized to the laboratory conditions for 7 days in chlorinated
tap water contained in glass aquaira By using 0.5% acetone, the stock solution of 1% cypermethrin was prepared. The stock solution
was used to prepare different concentrations like 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5%. In each concetration a group of 10 fishes having the same
weight and size were introduced. The mortality of fish was recorded in each concentration of the pesticide at an interval of 24 hours
upto 96 hrs (Table-1). From this the LC50 96 hrs concentration was used to study the effect of P H and temperature on the toxocity of
pesticide.
A healthy fish of known weight and size was exposed to the pesticide contained in a rectangular jar. The time at which the
fish died was recorded (survival time) at room temperature. Another test animal of the same size and weight was taken in the
pesticide medium contained in a beaker which is kept in a water bath. The temperature of the pollutant medium was increased by 2°C
above the room temperature by adding hot water to the water bath. Now the survival time of the animal was recorded. Another test

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animal was treated in the pesticide medium in a similar manner and its temperature was decreased by 2°C below the room temperature
by adding ice cold water. The survival time of the animal in the reduced temperature also recorded.
In another set of experiments, the test animal was exposed to the pesticide medium to known P H and the survival time was
recorded. Then the PH of the pesticides was decreased by using P H tablets and another test animal was introduced into it. Similarly
the PH of the pesticide was increased and the survival time of the test animal in that P H was noted. The results were tabulated and
discussed.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Temperature is one of the important factor as it greatly affect the toxicity of xenobiotic chemicals(Table-2). The changing
temperature may increase or decrease or cause an effect on the toxicity of the chemicals depending on the species and the chemical
nature of the toxicant. The present study the pesticide exerted more toxic effect at high temperature. A high temperature of the
pesticide medium could have decreased the oxygen content. So that the fishes died due to decrease in oxygen consumption at high
temperatures also noticed by [10],[11] have found that the fishes were more susceptible to the metals at high temperature. [12] have
observed that the heat death in animal is due to death of different tissues, sequentially at different temperature.
According to Processor and [13] the chemical reactions are acclerated as the temperature rises whereas the cardia and
respiratory activities are slowed down resulting in hypoxia in fishes at lower temperature. In Oreochromis mossambicus the lowered
temperature of the pesticide medium exhibited mortality because the rate of energy liberation could be insufficient for the maintainace
of metabolism when the temperature of the body lowered. In the present study the temperature could affect the nervous system
directly altering the input of impulses of fishes through skin thermoreceptors.

The PH of the medium also highly alters the toxicity of chemicals through the effect on physiological responses of the
organisms, as PH causes a severe chemical stress (Table 3). Packer and [14] have reported that the elevation of P H will lead the
acidosis in fishes which could decrease the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. Drummond [15] have shown that the metal
accumulation has been increased at higher PH of the medium. On the other hand lowering of P H has also been shown to increase
accumulation of metal in fishes [16]. In lower P H the present experimental fishes might have experienced enhanced bioaccumulation
of the toxic substances by the uptake through gills. The same trend has also been noticed [17] in fishes exposed to toxicants.
[18],[19] have reviewed the specific effect of P H on bioaccumulation in fresh water invertebrates under acidic condition more energy
is found to be required to maintain normal functioning of animals [20] oxygen uptake is found to be impaired in organisms [21]. Thus
from the present investigation it is evident that the pesticide toxicity has been highly influenced by the interaction between the PH and
temperature in fishes under laboratory conditions. This laboratory experiments are highly useful to correlate and explain the dynamics
of pollutants in normal environment under the influence of P H and temperature.

TABLE 1: TOXICITY OF VARIOUS CONCENTRATION PESTICIDE CYPERMETHRIN ON OREOCHROMI

MOSSABICUS DURING VARIOUS EXPOSURE PERIOD

MORTALITY %
CONCENTRATION OF THE

PESTICIDE EXPOSURE PERIOD (HOURS)

24 Hrs. 48 Hrs. 72 Hrs. 96 Hrs.

Control 0 0 0 0

1 0 10 20 30

2 0 20 30 40

3 0 20 40 50

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4 10 40 60 90

5 10 50 80 100

TABLE 2: EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE OF THE TOXICITY OF PESTICIDE

SUUVIVUAL TIME
S.NO. TEMPERATURE
(MINUTES)

1. 25°C 95

2. 30°C 55

3. 35°C 25

TABLE 3: EFFECT OF PH ON THE TOXICITY OF PESTICIDE

SURVIVAL TIME
S.NO. PH VALUES
(MINUTES)

1. 6.0 70

2. 7.0 65

3. 7.7 35

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REFERENCES
[1]. Saxena, K.K and Seth, N. (2002) Toxic effects of cypermethrin on certain haematological aspects of fresh water fish Channa punctatus. Bull.
Environ. Contam.Toxicol. 69:364-369

[2]. Saxena, K.K and Gupta, P (2003) Effect of cypermethrin in the activities of acid and alkaline phosphomoneesterases in a fresh water fish Channa
Punctatus. Proc. Nat. Symp. Biochem. Sci. Hith. Environ. ASP.477-479.

[3]. Sarkar, B., Chatterjee A., Adhikari S., Ayyappan S. (2005) Carbofuran and Cypermethrin induced histo - pathological alterations in the liver of
Labeo - rohita (Hamilton) and its recovery. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 21, 131-135.

[4]. Bradbury, S.P and Coats.J.R (1989) comparitive toxicology of Pyrethroid insecticides. Rev., Environ. Contam.Toxicol., 108:133-177

[5]. Brown, D.J.A (1982) The effect of pH and calcium on fish and fisheries water Air soil pollut.18:343-351.

[6]. Boyd, C.E (1982) Water quality management for pond fish culture, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, 318 pp.

[7]. S.Karthikeyan Dr.RM.Palaniappan and Selvi Sabhanayakam (2007) Influence of pH and water hardness upon nicked accumulation in edible
fish Arrhinus mrigala J.Environ. Biol. 28 (2),489-492.

[8]. John, P.R., V.Rena and D.J.Mcqueen (1996) Uptake rates of food chain and water borne mercury by fish Field measurements. a mechanistic
model and an assessment of uncertainties Can.J.Fish. Aquat Sci., 53(2), 395-407.

[9]. P.Kannadi., K.Kannan and S.Raveandran (2008) Effects of temperature on the behvioural and respiratory responses of cat fish Mystus gulio
(Hamilton) Indian J.Environ and Ecoplan. 14(3) 750-754.

[10]. Rafia Sultana and UmaDevi, (1995). Oxygen consumption in a cat fish Hystus gulio (Ham)exposed to heavy metals.J.environ.Biol., 16:207-210.

[11]. Gupta, A.K. and V.K.Rajbanshi (1991) Toxicity of copper and cadmium to Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch).Acta Hydrochim.Et. Hydroboil.,
19(3), 331-340.

[12]. Orr, T.R (1955) Heat death of whole animals and Tissues, Various animals Physiol. Zool. 28:290-302.

[13]. C.Ladd Prosser and Frank A. Brown.JR (1965) Comparitive Animal Physiology Second edition.

[14]. Packer, R.K and Dinson. W.A. (1972) Anoxia and Sodium loss associated with the depth of brook trout low pH Comparitive Biochem physiol.
41(A) 17-26.

[15]. Drummond, R.A. olson, G.F and Batterman, A.R. (1974) Cough response and uptake of mercury by brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, exposed
to mercuric compounds at different hydrogen ion concentrations. Trans. Amer fish Soc. 2:244-249.

[16]. Paulose.P.V (2004) Effect of water pH on toxicity and accumulation of inorganic and Methyl Mercury in a fish Gambusia affinis Indian
J.Environ 4 Ecoplan. 8(1): 249-252.

[17]. Paulose. P.V 1989 Histological changes in relation to accumulation and elimination of inorganic and organic mercury in gills of Labeo rohita
Hamilton Ind.J.Expl.Biol. 27: 146-150

[18]. Robert.L. Graney, D.Cherry and J.Cairns (1984) The influence of substrate pH diet and temperature upon cadmium accumulation in the Asiatic
clan (Corbicule fluminea) in laboratory artificial streams. Water Res., 18, 833-842.

[19]. Stephenson, M. and G.C.Mackie (1988) Multivariate analysis of correlation between environmental parameters and cadmium concentrations in
Hyalella azteca (crustacea, amphipoda) from central ontario lakes. can.J.Fish Aquat.Sci., 45, 1705-1710.

[20]. Rosseland, B.O. and M.Stournes (1994) Physiological mechanisms for toxic effects and resistance to acidic waters: An ecophysiological and
eco toxicological approach. In: Acidification of fresh water ecosystem. Implication for the future (Eds:C.E.Steinberg and R.W.Ward wright)
wiley, Newyork. P.P.227-246.

[21]. Spry,D.J Wood, C.M. and Hodson, P.V (1981) The effects of environmental acid on fresh water fish with particular reference to the soft water
lakes in ontaria and the modifying effects of heavy metals. A literature review. Canadian Technology Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Science
No.999: 144p.

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Factors that Affect the Entrepreneurs Growth in Bekasi


Region, Indonesia
Giovani Pangestu, Nicky, Pogen Fuston, Mr. Suresh Kumar

Department of Business Administration, President University, Indonesia

Abstract- Entrepreneurs are important in the economy of a are going to have quantitative research to gather the exact data
country. It could improve the overall economy of the country by about why there Indonesia lack of entrepreneurs. This research
opening more jobs opportunities which means more income to can be the references for the government to develop the number
the country. That is why some scientist said that the minimum of new entrepreneur in Indonesia and also it can become
percentage of entrepreneurs in a country is 2%. In Indonesia, it references for those who want to open business in Indonesia.The
still has low entrepreneur percentage which is only 1.56%. purpose of this research is to discover what are the factors
Compare to other South Asia countries like Singapore which has thataffect entrepreneurs growth in Bekasi Region is below from
5% of entrepreneurs, Indonesia is still being left behind. This the standard. Moreover, this research has two specific reseach
paper explores the factors that affect the entrepreneur growth in such as:
Bekasi region, Indonesia. The research identified the education 1. Does the level of education in Indonesia give impact to the
and motivation factors, entrepreneurial intention, readiness of motivation of citizens to become entrepreneur?
potential entrepreneurs, government rules for the entrepreneurs, 2. Does government’s policiesin Indonesia hinder the citizens
and hinders to capital access. The quantitative research method is to become entrepreneur?
used as well in this paper. The questionnaires are spread for 215
respondents. The result shows that the education and motivation This research has three parts. The first part reviews the
factor has significant affect people to be an entrepreneur. relevant literature used to this research and the research problem.
Then it is followed by the validity and realibility test of the data
Index Terms- entrepreneur growth, entrepreneurship education, collected that suitable with the research queston. Finally, the last
entrepreneurial intention, education and motivation factors. part will presents about the outcome/result from this research that
can be proposed to the government as the guidance to increase
the number of entrepreneur in Indonesia.
I. INTRODUCTION

I ndonesia is a country with 240 million people population.


From that numbers, only 1.56% of the citizens are
entrepreneurs (Lautama, 2013). The higher the rate of
II. RESEARCH COLABORATION
There are many reaserchers, scientists, or even the
entrepreneur in a country could increase its economy growth and entrepreneurs themselves define who Entrepreneur is. For
it may also reduce the number of unemployment and increase instance, Nelson (2012) an entrepreneur defines that entrepreneur
competition in Indonesia to trigger economic growth (Agrawal, is the one who organizes and manages the risk in enterprise. It is
n.d). Looking at the rate of entrepreneur in Indonesia which is in accordance with the definition from Collins, Hanges & Locke
lower than the ideal number of entrepreneur internationally (2004) who define entrepreneur as someone who own and
which is 2% from the total of the population in the country. It is actively manage a small business. To conclude those two
far behind compare to the countries in Southeast Asia for definitions, Entrepreneur could be define as someone who own a
instance Singapore which has 5% rate of entrepreneurs in the business, organize it, and manage the risk to maintain the
country (Lautama, 2013). Therefore, the government should business. However, entrepreneur is not as simple as that.
focus on this problem and try to improve the number of Entrepreneur is not only a person who owns a business,
entrepreneur in Indonesia. Moreover, it is not only government organizes it, and manages the risk. Entrepreneur is the one who
who should concern about this problem. The citizens could help introduces new ideas of business, turn the business idea into a
increase the entrepreneur rate by becoming entrepreneurs. There reality, and changes the rate at which the business must be
are several factors that could influence the citizens in a country innovated. Entreprenurs may also become the one who create
to become entrepreneur. From the educational point of view, we new job opportunity in this era when many people are
may see that the education level in Indonesia is not suitable to unemployed. It can be happened because they are creative people
improve the number of entrepreneur in Indonesia. It is because who have an unexpected business idea which still good and when
Indonesia’s education standards still in low level in terms of they turn it into reality it is may become a convincing business
encouraging young citizens to become entrepreneur. There are and may be a way to absorb those unemployed people to have
also several causes like most citizens in Indonesia do not really job. That is why Entrepreneur is important to the economic
know about the policies in establishing business in Indonesia, growth of a country especially for a developing country (van
lack of good facilities that could help them establishing the Praag & Cramer, 2001). Another example of the importance of
business, and the most interesting thing that may make people do entrepreneur in a country is they can improve the number of
not want to become entrepreneurship is corruption. Therefore, we investment in the country. For instance the investment of land,

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because a successful entrepreneur will expand their business in (2008) found a great connection between entrepreneurial
other regions of the country. orientation and personal attitudes of potential entrepreneur which
From definitions above, we may see the importance of able to increase entrepreneurship and global competitiveness.
entrepreneurs in a country. However, there are still many (Lee and Peterson, 2000).
countries who have less entrepreneurs in their state economic In his study, Ali (2011) found that the readiness of an
activities. For example, as we explained before in Indonesia the individual to become entrepreneur was influenced by the
rate of entrepreneurs is only 1.56% of its population which is education given to them. This founding is supported by Parker
lower than the ideal rate in a country which is 2% of the and Van Praag (2006), which stated that entrepreneurs’
population. There are many factors that affect people in a performance could be enhanced by education no matter directly
country, especially in Indonesia not to become entrepreneur. For or indirectly with a rate of return of 13.7% and 3-4.6%
instance, low of education level, less of motivation, the respectively.
government policy, and usually they do not have enough capital H2: The higher intentions of people to become entrepreneur
to start the business. influence themselves to become entrepreneur and readiness to
make their own business in the future.
2.1 Education and Motivation Factor
Some researcher explained that if the students get enough 2.3 Government Policies and Environment
education it will give positive impact to the performance of In her article “Factors Having an Impact on Starting and
entrepreneurs in the country (Van der sluis, 2006).Junior Operating business”, N Nayab (2011) stated some conditions
Achievement Young Enterprise Annual Report (2006) found which government policies may support or suppress
that education will give confidence and motivation,creativity, entrepreneurs in opening and running their business. For
and interpersonal skills which will encourage people in example, the government policies about infrastructure,
becoming entrepreneurs. Looking for this we can feel that the facilitation, industrial parks, and etc may trigger people to
improvement of entrepreneurship education in Indonesia to become entrepreneur. However, the problem with taxation can
encourage young generation to become entrepreneurs by giving suppress entrepreneurship. Maria Minniti (2008) observed that an
entrepreneurship subject from Senior High School (Education entreprenerial acitivity will be conducive depends on the
System in Indonesia, Law no.2 1989). Van der luis also stated environment of the country. Which could be the government
that by having more education, one can gain more confidence policies in the area. Mostly, the government policies supposed to
and motivation to become entrepreneurs. To become help its citizens to become entrepreneurs by providing good
entrepreneurs is a tough job because the competition is very high, logistical things such as roads, power, communication facilities,
that is why to increase the number of entrepreneur Solvesvick and good bureaucratic system. However, sometimes the changes
(2013) have a thought that there should be motivation from of the policies may give negative impact on the citizens. They
successfull entrepreneur to give motivation for new generation to may lost their interest to become entrepreneur because of of
realize their business idea no matter how tough the competition unclear rules and regulations and it may affect the economic
will be. Interesting research has been done by Ernst & Young growth of the country. That is why, Minniti explained that the
(2011) from entrepreneurs in Indonesia. They found that more policy environment of the government has the power to control
than 90% of Indonesian entrepreneurs feel that dedicated entrepreneurs, however it doesn’t really needed because it may
education of entrepreneurs is the best way to cultivate trigger negative socioeconomic consequences. Mostly, it is hard
entrepreneurship. for entrepreneur or those who want to become entrepreneur to be
An interesting thought show up that said the economic supported by government policies. This thought is supported by
background of the parents give impact also give impact for an Waweru (2012) findings which show more than 70% of the
individual to become entrepreneur. Research by respondents for her research in Kenya stated that it is hard to
LeneVestergaard, KareMoberg, and Casper Jorgensen (2011) follow government policies to run their business where the others
showed parents’ economic background only gave not big impact said it is not.
for an individual to become Entrepreneur because only 25% of H3: Government policies support and facilitate people to
the respondents have parents whom are entrepreneurs, while become entrepreneur because it is easier for people to realize
almost 50% of the respondents said they know other their business by having government support in terms of logistic
entrepreneurs. and bureaucratic system.
H1: The higher education people get give impact to the level
of motivation for people become entrepreneurs. Motivation is 2.4 Hindrance to Capital Access
important to trigger someone to become entrepreneur In the article which title is “How and Where Do I Get
Money to Start or Expand my Business” explained about
2.2 Readiness to Become Entrepreneur and Entrepreneurial varieties of ways to gain capital to start the business. Usually,
Intention people do not want to become entrepreneurs because they are
Ajzan and Shapero intention models showed that the best confused about how to get the money to open their business. In
predictor of any planned behaviour, including entrepreneurship the article explained that we can get first funding by renting
because due to Ajzan intention depends of how people perceive money, government help, and investor. The problem is,
personal attractiveness, social norms, and feasibility. While sometimes people do not know about all this. Ernst and Young
Shapero explained that intentions depend on how people perceive (2011) found that 54% entrepreneurs in Indonesia said that it is
desirability, feasibility, and propensity to act. Cachon and Cotton easy to find overall funding for their business while the other

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44% said the opposite. Lack of capital was told as the major consider as potential respondents are those who involve in
factor why people did not want to become an entrepreneur in education institution like senior high school and University
Zambia (Chigunta, 2005). This statement is supported by students as the one who may become entrepreneurs because the
Ayodele (2006) in Nigeria who found that if the capital a person education they take may impact their decision in becoming
have is not enough, it hinders entrepreneurship. entrepreneurs and they are as the young generation considered
H4: The easier for people to access money to become their significantly for the growth of entrepreneurs in Bekasi. However,
capital, the more interest people to become entrepreneur. since the method used in this study is random sampling; the
samples were taken not only from the education institution. The
questionnaires were spread to the citizen’s in Bekasi area. More
III. METHODOLOGY than 200 respondents were taken in this research. In order to
Research Approach know whether the questionnaires are valid and reliable,
The research was conducted by following the quantitative Statistical software such as SPSS20 was used to measure the
methodology. According to Struwig and Stead (2007) validity. The analyses used in SPSS20 were Factor analysis and
quantitative method is a form of conclusive research using large Reliability test. The standard value to get pass for the Factor
number of samples and reasonable structure data collection analysis and Reliability test have to be greater than 0.5 and 0.7,
procedures. According to the research conducted in Serbia in thus followed by multiple regression measurement in order to
2010, it was stated that Small Medium Enterprise plays a big role know which aspect or variable that has the significant effect for
in the economic growth of the country. Almost all enterprises in the result of research.
Serbia in were Small Medium Enterprise which means many
entrepreneurs born in Serbia. By using random sampling for 100
samples for the research, they got 82 replies respondents that IV. FINDING
help them to conclude that the independent variables they used From our questionnaire result based on 215 respondents in
were correlated with the dependent variables. Following the Indonesia, the most respondents are people from age 15 years old
research method used before, random sampling was used to get up to 20 years Old, which is the young generation that has the
the samples. In order to assure its validity and reliability, Factor most significant impact for the growth of Entrepreneurs in
analysis and Reliability test Gronbach’s Alpha were used. This Indonesia. The second biggest respondents is people from 20
study aimed to achieve a minimum sample of size 200 years old up to 30 years Old which have significant affect also
respondents. The sample size is in line with the requirements set for the growth of Entrepreneurs. The rest of our respondents are
for honours study (University of Pretoria, 2006). The respondents people from age 30 years old up to 40 years old and 40 years old
were taken in Bekasi region in Java Island. The types of up to 50 years old which have their own business and job
respondents vary from the age and education since it is studying already.
about the Effect of education to the number of entrepreneur From 215 respondents we have gotten show that 54% of our
growth in Bekasi region. The respondents could be entrepreneurs respondents are female. The rest of our respondents are Male
who already have business, those who have not started their which is 46%. The most respondents are female which means
business, those who have job already in the company, and those that Female can be the most significant effect for the growth of
who still in terms of getting the education about entrepreneurs. entrepreneurs in Indonesia.
The range of age for the respondents started from 16 years old
(first grade senior high school students) until 50 years old. The 4.1 Validity
model of the questionnaires that have been spread to the The research consists of 3 independent variables, 1
respondents were 7 scaled questions from strongly disagree, dependent variable. The total of respondents is 215. From 27
neutral, and strongly agree, with 20 questions minimal in it. variables, there are 7 variables are not valid, and they should be
Those questions contain two variables which were independent deleted. Therefore, there are 20 variables that tested in this
variable and dependent variable. The questionnaires are research. The result divided into three parts; validity, reliability,
confidential which means the names of the respondent are not and multiple regression.
being asked in the questionnaire. The respondents who are

Table 1. KMO and Bartlett's Test


Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .860
Approx. Chi-Square 2547.343
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Df 190
Sig. .000

The table above shows the KMO and Bartlett’s Test. KMO shows the correlation between the statements. The result of KMO
should bigger and not less than 0.5 (Jones, n.d). The best value is 0.9 and the minimum value is 0.5. The value of KMO is 0.860 and
the value of Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity is 0.000, it means that all the variables has good correlations between all potential factors
(Education and Motivation Factor, Entrepreneurial Intention, Readiness of Potential Entrepreneurs, Government and Potential Factors,
Hinderers to Capital Access) and all the factors are significant (Jones, n.d)

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Table 3. Communalities
Initial Extraction
EDUCATION2 1.000 .588
EDUCATION4 1.000 .654
EDUCATION6 1.000 .694
EDUCATION7 1.000 .672
INTENTION8 1.000 .584
INTENTION9 1.000 .567
INTENTION10 1.000 .620
INTENTION11 1.000 .835
INTENTION12 1.000 .738
INTENTION13 1.000 .596
INTENTION17 1.000 .760
GRULE21 1.000 .798
GRULE22 1.000 .765
GRULE23 1.000 .659
GRULE24 1.000 .690
GRULE25 1.000 .642
CPTL27 1.000 .642
CPTL28 1.000 .676
CPTL29 1.000 .701
CPTL30 1.000 .749
Extraction Method: Principal Component
Analysis.
greater than 0.5 (0.567 at INTENTION8 is the smallest value) it
The table above show the communalities result. The means that all the variables (20 independent variables is valid),
extraction value should be greater than 0.5 in each variable, Field, A.P. (2005) chapter 15.
because total of respondents is 215 respondents. All of value are

Table 4. Total Variance Explained


Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 6.937 34.687 34.687 6.937 34.687 34.687 4.650 23.249 23.249
2 2.838 14.189 48.876 2.838 14.189 48.876 3.409 17.047 40.296
3 2.107 10.537 59.413 2.107 10.537 59.413 3.040 15.200 55.496
4 1.747 8.733 68.145 1.747 8.733 68.145 2.530 12.649 68.145
5 .807 4.036 72.181
6 .652 3.261 75.442
7 .562 2.811 78.253
8 .549 2.746 81.000
9 .503 2.514 83.513
10 .487 2.436 85.949
11 .445 2.224 88.172
12 .393 1.966 90.139
13 .377 1.885 92.024
14 .338 1.692 93.716
15 .265 1.325 95.042
16 .251 1.253 96.295
17 .236 1.179 97.473
18 .217 1.086 98.560
19 .170 .852 99.412
20 .118 .588 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
(greater than 60%). All the variance is valid data and all the
The table above shows the total variables explained. In this variable can be determine without an error data (Institute for
research, the total variable that was used is 20 variables from 27 Digital Research and Education, 2013)
variables in the total. The value of Cumulative% is 68.145%
Table 5. Rotated Component Matrixa

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Component
1 2 3 4
INTENTION11 .881
INTENTION17 .842
INTENTION12 .840
INTENTION8 .736
INTENTION10 .733
INTENTION9 .712
INTENTION13 .703
GRULE21 .869
GRULE22 .856
GRULE25 .748
GRULE24 .747
GRULE23 .700
CPTL30 .814
CPTL28 .809
CPTL29 .804
CPTL27 .767
EDUCATION6 .773
EDUCATION7 .770
EDUCATION4 .736
EDUCATION2 .697
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations. variables that used such as Government Rules and Hindrance to
The table above shows the Rotated Component Matrix. The Capital are reliable both in Kenya and Bekasi region, Indonesia.
method that used for extraction value is Principal Component Regarding the Education Variable also reliable in Korea (Sang
Analysis and the method for Rotation is Varimax with Kaiser M. Lee, 2000) and Bekasi region, and the last the Intention
Normalization. Each variable should be greater than 0.5 and the variable is reliable the same with Research by Akhtar Ali (2011)
value each component has value that greater than 0.5 which is which all have Gronbach Alpha above 0.7.
0.697 at minimum point. Each independent variables are arrange
in the same column (INTENTION12, INTENTION8, 4.3 Multiple Regression
INTENTION10, INTENTION9, INTENTION13 are arrange in There are three assumptions that need to be passed before we
component 1), (GRULE21, GRULE22, GRULE25, GRULE24, can use the multiple regressions. Those are:
GRULE23 are arrange in component 2), (CPTL30, CPTL28, - Normality
CPTL29, CPTL27 are arrange in component 3), To check the normality of the statistic results, it can be seen
(EDUCATION6, EDUCATION7, EDUCATION4, from the pp plot and histogram in the regression test. The data
EDUCATION2 are arrange in component 4). The entire variable are assumed to be normal if all the data are in the area of the
is listed from big value to small value (by size). It means that histogram and in line along the plot.
factor analysis in each variable in the contents is valid Field, A.P.
(2005) chapter 15.

4.2 Reliability Test


In order to make sure that the variables that we use for the
questionnaires are reliable, Gronbach’s alpha test is the most
common use in international education. The theory is that, the
questionnaires are reliable when the result of reliability test in
SPSS is more than 0.7. The results from the reliability test to the
independent variables such as Entrepreneurship Education,
Intention to become entrepreneur, Government rule, and Capital
access are passed the reliability test with Gronbach Alpha 0.876,
0.909, 0.880, and 0.855 respectively. The dependent variable
which is the readiness to become entrepreneur also passed the
reliability test with Gronbach Alpha 0.720. This results show that
the dependent and independent variables used in this
questionnaire is reliable. Based on the Research done by Maina
Samuel Waweru and the results of this research, the independent

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The last assumption is Multicollinearity which can be check


from Pearson Correlation and VIF from the results in regression
process. Pearson Correlation is used to determine whether the
correlation between X (independent variables) and Y (dependent
Variable) is high, while VIF is used to check whether the data
have multicollinearity problem or not. The standard for Pearson
Correlation is from the collinearity statistic table. If the tolerance
is around one it means that the X and Y is correlated each other.
And if the VIF is less then five, it can be concluded that the data
do not have multicollinearity problems.

Table 6. Coefficientsa
Model Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance VIF
(Constant)
AVRINT .677 1.478
1 AVRRLE .706 1.417
AVRCPT .769 1.301
AVREDU .698 1.433
a. Dependent Variable:
AVRRDY
From the two pictures above, it can be seen that the data are
considered normal because most of them are in the histogram and It can be seen that from the table above that the data have the
in line with the pp plot line. VIF less than 5 (1.478, 1.417, 1.301, and 1.433) which mean the
- Heterocedasticity data is passed the multicollinearity problem. From the tolerance,
the conclusion also could be draw that the Independent and
This second assumption can be check from the scatter plot Dependent variable are correlated because it is greater than 0.3.
graph. It is to check whether the data are homogen or not which In order to do the Multiple regression, after the three assumptions
means the distribution data is normal or not. If the result in the procedure is continued to F- test and T-test checking. From
scatter plot is not spread between the positive and negative side the ANOVA table below, it shows that the F-test has the
in the graph, it means that the data might be not homogen or not significance is less than 0.05 which means that there are factors
normal distributed. that give influence to the readiness of people to become
entrepreneur which can increase the growth of entrepreneur.

Table 7. ANOVAa
Model Sum of Df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
Regression 117.123 4 29.281 31.449 .000b
1 Residual 195.521 210 .931
Total 312.644 214
a. Dependent Variable: AVRRDY
b. Predictors: (Constant), AVREDU, AVRCPT,
AVRRLE, AVRINT

- Multicollinearity The last step is to make the multiple regression which we


can take it from the T-test in coefficients table.

Table 1
Table 8. Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) .214 .419 .511 .610
1 AVRINT .348 .072 .319 4.802 .000
AVRRLE .042 .068 .040 .620 .536

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AVRCPT -.004 .068 -.004 -.057 .955


AVREDU .474 .085 .365 5.591 .000
a. Dependent Variable: AVRRDY

In the multiple regressions, Y is the Readiness of people to accepted because the significant of T-test is above 0.5 which is
become entrepreneur which related to the factor that influence 0.9
the growth of entrepreneur. In this study, there are 4 independent
variables which are Education, Intention to become entrepreneur,
Government rule, and Capital access. It can be seen that ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Education is one of the Independent variable that has the highest First of all, we would like to thank God because of his
influence to the readiness of people become entrepreneur. It can blessing we could prepare and finished this research about “The
be said so because the coefficients of education is the highest factors that affect the growth of entrepreneur in Bekasi Region”.
from others which is 0.474 followed by the intention to become We also would like to give our gratitude to President University
entrepreneur with coefficients 0.348. However, the significant of who gives us Research Methodology subject that trigger us to do
Government rule and Capital access is more than 0.5 which this research. Second, we would like to express our gratefulness
means that those 2 variables don't give much impact on the to our beloved lecture, Mr. Suresh Kumar, because of his
growth of entrepreneur. motivation and suggestion that have been given to us to do this
The significant of Capital access and Government Rules are research until the end. Last, we would like to say thank you to
greater than 0.5 which mean that those two variables do not give everyone who helps us in establishing this project such as the
influence to the growth of entrepreneur in Bekasi Region with respondents and friends.
significant 0.955 and 0.536 respectively. Research from Akhtar
Ali also gives a good results regarding the entrepreneurial
intention in influencing the growth of entrepreneur with
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AUTHORS
First Author – Giovani Pangestu, Business Administration
student, Email ID - [email protected], President
University (INDONESIA)
Second Author – Nicky, Business Administration student, Email
ID - [email protected], President University
(INDONESIA)
Third Author – Pogen Fuston, Business Administration student,
Email ID - [email protected], President University
(INDONESIA)

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ISSN 2250-3153

Survey on Requirements and Approaches of Business


Process Repositories
R.P.T.Bhagya*, S. Vasanthapriyan*, P Jayaweera**
*
Department of Computing and Information Systems, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka
**
Department of Statistics and Computer Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura

Abstract- Business processes manifest the business knowledge effectively [8]. In that case, since the current interest in BPM is
and related logics. As it becomes more common for fueled by concepts and technologies from different areas of
organizations to describe their operations in terms of business business administration and computer science, one solution is to
processes, it is necessary to establish a Business Process collect and share process knowledge through a process model
Repository to manage thousands of process models while repository. The main benefits of such a repository are model
providing capabilities for effective sharing and reusing of reuse and knowledge exchange. This trend in modern BPM is
valuable business and process related knowledge. Even though discussed under emerging field known as Business Process
there are number of repositories exist to store process models, the Repository (BPR).
heterogeneity of current process repositories makes it difficult to
relate and share process knowledge across them. A survey of In general, a repository is a shared database of information
existing business process repositories has been reported here by about engineered artifacts produced and/or used by an enterprise
reviewing number of available process repositories and the [4]. Consequently, it should provide common database
existing literature. Analyzing the principles on which management services for data model creation and adaption, data
development of these repositories are based, a comparison is retrieval, enabling data views, integrity management, access
made to identify the strengths and shortcomings. Founding on management and state management [7]. It should also provide
these principles, a number of essential properties that a services that are specific for managing objects as opposed to data
successful process repository solution should possess are in general; check-in/out, version management, configuration
proposed as to support process repositories development efforts. management, notification management, context management and
Consequently, such a repository would become a common workflow management [7]. The functionality for general
information asset to all business users and especially facilitate repositories can be specialized and extended to accommodate
reuse over different business domains while enhancing assuring repositories requirements specifically for storing and managing
sharing and reuse business process knowledge. business processes [7].

Index Terms- Business Process Management, Process Model, Today, there exist a number of efforts to build BPRs, e.g. the
Sharing & Reuse, Business Process Repository MIT Process Handbook (MIT), Phios Process Repository for
Supply Chain (SCOR), SAP Business Map (SAP), IBM Process
Repository (IBM-PR), IBM-BPEL Repository (IBM-BPEL) and
I. INTRODUCTION Semantic Business Process Repository (SBPR). Even though
usiness Process Management (BPM) refers to activities there are number of repositories exist to store business processes,

B performed by organizations to manage and to improve their


business processes. Basically, a business process is a series
the heterogeneity of current process repositories makes it
difficult to relate and share process knowledge across them [5].
One of the promising approaches to overcome these limitations
of activities occurring within an organization. Most often, it
focuses on meeting the needs of the customer and delivering a are through the identification of business process repository
good or service that will fulfill their needs. As business process requirements and then establishment of development standard
models serves as blue prints for implementing business processes based on them for existing and future BPR solutions.
management solutions, the notion of a process model is
foundational for BPM [3]. Identifying the activities and their The main purpose of this survey is to establish a universal list
relationships and representing them by business process models of requirements for a BPR to facilitate process model reuse and
allows stakeholders to communicate about these processes in an knowledge exchange. Five process repositories; MIT, SCOR,
efficient and effective manner [3]. By making business process IBM-PR, IBM-BPEL and SBPR are subjected to the said
models as common communication platform, business processes evaluation in this work. The survey is conducted through
can be analyzed and then deciding on potentials improvement reviewing a set of available BPRs [9, 10] and the existing
opportunities [3]. literature [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Having identified strengths and
Traditionally, business processes are enacted manually. shortcomings of selected BPR solutions, a number of essential
However, as the number of business processes and their enacted properties that a BPR should possess are proposed.
instances increase, it is difficult for business users to manage The remainder of the survey paper is organized as follow.
them all and to meet business process information requirements Section 2 introduces five existing BPRs. In Section 3, the results

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of the repository comparison are presented and a list of BPR The repository can easily be extended with additional XML
requirements is proposed. Section 4 concludes the paper. schemas because of its flexible architecture [1]. It uses the
BPEL XML format as its external format and stores the
II. AN OVERVIEW OF EXISTING BUSINESS PROCESS process models and their elements internally as objects in an
REPOSITORIES EMF (Eclipse Modeling Framework) repository [7]. The
This section provides a brief overview of five existing BPRs processes are not presented in textual or graphical format
which are chosen to perform the evaluation. instead they are treated as objects in IBM-BPEL [2]. The
processes are stored without any classification scheme [2].
1) MIT: With respect to the presentation form, the repository Besides the standard functionality for storing and retrieving
describes business processes only in a textual form. The process models, the repository can interact with query
process mapping technique analyzes business processes engines that are built on the EMF repository, EMF
using two dimensions; the vertical dimension distinguishes extensions and other external software [7].
different parts of a process and the horizontal dimension
distinguishes different types of a process [6]. In fact, the 5) SBPR: The SBPR is an ontology based repository for
process categorization is based on the process compass. storing business process models [7]. It does not commit to a
From any activity in the repository, user can go in four particular set of aspects of business process models that must
different directions; down to the different parts of the be stored. Instead, it requires that the repository is
activity (its sub activities), up to the larger activities of configured with a process ontology, of which the concrete
which this one is a part (its uses), right to the different types process models are be instances [7]. The processes in SBPR
of this activity (its specializations) and left to the different are neither presented in textual or graphical form nor
activities of which this one is a type (its generalizations) [6]. classified into groups [2]. Asides from the standard database
Asides from standard functionality for storing and retrieving management functionalities, the SBPR supports semantic
information about process models, the repository supports querying which can only be processed, when the ontological
browsing the process models along the two dimensions [7]. knowledge of the process models is taken into account. The
In addition to that it supports text-based search [7]. To SBPR is open for change by potential users. To avoid the
support specialization, rather than just lump all different production of inconsistent process models, it provides
kinds of specializations into a single undifferentiated list, the check-in and check-out capabilities; the process model in
repository separates them into categories called bundles. SBPR is locked when the modeling tool obtains it (check-
Bundles are based on the basic questions that can ask about out), so that no other users can modify the process model in
any activity; how, what, who, when, where, and why [7]. In the SBPR in the meantime [8]. After the modeling work has
addition, the repository processes are grouped into ten root been done, the process model is updated in the SBPR and
categories; procurement, supply chain management, any locks that have been held for the process model are
marketing, sales, information systems, human resources, released (check-in) [8]. The repository also provides
strategic planning, finance or accounting, manufacturing or versioning functionality.
logistics and engineering [2].
III. DISCUSSION
2) SCOR: This is a proprietary repository that stores business This section presents a comparison of repositories to identify
processes related to supply chain management only [2]. A the strengths and shortcomings of each and proposes a number of
process compass is used for classification, in the same way essential properties that a BPR should possess.
as MIT. Further classification is based on four verbs; create,
destroy, modify, and preserve [2]. The processes in SCOR Based on the survey of repositories in the preceding section, a
are organized around five management root processes; plan, number of existing repository properties are chosen as criteria for
source, make, deliver, and return [2]. evaluating repositories. The resulting criteria are as follows:

3) IBM-PR: The IBM-PR is proprietary to IBM and gives a 1) Provides graphical interfaces for user interaction (A)
graphical representation of e-commerce related process 2) Allows for maintenance by public (B)
models with the aim of providing an explicit control flow. 3) Focuses on storing a domain specific business process
Especially, it supports the storage of process objectives models (C)
together with the process [2]. It classifies processes into five 4) Classifies the processes in to categories (D)
major groups; B2B direct, consumer direct, demand chain, 5) Stores the processes described independently of the process
hosting, and supply chain [2]. Each group has three sub modeling language used (E)
groups: direct admin processes, direct starter stores, and 6) Presents business process in graphical form (F)
direct solution [2]. 7) Describes the activities that are performed in the context of
a process (G)
4) IBM-BPEL: IBM has published another repository called 8) Describes the control flow relations between activities (H)
BPEL (Business Process Execution Language) repository for 9) Describes the business objectives that will be satisfied
storing business processes along with associated metadata. through the use of a process (I)
The IBM-BPEL is an Eclipse plug-in originally built for 10) Stores metadata about a process (J)
BPEL business processes and other related XML data [1]. 11) Supports the create, update and delete functions (K)

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12) Supports process navigation (L) Aside from IBM-PR, no repository supports the storage of
13) Supports process search (M) process objectives together with the process models and most
14) Supports process querying (N) repositories store process related information such as creation
15) Enables version management function (O) date, last modification, and number of versions, except IBM-PR.
16) Enables check-in/out management (P) Furthermore, most repositories support one or more functions to
search, query or navigate the repository. The table shows which
Accordingly, the evaluation is performed to identify the extent type of functionality each process repository supports. With the
to which each repository meets those criteria. Table I shows the exception of SBPR, no repository provides facilities for handling
results of the evaluation. The criteria are identified by alphabetic changes to process models by maintaining versions and for
letters as given in the above list. The possible values of each check-in/out management, to avoid the production of inconsistent
criterion are: the repository meets the criterion () or the process models.
repository does not meet the criterion ().
Based on this comparison, the following repository
Table I: Comparison of repositories requirements are proposed as the essential properties that a BPR
should possess:
MIT SCOR IBM-PR IBM-BPEL SBPR 1) Should provide graphical interfaces for users to interact
A      with the repository, so that users can easily interact with the
B      functions provided by the repository
C      2) Should accessible for public creation, editing, and deletion,
D      so users can be encouraged to reuse models
E      3) Should be able to store process models in general, hence the
F      reusability of models between business domains can be
G      increased
H     
4) Should arrange its content according to a business
I     
classification scheme to allow quickly browsing the
J     
K      collection of processes
L      5) Should support to store the processes described
M      independently of the process modeling language used, as a
N      consequence the repository content can be developed
O      independently of any specific technology
P      6) Should be able to present the process models in both
graphical and textual formats, so such a repository will
The table shows that, all other repositories, except SBPR, provide an easy and understandable access to its content
provide graphical interfaces for user interaction. Instead, SBPR 7) Should be able to cover description of: activities that are
provides a Java API for interaction. Nearly, most repositories performed in the context of a process, control flow relations
support for create, update and delete functions. Exceptions are between activities, relationships between processes, physical
MIT, SCOR and IBM-PR because although they do allow resources that are required to execute a process, who is
processes to be created, updated and deleted, do not provide authorized to perform which part of a process, how the
public interface to do that. In addition, SCOR only stores process performance of a process should be monitored, the business
models related to supply chain management and IBM-PR only objectives that will be satisfied through the use of a process
contains e-commerce related process models while MIT, IBM- and process related information such as creation date, last
BPEL and SBPR are unrestricted in scope. As classifications, 3 modification, and number of versions, hence users can
out of the total repositories classify processes in accordance with clearly identify the related aspects of each process model
various classification schemes. 8) Should provide support for navigating, searching and
querying facilities for users to locate content effectively
In contrast to IBM-BPEL and SBPR, all other repository 9) Should be able to maintain multiple versions of the same
contents are developed independently of any particular process model, produced during the customization, so that
specification technology. IBM-BPEL focuses on storing the users can simply go back to old versions and develop
processes described in BPEL XML format. In SBPR, the process models from old versions further
business process models are based on process ontologies. 10) Should be able to create private and public views on a
Moreover, IBM-PR presents the process models in graphical process, which represents the process as it is performed
format, whereas MIT, IBM-BPEL, and SCOR give a textual inside an organization and which provides of what the
explanation of processes. Only MIT, SCOR and IBM-PR are behavior of the process to the out-side world will be like, so
able to store the textual phrasing of a process model that users will not be bothered with details that do not concern
describes the activities of a process, the involved entities and them
their interaction. Also, except MIT and SCOR, other repositories 11) Should provide check-in/out functions to avoid the
have the ability to describe and store the control flow aspects of a production of inconsistent process models as it opens for
process. change

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12) Should enable notifications to be generated in case an [6] T.W. Malone, K. Crowston, J. Lee,B. Pentland, et al. Tools for inventing
organizations: Toward a handbook of organizational processes.
object in the repository is changed, so that users can get to Management Science 45(3), pp. 425-443, 1999.
know about most recent works [7] Z. Yan, R.M. Dijkman, and P.W.P.J. Grefen. Business Process Model
Repositories-Framework and Survey. Information and Software
Technology, vol 54(4), pp. 380- 395, 2012.
IV. CONCLUSION [8] Z. Ma, B. Wetzstein, D. Anicic, and S. Heymans. Semantic Business
Process Repository. In Proceedings of SBPM 2007, Innsbruck, Austria, pp.
In order to support the development of future BPRs which are 92-100, 2007.
capable for model reuse and effective knowledge exchange, the [9] MIT Process Handbook,
proposed set of repository requirements can be used as the basis. http://process.mit.edu/Directory.asp?ID=114&Expand=92
Such a BPR would become a common information asset to all Last accessed on 12th November 2013.
business users and especially facilitate reuse over different [10] IBM Process Repository,
business domains. http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wchelp/v5r6m1/index.jsp?topic=/c
om.ibm.commerce.business_process.doc/concepts/processPrice_order.htm
Last accessed on 12th November 2013.
REFERENCES
[1] J. Vanhatalo, J. Koehler, and F. Leymann. Repository for Business
Processes and Arbitrary Associated Metadata. In Proceedings of BPM 2006,
Vienna, Austria, pp. 25-31, 2006. AUTHORS
[2] K. Shahzad, B. Andersson, M. Bergholtz, et al. Elicitation of Requirements First Author – R. P. T. Bhagya, Following B.Sc. Special Degree
for a Business Process Model Repository. In Proceedings of 4th BPD in
conjunction with BPM'08, Milan, Italy, pp. 42-53, 2008.
in Computing & Information Systems, Sabaragamuwa University
[3] M. Weske. (2007). Business Process Management: Concepts, Languages,
of Sri Lanka and [email protected]
Architectures (1st.). Heidelberg: Springer. Second Author – S. Vasanthapriyan, MSc, Sabaragamuwa
[4] P.A. Bernstein, and U. Dayal. An Overview of Repository Technology. In University of Sri Lanka and [email protected]
Proceedings of VLDB 1994, Santiago de Chile, Chile, pp. 707-713, 1994. /[email protected]
[5] P. Wohed, J. Zdravkovic, and P. Johannesson. A Universal Repository for Third Author - P Jayaweera ,PhD. University of Sri
Process Models, 2007. Jayewardenepura and [email protected]

Correspondence Author – R. P. T. Bhagya,


[email protected], +940783419628

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Vocational and Technical training for rural laborers in


northern midland and mountainous area of Vietnam
Nguyen Thanh Duong*, Doan Van Khanh**, Hoa Thi Ngoc Ha***, Do Manh Cuong****
*
College of Public Administration, Jilin University
**
College of Public Administration, Jilin University
***
College of Public Administration, Jilin University
****
College of Public Administration, Jilin University

Abstract- For every country, human resource is a main power for Nearly 40 years after the country's reunification, the
country development. Vietnam is an agricultural developing economics of this area is underdeveloped with limited human
country, rural labor force accounts for the majority of the whole and social capital (including low educational and vocational
country labor force. Rural human resource development is a skill levels, poor social networks, and the shortage of
compelling need to ensure Vietnam economy development information and skills to adapt to changes in working and living
speed, especially for northern midland and mountainous area, environment), peasants still use the ancient methods of farming,
where there are special geographical characteristics and social. rudimentary farming tools and technology that used thousands
Economic condition is backward and lower compared to the years ago, such as oxen-plough technology, or calculating
average condition of whole country. Northern midland and seeding time based on the experience passed from generation to
mountainous area has special geographical characteristics with generation. The rural labor force in this area has not really
limited traffic structure, backward social, economic condition qualified, most of laborers have low education levels and have
and low qualified rural human resource. These difficulties lead not been trained. Education programs formally provided to
education programs implemented in this area be not effective as people in this area do not meet the requirements of most people
expected, especially for rural laborers in the countryside. and expose shortcomings. However the number of laborers at
Improving quality of rural labors can help them to increase their working age in this area is abundant, most of labor force that
income, improve quality of life and also promote rural supports urban areas and industrial zones come from this area.
sustainable development. It is necessary to find some education In recent years government of Vietnam has carried out
models that can meet the requirements of this area condition by some formal vocational and technical training programs to
studying on the general education programs, vocational and improve quality of rural laborers. However these programs have
technical training programs supported by the government. not got enough efficiency as expected. The quality and quantity
Finding out the causes of education programs' limitations and of trained laborers has not improved as expected. Current formal
disadvantages to propose solutions for this area. A study on the education or vocational and technical training programs
experiences lesson absorbing from the failures of vocational and implemented in this area are unable to serve with the requirement
technical training programs supported by the government, and of the rural industrialization and modernization program.
the success experiences of vocational and technical training Investment in rural labor vocational training for the northern
programs implemented by local government and Non- midland and mountainous area is not only to improve this area
Government organizations is also carried out to find out suitable economic development but also improve the whole Vietnam
education modals for rural human resource development in this economic development as well. It is necessary to find a long term
area. The course organizing and curriculum building, teachers and accordant vocational training program to deploy in this area.
and instructors recruitment, financial and capital support
solutions are proposed in this article. II. OBJECTIVES
1. To find out limitations of general education, Vocational and
Index Terms- human resource, vocational and technical training, technical education programs in northern midland and
non-formal education, rural laborer, northern of Vietnam. mountainous area of Vietnam.
2. To propose suitable vocational and technical education models
for this area, with solutions for building programs, organizing
I. INTRODUCTION course and setting up curriculum, recruiting teachers and

N orthern midland and mountainous area of Vietnam is a


special geographical area, traffic condition is not
convenient, but this area contains a lot of nature valuable and
instructors and solution for financial and capital support.

III. THE CURENT PROBLEMSOF THIS AREA


rare mineral resources such as rare earth, iron, coal, copper, 3.1 Low quality of rural laborers
nickel, tin, lead, bauxite, gold and apatite resources, however the Northern midland and mountainous area is the biggest
highland geographical condition makes it difficult to mine. The area of Vietnam. As the census results in2009 of General
northern midland and mountainous area of Vietnam also has a Statistics Office (GSO) of Vietnam shows that the area accounts
large primeval forest, as well as highlands and large pastures. about 28.8% of the country area and 12.9% of country

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population. Population in that area is mainly ethnic minority leave school to work to support their brothers or sisters to
groups with 50 to 100 people per one square kilometer as continue school
population density (GSO. 2009). The Report on Labor force The language barrier: In northern midland and
survey in 2012 of GSO reveals that 75.9 % of population in the mountainous area, majority of people are ethnic minorities
northern midland and mountainous area resided in rural area, groups so many pupils face language barrier when they are at
14.7% of population aged 15 and over is illiterate, 22.7% does school because the language used in these schools is Vietnamese,
not finish primary level, and 25.6% just finishes primary level. which is not the home language for some ethnic pupils. Not
Percentage of technical trained people is also low with 89.98% many teachers in ethnic areas can speak the ethnic language of
of people at workable age is not trained, 2.54% obtains the pupils and this makes it difficult for them in communicating
elementary vocational level, 4.5% obtains intermediate with, as well as in teaching ethnic students.
vocational level, 1.65% has college diploma, and 1.33% has
university or higher diploma (GSO. 2012). Low qualified of The barriers of Vocational and Technical Education
laborer and difficult transportation in this area does not attract Vocational and Technical training schools and centers
industrial enterprises to establish in this area that leads to limit are located in urban areas, far away from countryside, so most of
economics development and employment requirement as well. learners must reside in schools, or schools vicinity. Training
3.2 Barriers affectachievements of education programs in this courses are developed by time – based approach so they are not
area. flexible enough to meet agricultural crops season as well.
Expenses of formal Vocational and Technical programs
The barriers of General education are also burdens for most rural laborers to decide to enroll
The financial barrier : Vietnam implements six years vocational training courses. As investigated 30 vocational
compulsory education policy. Primary education is compulsory training schools and centers in Thai Nguyen province in 2012.
and it is free for all children, but in Vietnam the cost of education Each learner needed to pay average 664 USD for a semester (6
is not only school tuition fee but also other expenses such as; months). The largest expense was expenses for food and daily
learning materials, uniforms or clothing, transport, additional life, occupied for more than half of total expense. These expenses
living expenses, extra learning fee, school construction fee, and were increased because of the independent lives of expenses. If
other unnamed expenses. A study showed that Vietnam is one of they lived with their families they would reduce travelling and
the countries in Asia that mobilizes the highest resource from communicating expenses, and in rural area most of daily food
society for education. The studies calculated in 2006, the and necessities could be also reduced by self – sufficiency.
education expenses accounted 41% of total social expenses. A
survey result in this study showed that 57% of parents said that Table1: The average expenses of vocational training in
their children’s education expenses were “high”, 38% of parents northern midland and mountainous area of Vietnam
said “relatively high”, and 18% of parents said “very high”(Tran
Huu Quang, 2008). Socialized education policy of the Average
government makeseducation expenses to be a Expense (USD)
burdentofamilieswhose childrengo to school. For this reason School fees 105
compulsory education is just a “formalism policy”, in fact,
children especiallychildrenin rural areasdo notget fullpreferences Dormitory fees 41
of this policy. High education expenses preventrural children Average food expenses 327
from continuing toattendhigher education, prompting themto
leaveschoolearlytoparticipate inagriculturalactivities. The high Materials and book 15
dropout rate leads toincrease the rate of loweducated laborers. Extra - Learning fees 18
The geographical, social and cultural barrier: In rural Membership fees (Young union, Student union...) 12
area one school serves a lager geographic area that because
distribution of schools is based on population density. Far Physical test and insurance 10
distances from home to school, difficult transportation condition, Daily life expenses, travelling, communication, etc. 136
so most of pupils must reside in school, or school vicinity, Total 664
particularly in some places pupils reside in temporary tents. The
formal education programs are fixed schedule, and does not run The distribution of careers of vocational and technical training
in synch with the agricultural crops season, so many pupils leave schools is unreasonable. As investigated more than 40
school to participate in harvesting crops or planting new crops, vocational training schools in 15 provinces of northern midland
while children start to work at early age, most of children in rural and mountainous area shows that 58% of careerquota are
area after school they take part in harvesting crops, planting new engineering - welding and fabrication, electric technology,
crops or working to earn small income to support their families. electronics technology, automotive mechanical technology,
For this reason, pupils find it is difficult for them to enroll in full information technology and driver. Only 12.3% of career quota is
time schooling as most of urban children do. In rural area people agricultural careers. For the diplomat level, agricultural careers
also get married at early age, as invested result show that 18.6% occupy 9.3% of the quota, and for secondary level agricultural
of people at the age of 12 to 19 get married (GSO. 2012). The careers account for a small number of quota, 10.8%. Diploma
fertility birth rate is high and close so the elder children often and secondary level requires trainers obtain at least secondary
graduation certificate before enroll.

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IV. SOME SOLUTIONS FOR THESE PROBLEMS


4.1 Building non-formal Vocational and Technical training
models for this area
General education will create “general human capital”,
and Vocational and Technical Education will create “specific
human capital” (Becker.1985). Vocational and Technical
Education can meet changes in production technology; these
changes go along with advanced technology development. The
development of advanced technology will require skilled and
qualified workers.
For major rural laborers in this area, general education
seems not be suitable to improve their human capital. Because of
Figure1: Career quotas distribution the low qualified educational levels of rural laborers, general
Rural labors can enroll to study elementary level; education makes rural laborers spend long time to achieve a
however the number of agricultural careers are only 15% of degree while vocational and technical training will equip them
career quota, and agricultural careers are not deployed on a large what knowledge and skills that they require in short time.
scale, but only available in some agricultural schools located in Vocational and technical training can reduce unemployment, and
some certain provinces. help rural laborers for self-employment. The trained laborers can
Law on Vocational and Technical training issued in open and operate their own, or their families workshop so they
2006, defined that vocational and technicaltraining includes three will create new employments. and Vocational and technical
levels: vocational elementary level, vocational secondary level, training will also promote “equity with a rural bias and serve the
and vocational diploma. Vocational training includes full-time needs of relatively poor people”, create “skill culture”, as
and regular training. The secondary, and vocational diploma opposed to “academic culture” that is now prevailing in Vietnam,
levels limit to those who have graduated from secondary as the majority of pupils after high school graduation will
schools, so the law has hindered most of rural laborers to enroll participate an exam to enter colleges and universities with a
formal vocational training programs, because 14.7% of rural dream to find a high income office job in city after graduation
laborers aged 15 and older in this area are illiterate, 22.7% un- (Jandhyala B G Tilak. 2002).
graduated primary level, 25.6% finished primary level(GSO. Non-formal education is distinct from formal education,
2012). It means 63% of rural laborers can only enroll in it is flexible, it can be customized to serve for specific learner
elementary training level and cannot enroll to higher level at groups with particular purpose. Non-formal vocational and
formal vocational schools or centers because of their education technical training programs can be customized in a way that the
certificates limitation as the law regulations. course will be organized in their villages, or next to their homes,
practicing can be applied in their daily work. Learners can
The main problems of education programs in this area choose what they learn in detail, and class time can be scheduled
 Curriculums are inflexible and in conflict with in spare time, so it will not affect or will have small effect on
agricultural crop, duration of curriculums is long and their harvesting. Let rural laborers take the initiative in education
with flexible time and courses. They will not face difficulties in
trainers misspend on unnecessary subjects.
communicating or feel a complex about their over age. Finally
 Far distances from home to school, difficult learning expenses will not be their burden on themselves or their
transportation condition. families.
 Lacking of training, learning facilitiesand equipment, 4.2 Organizing course and setting up non-formal vocational
non financial support or little financial support from the and technical training curriculum
government does not ensure learning and teaching Non-formal vocational and technical training
condition for learners. curriculum: Setting up sensible curriculums for rural laborers and
 Social - cultural gap, language barrier and high attracting learners are very important for the success of
education expense. programs. It is necessary to investigate and survey before setting
 The investigation and survey activities are not exact up a curriculum. The investigation and survey activities are not
and detail in identifying skills with unclear training exact and detail in identifying skills with unclear training
target leads the training vocation does not meet the purpose that leads the trainingprograms do not meet the
requirements of laborers. requirements of laborers. For northern midland and mountainous
area with the particular social economic condition, curriculums
 The input certification requirement prevents most of
should more focus on careers that can develop this area
laborers to participate in higher training levels. economics. The curriculum should put learners at the center of
 The propaganda and consultant activities are limited training activities, and let them take more roles on teaching and
and passive. learning activities. After class learners can practice their
 The abilities of local officials are limited and the knowledge immediately in daily life and teaching should be done
coordination of local departments for implementation in local language by local teachers (ILO.2002).
of training program is weak. To set up a suitable curriculum, it is necessary to
identify what knowledge and skills that rural laborers should be

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equipped. The knowledge and skills that near by labor market at least one of these organizations so these organizations can
needs is prior. The knowledge and skills about agricultural understand condition of rural laborers, and rural laborers can be
careers, agriculture production processing, marketing, directly fed propaganda. These organizations can create
management, information technology should also equip to rural vocational learning movements for rural laborers like other
laborers as they can improve their productivities or they can be political movements popularized in rural area. These
self-employed or be agri- entrepreneurs. When rural laborers can organizations can investigate or do surveys about local rural
self-employ they can also create employment for their families laborers to prepare for training courses. These organizations can
members or other people, and when they can process their also carry out propaganda activities and enrolment activities as
agricultural products they may establish small agricultural well.
products processing establishments and also create new In rural area people keep their family relationships and
employments. Self-employment, establishing agricultural clan connections closely, in each clan the role of matriarch or
products processing establishments and becoming agri- patriarch is very important, and some clans have their own rules.
entrepreneurs will create new employments, new services in Big families or clans can be considered as organizations. We can
localities and improve local economics. mobilize them to participate in propaganda activities, enrollment
The curriculum must have the community at the centre activities to their members. Taking advance of the local
of the decision making process – identifying a range of skills that organizations and local governments we can attract rural laborers
they see appropriate and fit with the sources of growth and job to attend class more effective and more economic saving.
opportunities within the locality. Curriculums should be built to The training programs should be associated with local
support for rural laborers more than the elementary training level organizations’ activities to prove good effect, and reduce
to equip rural laborers with enough knowledge and skills to self- expenses. The programs should also exploit local tradition
employ or work in factories. Laborers can learn whole culture and family relationship to attract learners. Using public
curriculum or a part of curriculum then enter labor market or facilities to reduce expenses and mobilizing finance from social
start their own work, if they want to improve their skills they can organizations to supply scholarship to learners will ensure them
attend the curriculum again. It should be a long – life curriculum. to attend class.
Preparing and organizing the curriculum: Curriculum organizing 4.3 Teachers and instructors
should fit the condition of rural laborers, all of the curriculum or In the northern midland and mountainous area, the
a part of it should be taught in villages where learners reside. A geographical and social economic condition is difficult; traffic is
vocational and technical training curriculum combines of two limited, especially for some remote localities, so it is not
parts, theoretical part and practical part. Almost theoretical parts attractive for teachers to come for sustainable employment. For
can be taught in localities but some practical modules require professional and experienced teachers, it is more difficult to
practice facilities or machines that are unable to be moved to recruit.
localities, expensive moving cost, or unable to be installed in To recruit teachers, wage and bonus will not be the
localities because of power supply limitation. For these cases the condition to attract teachers. The policy of vocational training for
following methods can be used; Practicing associated with rural area can be treated as social policy; teachers can be
manufacturing in firms is an impeccable method for learners volunteered for short-term. Graduated students will be a source
practice and make real production. Learners are practicing in real of voluntary teachers. Graduated students can accept to work in
manufacturing environment that help them to have industrial rural area few years before move to good condition area.
manners. Learners can be paid amount of salaries to cover their Surrounding vocational and technical training schools' teachers
expenses, and it also creates chance of employment for them can also be a suitable voluntary source. They can take apart in
after graduation. Course organizers can associate practice courses rural courses in their free time, like weekend or vacation.
with surrounding vocational and technical training schools to Another source of voluntary teachers is retired teachers, the
help learners practice in these schools in free time such as teachers are experienced and professional, they also are ensured
weekend, summer vacation etc. Vocational and technical training by retirement pension, so wage will not be pressure for their
schools are well equipped with facilities and machines, teachers work, and they have full time for their work. High skilled
and instructors are experienced and well professional. Maybe technicians of local agricultural expansion encouragement
learners need to pay some extra expenses, however they can have society or craftsman from trade villages, skilled workers can also
better practicing environment. Curriculum should be organized in recruited as instructors. Local teachers and instructors will be the
flexible schedule. Teaching may be scheduled for only part of a first choice because they are familiar with local conditions, they
day, after working time, in evening, after harvest time, or for the also can communicate with learners in local languages, and the
weather day that people are unable to work outside in field expenses (such as traveling expense, accommodation expense
Attracting learnersis one of the formal education …etc) for them will be less than expenses for teachers from other
failures so it could not attract learners to attend class. For places.
northern midland and mountainous area, propaganda, 4.3 Financial and capital support
investigation and survey activities should be improved. These Finance for non-formal vocational and technical training
activities can be carried out by local social political organizations programs includes teacher wage and pension, organizing cost
available in rural area such as: Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth (includes preparing expenses such as investigations, propaganda
Union, Vietnam Youth Federation, Vietnam Women‘s Union, activities. etc), teaching and learning facilities, equipments,
Vietnam farmer’s Union, Study Encouragement Society, materials, machines, workshops, building, power, scholarship.
Agricultural Extension …etc. Almost rural laborers participate in Government should be the main sponsor provides financial

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resource to these programs, and vocational training for rural V. CONCLUSION


labors should be put as a nation policy, especially for the The solutions will be more effective if rural laborers are
northern midland and mountainous area, vocational training for ensured by law to improve their skills and knowledge, so it is
rural labors policy can narrow economic gap with other areas as necessary to build a law on non-formal vocational and technical
the policy that government of Vietnam are performing. training to give non-formal vocational and technical training
Local governments should provide financial support to organizations permission to train higher training levels and award
these programs, because the success of these programs will higher training levels certificates. The present vocational and
improve local economics and social environment condition. technical training law provisions that the higher training levels
Though local governments’ financial resources are plentiful, they (secondary training level and diplomat training level) that
can support to vocational training programs by other resources required for at least secondary school graduation. The only
like electric power, practice materials or learning facilities…etc. secondary vocational schools, vocational colleges, professional
Enterprises when invest in rural area they should also invest in secondary schools, colleges and universities who have registered
human resource. If they want to have high skilled laborers they to provide vocational training at the secondary level are allowed
should invest in human resource development by themselves or to provide higher training level. It is necessary to develop a
recruit high skilled laborers. In rural area high skilled laborers vocational qualification evaluating system with the regulations to
are not available for recruitment, for this reason, it is better for admit the certificates of non-formal vocational training programs
enterprises to invest in vocational training for rural labors in to be equivalent with other vocational training certificates, and to
localities where they locate in. If enterprises using row materials allow laborers to participate in the highest vocational training
from local agricultural products for their production, investing in level as they can.
vocational training for rural laborers who produce and support As well as supporting vocational and technical training
agricultural products as raw material resources to enterprises will for rural labors, laborers recruitment and employment policies
also improve the quality and productivity of raw material should be deployed simultaneously to ensure laborers after
resources. This policy will bring benefit to both enterprises and graduated can find a wage employment or self-employ.
labors, rural labors will reap more quantity and better quality Developing small enterprises or family establishments is a
agricultural product, and enterprises will be supplied with stable suitable way to employ laborers and develop local economics.
and good quality material resources. Small enterprises and family establishments easily to adapt to
Financial contributions can be donated from interior and economic changes, market requirements, producing technology
international sponsors such as social organizations, international change. They can be established in rural area use local labors and
organizations, and non-governmental organizations. The credit materials. The government can make policy provide financial
loans from international organizations will be another financial support or preferential tax policy to develop small enterprises in
resource supported for these programs. The donation finance in rural area. Linking vocational training with enterprises is a way
Vietnam from NGOs is difficult because of the politic of to solve trained laborers. In Vietnam most of labors must find
Vietnam, these organizations are limited in implementation their employment by themselves or ‘implore for a job’, sometime they
activities, so they find difficult to take a part in development of must pay amount of money for employers to get a job. If
Vietnam economics. If government of Vietnam loosens religions vocational training centers can be linked with enterprises to
control, it can mobilize big resources from these organizations establish a ‘channels laborer distribution’ with clear information
support for economic development. of human resource, laborers will have more employment chances
Self - created finance is finance created by learning and response requirement of labor market better.
associated with manufacturing, such as the expanding handicraft It is important to change misconception of vocational
and trade villages programs, learners could make commercial and technical training and learning. A lot of Vietnamese people
products while they were learning. The finance will support regard academic education and disregard vocational education,
learners daily lives to maintain the courses and for next higher and “qualification above ability” conception is popular in
courses. Vietnam. To change misconception, the propaganda activities
Finance expenses can be reduced by using public should be direct to rural labors; vocational training should be
facilities available in localities, such as commune post-culture brought directly to rural labors. When people realize that
houses, culture houses, libraries, village halls in teaching and vocational training can increase their labor productivities,
learning activities. In the northern midland and mountainous area increase income and improve their lives they will change their
as an investigation result of General Statistics Office (GSO), misconception.
there are 1904 post-culture houses about 83.84% communes, 716
culture houses, about 31.53% communes, 139 public libraries
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[5] GSO. (2009). The 2009 Vietnam population and housing census: Completed [24] UNESCO. (1999). Project on training of non-formal, education personnel.
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http://www.molisa.gov.vn/news/detail/tabid/75/newsid/51879/seo/Nhung-
ket-qua-buoc-dau-trien-khai-de-an-dao-tao-nghe-cho-lao-dong-nong- [email protected]
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thu nhap ben vung cho nguoi ngeo. [The seminar on impulse to vocational
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[17] Foster, Andrew D. and Mark R. Rosenzweig. (1996). Technical change and
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Haven: Yale University Press.

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Directory of Open Access Journals, Music: A


Bibliometric Study
Neera Bansal

Librarian, F.C.College for Women, Hisar

Abstract- Nowadays, vast collection of electronic research all articles and utilize a form of licensing that puts minimal
journals is available on the internet. This fundamental growth of restrictions on the use of articles.”3
e-journals has led to the origin of DOAJ. The Directory of Open
Access Journals is very comprehensive and covers a huge
number of scholarly journals related to interdisciplinary subjects. II. DIRECTORY OF OPEN ACCESS JOURNALS (DOAJ) : AN
The present paper is an attempt to study 44 journals of music. OVERVIEW
These journals were accessed through DOAJ. Readers can be Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) provides an
benefitted due to the availability of summarized information of extensive listing of open access journals that does not charge
all free access music e-journals. All music journals are analyzed readers or their institutions for access. ”The aim of the DOAJ is
on the basis of their originating country, language and year of to increase the visibility and ease of use of open access scientific
emergence. and scholarly journals, thereby promoting their increased usage
and impact. The DOAJ aims to be comprehensive and cover all
Index Terms- E-Journals, DOAJ, Open Access, Music open access scientific and scholarly journals that use a quality
control system to guarantee the content. In short, the DOAJ aims
to be THE one stop shop for users of open access journals.”4 “
I. INTRODUCTION The Directory of Open Access Journal (DOAJ) is the world’s

O pen access publishing leads to wider dissemination of


information and increased efficiency by providing free
access to findings for the widest audience. “Shifting from ink on
most authoritative list of scholarly, peer reviewed, fully open
access journals, and a “must” for libraries of all types. DOAJ is
growing rapidly, at a rate of more than one title per calendar day.
paper to digital text suddenly allows us to make perfect copies of DOAJ’s highly functional and aesthetically pleasing interface
our work. Shifting from isolated computers to a globe – spanning features a number of search options, including a new search
network of connected computers suddenly allows us to share option for authors looking for open access or hybrid journals to
perfect copies of our work with a worldwide audience at publish in.” 5 DOAJ is not limited to particular languages or
essentially no cost. About thirty years ago this kind of free global subject areas. According to DOAJ website, presently it includes
sharing became something new under the sun. Before that, it 124 countries, 9988 journals, 5691 journals searchable at article
would have sounded like a quixotic dream. Digital technologies level and total 1544323 articles for the readers. Undoubtedly
have created more than one revolution. Let’s call this one the these figures are bigger one.
access revolution.”1 Suber ,Peter is of opinion that “Open-
access (OA) literature is digital, online, free of charge, and free
of most copyright and licensing restrictions. What makes it III. OBJECTIVES OF THE PAPER
possible is the internet and the consent of the author or
 To find out free e-journals offered by DOAJ in the
copyright-holder.”2
subject of music.
Why it is said open? Simply because it is open to read, open
 To find out the year of their origin and to provide the
to use and open to reuse. Access means this literature is easily
specific URLs of these journals.
accessible by the public and always accessible for processing.
That’s why open access is becoming the first choice of authors,  To know country wise distribution of e-journals
researchers, librarians, institutions, funders, research assessment  To find out the language of each journal and to select
workers as well as knowledge transfer workers. Through open the most favorite one.
access the gap of digital divide can be easily bridged. In the  To list out the number of journals published in more
present era of information and communication, every researcher than one languages.
and scholar must be able to access the rich collection of scientific
literature. There are two primary vehicles for delivering OA to
research articles: OA journals and OA archives or IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
repositories.Open access journals are e-journals that are freely The website of directory Open access Journals ( http ://
available. They mirror the quality assurance practices of www.doaj.org) is browsed for the present paper. Journals related
conventional journals, such as editorial oversight, peer review to music were searched out. Total 44 journals of music were
and copy editing. “Open Access journals provide free access to found under the main subject “Arts and Architecture”. These 44
journals were analyzed on the basis of their country , the year of

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their origin , the languages in which they are available and their V. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS
subject headings. Analysis of 44 music e-journals is presented in tabular form
for easy understanding. All journals were analysed on the basis
of different aspects like their country, languages , subject
headings etc.

Identify the constructs of a Journal – Essentially a jo

Table 1 : List of free Journals of Music

Sr. No. Title of the Journal ISSN/E-ISSN No. Publisher


1. Act : Zeitschrift für Musik & Performance 2191253X
Universität Bayreuth
2. Action, Criticism and Theory for Music Education 15454517
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
3. Anuario Musical 02113538 19884125
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
Científicas
4. Approaches : Music Therapy & Special Music Education 17919622 Greek Asso.of Primary Music Education Teachers
5. Critical Studies in Improvisation 17120624 University of Guelph
6. Current Research in Jazz 19444877 Current Research in Jazz
7. Dancecult : Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture 19475403 Griffith University
8. Empirical Musicology Review 15595749 Ohio State University Library
9. Ethnomusicology Review 21644578 University of California (UCLA)
10. Frankfurter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 1438857X Universität Bern, Institut für Musikwissenschaft
11. Hellenic Journal of Music, Education, and Culture 17922518 Greek Asso.of Primary Music Education Teachers
12. Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies (JIMS) 13070401 13069055 Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies
13. Journal of Jazz studies 21581401 State University of New Jersey
14. Journal of Music and Meaning 16037170 University of Southern Denmark
15. Journal of Music History Pedagogy 2155109X Pedagogy Study Group of the American
Musicological society
16. Journal of Sonic Studies 22126252 Leiden University Press (LUP)
17. Journal of the Society for Musicology in Ireland 16497341 Society for Musicology in Ireland
18. Min-Ad : Israel Studies in Musicology Online 03342026 Min-Ad
19. Music & Politics 19387687 University of California, Santa Barbara
20. Music and Arts in Action 17547105 University of Exeter
21. Music Performance Research 17559219 Royal Northern College of Music
22. Music Theory Online 10673040 Society for Music Theory
23. Musica Docta : Rivista Digitale di Pedagogia
e Didattica della Musica 20399715 University of Bologna
24. Musica e Tecnologia 19740042 19740050 Firenze University Press
25. Musical Offerings 23308206 21673799 Cedarville University
26. Muzikologija 14509814 Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
27. Nota Bene : Canadian Undergraduate Journal of Musicology 19208979 19208987 University of Western Ontario
28. Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology 10961291 21517045 University of California (UCLA)
29. Per Musi 15177599 Escola de Música da UFMG
30. Philomusica 18269001 Pavia University Press
31. Popular Musicology Online 13570951 CyberStudia academic community
32. Revista de la Lista Electrónica Europea de
Música en la Educación 15759563 Universidad de La Rioja and Jesús Tejada
33. Revista Electrónica Complutense de
Investigación en Educación Musical 16987454 Universidad Complutense de Madrid
34. Revista Musical Chilena 07162790 07176252 Universidad de Chile
35. Samples : Notizen, Projekte und Kurzbeiträge
zur Popularmusikforschung 16128001 Arbeitskreis Studium Populärer Musik
36. Sonograma Magazine 19891938 Webdemusica.org
37. SoundEffects 1904500X Aarhus University
38. South Central Music Bulletin 15452271 College Music Society - South Central Chapter
39. STM-Online 14035715 Swedish Musicological Society
40. Studii si Cercetari de Istoria Artei : Teatru,
Muzică, Cinematografie 00393991 20675119 Romanian Academy
41. Sul Ponticello 16976886 Conservatorio virtual

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42. TRANS : Transcultural Music Review 16970101 Society of Ethnomusicology of Spain, (SIBE)
43. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy 15041611 University of Bergen. Antioch University
44. Zeitschrift für Kritische Musikpädagogik 16198301 Zeitschrift für Kritische Musikpädagogik

Table 1 provides information about all free open access online journals of music. The ISBN/ISSN and names of publishers are also
given.

Table 2 : Yearwise distribution of E- Journals of Music

Sr. No. Title of the Journal Starting Year. URL


1. Act : Zeitschrift für Musik & Performance 2010 http://www.act.uni-bayreuth.de/index.html
2. Action, Criticism and Theory for Music Education 2002 http:// act.maydaygroup.org
3. Anuario Musical 2001 http://anuariomusical.revistas.csic.es
4. Approaches : Music Therapy & Special Music Education 2009 http://approaches.primarymusic.gr
5. Critical Studies in Improvisation 2004 http://www.criticalimprov.com
6. Current Research in Jazz 2009 http://www.crj-online.org
7. Dancecult : Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture 2009 http://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/journal
8. Empirical Musicology Review 2006 http://emusicology.org
9. Ethnomusicology Review 2011 http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/
10. Frankfurter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 1998 http://www.fzmw.de/
11. Hellenic Journal of Music, Education, and Culture 2010 http://www.hejmec.eu
12. Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies (JIMS) 2007 http://www.musicstudies.org
13. Journal of Jazz studies 2011 http://jis.libraries.rutgers.edu
14. Journal of Music and Meaning 2003 http://www.musicandmeaning.net/index.php
15. Journal of Music History Pedagogy 2010 http://www.ams-net.org/ojs/index.php/jmhp/
16. Journal of Sonic Studies 2011 http://journal.sonicstudies.org/
17.Journal of the Society for Musicology in Ireland 2005 http://www.music.ucc.ie/jsmi/index.php/jsmi
18. Min-Ad : Israel Studies in Musicology Online 2002 http://www.biu.ac.il/hu/mu/min-ad/
19. Music & Politics 2007 http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/mp/
20. Music and Arts in Action 2008 http://www.musicandartsinaction.net/
21. Music Performance Research 2007 http://mpr-online.net
22. Music Theory Online 1993 http://mto.societymusictheory.org/index.html
23. Musica Docta : Rivista Digitale di Pedagogia 2011 http://musicadocta.cib.unibo.it/ e Didattica della Musica
24. Musica e Tecnologia 2007 http://ejour-fup.unifi.it/index.php/mt/index
25. Musical Offerings 2010 http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings
26. Muzikologija 2002 http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/journal.aspx
27. Nota Bene : Canadian Undergraduate Journal of Musicology2008 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/notabene/
28. Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology 1984 http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/
29. Per Musi 2010 http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?
30. Philomusica 2001 http://philomusica.unipv.it/
31. Popular Musicology Online 2000 http://www.popular-musicology-online.com/
32. Revista de la Lista Electrónica Europea de 1998 http://musica.rediris.es/leeme/index.html
Música en la Educación
33. Revista Electrónica Complutense de Investigación 2004 http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/RECI en Educación Musical
34. Revista Musical Chilena 1996 http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php
35. Samples : Notizen, Projekte und Kurzbeiträge 2002 http://www.aspm-samples.de/
zur Popularmusikforschung
36. Sonograma Magazine 2008 http://www.sonograma.org
37. SoundEffects 2011 http://www.soundeffects.dk/
38. South Central Music Bulletin 2002 http://www.scmb.us/
39. STM-Online 1998 http://musikforskning.se/stmonline/index-en.php
40. Studii si Cercetari de Istoria Artei : Teatru, 2007 http://scia.istoria-artei.ro/
Muzică, Cinematografie
41. Sul Ponticello 2004 http://www.sulponticello.com/
42. TRANS : Transcultural Music Review 1995 http://www.sibetrans.com/trans/index.htm
43. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy 2001 http://www.voices.no
44. Zeitschrift für Kritische Musikpädagogik 2002 http://www.zfkm.org/

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Table 2 shows the year of origin of the journals and their URLs. Users can use these URLs to easily access these journals. Earliest
journal of this list came in the year 1984 and latest belongs to 2011. Maximum 6 journals were started in 2002 followed by 5
journals in 2007, 2010 and 2011.

Table 3 : Countrywise & Languagewise Distribution of E- Journals of Music

Sr. No. Title of the Journal Country.


Language
1. Act : Zeitschrift für Musik & Performance Germany
German , English
2. Action, Criticism and Theory for Music Education United States
English
3. Anuario Musical Spain
Spanish, English, French, German,
Italian, Portuguese, Catalan
4. Approaches : Music Therapy & Special Music Education Greece Greek, English
5. Critical Studies in Improvisation Canada English, French
6. Current Research in Jazz United States English
7. Dancecult : Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture United States English
8. Empirical Musicology Review United States English
9. Ethnomusicology Review United States English
10. Frankfurter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft Switzerland German, English
11. Hellenic Journal of Music, Education, and Culture Greece English, Greek
12. Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies (JIMS) Turkey English
13. Journal of Jazz studies United States English
14. Journal of Music and Meaning Denmark English
15. Journal of Music History Pedagogy United States English
16. Journal of Sonic Studies Netherlands English
17.Journal of the Society for Musicology in Ireland Ireland English
18. Min-Ad : Israel Studies in Musicology Online Israel English, Hebrew
19. Music & Politics United States English
20. Music and Arts in Action United Kingdom English
21. Music Performance Research United Kingdom English
22. Music Theory Online United States English
23. Musica Docta : Rivista Digitale di Pedagogia e Didattica della Musica Italy Italian
24. Musica e Tecnologia Italy Italian, English
25. Musical Offerings United States English
26. Muzikologija Serbia Serbian, German, English
27. Nota Bene : Canadian Undergraduate Journal of Musicology Canada English
28. Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology United States English
29. Per Musi Brazil Portguese, French, English, Spanish
30. Philomusica Italy Italian, English, French German
31. Popular Musicology Online United Kingdom English
32. Revista de la Lista Electrónica Europea de Música en la Educación Spain Spanish, English, Portguese, Italian
33. Revista Electrónica Complutense de Investigación en Educación Musical Spain Spanish, English
34. Revista Musical Chilena Chile Spanish
35. Samples : Notizen, Projekte und Kurzbeiträge zur Popularmusikforschung Germany English, German
36. Sonograma Magazine Spain Catalan, Spanish, English
37. SoundEffects Denmark English
38. South Central Music Bulletin United States English
39. STM-Online Sweden English, Swedish, German
40. Studii si Cercetari de Istoria Artei : Teatru, Muzică, Cinematografie Romania Romanian, French, English
41. Sul Ponticello Spain Spanish
42. TRANS : Transcultural Music Review Spain English, Italian, Spanish, Portguese, French
43. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy Norway English
44. Zeitschrift für Kritische Musikpädagogik Germany German, English

Table 3 presents a picture of countrywise and languagewise distribution of e-journals . Some journals are published in more than one
languages. Three tables are further created to analyse above t able 3 further.

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Table 3.1 : Analysis of Countrywise Distribution of E-Journals of Music

Sr. No. Country No. of E-Journals Rank


1. Germany 3 3
2. United States 12 1
3. Spain 6 2
4. Greece 2 4
5. Canada 2 4
6. Switzerland 1 5
7. Turkey 1 5
8. Ireland 1 5
9. Denmark 2 4
10. Netherlands 1 5
11. Israel 1 5
12. United Kingdom 3 3
13. Italy 3 3
14. Serbia 1 5
15. Brazil 1 5
16. Chile 1 5
17. Sweden 1 5
18. Norway 1 5
19. Romania 1 5

Table 3.2 : Analysis of language wise distribution of e-journals

Sr.No. Language No. of E-Journals Rank


1 English 41 1
2 German 8 2
3 Spanish 8 2
4 French 6 3
5 Italian 6 3
6 Portguese 4 4
7 Catalan 2 5
8 Greek 2 5
9 Hebrew 1 6
10 Serbian 1 6
11 Swedish 1 6
12 Romanian 1 6

Table 3.3 : Analysis of journals published in more than one languages

Sr. No Language No. of Journals


1 Single Language 25
2 Two Languages 10
3 Three Languages 4
4 More Than three Languages 5

Table 3.1 analyses the countrywise distribution of e-journals. As it is clear that by publishing 12 journals, United States occupies
first rank and Spain stands on second position by publishing 6 journals. Table 3.2 clearly states that maximum journals are published
in English language i.e. 41 out of 44 e-journals and 8 journals are published in German and Spanish each so their rank in the list is
second. Table 3.3 is one step further analysis to check the number of journals published in more than one languages. The majority of
journals i.e. 25 are published in single language .

Major findings of the study :

 It is observed that maximum 6 journals were started in the year 2002


 United States secures first rank in publishing with 12 journals.

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 It is observed that maximum journals of music are published in English language.


 A majority of music e-journals are published in one language. Moreover, it is worth noting that five journals are published in
more than three languages.

VI. CONCLUSION
DOAJ provides a gateway to scholars, researchers and professionals for wider communication of their research work. Free
access leads to increased usage of scholarly work that is otherwise very difficult to refer. DOAJ lists a vast number of open access
journals of almost all subjects for the benefit of users of e-community.

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[14] http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/
[15] http://www.fzmw.de/
[16] http://www.hejmec.eu
[17] http://www.musicstudies.org
[18] http://jis.libraries.rutgers.edu
[19] http://www.musicandmeaning.net/index.php
[20] http://www.ams-net.org/ojs/index.php/jmhp
[21] http://journal.sonicstudies.org/
[22] http://www.music.ucc.ie/jsmi/index.php/jsmi
[23] http://www.biu.ac.il/hu/mu/min-ad/
[24] http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/mp/
[25] http://www.musicandartsinaction.net/
[26] http://mpr-online.net
[27] http://mto.societymusictheory.org/index.html
[28] http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings

AUTHORS
First Author – Neera Bansal,
Qualification: M.Sc. Computer Sc., M.Lib & Inf. Sc. , M.Phil,
UGC-NET qualified
E-Mail Address: [email protected]
Institute : Librarian, F.C.College for Women, Hisar

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Design of Triband Miniature Microstrip Antenna with


Modified Resonating Structure using CADFEKO
Gaurav Morghare*, Poonam Sinha**
*
Asst. Prof., Department of ECE, Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology & Management, Bhopal
**
Asst. Prof. and Head, Department of ECE & IT, University Institute of Technology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal

Abstract- In this paper, a Tri band linearly-polarized However, the difficulty in designing antenna challenges
microstrip patch antenna is designed and simulated with engineers when the size of the antenna reduces and the number
Modified Resonating Structures using CADFEKO antenna of operating frequency bands increases. So far, for size reduction,
simulation software from a dual band antenna. Antenna bandwidth enhancement, and resonance-mode increment,
parameters are examined in this which includes resonating numerous antennas have been proposed by employing various
frequency, VSWR, impedances and bandwidth of the designed feed structures such as the probe, the microstrip, and the coplanar
and proposed resonating structure with microstrip feed. The waveguide (CPW). In these monopole antennas, a large solid
antenna is proposed for GPS/GSM, UMTS and Wi-Fi/WLAN ground plane having the shape of a rectangle, square, circle, or
wireless communication applications provided with greater ellipse is usually adopted [3,4]. Different from this, a notable
bandwidth. This paper focuses on the designing of miniature ground structure named defected ground structure (DGS) has
microstrip antenna with microstrip feed and analyzes the results recently been investigated and found to be a simple and effective
like return loss S11, VSWR, impedance and Bandwidth. method to reduce the antenna size as well as excite additional
resonance modes[1]. Designing of antenna in this paper is done
Index Terms- Resonating Structure, Tri band, Microstrip Antenna, by FEKO antenna software simulation, with the standard
CADFEKO, Modified Structure Resonator. parameters and consideration like permittivity of εr=4.4,
microstrip feed, tangent loss of 0.01 and infinite ground plane.
I. INTRODUCTION
II. DUALBAND RESONATING STRUCTURE MICROSTRIP
I n the last few years, the development of GPS/GSM and Wi-
Fi/WLAN represented one of the principal techniques in the
information and wireless communication. As per the present
ANTENNA

In order to realize multiband operation, there is a wide variety


situation in communication systems has been to develop low of antenna types, which uses different multiband techniques, is
cost, low profile antennas, minimum weight commonly used used. The most popular technique for obtaining multiband
dielectric materials that are capable of maintaining high antenna system is the usage of multiple resonant structures. The
performance over a wide spectrum of frequencies [1]. With a multiple resonant structure technique is also frequently used in
simple geometry, patch antennas offer many advantages not mobile communication systems to achieve multiband mobile
commonly exhibited in other antenna geometry. Advantages are antennas. The proposed antenna is miniature in size the overall
low profile, inexpensive, lightweight and simple to manufacture dimension of the 16 mm X 3.2 mm in length and width with the
using modern day printed circuit board technique, compatible thickness of 0.1 mm provides the one of the objective of this
with microwave and millimeter-wave integrated circuits paper of compact size [2]. The resonating structure is at distance
(MMIC), and have the ability to conform to resonating of 0.1 mm from the feed line which has modified structure of
structures[1]. In addition, once the shape or geometry and rectangular curl. Further in this paper, these curls are increased to
operating mode of the patch are confirmed, designs become very one to two in number to achieve triband operations.
selective in terms of resonating frequency, return losses,
polarization, radiation pattern, voltage standing wave ratio and The design of a dual band single resonating structure
impedance. That is possible with Microstrip antenna probably microstrip antenna using microstrip feeding technique satisfying
exceeds that of any other type of antenna element [1]. Using the the given specifications:
Multi Band Resonator concept in this paper on Tri band modified
Resonating Structure Microstrip antenna is designed and Frequency(fr) 1.65 GHz and 3.64 GHz
simulated. There are few software available which allow the Dielectric constant(ԑr) 4.4
optimization of the antenna. CADFEKO is one of the imperial Substrate Height(h) 1.5 mm
electromagnetic software which allows to designing and solving Line Impedance 50 Ω
for radio and microwave application. It works based on methods Ground Plane Infinite
of moments (MOM). The CADFEKO simulator tool computes Tangent Loss 0.01
most of the useful parameters of interest such as radiation
pattern, input impedance, return loss, VSWR, gain, directivity As for the substrate selection, the major consideration will be
etc. the dielectric constant. A high dielectric constant will result in a
smaller patch size but this will generally reduce bandwidth

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efficiency and might have difficulty in fabricating a very small


patch size antenna [1,4].

Figure 2 The configuration Tri band resonating structure

Figure 1 The configuration resonating structure


As shown in Figure.1, the proposed dimension of dual band
resonating structure.
 Patch Dimensions:
Length (L1) = 4.2 mm Length (L2) = 1.1 mm
Length (L3) = 2.2 mm Length (L4) = 0.3 mm
Length (L5) = 6 mm Length (L6) = 2.6 mm
Length (L7) = 2.8 mm Thickness (t) = 0.1 mm
εr =4.4 Tangent Loss= 0.01
 Feed Line Dimensions:
Length = 11.575 mm
Width = 0.45 mm
Ground Plane: Infinite
Feed: Microstrip port

With the above parameters, a microstrip patch antenna is


designed and simulated for the range of 1 GHz to 5 GHz, which Figure 3 Triband resonating structure on CADFEKO Simulation
is commonly used for wireless communication systems [2]. Software

III. TRIBAND RESONATING STRUCTURE MICROSTRIP IV. SIMULATED RESULT AND DISCUSSION
ANTENNA
The microstrip feed used is designed to have an inset depth
The configuration of proposed tri band antenna is the outer of 11.575mm, feed-line width of 0.45 mm. A frequency range of
geometry specification kept same as for dual band but inner 0.1-6.0 GHz is selected. CADFEKO simulated for approx 26
geometry is designed by keeping distance between outer and frequency points over this range to obtain approximate results.
inner geometry as shown in Figure 2. The center frequency is one at which the return loss is minimum.
The bandwidth can be calculated from the return loss plot as
Frequency(fr) 1.57, 2.95 and 4.05 GHz shown in figures. The bandwidth of the antenna can be said to be
Dielectric constant(ԑr) 4.4 those range of frequencies over which the return loss is greater
Substrate Height(h) 1.5 mm than -10 dB (-9.5 dB corresponds to a VSWR of 2 which is an
Line Impedance 50 Ω acceptable figure) [1,5]]. The designed antenna resonates at 1.65
Ground Plane Infinite GHz and 3.64 GHz. The return loss at 1.65 GHz frequency is -37
Tangent Loss 0.01 dB and at 3.64 GHz is -31 dB as shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4 Return Loss of dual band antenna (S11 in dB).


Figure 6 Return Loss of triband antenna (S11 in dB)
The VSWR plot for single geometry antenna is shown in The designed antenna resonates at 1.57, 2.95 and 4.05 GHz.
Figure 5. Ideally, VSWR must lie in the range of 1-2 which has The return loss at 1.57 GHz frequency is -39 dB, at 2.95 GHz is
been achieved for the frequencies 1.65 and 3.64 GHz. The value -18 dB and at 4.05 GHz frequency is -30 dB. Ideally, VSWR
for VSWR is 1.6 and 1.1. must lie in the range of 1-2 which has been achieved for the
frequencies 1.57, 2.95 and 4.05 GHz. The value for VSWR
obtained is 1.6, 1.65 and 1.17. The impedance for double
geometry antenna is obtained as 59, 57 and 52 Ohm for 1.57,
2.95 and 4.05 GHz.
The VSWR plot for double geometry antenna is shown in
Figure 7. Ideally, VSWR must lie in the range of 1-2 which has
been achieved for the frequencies 1.57, 2.95 and 4.05 GHz. The
value for VSWR is 1.6, 1.65 and 1.17.

Figure 5. VSWR Versus Frequency Plot of dual band antenna


Figure 6 shows the S11 parameters (return loss) for the
proposed triband antenna.

Figure 7 VSWR Versus Frequency Plot of Tri band antenna

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[5] Bin Yang, Yong-Chang Jiao, Wei Zhang, Huan-Huan Xie, Fu-Shun Zhang,
“Dual-band ring-shaped antenna for WiMAX/WLAN applications”, IEEE
Resonating Return VSWR Impedance Bandwidth trans ., Vol. 11, pp 42-44, 2011.
Frequency Loss S11 (Ω) (MHz) [6] Wen-Chung Liu, Chao-Ming Wu, and Yang Dai, ”Design of Triple-
(GHz) (dB) Frequency Microstrip-Fed Monopole Antenna Using Defected Ground
Structure”, vol.59, pp 7-12, July 2011.
1.57 -39 1.6 59 460
[7] Muhammad R. Khan, Mohamed M. Morsy, Muhammad Z.Khan and
2.95 -18 1.65 57 80 Frances J. Harackiewicz, ”Miniaturized Multiband Planar Antenna for
GSM, UMTS, WLAN, and WiMAX bands”, IEEE tans.,Vol. 18, pp 63-68,
4.05 -30 1.17 52 460 2011.
[8] G. Jegan , A.Vimala juliet, G. Ashok kumar “ Multi B and Microstrip Patch
Table 1 Return Loss, VSWR and Impedance at Resonating Antenna for Satellite Communication”, IEEE tans., Vol 7, pp21- 26, 2011.
frequencies for Triband Structure. [9] Aiza Mahyuni Mozi, Dayang Suhaida, Awang Damit and Zafirah Faiza,”
Rectangular Spiral Microstrip Antenna for WLAN Application”, IEEE
Control and System Graduate Research Colloquium (ICSGRC 2012), Vol.
Table 1 shows the simulated results of return loss, VSWR and 16, pp 35-39, 2012.
impedance. This miniature Tri band antenna has wide application
in GSM, UMTS, Wi-Max and Wi-Fi/WLAN of wireless AUTHORS
communication and clearly reflects that increase in number of First Author –Mr. Gaurav Morghare, B.E., M.Tech, Dept. of
resonating structures definitely increases the multibanding but ECE, Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Management,
the center bands are having less bandwidth as compared to outer Bhopal, [email protected].
bands for the designed model. Outer bands are having bandwidth
of 460 MHz whereas center band is having bandwidth of 80 Second Author – Dr. Poonam Sinha, Ph.D., Head of ECE & IT
MHz. department, University Institute of Technology, Barkatullah
University, Bhopal, [email protected]
V. CONCLUSION
The purpose of this work is successfully completed as studied Correspondence Author – Mr. Gaurav Morghare,
and designed the antenna using a modified resonating structure [email protected], 9165666061.
microstrip antenna. The simulated result of the return loss of the
microstrip-fed Microstrip patch antenna yields Tri band. The
radiation pattern is unidirectional pattern for all of operation
bandwidth. The simulation gave results good enough to satisfy
our requirements to fabricate it on hardware which can be used
proposed wireless applications. The proposed work has been
limited mostly to theoretical studies and simulations due to lack
of fabrication facilities. Detailed experimental studies can be
taken up at a later stage to design the multiband resonating
structures antenna. Thus, antenna is proposed for GPS/GSM,
UMTS and Wi-Fi/WLAN wireless communication applications
provided with greater bandwidth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is very grateful to Gyan Ganga Institute of
Technology and Management, Bhopal for providing adequate
infrastructure and CADFEKO software simulation lab for
completing this research.

REFERENCES
[1] C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, 2nd Ed., John wiley & sons, pp 16-20., New
York.1982.
[2] Gaurav Morghare, Poonam Sinha, “Dual band optimized microstrip antenna
with modified resonating structure using CADFEKO”, International Journal
of Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation
Engineering (IJAREEIE), Vol. 2, Issue 10, October 2013.
[3] G. Du, X. Tang and F. Xiao, ”Tri-Band Metamaterial –Inspired Monopole
Antenna with modified S-Shaped Resonator”., Progress In Electromagnetics
Research Letters, Vol. 23, pp 39-48, 2011.
[4] Jaemin An, Yuseon Kim, Hyunseong Pyo, Hyesun Lee, Yeongseog Lim,”
Determining Resonant Frequencies of Single Dual-Mode Resonator and its
Application”, Proc. IEEE Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 10, pp 41-44,
2010.

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The Challenge of Policy Formulation and Service


Delivery in the 21st Century: “Improving customer
service delivery” By E-governance
Aneri Mehta
*
Department of Public Administration, School of liberal study, Pandit deendayal petroleum university, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.

Abstract- Governments of the countries around the world have understanding and assisting the state government to improve
started utilizing the potential of technology to deliver online their services, we decided to focus our study in the district of
information and services to their citizens. Using ICT in the form Ahmadabad .The main objective of this study is to measure the
of e-governance could yield great benefits in the reform and quality of services provided at the counter. The dimensions
modernization of the public sector. The experience of e- concerning employees’ performance at the counter, layout plan
governance in a number of developed and developing countries and counter service quality were selected to be the predictor of
has shown that ICT can be a tool for greater service delivery with the dependent variable which influences customer’s level of
the goal of improving service quality. E-governance can also satisfaction. E-Governance provides access to information to
promote ‘good govern-ance’, that is, greater civic engagement empower citizens so they can make better life for themselves and
can increase opportunities for direct representation and voice, for the next upcoming generation.
and support for increased democracy. This paper discusses and
presents the survey findings that seek to test the role of e-
governance in improving service delivery by altering the II. BACKGROUND
principal-agent relationship. It further seeks to elucidate the Despite a plethora of delivery mechanisms, most
quality aspects of public service. Strong leadership is required to governments are increasingly perceived as unresponsive, with no
implement e-governance to capture and internalize the benefits of covert accountability systems and mere lip service to
quality services and satisfied customers. transparency. It is by now an accepted fact that traditional
Questionnaires distributed to different groups of government structures and systems are no longer adequate to
respondents using stratified random sampling. The results meet the demands of rising citizen aspirations and challenges of
indicate that e-governance has the potential to improve service complex global economies. The role of the government
delivery and customer satisfaction. It is also confirmed through established and accepted earlier as the ‘Sole Provider’ is being
the findings in this research that the expectations of citizens from questioned in every forum. The availability of constantly
public services are quite high, but experience has often been improving technological solutions coupled with innovative
negative i.e. there is a huge variance in the perception and managerial tools have given rise to scope and options for
expectation of normal citizens in the country regarding service improved administrative structures, efficient and effective public
delivery, quality of services. This has negatively affected service delivery systems and the highest quality of governance.
customer satisfaction over the number of years. E-governance Governments and governance the world over are undergoing a
should be seen as a means of improving service quality in the ‘paradigm shift’ in their traditional roles and structures of
future. inflexible control and procedure orientation, towards result
orientation, flexibility, facilitation and a citizen-centric approach.
Index Terms- ICT, E-Governance, Public Service Delivery, Administrative reforms are not new to this country. Historically,
Customer Satisfaction, Customer Service, Service Quality. from the days of Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya, to Akbar,
Jahangir and the British Raj, strong to feeble attempts have been
made to reform the government. But most often these reforms
I. INTRODUCTION were aimed at improving the government’s ability to control the

T he development of public administration not only contributes


to the modernization of the public service but has also
educated the public. Public expects the civil service to fulfill
inflow and outflow of revenue. The welfare orientation and the
focus on development of backward areas and people are post-
independence phenomena. Since the 1950s, the Government of
their needs in the best tune. Therefore, the quality of the services India has been slowly but steadily climbing the ladder towards a
given by the public service, in all aspects, need to recognize the citizen-centric focus on administrative reforms. Since the 1990s,
customers’ expectation. Realizing the important of improving the it has been accepted at the national as well as state levels that
public service, our aimed to investigate the customer’s there are three ‘non-negotiable ingredients’ for a government to
satisfaction towards service quality in the counter of the local be considered capable of delivering good governance. These
authority. Even though the operation of each local authority ingredients are – responsiveness, transparency and
followed the same operating procedures, but still the satisfaction accountability. However, when we look back at the reform
rendered to the customers differ. With the intention of initiatives in the Indian administration, it can be clearly seen that

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these non-negotiable principles have only evolved of late through which a state or community is governed . Therefore, e-
a process of experience gathering at all levels. It appears government would necessarily mean the electronic systems
preposterous today that the R.A. Gopalswami Report of 1952 adopted by any government for enabling transactions which aid
entitled ‘Machinery of Government – Improvement of in governing a state or a community. Not only are these two
Efficiency’ was treated as a confidential document! The year definitions dispassionate to the needs of the citizens on first
1964 is important in the history of administrative reforms in appearance, but would indeed be practically incomplete if they
India as the Department of Administrative Reforms under the were not associated with the major outcome of every such system
Ministry of Home Affairs was setup in March that year. The i.e. governance. Government is the instrument we use’. On the
1970s were more or less uneventful in terms of earth-shaking basis of these concepts, it is simple now to realise that e-
reforms. The 1980s saw capacity-building as the focus for governance is not just the mere application of information and
administrative reforms. The first time that a shift in the emphasis communication technology to government functioning. In fact, it
from regulation to development was placed on paper, was in the goes much beyond stand-alone back office automation of
report of the L.K.Jha Economic Administrative Reforms. The government departments for generating management information
announcement of the new economic policy in January 1990 led systems. As per a typical definition, e-governance is ‘the
to stress on privatization, down-sizing and concentrating on cost– electronic delivery of services by the government to the citizens’.
benefit outcomes of governmental functioning. The 1997 This really is a definition which is quite restrictive in scope, as it
conference of chief ministers is a landmark development for does not take into account aspects such as creation of data banks,
commencing the shift towards attaining good governance across tracking and monitoring systems, inter-linking of ministries and
the centre and the states. The overall theme of the conference departments and related organizations etc. The government of
revolved around ‘rebuilding the credibility of the government’ by India’s definition of e-governance as ‘using IT to bring about
coming out with strategies for a responsive and effective SMART (simple moral accountable responsive transparent)
administration. The sub-themes of the conference included – an governance’ appears more rounded and wider in scope but tends
accountable and citizen-friendly government, a transparent to dilute the boundaries between good governance and e-
administration, and a performance-oriented public service with governance. In my view, all definitions of e-governance should
high levels of integrity. ‘Responsiveness’ to the needs of the poor be approached cautiously so as to ensure that it remains one of
and ‘transparency’ in the form of low cost access and two-way the most important items on the broader agenda of good
flow of information became the major concerns. governance practices and not an alternative term of usage for
Citizen’s Perception of the Government that there are no good governance. Further, it must be remembered that unlike in
institutionalized standards for the delivery of public services. the nineties, more than administrative reforms leading to
Therefore, there always appears to be an unending struggle adoption of e-governance initiatives, today e-governance is
between the governmental systems, its capability to deliver and driving the process of administrative reforms.
the actual needs of the citizens. Going by the typical definition of The Indian governments, at the national and state level, are
democracy, i.e. ‘a government of the people, for the people and keenly encouraging the development of IT as a strategy for
by the people’, democratic India certainly seems to have fulfilled responsive and transparent administration in all major domains.
the tenets of ‘a government by the people’. Though having While initially, most e-governance efforts concentrated on data
recognized the need to govern ‘for the people’, and place the collection, data exhibition on web sites and facility for data
common requirements and aspirations ‘of the people’ on the downloading, there was almost negligible, if any, element of
highest priority for service delivery, progressive governments organisational transformation and change. Fortunately, it was
have found that the governing process itself comes in the way of quickly realized, that these efforts would come to zero, unless
their attempts to establish a positive relationship with its citizens. accompanied by transformation of mind sets, culture and
For the citizens, any encounter with the government is a processes in government organizations. Therefore, of late, most
harrowing experience. Be it a visit to the police station for e-governance efforts inherently include business process re-
registering an FIR, or to the respective authorities for obtaining a engineering, aimed at generating citizen-centric and citizen
permission/license/certificate, or a visit to the government interactive systems. Further, and once again very fortunately, the
hospitals or government educational institutions – the procedures central and state governments also realized that unlike many
are so lengthy and the number of officials and their attitudes so development-oriented schemes which are replicated mutatis
complicated that the citizen remains a dissatisfied and frustrated mutandis, across the board, the treatment for e-governance has to
customer. The earlier governments performed well in the past but be different. The micro culture, the micro geography, the micro
now with the dawning of the information age and the emerging needs and the micro systems have to be taken into account. Each
knowledge regime, the citizen is no longer satisfied with services model of e-governance provides a learning ground for bringing
which can be delivered only by frequent visits to government about better and improved electronic solutions for delivery of
offices, or standing for hours in long queues, or after time- services, provided it is replicated or adapted with care. Care has
consuming lengthy processes or with the evil but necessary to be taken to understand at what stage we should introduce e-
associations with touts and middle men. The citizens want fast governance for ensuring effective service delivery.
and efficient systems available at a single window which do not
require them to know the faces and names of the bureaucratic
structures, and which give them a ‘nice feeling’ about interacting III. COMMON SERVICES CENTERS (CSC)
with the government.From Government to e-Government to e- CSCs, which are broadband-enabled computer facilities,
Governance/Government is the sum total of the systems by offer a range of government-to-citizen and business-to-customer

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services, besides promoting basic access to the Internet. Agenda Task Force (BATF), which started off as a unique
Information management systems are designed to ensure that experiment in private public partnership in urban governance,
relevant information is available anywhere, anytime, and in any has been successful in bringing together the various stake-holders
way for government-to-government (G2G), government-to- consisting of municipal service providers, the city government,
citizen (G2C), and government-to-business (G2B) interactions. domain experts, nongovernment organizations and the citizens on
The scheme creates a conducive environment for the private a common platform to discuss urban development issues and
sector and NGOs to play an active role in implementation of the evolve common governance guidelines. (BATF, 2005). In a non-
CSCs and to become partners of the government in the ICT enabled urban local body the key processes adopted while
development of rural India. The public/private partnership model serving the community are (i) making & administering policy,
of the CSC scheme envisages a three-tier structure consisting of (ii) implementing policy for the welfare of citizens and society,
the CSC operator (called Village Level Entrepreneur or VLE); (iii) controlling the activities, (iv) organizing for achieving the
the Service Centre Agency (SCA), which is responsible for a above.
division of 500-1000 CSCs; and a State Designated Agency
(SDA), identified by the state government responsible for Political Context
managing the implementation over the entire state.The CSCs are The political context of a nation influences the scope and
aimed at providing high-quality and cost-effective video, voice, type of interactions between government and other sections of
and data content and services in the areas of e-governance, society (civil society, media, business and citizens). Where
education, health, telemedicine, entertainment, and other private citizens participate in the selection of political leadership and are
services. CSCs also offer web-enabled e-governance services in able to influence government policies, the Citizen Report Card
rural areas, including application forms, certificates, and utility can offer a powerful mechanism for people to speak about their
payments such as electricity, telephone, and water bills. like experience as the users of public services. When the means for
India, ICT driven e-governance applications making the citizens citizens to voice their opinion (through elections, public
happier with timely and cost savings in availing services and meetings, and other ways) are less, or absent, political
improvement in the reliability of services. Special emphasis is institutions and processes are rarely designed to use feedback
needed in working out revenue models, ensuring the full from citizens.
implementations through appropriate tenure appointments of • The CRC would be an unfamiliar mechanism.
project champions, ensuring effective monitoring and Governments would have to recognize the importance of citizen
maintenance of systems. It is important to understand the feedback. Citizens would have to become comfortable with
=whys‘, =which‘ and the =how‘s‘ of public service delivery. It is openly providing feedback on government services. If the state is
very difficult to define this term. We do not have any likely to block the CRC effort, involve government in the
comprehensive definition or understanding of what really is process. The CRC can be used as an internal diagnostic tool to
public service delivery. Briefly put, it is the inter-relationship evaluate service delivery. Although the advocacy or “public
between the government functionaries and the citizens to whom voice” component will be minimal, this application of the CRC
the services of the government are addressed to, and the manner can still create a new mechanism by which government listens to
in which the services reach those for whom they were intended. and incorporates the perspective of the people. The political
Any effective public service delivery mechanism must ultimately system of a nation moulds the institutions and policies that
lead to good governance. The governments generally utilise one govern society. It determines the degree of freedom enjoyed by
or the other of a variety of mechanisms for delivering services to average citizens. Improving Local Governance and Pro-Poor
the citizens. There is no limit to the scale of such composite Service Delivery.
applications. Once the structure is in place, governments can
more easily get down to the business of public services. Decentralization
Urban local bodies in India are the primary delivery Many central/national governments have decentralized the
mechanism for providing services to urban citizens in the areas responsibility of providing services. Although the aim of
of public health, education, tax collection, services & utilities decentralization is to give more independence - both spending
like power, water, telecommunications, sanitation, solid waste and policymaking — to local governments, the results have been
disposal, land development, transportation, housing development mixed. In some places, decentralization has led to improved
and many other essential services. The typical urban local body government services In other places, decentralization has
consists of a council of elected members assisted by government increased the misuse of funds and has failed to produce better
bureaucrats. While the elected officials provide the political 396 quality services. Within the context of the CRC, understanding
interface to the citizens, the bureaucrats handle the delivery the impact of decentralization is important. Who is now
mechanisms of the policies articulated by the elected civic responsible for service provision? Efforts to improve services
bodies. Most urban local bodies in India have a poor should aim at these institutions.
understanding of and access to the enormous potential that
information and communication technologies hold in improving Customer Service Delivery by e-Governance
the functioning of these organizations. It is important to understand the ‘whys’, ‘which’ and the
Many cities such as Bangalore have evolved unique public- ‘how s’ of customer service delivery. It is very difficult to define
Private Partnership models in which the urban local bodies, the this term. I have not come across any comprehensive definition
citizens and enlightened corporate entities are working together or understanding of what really is public service delivery. Briefly
to look at governance issues more holistically. The Bangalore put, it is the inter-relationship between the government

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functionaries and the citizens to whom the services of the This is the stage where e-governance should make its entry.
government are addressed to, and the manner in which the If there is any attempt to introduce IT for delivery of services
services reach those for whom they were intended. Any effective before this stage, then it can be an initio termed a failure.Every
public service delivery mechanism must ultimately lead to good department has its own system(which are perpetrated by an
governance. The governments generally utilise one or the other inherent resistance to change) of dealing with the citizens. But de
of a variety of mechanisms for delivering service the citizens facto, a citizen does not live his life within the different water-
such as Central Government Schemes, implementation of state- tight compartments of different departments. He is neither aware
specific schemes, local self-government interventions, small- nor interested in the functional segregations of departments,
scale interventions of NGOs, special purpose vehicles such as which in any case are meant for the government’s convenience.
DRDAs (District Rural Development Agency) and JNURM He expects the government to look at his own convenience in a
(Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission), contracting out or manner that enables all his life’s events to be taken care off at a
outsourcing to the private sector, fostering other partnerships etc. single window. If a citizen was asked to design his very own
Despite this assortment of mechanisms, there is no substantive government there would be no queues, no multiple visits, no
change in the perception of the government in the eyes of the under the table deals, no loss of time and income for him! The
beneficiaries towards whom these services are aimed at. Quality, future of e-governance lies in integrating and designing the
selection, responsiveness and speed seem to have been overtaken delivery of all services required during the life time of a citizen,
by the concept that competition can be decided on the basis of in such a manner that the G2C interface becomes seamless,
‘best price’ alone. We need to begin somewhere. To go about cutting across all boundaries. The government functionaries
this process, we need to ask ourselves certain basic questions would become faceless and nameless in such a system, and the
about public service delivery such as it movement would not be of ‘files’, but a flow of information in a
exists today: smooth and user-friendly manner. This of course demands
• what do we want to deliver commitment, standardisation, change in mind sets and capacity-
• how do we want to deliver it building of the human resources, organisational transformation,
• why do we want to deliver it in the manner in which we are quick uptake of new and better technological and managerial
doing right now tools, and participation of the community.
• is there an alternative mode of delivery

1. Identify all the services. IV. SOME STATE-LEVEL INITIATIVES FOR PUBLIC SERVICE
2. Identify the modes of service delivery DELIVERY: THE CASE OF GUJARAT
3. Identify the category of beneficiaries such as individual It is not a very well-publicised fact that the state of Gujarat
citizens, miscellaneous as well as uniform groups, gender perhaps has one the largest OFC networks in the Asia Pacific
groups, age-related categorisation, organisations, institutions etc. region. The Gujarat StateWide Area Network is a state-of-the-art
4. Prioritise the services which are most in demand and also system which caters to the internal and external communication
prioritise the categories of beneficiaries. This has to be done with services of the administration, and is fully equipped with voice,
the complete involvement of all the stakeholders including the video and data technology services. All these services are IT-
intended beneficiary. This process should also include based with its leased line gateway at the state capital which also
identifying the areas of harassment to the beneficiaries. hosts the server farm. Some important e-governance initiatives of
5. Look at, and analyse the ‘as is’ status and process. Check each Gujarat which have impacted in a positive manner on the
level, analyse the kind, mode and speed of delivery, identify efficacy of the public service delivery are mentioned below.
points of delay, of corruption etc. 1. SWAGAT (State-Wide Attention on Public Grievances by
6. Identify all resources that are available and also all the Application of Technology)
resources which are being utilised to maintain ‘as is’ status i.e. On a single day each month, applicants from across the state
man (power), money (funds), machine (equipment and logistics), submit their long-standing grievances online from the district
motivation (of employees) etc. headquarters to the Chief Minister’s Office. The Chief Minister
7. Identify the wasteful aspects and/or the gaps in on the same day directly interacts with the applicants and the
operationalising delivery of services, transporting or district administration through video conference and attempts to
communicating within the organization.and outside to complete resolve the grievances on the spot. Since the inception of the
the processes, levels and kinds of inspection and monitoring, and initiative in October–November 2003 up to December 2004, out
areas/points of delay. of a total of 8621 long-pending complaints, 7660 were resolved.
8. Innovate and adapt This is where we need to think out of the From January 2005 to December 2006, the initiative received
box, take care of the gaps and focus on citizens needs. By 10,911 complaints/applications of which 10,109 were disposed
adopting the GPR or CPI process, we need to actively improve on the spot. This is an initiative which is entirely based on GPR.
and/or re-engineer processes to reduce delays, keep time 2. E-GRAM
commitments, provide accessibility at several locations, fix and This project envisages taking IT to all the 18,000 villages of
standardise responsibility of the service providers and service Gujarat, for the delivery of public services. The eight services to
users, focus on accuracy, provide for grievance redressal, take be delivered under this initiative are standardised and include a
care of augmenting the skill and training level of government single-window delivery of birth certificates, death certificates,
functionaries, etc. income certificate, caste certificate, tax collection, agriculturist
certificate, payment of electricity dues, entry in record of rights

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and issue of land ownership records. This programme is running online, treasury network, etc. The e-dhara initiative has made
successfully in over 13,000 gram panchayats today and it is available approximately 98 lakh land holdings online, across the
intended to complete the implementation in all the 18,500 length and breadth of the state, covering a population of 1 crore
villages by the end of this year. Governance at the doorstep is a and 16 lakhs. The videoconferencing facilities provided in jails
major development through BPR and CPI. Following is the for online trials have helped the state government save almost
progress chart. Rs.80 lakhs per jail, per year! Now about 2000 of the citizen’s
facilitation centres have GSWAN connectivity (of which 1000
3. The Jan Sewa Kendras are in the rural areas, 225 in the taluka/block headquarters and
These are citizen facilitation centres spread over all the 25 350 in police stations). The State Disaster Resource Network is
district headquarters of the state as well as all the 225 taluka constantly updated and is an important tool in the hands of the
headquarters. They are run by the revenue administration headed district administration for managing disasters. The system of
by the collector and district magistrate in each district. The 75 internet-based disease surveillance by the Health Department is
services provided by the Jan Sewa Kendras are also standardised necessarily updated on a daily basis to enable quick response.
and the focus here is on the citizen’s charters. The services in the The list of initiatives is very long but the focus of all e-
citizen’s charters are categorised into two categories depending governance efforts in Gujarat is to provide for active user
on the time for disposal. These are: the ‘one-day governance interface and committed standards for delivery of services and
services’ (which are services delivered within one hour on the also to enable citizens to have easy access to information about
same day as the application) and ‘time limit disposal’ of services public services. The Final AnalysisThere is already enough that
in which the services are delivered as per the commitment of has been said or written about e-initiatives and lot of work is
time made under the citizen’s charters. Processes have been re- being done to sensitise the governments to the need for
engineered to ensure that time limits are maintained. There is transparency, accountability and responsiveness through e
complete transparency in the provision of services as the citizens governance . Though it has become an accepted mechanism for
are kept informed of the whole system of processing of delivery of public services, each time governments undertake the
applications. The one-day governance services are functional in daunting task of rising to the expectations of the citizens ,the
all the Jan Sewa Kendras. The entire 75 services or the citizen’s questions of ‘how’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘for whom’, etc will arise.
charter online is also successfully running in all the 25 districts, There is no doubt in our minds that there is a need to speedup the
based on the successful pilot model of Ahmedabad District. This reforms process, and that this can only be done by focusing on
model has been replicated in all the districts with standardised the main pillar of globalisation i.e. information.Over the last 10
processes, logo, signage, etc for all the Jan Sewa Kendras. The to 15 years we, as customers, are demanding better and better
Ahmedabad district alone processed over 90,000 applications in products and services. We expect products to be customised to
the year of initiation(2004) of its Jan Sewa Kendra!. In 2005– our unique needs and there is no doubt now that customers have
2006, 5.1 lakh applications were processed in the various JSKs of choice. The only thing that comes in the way of exercising this
the state. choice is the lack of accessibility and availability of information.
The first bastion, i.e. the monopoly of the government over
4 . Mahiti Shakti information and knowledge has already fallen with the enactment
This project was taken up as a pilot in 80 villages in Godhra of the Right to Information Act in 2005. Information about laws,
District and its success has motivated the government to replicate policies, decisions, modes of public service delivery, etc will
it. This initiative provides easy availability of information soon be commonplace. If the Act is rightfully implemented in
relating to the government and also makes available standardised accordance with its spirit, the days of harrowing tracking of
application forms of various departments of the governments at grievances by the citizens should soon be of historical
information kiosks spread over the rural areas. The innovative importance only. It would be the government’s turn to keep track
aspect of the scheme includes the fact that these kiosks have been of information needs and to take action to make it more and more
setup at varied locations including dairy co-operatives, district citizen-centric.To develop information as a resource capable of
co-operative banks and STD/PCO booths in partnership. The bringing the citizen closer to the government in a typical G2C
forms can also be sent online to the concerned departments interface, it becomes important to evolve all e-governance
therefore saving time, cost and energy of the rural initiatives around the citizen’s needs. The key building blocks for
citizens.IWDMS (Integrated Work Flow and Document such a focused e-governance programme for public service
ManagementSystems)This is an initiative taken by the state delivery, in my view, must have some of the following
secretariat for enabling decisionmaking, policy formulation, components.
correspondence and data management, tracking of documents • Leadership should be provided from higher levels of
and inter-operability, and standardisation of procedures across government for initiating and implementing pilots. But once a
various departments of the state government. A private agency pilot has been found successful, the replication should become
has already been selected for customising the software and this the responsibility of the state government.
initiative has been made functional in all the 25 departments of • There must be empowered e-government coordinators at
the Sachivalaya.The above is just an illustrative list of e- various levels. They should be available, at district level, state
initiatives taken by the Government of Gujarat. There are several level and at the centre, persons with experience and vision who
others such as the sales tax department online, talim rojgar, tele have the power to take decisions on the kind, quality, standards,
fariyad or the Chief Minister’s call center, e-Dhara (land records strategy, replica-ability, etc of e-governance projects within a
online), form book online and GR (government resolutions) given overall framework.

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• A strong frafamework for e-governance and for its overall financial, and physical resources) which is essential for growth
management at the central level, which goes down till the last and for attaining the goal of good governance.Capturing data at
mile with inbuilt scope for flexible adaptation at the local level. one common source is perhaps a long way off in our country, but
• A criteria for defining ‘success’ of a project, so that it can that is where we need to head lock, stock and barrel! As an
be taken up for replication, and a system for sharing best example of multiple efforts, we have the case of the postal
practices at the state level, nationally and globally. directory which is prepared with painstaking details by the Postal
• A legal framework at the central and the state level Department. At the same time, while trying to enlist voters, the
• Inter-operability framework same efforts are duplicated to locate addresses and voters
• Information security policy and practice attached to those addresses by the election machinery. The
• Outsourcing policy census survey is not far behind. Then we have BPL surveys,
• Commitment to innovation Polio surveys, cable TV surveys…imagine it and voila…we have
yet another survey! There are innumerable such examples. What
stops us from linking the census survey every 10 years with the
V. ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES survey for the multi-purpose National Identity Card and get it
There are three key challenges in stepping up e-governance updated every decade? Why cannot birth and death registers be
in India: investments in and access to ICTs, capacity building to automatically linked to the voters list? Why cannot, say, a rural
utilize e-governance services, and promoting people’s woman simply walk into an information kiosk and decide for
participation in edemocracy. It is hoped that improved access to herself which scheme of which department for which she is
information and services will provide economic and social eligible, she would like to apply for? Why cannot this choice be
development opportunities, facilitate participation and known to all the departments at the same time, so that duplication
communication in policy and decisionmaking processes, and of benefits from similar schemes of different departments to the
promote the empowerment of the marginalized groups. same beneficiary is prevented and at the same time the citizens
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development get empowered to make their own choices? Why cannot we issue
(UNCTAD) has credited India with a projected economic growth caste certificates along with the birth certificates ? I can see only
of 8.1% – the fastest rate of expansion in the world after one way forward for this. There has to be one single nodal
China.Nevertheless, it is also a country of stark contrasts. India is agency for implementing e-governance in the country which is
home to the largest rural-urban disparities in the world. It is a empowered to formulate the overall framework for all the state
painful reality that almost 260 million people (around 25% of the governments and the central government departments –
total population) live below the poverty line. The 2010 United somewhat on the lines of the various poverty alleviation schemes
Nations Human Development Report ranked India's development of the Ministry of Rural Development (MORD). The
index at 119 out of 169 countries. implementation process of these rural development (RD)
India is beleaguered by a host of crises: the failure to schemes in the States such as the SJSY, NREGS, etc follow
improve productivity in agriculture; over a quarter million central government guidelines but are permitted the flexibility of
suicides among farmers from 1995 to 2010; high maternal and local innovations leading to smooth adaptation in a given
infant mortality rates; low status of women; gross violation of the common framework. We have tried it out and it is acknowledged
rights of children, with the largest number of child laborers the world-over that it has worked. Therefore, I cannot help
(around 100 million) in the world; spiraling corruption and scams drawing further similes from the RD schemes here. These
of every hue and kind; an era of jobless economic growth; the schemes invariably have an IEC (information, education, and
shadow of hunger that increasingly stalks people across the communication) component inbuilt as a percentage of the
country, resulting in substantial poverty and starvation deaths; budgetary allocations. The harbingers of these schemes must
and the neglect of the disadvantaged and marginalized masses. have been true ICT and e-governance visionaries, though
There are fundamental questions of utilizing development funds unacknowledged as such, so far. The problem is that this
on a priority basis for education and basicneeds which have a component is mostly interpreted as a provision for distributing
direct effect on people’s lives, rather than incurring huge pamphlets or calling for immensely large and sometimes
spending on ICTs for e-governance that will trickle benefits unmanageable gatherings of rural folk and addressing them
down to them. (unilaterally of course, with no scope for two-way discussions)
In an article in Economic Times entitled ‘Development on the benefits of various government schemes. In my view , the
lessons of the 90s’, the author, Shri D. Subbarao states that ‘a guidelines on the utilisation of this component must strictly
variety of approaches to growth are possible, and what approach indicate a certain degree of progress in e-governance (such as
a country needs to take has to be routed in the specific country digitising data, process re-engineering, increasing accessibility of
context. What has worked for one country may not work for information to the citizens, etc) completely based on local
another, and following the best practice is not always the right innovation/adaptation and local technology availability, before
choice. There is no unique set of rules for growth. The focus has the next amount is released. I would go further and suggest that
to be on accumulation of human and physical capital, efficient in fact, all project funding, whether from central or state
allocation of resources, adoption of technology and sharing of the governments must be tied up to a compulsory component of IT
benefits of the growths’. Taking off from here, the challenges and e-governance on similar lines. While concluding, I would
before governance in terms of policy, organisational structures, once again like to reiterate that, the profound realisation of the
laws and rules and the work culture itself can only be resolved by rapidly changing role of the state from an interventionist,
recognising information also as a resource (in addition to human, regulator and control freak to a facilitator, promoter, partner and

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arbiter has led to increasing concerns about profitability,  Data management and analytics. Using data collected
performance and ethics. The main players i.e. the service from customer to analyze their preferences.
providers and policy makers will have to focus on the citizens,  Insight-driven marketing. Gaining insights into your
particularly the poorest of the poor. They will also have to business from customer data so you can more
involve the stakeholders, build capacities of the employees, effectively target marketing.
encourage attitudinal shifts, be data driven in decision-making  Marketing automation. Streamlining and automating
and cautiously adapt best practices. In the final analysis, if the business processes to improve efficiency and keep costs
end result of all the administrative reforms for efficient service low.
delivery, whether through e-governance or any other good  Self-service optimization. Finding ways for customers
governance practice, is the empowerment of citizens, then the to interact with your business when they want.
battle is won. We are not waiting to achieve a ‘government on  Workforce effectiveness. Encouraging your staff to
demand’ , but a government ‘designed’ by you and me. embrace new ways improving customer treatment by
providing tools and training to deliver better service.

VI. IMPROVING CUSTOMER SERVICE DELIVERY BY


TECHNOLOGIES REFERENCES
There's no denying the fact that customer service is [1] http://www.indiaurbanportal.in/reforms/local/e-governance.pdf
important to a small or mid-sized business. The quality of that [2] http://egov.eletsonline.com/2008/08/e-governance-in-urban-local-bodies/
service will either enhance or degrade customer loyalty to your [3] J. Service Science & Management, 2009, 3: 190-203
brand and your business. With the economy in recession, doi:10.4236/jssm.2009.23023 Published Online September 2009
customers have more alternatives than ever. The business that (www.SciRP.org/journal/jssm)
proves to be responsive to customer questions, complaints, or [4] http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/Apresentacao.pdf
other needs can gain a clear competitive advantage. That's why [5] http://www.ecdevjournal.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&
id=255&Itemid=51
it's so important to understand how new technologies can help
[6] http://www.egovernments.org/files/casestudies/municipal-
you anticipate customer needs, tailor business processes to best egovernance%20systems%20for%20local%20bodiles.pdf
serve customers, and ultimately improve the efficiency of your [7] http://books.google.co.in/books?id=yoBKVBjCavoC&printsec=frontcover
business – the latter of which can keep costs down. &dq=books+for+improving+customer+service+delivery+by+e-
governance&hl=en&sa=X&ei=z2QOUv33H4qKrgeXsIHACg&ved=0CE0
Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false ( Book - improving public service
Customer Service Technology delivery: by peter c. Humphreys-CPMR Discussion paper-1998 addition)
There are a few major areas in which technology now is [8] http://books.google.co.in/books?id=5tzI-
able to help provide key advantages to businesses in engendering PxSF4cC&printsec=frontcover&dq=books+for+improving+customer+servi
customer loyalty by improving customer service: ce+delivery+by+e-
 Websites. Providing areas on your website where governance&hl=en&sa=X&ei=z2QOUv33H4qKrgeXsIHACg&ved=0CFc
Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false ( book-E governance and the
customers can answer their own questions or seek decentralization of service delivery by Virpi Timonen,Orla O’Donnell –
answers from others. CPMR Discussion paper, 25 – 2003 addition )
 E-mail. Using e-mail as a way to improve customer [9] The Economic Times (News Papers)
service and more quickly respond to certain needs or
help requests.
 Communications. Unifying communications so that you AUTHORS
know that the customer who left a voice mail also sent
First Author – Aneri Mehta, Department of Public
an e-mail with the same request a few days ago.
Administration, School of liberal study, Pandit deendayal
 Software. Better managing customer relationships with petroleum university, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India., Mob No :
more sophisticated data-gathering tools, such as +919408463510, Email ID :- [email protected]
customer relationship management software.

Giving Customers What They Want, When They Want It


The goal of your business in terms of its customer
interactions is the generate loyalty. There's no better way to do
that than to offer quality products and services and to be
responsive to your customers. But as new technologies have
come to market to make it easier for businesses to provide
customer service, they may also be increasing the number of
channels through which you interact with customers and the
complexity of those interactions. Accenture, the technology
consulting firm, suggests that businesses that want to use
technology to raise the quality of their customer service focus on
the following:

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Effects of Demography, politics, competition &


environment on business
Bhawana Miglani

Assistant Professor, P.G.D.A.V. College, D.U.

Abstract- Business has to fight for every dollar when times get
tight and the economy slows to a halt. On top of all of this, they III. GOVT. & ECONOMIC INFLUENCES ON BUSINESS
also have to make sure all their figures are right, comply with all The health of the local and national economy, as well as the
the laws, and follow guidelines to properly maintain a legal state of the international financial system, influences businesses
business. Doing all of these tasks can be difficult but are of all sizes. But the economy is not the only external influence
manageable if a small business takes the right paths, makes the on business, as governments can enact legislation that may
right decisions, and works hard enough. Small businesses have dramatically impact a company's profit margins and the way
many barriers but with many hurdles overcome these business in which it manages its employees. Therefore, the business
can succeed. Although business competition is exceedingly world must take into consideration economic realities, as well as
harmful to businesses themselves, we should all be glad that we possible interventionist policies on the part of the government.
as consumers can reap the benefits.Monitoring, understanding
and adapting to the political environment is absolutely essential
for any business, because it significantly affects every business.
IV. POLITICAL EFFECTS ON BUSINESS
Index Terms- Business, Economy, Environment • CHANGES IN REGULATION
• MITIGATION OF RISK
• INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT
I. INTRODUCTION • FISCAL POLICY
• GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES
F uture being uncertain, all business activities involve many
types of impact or risk. Environment also affects a business.
There may be loss of assets due to fire, flood, storm, earthquake,
•
•
CRISIS TAXATION
LABOUR LEGISLATION
cyclone, etc. There are personal risk due to accident, death, loss The political environment in a country affects business
of goodwill or earning power, deterioration of health, etc. organizations and could introduce a risk factor that could cause
Environment plays a different role in business. There are them to suffer a loss. The political environment could change as
different types of environmental factor which effects business. a result of the actions and policies of governments at all levels,
RESEARCH ELABORATIONS from the local level to the federal level. Businesses need to be
prepared to deal with the fallouts of government politics.
Politics and business are interrelated, as one of the most
II. DEMOGRAPHICAL EFFECTS ON BUSINESS important success factors for a government is its economic
• POPULATION policy. Economic growth and the development of a stable,
• LITERACY competitive environment for businesses is a top priority for
• URBANISATION local and national administrations. However, political
• AGE STRUCTURE decisions, such as trade bans or state monopoly on certain
• CULTURE fields of the economy, can have serious effects on the world of
• GEOGRAPHIC REGION business.
• INCOME

The Statistical data relating to the populations and groups V. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON BUSINESS
within it, used especially in the identification of consumer • WASTE
markets. It can be a very general science that can be applied to • SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF RAW
any kind of dynamic living population, i.e., one that changes over MATERIALS
time or space. • EMISSIONS
Demography studies how populations changes overtime, in • ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS TO BUSINESS
terms of size and structure. • CLIMATE
• FREQUENT EXTREME WEATHER
• DECREASED DEMANDS
• GLOBAL IMPACT

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VI. RESULTS
Reduced gap in literacy rate between urban and rural areas –
more informed and brand conscious consumer market opening up
in rural areas.
More flexible labour markets, higher rates of female labour
force participation, more highly educated women, more open
attitudes about women working and less illiteracy .
Better infrastructure leading to more internal migration.
Higher rate of migration is directly proportional to
higher employment , higher disposable income, bigger
consumer market.
Rapid rise in the ratio of “working age” to “non-working
age” population contributing to extremely fast economic growth.
India will add roughly 9 million people to its labour force
each year over the next decade.
A company's products and services are more likely to appeal
to certain age groups. Younger people under 35 are often the
first consumers to purchase high-tech products like cell
phones, electronic books and video games.
Environmental laws and good environmental citizenship
prohibit the indiscriminate dumping of manufacturing by
product, so businesses must decide how best to dispense with it.
Many implement recycling programs, others sell what they can
of the waste to other manufacturers who use it in their own
manufacturing processes as raw material.

VII. CONCLUSION
People with lower incomes have less disposable income.
A company may best reach lower-income people through
discount retailers and wholesalers and attract higher-income
buyers in specialty retail shops.

AUTHORS
First Author – Bhawana Miglani, M.Com, UGC-NET,
Assistant Professor, PGDAV College, D.U.,
[email protected]

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Fungal-bacterial Biofilms Differ from Bacterial


Monocultures in Seed Germination and Indole acetic
acid Production
U.V.A. Buddhika*, G. Seneviratne*, C.L. Abayasekara**

*Microbial Biotechnology Unit, Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana road, Kandy, Sri Lanka
**Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

*Corresponding author, Tel.: 94 81 2232002, Fax: 94 81 2232131, E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract- Beneficial microorganisms used as biofertilizers enhance seed germination and vigour through breaking seed
dormancy and hormonal effects. However, their higher production of hormones like indole acetic acid (IAA) result low seed
germination. Therefore, they need a regulation of the IAA production for increased plant growth. Such control exists in developed
fungal-bacterial biofilms (FBBs), fungal surface-attached bacterial communities. Therefore, present study compares two FBBs and
their seven bacterial monoculture counterparts for IAA production and seed germination with maize as the test plant. Results showed
that two biofilms increased seed germination and vigour significantly compared to the monocultures whereas, relatively low IAA
concentrations, which were comparable with lower limit of the monocultures. IAA production of monocultures was related negatively
to seedling vigour, confirming that relatively low IAA concentrations are more favorable for seed germination. Thus, results suggested
a regulatory mechanism for optimizing IAA concentration, and/or factors other than IAA for plant growth benefits in the case of
biofilms. In conclusion, it is clear that the FBBs differ from bacterial monocultures in regulating improved seed germination and plant
growth. Consequently, FBBs warrant formulating biofertilizers in the biofilm mode for futuristic agriculture.

Index Terms- Bacteria, Fungal-bacterial biofilms, Indole acetic acid, Seed germination

I. INTRODUCTION

T here is an increasing trend of application of naturally existing beneficial microorganisms as biofertilizers to reduce the use of CF
in current agriculture. Nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and fungi are some of them. They naturally
inhabit in the rhizosphere and are called plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) which belong to a wide range of genera. They
ensure plant growth and development through different modes of actions such as biological nitrogen fixation (Afsal and Bano 2008;
Cocking et al. 2005) and mobilization of plant unavailable nutrients, i.e. phosphorus, potassium and other minerals (Alikhani et al.
2006). In addition, production of plant growth regulators including IAA, Gibberellins and cytokinins has been observed to lead to
diverse outcomes on the plant, varying from phytostimulation to pathogen supression (Spaepen et al., 2007).
Biofertilizers mediated increase of seed germination has been reported in crops such as rice (Ng et al. 2012), maize (Nezarat and
Gholami 2009) and soybean (Sreenivasa et al. 2009). In addition, their influence on enhanced seedling vigour (Vessey 2003;
Ashrafuzzaman et al. 2009; Ng et al. 2012) and early seedling establishment (Noel et al. 1996; Khalid et al. 2004) have also been
noted and ascribed the production of plant growth regulators. For example, rapid seed germination of Dianthus caryophyllus has been
observed to be caused by the production of plant growth regulators like IAA, which overcomes seed dormancy (Roychowdhury 2012).
The effect of IAA produced by Azospirillum brasilense and Brayrhizobium japonicum on increased growth of corn and soybean has
been reported (Cassán et al. 2009). Further, the role of IAA produced by Klebsiella strains and fluorescent Pseudomonas on root
growth of wheat (Sachdev et al. 2009) and groundnut (Jayasudha et al. 2010), respectively has been demonstrated. In many studies, it
has been found that monoculture bacteria release a wide range of concentrations of IAA, but only relatively low concentrations of IAA
favour the germination as well as the growth of radicles and plumules (Chauhan et al. 2009; Jayasudha et al. 2010; Swain et al. 2007).
Thus, using these monocultures with high IAA producing capacity as biofertilizers results the low seed germination and reduced plant
growth (Jayasudha et al. 2010) consequences low agricultural significance. This warrants the importance of optimizing the IAA
concentration of biofertilizers for maximizing growth benefits to plants. Previously, we observed that there was a regulation of the
production of IAA like substances in fungal-bacterial biofilms (FBBs), which was related to culture medium pH, whereas no such
relationship occurred in monocultures or mixed cultures of bacteria with no biofilm formation (Seneviratne et al. 2008). As such,
when bacteria are in biofilms, it seems that there is a possibility of manipulating IAA production at optimum level for higher plant
growth benefits for effective formulations of biofertilizers. Therefore, present study was designed to investigate the action of
developed biofilms in comparison to their bacterial monocultures in IAA production for seed germination and vigour, by using maize
as the test plant.
.

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II. IDENTIFY, RESEARCH AND COLLECT IDEA


Microbial cultures of nitrogen fixing bacteria and their biofilms. The study was carried out at laboratories of the Institute of
Fundamental Studies (IFS), Kandy, Sri Lanka. Two developed FBBs (BF1 and BF2) of nitrogen fixing bacteria (Seneviratne et al.
2011) and the bacterial monocultures, which have been deposited in the IFS culture collection, were used in the study. The BF1
contained an Aspergillus sp. (Aspergillus sp. 1) and two N2 fixing bacteria [Azorhizobium sp. (B1) and gram negative rod (B2)]. The
BF2 contained another Aspergillus sp. (Aspergillus sp. 2) and Acetobactor sp. (B3), Azotobactor sp. (B4), Azospirillum sp. (B5),
Rhizobium sp. (B6) and another gram negative rod (B7), in addition to the two N 2 fixers in the BF1. These two FBBs have been
extensively tested and recommended for maize cultivation (Buddhika et al. 2012 a, b). Fungal monocultures alone were not used for
the comparison, because a number of our previous experiments with their inoculation have shown significantly reduced seed
germination of maize below 14%, in comparison to the control of no inoculation of over 25% (U.V.A. Buddhika, unpublished). This is
because fungal species inhibit seed germination due to competition with plant embryo for available oxygen (Harper and Lynch 1981).

Seed germination test (Seed sterilization and microbial inoculation). Maize seed material used was hybrid variety Pacific, which
is recommended by the Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka. Seeds were surface sterilized with 80% ethanol for 3 minutes and then
with 50% sodium hypochlorite for 15 minutes, and rinsed thoroughly in sterilized distilled water (Niranjan et al. 2003). All cultures
(FBBs and bacterial monocultures) were grown in a low cost nutrient medium (exact composition cannot be revealed due to
Intellectual Property Right reasons). Seeds were inoculated by overnight soaking with suspensions of bacteria (10 8 cfu/ml) and FBBs
(1010 cfu/ml). Seeds soaked in sterilized distilled water were used as the control. Seven bacterial monocultures and the two biofilms
were considered as treatments for the study. Germination test was carried out by wet paper towel method by placing them on a filter
paper wetted by sterilized distilled water (Niranjan et al. 2003). Each treatment had 45 seeds in a plastic tray and incubated in a
growth chamber at 28 °C. After 7 days, number of germinated seeds was counted, and root and shoot lengths were measured for
calculating vigour index using the following formula.
Vigour index = (mean root length + mean shoot length) × percentage germination (Abdul-Baki and Anderson 1973).
Quantification of the production of Indole Acetic acid (IAA) like substances. Microbial IAA production was quantified by the
method of Patten and Glick (2002). All seven bacterial species and the two biofilms were grown in 75 mL of Tris-YMRT medium for
seven days as described by Biswas et al (2000). After 7 days, the cultures were centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 20 minutes. Then, 1 mL of
supernatant was transferred into another tube and mixed with 4 ml of Salkovski reagent (150 ml of concentrated H 2SO4, 250 mL of
distilled water, 7.5 mL of 0.5M FeCl3.6H2O, Gordon and Webber 1951) and incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes. The
presence of IAA like substances was detected by pink color, which was measured by using a UV-spectrophotometer at 535 nm.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


A. Bits and Pieces together
Seed germination percentages of the bacterial monocultures were not significantly different (P > 0.05), and hence the
germination data were pooled to form one dataset. Both FBBs significantly increased seed germination over the bacterial
monocultures (P < 0.05, Table 1). Seed germination percentages close or equal to 100% were recorded by the FBBs, whereas the
monocultures showed a relatively low germination percentage. Seeds inoculated with FBBs showed higher root lengths than the seeds
inoculated with bacterial monocultures, whereas no such a difference was found in shoot length (Fig. 1). In general, root growth is
attributable to the action of IAA (Sachdev et al. 2009; Jayasudha et al. 2010). Significantly higher seedling vigour was observed with
the FBBs treatments than the bacterial monoculture treatments (P < 0.05, Fig. 2). It is evident from comparisons with literatures that
the developed biofilms in the present study are more effective in seedling development than monocultures of microbes tested in some
other studies. For example in Iran, out of seven microbes, Azospirillum brasiliensis showed the highest seedling vigour index of maize
of 138% over a non treated control (Nezarat and Gholami 2009). In our study, the biofilms BF1 and BF2 increased the vigour index of
maize up to 844% and 620%, respectively over the non treated control. Generally, a wide range of growth regulators produced by
mono or mixed cultures of rhizobacteria enhances seed germination and vigour (Nezarat and Gholami 2009). Microbial combinations
with different metabolic capacities go over the effects of monoculture inoculants making a series of phyto-effective metabolites
(Höflich et al. 1994).
Results showed a wide range of IAA concentrations of the monoculture bacteria (Fig. 3), because IAA producing capacity of
different bacteria varies naturally (Yasmin et al. 2009). All bacterial monocultures, except B1 and B2, showed significantly high IAA
concentrations over the two biofilms (P < 0.05). Further, the IAA production of the monoculture bacteria was related negatively to
seedling vigour index that showed a reducing trend of seedling vigor with relatively high IAA concentrations (P < 0.05, Fig. 4). This
relationship was previously observed by Chaudhry (2005). It has also been demonstrated that relatively low IAA concentrations are
important in increasing the growth of the root and shoots of some plants, e.g. Dianthus caryophyllus (Roychowdhury et al. 2012).
Further, Swain et al (2007) have reported that a gradual increase of IAA tends to reduce seed germination after a critical value,
because relatively low IAA concentrations are important in inducing enzymatic activities that leads for the favorable conditions for
breaking seed dormancy. Going beyond that, present results showed same monoculture bacteria were formulated as biofilms, their
IAA production was maintained at a relatively lower level. This is because, individuals in a microbial biofilm have a coordinated

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response through QS to regulate biological functions including the production of organic compounds such as exoenzymes,
biosurfactants, antibiotics and exopolysaccharides (West et al., 2007). Molecular mechanisms underline the genetic regulation of
biofilms for cell to cell communication via QS enables the whole microbial community to make a coordinated response (Kolter and
Greenberg, 2006; Lazdunski, 2004) for optimum production (West et al., 2007). Therefore, results suggested that the optimized IAA
production of developed biofilms through a regulatory mechanism to miximize seed germination. Seneviratne et al (2008) have also
observed such a regulation of the IAA production in developed biofilms.
However, Comparable IAA concentrations of the bacterial monocultures B1 and B2, with two biofilms (Fig. 3) showed different
vigour indices, the biofilms depicting higher values than the monocultures (Figs. 2 and 4). This implies that there are factors other than
IAA have been led for increased seedling vigour in the case of biofilms. Thus, developed biofilms can be suggested as a natural
biological formulation to increasing maize seedling vigor through the creation of favorable environment required for breaking seed
dormancy which is not yet understood fully in the application of biofertilizers. However, contribution of developed FBBs in making
such environment for higher seedling vigor was confirmed by the increasing availability of diverse organic compounds (Herath et al.
2013) They observed a wide range of beneficial biochemical exudates in a developed FBB in comparison to its bacterial
monocultures. In support to this, interactions among microbes for diverse release of organic compounds were observed by Saini et al
(1986) and De Boer et al (2005), which cannot be seen in planktonic forms of them due to lack of coordinated biological functions. In
conclusion, it is clear that the FBBs differ from bacterial monocultures in regulating maximum seedling vigor and IAA production,
concerning their agricultural significance. This improved performance with the application of FBBs warrants formulating biofertilizers
in the biofilm mode for futuristic agriculture. Different biofertilizers with higher IAA production which is negatively affected seedling
vigor, but with any other agricultural significance can be formulated as biofilms in this manner to contribute their biological functions
for plant growth benefit in agriculture. Further studies are however necessary for evaluating this with other crop plants.

B. Use of Simulation software


Normality of the data and constancy of residuals were confirmed. The data were subjected to one way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and means were compared using Dunnet’s test at 5% probability level for comparing biofilm treatments with other
treatments. Seed germination data of the monoculture bacteria, which were not significantly different, were pooled to form one source
of data. Seed germination percentages were compared using χ2 test. Relationship between IAA concentrations of all bacterial
monocultures and their vigour indices was constructed by using linear regression analysis. All statistical analyses were performed
using MINITAB 14 software.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are thankful to Ms. Kumuduni Karunaratne, Senior technical officer and Mr. M.A. Lal, Laboratory attendant of the Microbial
Biotechnology Unit, Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS) for their assistance during the study. This project was funded by the IFS.

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AUTHORS
U.V.A Buddhika – M.Phil, Institute of Fundamental Studies, [email protected].
Second Author – G. Seneviratne, Ph.D, Institute of Fundamental Studies, [email protected].
Third Author – C.L. Abayasekara, Ph.D, University of Peradeniya, [email protected] .

Correspondence Author – U.V.A Buddhika, [email protected], Tel.: 94 81 2232002, Fax: 94 81 2232131, E-mail: [email protected]

Results:
Tables

Table 1: Germination percentages of maize seeds under the treatments of fungal-bacterial biofilms (BF1 and BF2) and bacteria
monocultures. Data of bacterial monocultures were pooled, since they were not significantly different at 5% probability level.
Treatment Germination (%)

BF1 98 a ± 2

BF2 100 a ± 0

Bacterial monocultures 92 b ± 2

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Control 29 c ± 10

Germination ± SE

Figure 1: Effects of fungal-bacterial biofilms (BF1 and BF2) and bacterial monocultures (B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7) on shoot and
root lengths of maize. Columns with different letters are significantly different at 5% probability level, according to Dunnet’s mean
comparison test, which compares fungal-bacterial biofilms with it’s bacterial monocultures.

Figure 2: Effect of fungal-bacterial biofilms (BF1 and BF2) and bacterial monocultures (B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7) on vigor index
of maize. Columns with different letters are significantly different at 5% probability level, according to Dunnet’s mean comparison
test, which compares fungal-bacterial biofilms with it’s bacterial monocultures.

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Figure 3: Indole acetic acid (IAA) production of fungal-bacterial biofilms (BF1 and BF2) and bacterial monocultures (B1, B2, B3, B4,
B5, B6, B7). Columns with different letters are significantly different at 5% probability level, according to Dunnet’s mean comparison
test, which compares fungal-bacterial biofilms with it’s bacterial monocultures.

Figure4: Relationship between microbial Indole acetic acid (IAA) production and seedling vigor ( bacterial monocultures, fungal-
bacterial biofilms).

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A Study on the Role of Sacred Groves in Conserving the


Genetic Diversity of the Rare, Endangered and
Threatened Species of Flora & Fauna of Chhattisgarh
State (India)
Komal Chandrakar, Daneshver Kumar Verma, Devendra Sharma, K.C. Yadav

Department, Institute Name, if any State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh

Abstract- Despite of extensive deforestation and land use flora & fauna across the fragment size & also assess if a set of
changes in India, one of the most resilient features of the small fragments harbor more genetic variation among
country’s landscape is the temple or sacred forests. Because of themselves, than a set of large forest fragments.
their ‘divine’ protection, a number of tree species that have
otherwise been heavily extracted from the forests continue to
exist in the groves. However in recent years with the erosion of II. STUDY SITE
religious faith and encroachment of these sacred groves, there is The study was carried out in the forest fragments represented
a growing concern if the groves indeed can offer a refugium to by sacred groves in Chhattisgarh state (21030’ N latitude &
the endemic and endangered species of the Chhattisgarh state. In 82000’ E longitude). It is estimated that over 44.6 percent of the
this context, we examined the population genetic structure and geographical area of the state are under forest with much of the
genetic diversity of Chhattisgarh state, a canopy tree species in remaining area converted into paddy fields.
sacred groves of varying sizes. Tribals do not cut or damage the trees which are planted in
sacred groves and their surrounding environment. Tribals
Index Terms- Sacred Grove, Endemic, Endangered, Genetic perform various traditional religious rites and rituals inside these
Diversity, Refugium & Forest Fragmentation. groves. Elderly tribal people have been found worshipping trees,
small plants and animals in their sacred groves. A large number
of social scientists and ethno- botanists have documented in their
I. INTRODUCTION studies that tribals consider these sacred groves as an abode of

‘S acred groves’ are small patches of native vegetation


traditionally protected and managed by local communities.
In other words, sacred groves are the refuge of certain plant
their gods and goddesses whom they worship. Bhatla et al.
(1984) have emphasized on the importance of plants which are
traditionally worshipped in different parts of India. Pandey
species preserved on religious grounds which can satisfy the (1989) has described a number of sacred plants found in India
aesthetic, scientific, cultural, and recreational needs of mankind and different religious rites being performed on them. Alcron
(Bhakat, 1990). India ranks 10th in the list of most forested (1996) emphasized the role of indigenous people in conservation
nations in the world with 76.87 million ha of the forest & tree of biodiversity. Godbole (1996) described the role of tribals in
cover i.e. 20.6 percent forest of the total geographical area of the preservation sacred forests in India & has described these sacred
country (ICFRE, 2013). The forests of India are estimated to groves which are found in India have religious importance and
contain about 5,00,000 of the 10 to 30 million species on earth many species which are becoming rare and threatened due to
(Gadgil, 1996). The country contains three of the mega diversity deforestation are being conserved in such sacred groves. He
centers in the forests of Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas and further emphasized that these sacred groves play an important
Indo-Burma. During the last three to four decades, increasing role for in-situ conservation of biological diversity.
human pressures has to lead to severe land use changes.
However, ‘sacred groves’ or sacred forests have remained
resilient to extensive deforestation and land use changes. The III. METHODOLOGY
sacred groves have played an important role in conserving the An ethno-botanical study has been conducted to record
forest and its constituent biodiversity elements since ancient information on sacred groves existing in tribal pockets of
times. In recent years with the erosion of religious faith and Chhattisgarh State. The tribal communities were interviewed to
encroachments of these sacred groves, there is a growing concern collect information on existence of groves, plants and animals
if the groves indeed can offer a refugium to the rare, endangered conserved their ethno- botanical information etc. The information
and endemic species. During the last one century the total area was recorded from tribals who were of age group from 16 to 70
under the groves decreased substantially, due to fragmentation of years and resided in villages of Chhattisgarh.
the groves. Fragmentation of the groves has led to habitat The study revealed that a large number of useful plants and
disturbance and poor regeneration of many economically animals are conserved by the tribals in sacred groves. Plants and
important species (Kushalappa and Bhagwat, 2001). The study animals conserved in sacred groves are documented with
was conducted to assess the genetic diversity of the species of

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scientific name, local name, worshipped as symbol to local deity, and presented in Tables 1 & 2, respectively.
along with their present status in IUCN Red lists in this paper

Figure No. 1: Structure of the New IUCN Categories

Species

Evaluated Not Evaluated or N/A

Adequate Data Data Deficient

Extinct Extinct in the world Threatened Lower Risk

Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable

Conservation Dependent Near Threatened Least Concern

Table No. 1: Flora Associated With the God/Goddess and Other Unseen Powers:

S.No. Trees/Plants Botanical Name Status Associated with Gods/ Goddesses


1. Akh Calotropis procera Threatened Shiva, Fertility cult
2. Amalaki/ Amla Emblica officinalis N/A Laksmi, Kartik, Fertility cult
3. Amaltas Cassia fistula N/A Krishna, Vishnu, Fertility cult
4. Amati/ Kachnar Bauhinia malabarica Threatened Ram, Fertility cult
5. Anjan Hardwickia binnata N/A Fertility cult
6. Arjun Terminalia arjuna Near Threatened Vishnu, Fertility cult
7. Ashwagandha Withania somnifera Rare Fertility cult
8. Asoka Saraca indica Endangered Buddha, Indra
9. Bahera Terminalia bellirica Threatened Vishnu, Fertility cult
10. Bael Aegle marmelos Vulnerable Mahesver, Spirits, Shiva
11. Bhelwa Semecarpus anacardium Endangered Spirits
12. Bhirra Chloroxylon swietenia Vulnerable Fertility cult
13. Bija Pterocarpus marsupium Endangered Shiva, Vishnu
14. Chandan Santalum album Endangered Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Fertility cult
15. Char Buchanania lanzan Low Risk Krishna, Fertility cult
16. Dhatura Datura alba N/A Shiva, Krishna, Fertility cult
17. Dhawda Anogeissus latifolia N/A Fertility cult
18. Dumar Ficus glomerata N/A Vishnu, Rudra
19. Giloy Tinospora cordifolia Vulnerable Fertility cult
20. Gulmohar Delonix regia N/A Shiva, Fertility cult
21. Hajari Plumeria rubia N/A Lakshmi, Vishnu, Parvati, Shiva
22. Haldu Adina cordifolia N/A Vishnu, Fertility cult
23. Harra Terminalia chebula Near Threatened Vishnu, Fertility cult

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24. Imli Tamarindus indica N/A Spirits, Witches


25. Jamun Syzygium cuminii N/A Fertility cult
26. Jungle Jalebi Pithecolobium dulce N/A Krishna
27. Kadamba Anthocephalus cadamba N/A Krishna, Fertility cult
28. Kala siris Albizia lebbeck N/A Fertility cult
29. Kali musli Cholrophytum tuberosum Endangered Fertility cult
30. Kalihari Gloreosa superb Endangered Fertility cult
31. Kapok Ceiba pentandra N/A Fertility cult
32. Karanj Pongamia pinnata Least Concern Krishna, Spirits
33. Karpur Hedychium spicatum Near Threatened Moon
34. Karra Cleistanthus collinus Vulnerable Spirits
35. Khamar Gmelina arborea Least Concern Shiva
36. Kullu Sterculia urens Near Threatened Krishna, Fertility cult
37. Kumbhi Pachira rosea N/A Shiva, Lakshmi, Kali mata
38. Kusum Schliechera oleosa Threatened Kuber, Krishna
39. Mahaneem Ailanthus excelsa Threatened Shitla, Witches, Varun
40. Mahua Madhuca latifolia Endangered Krishna, Fertility cult
41. Mango Mangifera indica N/A Laksmi, Goverdhan, Fertility cult
42. Mundi Mitragyna parvifolia N/A Shiva, Fertility cult
43. Narikel Cocos nucifera Endangered Shiva, Brahma, Visnu, Sri Hari, Kuber,
Lakshmi, Fertility cult
44. Neem Azadirachta indica Data Deficient Sitala, Manasa, Witches
45. Palasa Butea monosperma Data Deficient Brahma,Gandharva
46. Parijaat Nycthanthus spp. Endangered Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shiva, Brahma
47. Peltaforum Peltaphorum pterocarpum N/A Vishnu
48. Pipal Ficus religiosa N/A Visnu, Ancestor worship, Krishna
49. Sagon Tectona grandis Least Concern Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma
50. Saja Terminalia tomentosa Near Threatened Vishnu, Fertility cult
51. Sal Shorea robusta N/A Vandurga, Lakshmi
52. Salfi Caryota urens Endangered Mahadeva
53. Sarpagandha Rauwolfia serpentine Vulnerable Fertility cult
54. Satavari Asparagus racemosus N/A Fertility cult
55. Semal Bombax ceiba N/A Visnu, Fertility cult
56. Soma Amanita muscaria N/A Moon
57. Tendu Diospyros melanoxylon Endangered Fertility cult
58. Tulsi Oscimum sanctum N/A Laksmi, , Ancester Worship
59. Vata Ficus bangelensis N/A Brahma, Visnu, Sri Hari, Kuber, Muni

Table No. 2: Fauna associated with God /Goddesses in sacred groves:

S.No. Animals/Birds/Butterflies Zoological Name Status Associated with Gods/


Goddesses
1. Bat Pteropus giganteus Least Concerned Shiva, Narad Muni
2. Beer Melursus ursinus Threatened Hanuman
3. Bull Taurus indicus Endangered Siva
4. Chital Gazelle gazella Least Concerned Jesus
5. Crocodile Crocodylus palustris Endangered Ganga, Varuna
6. Crow Corvus splendens Least Concerned Lord Shaneeshwarar
7. Deer Axis axis Threatened Vayu, Rama
8. Eagle Aquila chrysaetos Threatened Visnu
9. Elephant Elephas maximus Threatened Indra, Ganesha
10. Fox Vulpes bengalensis Threatened Muni
11. Honey bee Apis spp. Least Concerned -
12. House sparrow Passer domesticus Least Concerned Rama

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13. Kite Milvus migrans Least Concerned Varun, Indra


14. Koel Eudynamys scolopacea Least Concerned Narayana
15. Hyena Hyena hyena Threatened Spirits, Witch
16. Monkey Macaca fascicularis Near Threatened Rama, Kama,Varuna
17. Myna Acridotheres tristis Least Concerned Kama
18. Nilkanth Coracias benghalensis Threatened Shiva
19. Owl Glaucidium radiatum Least Concerned Laksmi
20. Parrot Psittacula krameri Least Concerned Kama
21. Peacock Pavo cristatus Least Concerned Kartika, Saraswati, Krishna
22. Rat Rattus norvegicus Least Concerned Ganesha
23. Serpent Naja naja Threatened Siva, Sun, Vishnu
24. Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis Least Concerned Rama
25. Swan Cygnus atratus Least Concerned Saraswati
26. Tiger Panthera tigris Endangered Katyayani, Dattatrey
27. Tortoise Geochelone elegans Least Concerned Yamuna, Lakshmi
28. Vulture Gyps indicus Critically Endangered Sani
29. Blue Mormon Butterfly Papilio polymnestor Threatened Fertility Cult
30. Common Yellow Swallowtail Papilio Machaon Near Threatened Fertility Cult
31. Large Cabbage White Pieris brassicae N/A Fertility Cult
32. Tawny Coster Acraea violea N/A Fertility Cult
33. Sailers Neptis hylas Least Concerned Fertility Cult
34. Indian Red Admiral Vanessa indica Least Concerned Fertility Cult
35. Common Mormon Papilio polytes N/A Fertility Cult

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IV. RESULT & DISCUSSION


Habitat fragmentation is a pervasive threat to forest ecosystems throughout the world, eventually leading to a decline in biological
diversity and impairment of ecological processes. A number of studies in the last couple of decades have addressed the ecological,
demographic and genetic consequences of small fragmented populations. These studies highlight the importance of a set of small
groves in harboring the variability among them in an endemic and endangered species of both flora & fauna. Thus, while designing
conservation strategies for the groves, due importance should also be given to smaller groves as much as is given to large groves.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are highly grateful to Shri Dhirendra Sharma, Principal Chief Conservator of Forest, Chhattisgarh, Raipur for his valuable
guidance and financial support to carry out the research work. We extord our sincere thanks to the Divisional Forest Officers of all
districts of Chhattisgarh and his field staff for their cooperation and logistic support during the research study.

REFERENCES
[1] Alcron, Janis B. (1996). Is Biodiversity conserved by indigenous people? Ethnobiology in Human Welfare (Jain S.KL, ed.). Deep Publications, New Delhi, pp.
233-238.
[2] Bhakat, R.K. (1990). Tribal Ethics of Forest Conservation. Yojana (March 16-31): 23-27.
[3] Bhatla, N., Tapan Mukerjee and G. Singh (1984). Plants and Traditional Worshipping. Indian Journal of Historical Science, 19 (1) : 37-42.
[4] Gadgil, M. 1996. Documenting diversity; an experiment. Curr. Sci, 70(1): 36-44.
[5] Godbole, Archana (1996). Role of tribals in preservation of sacred forests. Ethnobiology in Human Welfare (Jain, S.K., ed.). Deep Publications, New Delhi, pp.
345-348.
[6] Kushalappa, C.G. and Bhagwat, S.A. 2001. Sacred Groves: Biodiversity, threats and conservation. In: Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. and Bawa, K.S. (eds),
Forest Genetic Resources: Status, Threats and Conservation Strategies, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 21-29.
[7] Pandey, B.P. (1989). Plants of Human Kind. Sacred plant: of India, Deep Publications, New Delhi.

AUTHORS
First Author – Komal Chandrakar, Junior Research Fellow, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India;
e-mail: [email protected]
Second Author – Daneshver Kumar Verma, Junior Research Fellow, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur,
Chhattisgarh, India; e-mail: [email protected]
Third Author – Devendra Sharma, Junior Research Fellow, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India;
e-mail: [email protected]
Fourth Author – Krishna Chandra Yadav, Director, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India; e-mail:
[email protected]

Correspondence Author – Komal Chandrakar, Junior Research Fellow, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur,
Chhattisgarh, India; e-mail: [email protected]

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The effect of fertilization on growth & yield of rain fed


Blackgram in custard apple based Agri-horti-system with
Alley Cropping Pattern on Vindhyan soil.
Hem Lal Chandrakar*, Komal Chandrakar**, Manas Ujjaini*** & K.C.Yadav****
*
Rural Agriculture Extension Officer, Department of Agriculture, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
**
Junior Research Fellow, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
***
Technical Assistant, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
****
Director, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

Abstract- One- year field experiments were conducted to The custard apple (Annona squamosa) is commonly
evaluate the effect of fertilization on growth & yield of rainfed cultivated in tropical South America, not often in Central
blackgram in custard apple based agri-horti-system with alley America, very frequently in Southern Mexico, the West Indies,
cropping pattern on Vindhyan soil. The factors under study Bahamas and Bermuda, and occasionally in southern Florida.
comprised of Control plot (T 1), 2% urea spray (twice fifteen days Black gram originated in India and cultivated on marginal land
intervals)(T2), 100% RDF (T3), 50%RDF + 25kg Zinc by resource-poor farmers. In the past seven years, it has been
sulphate(T4), 50% RDF + 2% urea spray + 25 kg zinc sulphate observed that the total 15.5 lakh tones in India. Andhra Pradesh
(T5), 100%RDF + 25kg Zinc sulphate(T 6) and 2% urea spray + is the largest producer of black gram in India. Madhya Pradesh,
25kg Zinc sulphate(T7) were laid out in randomized block Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Orissa are other major
design. The treatments were replicated three times. However, a producing states. Black gram (Vigna mungo) was grown in a
significant increase in grain yield was observed under 100% black gram/ mustard (Brassica juncea) crop sequence and was
RDF + 25kg Zinc sulphate (T6). It was recorded maximum net given 0, 15 or 30 kg N/ha, 0, 30 or 60 kg P 2O5/ha and 0 or 60 kg
return Rs.18143/ha in case of 100% RDF + 25 kg zinc sulphate S/ha with a uniform application of 25 kg K2O/ha to all
under the alley cropping. treatments.

Index Terms- Alley cropping pattern, Agri-horti-system,


Fertilization, Black gram, Growth, yield and net return. II. METHOD
Field experiments were conducted over one years (2009-10)
under rainfed and invariably poor fertile status at the experiment
I. INTRODUCTION was carried out at the Agronomy farm of Rajiv Gandhi South

A groforestry integrates trees into farmland and rangeland and


in so doing diversifies and sustains production for increased
benefits for farmers and the environment. Agroforestry systems
Campus, Brakachha (Banaras Hindu Uuniversity) Mirzapur
which is situated in Vindhyan region of district Mirzapur (25 o10’
latitude, 82o37’ longitude and altitude of 427 meters above mean
complement conservation agriculture systems in the provision of sea level) occupying over an area of more than 1000 ha where
soil cover, animal feed, nutrients, household fuel, and hillside variety of crops like agricultural, horticultural, medicinal &
protection against soil erosion and wind erosion control through aromatic plants etc are grown. This region comes under agro-
shelter belts (Sims et al., 2009). climatic zone III A (semi-arid Eastern plain zone). Black gram is
Alley cropping research has indicated few detailed studies of the P U-7 and developed at Govind Vallabh Bhai Patel (G.B.)
the effects of competition for moisture and nutrients. This may Pantnagar University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar,
be partly reduced by assumption that trees place their roots Uttarakhand, Net plot size was 5.25 m2. The soil at the site was a
deeper in the soil profile than most crops and that competition is sandy loam. The factors under study comprised of under control
therefore avoided. plot (T1), 2% urea spray (twice fifteen days intervals) (T 2), 100%
Khalifa and Ong (1990) and Lin (2007) were of the opinion RDF (T3), 50% RDF + 25 kg. zinc sulphate (T 4), 50% RDF+2%
that shading may be beneficial when crops frequently experience urea spray+25Kg Zinc sulphate (T 5), 100% RDF + 25 kg Zinc
supra-optimal temperatures, as is well documented for sulphate (T6) and 2% urea spray + 25 kg Zinc sulphate (T 7) were
agroforestry systems (Jonsson et al., 1999), (Ong et al., 2006) laid out in randomized block design with three replications. The
and Ong et al. (1999) concluded from their study that sowing was done in furrows on the 14 August 2009 in 2009-10 in
competition between neighbouring roots occurred when the same fertilized furrows at 35 cm apart opened by spade and
nutrient depletion zones around the roots overlap, which was covered with soil after seeding at appropriate spacing (10 cm)
caused by the uptake of nutrients into the roots. Ovalle and and depth (5 cm). A seed rate of 15Kg/ha was used for the
Avendano (1987) reported that crop yield losses in alley experiment. In this experiment, Urea, Zinc sulphate and DAP
cropping systems were affected directly from competition for soil were used as source of nitrogen, zinc and phosphorus
water. respectively. The desired fertilizer doses were placed below the
seed in the respective rows at seeding. The standard analysis of

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variance for randomized block design to draw a valid conclusion As regards dry matter production (g) and number of trifoliate
(Cochran and Cox 1963). The treatment differences were tested leaves, Leaf area index and Grains ear/ head (No.) trend of the
by Fisher’s Method (F test of significant) on the basis of null results was similar to that noted in plant height.
hypothesis. Critical differences (CD) were worked out at 5 per 2. Yield and Yield attributes:
cent level of probability where ‘F’ test was significant. The maximum number of pods in alley cropping system was
also recorded in T6. The pod number ranged from 6.60 to
30.07pods/ plant, the lowest number being T1. Treatment T6
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION proved significantly instrumented in enhancing the pod number
1. Growth: in comparison to rest of the treatment. As regards Test weight
The nutrient combination had significant effect on the plant (g.) trend of the results was similar to that noted in no. of pods/
height, which was measured at different stages of the crop. The plants.
plant height of blackgram under different nutrient combinations The maximum seed yield in alley crop was recorded in
at harvest stage ranged from 25.67 to 49.70 cm. The maximum 100%+ 25Kg. Zinc sulphate (T 6) (8.74 q/ha) which was
plant was recorded in the treatment T 6 (100% RDF + 25 kg. Zinc significantly superior to others. However, the lowest seed yield
sulphate) at 20, 40 DAS and at harvest stage of crop which was was recorded with control (3.23 q/ha). As regards straw yield and
statistically at par with T3 and T5 at 20 DAS, harvest stage and T 3 no. of pods/ plants trend of the results was similar to that noted in
at 40 DAS and T4 at harvest stage. The treatment T 6 of proved Test Weight (g.). Chauhan et al. (1995) observed similar that
statistically superior to the remaining treatments. The lowest agricultural crop yield was increased with increasing the crop
plant height (12.90, 22.27, 24.17 cm) was observed in control distance from the tree base.
plot at varying stages. As such the plant height increased by 85,
83 and 93 percent at 20, 40 DAS and harvest stage respectively.

Table 1: Growth and yield influenced by various treatments in alley cropping system of Blackgram

Treatment Plant dry Plant height Trifoliate leaves/ Test No. of pods/ Seed Straw
weight (g.) (cm) plant weight plants yield yield
At harvest At harvest 40 DAS (g.) (q/ha) (q/ha)
T1 22.67 24.17 4.67 41 6.60 3.23 3.61
T2 28.67 26.87 5.80 40 12.40 4.91 5.09
T3 44.00 38.23 8.00 41 16.00 6.24 6.38
T4 30.64 31.27 7.13 40 19.60 6.32 6.43
T5 34.77 34.40 7.70 43 20.40 8.37 8.66
T6 47.70 46.70 7.93 44 30.07 8.74 8.97
T7 29.73 27.10 6.03 41 10.40 4.67 4.78
Sem± 3.05 2.32 0.66 1.36 2.04 0.39 0.37
CD(%) 6.66 5.05 1.43 2.97 4.45 0.86 0.81

Table 2: Gross return and benefit: cost ratio as influenced by various treatments in alley cropping system of black gram

S.No. Treatment Cost of Sole Crop System


cultivation Gross return Net return Benefit: Cost
(Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) ratio
1. Control 10924 11666 782 0.07
2. 2% urea spray (twice fifteen days intervals 11520 17694 6174 0.53
3. 100% RDF 12583 22478 9895 0.78
4. 50% RDF + 25 kg Zinc Sulphate 12629 22447 9812 0.77
5. 50% RDF + 2% urea spray + 25 kg zinc 12975 30161 17186 1.32
sulphate
6. 100% RDF+ 25 kg Zinc sulphate 13344 31487 18143 1.35
7. 2% urea spray + 25 kg zinc sulphate 12520 16823 4303 0.34

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Chart 1: Growth and yield influenced by various treatments in alley cropping system of Blackgram

Chart 2: Gross return and benefit: cost ratio as influenced by various treatments in alley cropping system of black gram

sulphate under alley cropping, respectively. Bheemaiah and


IV. ECONOMIC Subrahmanyam (2001) reported that yield and economic of
The total cost of cultivation was maximum (Rs. legumes under ber based agri-horticultural system with different
13344.00/ha) with 50% RDF + 2% urea spray + 25kg Zinc levels of fertilizers.
sulphate while minimum (Rs.10924.00/ha) was noted with
control. The different fertilizer combination and nutrient levels
recorded maximum gross return (Rs. 31487.00/ha) was recorded APPENDIX
with 100% RDF (20N:40P kg/ha) + 25kg Zinc sulphate. The RDF: Recommended doses of fertilizer
maximum net return of Rs. 18143.00/ha in alley with 100% RDF DAS: Days after sowing
(20N:40P kg/ha) + 25 kg Zinc sulphate and minimum under Rs. DAP: Di-ammonium Phosphate
782.00/ha with control. The maximum benefit cost ratio 1.35 PU-7: Variety of Black gram released by G.B. Pant Nagar
were recorded with 100% RDF (20N:40P Kg/ha) + 25 kg Zinc University

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CD: Critical Differences

REFERENCES
[1] Chauhan, V.K., Sood, S.K., Bhargava, J.N. and Mishra, V.K. (1995). Effect
of different trees on the yield of rainfed wheat crop. Annual of forestry 3
(2): 147-151.
[2] Cochran, W.G. and G.M. Cox (1963). Experimental design. First low priced
edition. Asia Publishing House, New Delhi.
[3] Jonsson, K., Ong, C.K. and Odongo, J.C.W. (1999), Influence of scattered
nere and karate trees on micriclimate, soil fertility and millet yield in
Burkina Faso, Expl. Agriculture. 35, pp. 39-53.
[4] Khalifa, F.M. and Ong, C.K. (1990), Effect of supra-optimal temperatures
on germination of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L) R.BR.) hybrids,
Annual Arid Zone 29, pp. 279-288.
[5] Lin, B.B. (2007), Agroforestry management as an adaptive strategy against
potential microclimate extremes in coffee agriculture, Agric. For. Met. 144,
pp. 85-94.
[6] Ong, C.K. Muthuri, C.W. and Black, C.R. (2006), Modifying forests and
agroforestry for improved water productivity in the semi-arid tropics. CAB
Reviews: Perspectives in Agricuture, Veterinary Sciences, Nutritional
Natural Resources. 65, pp. 1-19.
[7] Ong, C.K., Deans, J.D., Wilson, J., Mutua, J., Khan, A.A.H. and Lawson,
E.M. (1999), Exploring below ground complementarily in agroforestry
using sap flow and root fractal techniques. Agroforestry Systems. 44, pp.
87-103.
[8] Ovalle, C. and Avendano, J. (1987), Interactions of the tree layer with the
herbaceous understorey layer in the plant- communities of Acacia caven
inChile.1. Tree influenc on the botanical composition, production and
phenology of the herbaceous stratum, Acta Oecol. 8, pp. 385-404.
[9] Sims, B., Friedrich, T., Kassam, A. & Kienzle, J. (2009): Agroforestry and
conservation agriculture: complementary practices for sustainable
development, Journal: Agriculture for Development 2009 No. 8 pp. 13-18.

AUTHORS
First Author – Hem Lal Chandrakar, Rural Agriculture
Extension Officer, Department of Agriculture, Raipur,
Chhattisgarh, India; e-mail: [email protected]
Second Author – Komal Chandrakar, Junior Research Fellow,
State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,
India; e-mail: [email protected]
Third Author – Manas Ujjaini, Technical Assistant, State Forest
Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
Fourth Author – Krishna Chandra Yadav, Director, State Forest
Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India; e-
mail: [email protected]

Correspondence Author – Hem Lal Chandrakar, Rural


Agriculture Extension Officer, Department of Agriculture,
Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India; e-mail: [email protected],
Contact No. 09770984978 & 08871874529

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Zig-Bee and Wi-Fi based Mine Safety Application


Kumari Archana*, Abdul Wasay Mudasser

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering


Lord’s Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad

Abstract- Real time monitoring of process parameters inside


the underground or open cast mines in a reliable manner is a II. LITERATURE REVIEW
technical challenge for the mine industry. Real time monitoring Different researchers have developed different embedded
can provide accurate information about different critical mining system for mine safety. This section reviews some of the state of
parameters like rise in humidity and temperature, presence of art embedded system developed for mine safety.
dangerous gases, presence of light etc. This monitoring can also J. Song et.al [5] developed a wireless sensor node based
pave way for the safety of the miners. Conventional wired automatic monitoring system for coal mine safety. T Maity et.al
communication has severe drawback regarding real time [4], developed zigbee based monitoring system for coal mines.
monitoring. This paper develops an ARM based embedded D. Bhattacharjee et.al [3], developed wireless sensor node with
system which monitors the critical parameters inside the mine different sensors embedded in the node. L. K Bandopadhaya et.al
and transmits the data in wireless manner for better monitoring [2], developed wireless information and safety system for mines.
and visualization.
III. ARM BASED EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN
Index Terms- ARM, Mine Safety, Temperature, Humidity
The ARM (Advanced RISC Machine) is a 32-bit microcontroller
I. INTRODUCTION created by a consortium of companies and manufactured in many
different kind of versions. And it is widely used in modems, cell
n mining industry, safety of human life is the primary
I concern. Negligence in the safety guidelines can damage the
high quality equipments, hamper production or can cause loss of
phones, cameras, personal audio, pagers, and many more
embedded high end applications. The LPC2148 is a low-power
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) 32-bit
human life. To avoid any types of unwanted phenomena all microcontroller used the enhanced RISC architecture. Through
mining industry follows a standard guideline. Underground executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the
mining was in existence at Rajapura-Dariba in 13th century BC in LPC2148 achieves throughputs approaching 17 MIPS sustained
India. So India has some of the oldest mines of the world. 25 MHz permit the system designer, to optimize power
Several legislations have been administrated by Director General consumption versus processing speed, operating Voltage range
of Mine Safety in India [1]. In India large scale mechanization of for this microcontroller is - 4.5V - 5.5V.
all mines is not possible due to varying geo mining conditions, Xbee module with LPC2148
low grade and scattered deposits and high cost of imported Low power Xbee 802.15.4 and extended range Xbee PRO
machinery. Traditional coal mine monitoring systems tend to 802.15.4 use the IEEE 802.15.4 networking protocol for fast
be wired network systems, which play an important role in point to multipoint and peer to peer networking. The Xbee
coal mine safe production. With continuous enlarging of module has low power output of 1mW and the range of Xbee
exploiting areas and extension of depth in coal mine, many module is up to 100 ft (30m) and the range of Xbee Pro is up to 1
laneways become monitoring blind areas, where are lots of mile (1.6km). The interface rate is 115.2 kbps. The Xbee
hidden dangers. Moreover, it is inconvenient to lay cables which modules work at the 2.4 GHz frequency. Xbee modules have the
are expensive and consume time [5]. So in this critical scenario, ability to transmit Digital, PWM, Analog or Serial RS232 signals
wireless mode of communication is a reliable option. Wireless wirelessly. To communicate over UART or USART, three basic
mining communication networks transport data, voice, and video, signals namely, RXD (receive), TXD (transmit), GND (common
supporting applications that are essential to efficient and safe ground) are needed. These modules use direct sequence spread
mine operations. spectrum configuration. Figure 1 shows the interfacing circuit of
This paper develops a wireless application which will sense Zigbee module and ARM-7 microcontroller.
different physical parameter inside the mine and transmit them in
wireless medium to the outside world for a better monitoring and
control. ARM microcontroller is used for the purpose of
monitoring, control and wireless communication.

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100°C. It does not require any external calibration or trimming.


The most important characteristic of the LM35 is that it draws
only 60μA from its supply and produces a low self heating
capability. The general equation used to convert from the output
temperature to temperature is Temperature (°C) = Vout * 100
°C/V
Methane and CO Gas Sensor
MQ-4 is suitable for sensing natural gas and presence of CH4
concentrations in the air. It can detect natural gas concentrations
anywhere from 200 to 10000ppm. This sensor has a high
sensitivity and fast response time. The sensing element is
comprised of a metal oxide semiconductor layer formed on an
alumina substrate of a sensing chip together with an integrated
heater. In the presence of a detectable gas, the sensor’s
conductivity increases depending on the gas concentration in the
Figure 1: Interfacing circuit of Zigbee and ARM-7
air. A simple electrical circuit can convert the change in
conductivity to an output signal which corresponds to gas
concentration. The sensor MQ-7 has high sensitivity to carbon
monoxide. The detecting range of this sensor is 20 ppm - 2000
ppm of carbon monoxide. The resistivity of this sensor depends
on the concentration of the gas. Its resistance varies from 2k-20k
ohms. One special property of this sensor is that the heater coil is
given pulsating power supply. For 60 sec the heater is given 5
volt supply and for the next 90 sec it is given 1.4 volt supply. The
sensor MQ-4 has high sensitivity to Natural Gas and Methane
(CH4) and has small sensitivity to alcohol and smoke. The
detecting concentration of this sensor is from 200 ppm – 10000
ppm for Natural gas and Methane. The sensor resistance varies
(a) from 10k – 60k ohms. These sensors (MQ-4 and MQ-7) are
composed by micro Al2O3 ceramic tube, Tin Dioxide (SnO2)
sensitive layer, measuring electrode and heater which are fixed
into a crust made by plastic and stainless steel net. The heater
provides necessary work conditions for work of sensitive
components.
Measurement of Light Intensity
The TSL235R light-to-frequency converter is a three pin
integrated circuit which combines a silicon photodiode and a
current-to-frequency converter on a single monolithic CMOS
integrated circuit. Output is a square wave (50% duty cycle) with
frequency directly proportional to light intensity (irradiance-Ee)
on the photodiode. The digital output allows direct interface to a
microcontroller or other logic circuitry. The device has been
temperature compensated for the ultraviolet-to-visible light range
of 320 nm to 700 nm and responds over the light range of 320
nm to 1050 nm. Higher resolution and accuracy is obtained using
frequency measurement. Frequency measurement provides the
(b) additional benefit of averaging out random or high frequency
variations (jitter) resulting from noise in the light signal.
Figure 2: (a) XBee Module (b) Pin out of XBee module Resolution is limited mainly by available counter registers and
allowable measurement time. Frequency measurement is well
IV. EMBEDDED SYSTEM FOR SAFETY OF MINES suited for slowly varying or constant light levels and for reading
average light levels over short periods of time. Integrating the
accumulation of pulses over a very long period of time, can be
Temperature Sensor
The LM35 is an integrated circuit sensor that can be used to used to measure exposure (the amount of light present in an area
measure temperature with an electrical output proportional to the over a given time period). Under test condition of Ee = 430
temperature (in ºC). The LM35 generates a higher output voltage µW/cm2 for the monochrome light of wavelength λp = 635 nm,
than thermocouples and may not require that the output voltage the output frequency varies from 200 kHz to 300 kHz for
be amplified. For LM35, the scale factor is 0.01V/°C meaning different intensity of light.
the nominal output voltage is 250mV at 25°C and 1.000V at

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Transmitter and Receiver System


Figure 3 shows the block diagram of receiver and transmitter section of
the embedded saftey application.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4: Flow chart for coal mine safety monitoring and control
Figure 3: (a) Receiver Section (b) Transmitter Section

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


The transmitter section is deep inside mine and sensors are
Section IV describes the working of the mine safety application.
connected to the microcontroller for data acquisition and
The proposed architcture is modeled in the lab environment and
subsequent control. The temperature sensor (LM35) measures the
section V shows the results. Figure 5 shows the prototype model
temperature inside the mine, gas sensors (MQ-4 and MQ-7)
of transmitter section which has to be placed deep inside the coal
detect the presence of methane (CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO)
mine whereas figure 6 shows the prototype model of receiver
and LDR detects the light intensity respectively. If the
station which has to be placed in a secured location outside the
temperature is above a permissible limit then the relay connected
mine. Figure 7 shows the web based monitoring of embedded
in the output port of ARM-7 actuates the fan unit to cool down
application.
the temperature. Simillarly if the light intensity is low then the
relay connected to the output port of ARM-7 actuates the light
bulb to provide proper light. The display unit displays the current
reading of temperature, light intensity and presence of gas (in
ppm). Simultaneously the microcontroller sends the data via
Zigbee to the base station stationed outside the mine in a secured
location. The receiver section receives the value of temperature,
light intensity and gas sensor reading (ppm). The basic flow chart
for operation of the embedded system is shown in figure 4.

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cast mines using wireless communication and microcontroller.


Real time values of temperature, gas readings (in ppm) and light
intensity is monitored inside the mine and is sent via a wireless
media to a base station situated outside the mine, which
eventually updates the current information in a local web server
and updates the website.
As a future scope other sensors like pressure, humidity, dew
sensors can be interfaced so that all total information can be
gathered.
.

REFERENCES
[1] Director General of Mine Safety, Government of India, Ministry of Labour
and Employment (dgms.net)
[2] L.K. Bandopadhyay et.al, “Wireless information and saftey system for
mines,”Journal of Scientific and Industrial research, vol. 68, Feb 2009, pp.
107-117.
[3] Dipanjan Bhattacharjee et.al, “Design and development of wireless sensor
node,”International Journal of Computer Science and Engineering, vol.2,
no. 7, 2010, pp. 2431-2438.
[4] Tanmoy Maity et.al, “A wireless survailance and safety system for mine
workers based on zigbee,” Proc. 1st Int. Conf. Recent Advances in
Figure 5: Hardware unit of embedded safety application: coal mine Infromation Technology, 2012,
station
[5] J. Song et.al, “Äutomatic monitoring system for coal mine safety based on
wireless sensor network,” in Proc. 2011 Cross Strait Quad-Regional Radio
Science and Wireless Technology Conference, 2011, pp. 933-936.

AUTHORS
Kumari Archana is pursuing her M.Tech degree in Embedded
System and VLSI design in Dept. of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Lord’s Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Hyderabad, India.
Abdul Wasay Mudaseer is an Assistant Professor in Dept. of
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Lord’s Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India.

Correspondence Author – Kumari Archana,


[email protected]

Figure 6: Hardware unit of embedded safety application: Base Station

Figure 7: Web based monitoring of embedded application

VI. CONCLUSION
This paper develops a safety system for underground and open

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Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal Toxicity and Role of


soil in Rhizobacteria
Rajendra Prasad Bharti, Abhilasha shri vastava, Nandkishor Soni, Asha Tiwari , Shivbhanu more
,Jagjeevan ram choudhary

Department of Environmental Biology & Biotechnology, A.P.S. University Rewa (MP) 486003
Department of Botany and Biotechnology, Govt. Model Science College Rewa (M.P.) 486001
Department of zoology & Botany Govt. PG College Piparia (M.P.) 461775
Department of Economics Govt. Geetajali PG College Bhopal, India 462003

Abstract- Our surrounding is filled up with a large number of degrade organic contaminants, while metals need immobilization
toxicants in different forms. They contaminate our water, land or physical removal. Although many metals are essential, all
and atmosphere where we live. Heavy metal pollution of soil is a metals are toxic at higher concentrations, because they cause
significant environmental problem and has its negative impact on oxidative stress by formation of free radicals. Another reason
human health and agriculture. Rhizosphere, as an important why metals may be toxic is that they can replace essential metals
interface of soil and plant, plays a significant role in in pigments or enzymes disrupting their function [3]. Thus,
phytoremediation of contaminated soil by heavy metals, in metals render the land unsuitable for plant growth and destroy
which, microbial populations are known to affect heavy metal the biodiversity. Heavy metals are conventionally defined as
mobility and availability to the plant through release of chelating elements with metallic properties (ductility, conductivity,
agents, acidification, phosphate solubilization and redox changes. stability as captions, ligand specificity, etc.) and an atomic
Phytoremediation of toxic heavy metals could be carried out by number >20. The most common heavy metal contaminants are
using specific metallophytes. Green plants are the lungs of nature Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb and Ni. Metals are natural components in soil
with unique ability to purifying impure air by photosynthesis and with a number of heavy metals being required by plants as
remove or minimize heavy metals toxicity from soil and water micronutrients. However, pollution of biosphere by toxic metals
ecosystem by absorption, accumulation and biotransformation has accelerated dramatically since the beginning of the industrial
process. This article paper reviews some recent advances in revolution. As a result of human activities such as mining and
effect and significance of rhizobacteria in phytoremediation of smelting of metals, electroplating, gas exhaust, energy and fuel
heavy metal toxicity in contaminated soils. There is also a need production, fertilizer, sewage and pesticide application,
to improve our understanding of the mechanisms involved in the municipal waste generation, etc. (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias,
transfer and mobilization of heavy metals by rhizobacteria and to 1989), metal pollution has become one of the most severe
conduct research on the selection of microbial isolates from environmental problems today. Human eagerness to perform
Rhizosphere of plants growing metal contaminated soils for better and better with respect to production of food, energy and
specific restoration programmes. convenience product in order to ameliorate. The ways of living
are the causes of chemicals especially heavy metal pollution.
Index Terms- Environmental, heavy metal toxicity, This eagerness led to a tremendous growth in production and use
Rhizobacteria, Phytoremediation, Rhizosphere, Metalophytes, of various chemicals like Arsenic, Chromium, Cadmium,
Metal accumulation. Cupper, Mercury etc. are common toxic heavy metal. Some
heavy metals in trace amount are essential for normal growth in
both animal and plant but it’s become harmful if taken in excess
I. INTRODUCTION Metal and metalloid occur in variety of form as ions, compound
and complexes in the environment over use of these metals and
A major environmental concern due to dispersal of industrial
and urban wastes generated by human activities is the
contamination of soil. Controlled and uncontrolled disposal of
metal based heavy industrialization resulted metal pollution in
the biosphere. Mercury, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead and Nickels
waste, accidental and process spillage, mining and smelting of are chief toxic metal. These metals caused much severe toxic and
metalliferous ores, sewage sludge application to agricultural soils deleterious effect on human health by producing various kinds of
are responsible for the migration of contaminants into non- metabolic problems and even chronic diseases. In plant they also
contaminated sites as dust or leach ate and contribute towards reduced productivity due to lose in there chlorophyll and protein
contamination of our ecosystem. A wide range of inorganic and contents. Exposure of algae Chlorella, Botryococus, Dunaliella,
organic compounds cause contamination, these include heavy Nostoc and anabaena to elevated concentration of all these test
metals, combustible and putriscible substances, hazardous metal exerted toxic effect on metabolic machinery.
wastes, explosives and petroleum products. Major component of Phytoremediation of toxic heavy metals could be carried out by
inorganic contaminates are heavy metals they present a different using specific metallophytes. Green plants are the lungs of nature
problem than organic contaminants. Soil microorganisms can with unique ability to purifying impure air by photosynthesis and
remove or minimize heavy metals toxicity from soil and water

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ecosystem by absorption, accumulation and biotransformation site. But the offsite burial is not an appropriate option because it
process. Vascular plant absorb toxicant either directly from the merely shifts the contamination problem elsewhere and also
atmosphere through the leaves or from soil or water through because of hazards associated with the transport of contaminated
roots. Studies on aquatic plants have shown that uptake of heavy soil. Diluting the heavy metal content to safe level by importing
metal is mostly initiated by a phase of rapid and passive the clean soil and mixing with the contaminated soil can be an
absorption. In Elodea and Eichornia the uptake of water born alternative of on-site management. On-site containment and
toxicants by the stem and leaves where more important than the barriers provide an alternative; it involves covering the soil with
absorption by the root. The metal tolerant plants including algae inert material. Immobilization of inorganic contaminant can be
protect themselves from metal toxicity by producing extra used as a remedial method for heavy metal contaminated soils.
amount of some secondary metabolites & Remediation This can be achieved by completing the contaminants, or through
technology. increasing the soil pH by liming. Increased pH decreases the
solubility of heavy metals like Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn in soil.
Although the risk of potential exposure to plants is reduced, their
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS concentration remains unchanged. Most of these conventional
As mentioned above, rhziobacteria secretion may play a remediation technologies are costly to implement and cause
major role among mechanisms of phytoremediation assisted by further disturbance to the already damaged environment. Plant
rhziobacteria. Indirect mechanisms include preventing based bioremediation technologies have been collectively termed
phytopathogens from inhibiting plant growth and development as phytoremediation; this refers to the use of green plants and
while direct mechanisms include: nitrogen fixation; synthesis of their associated micro biota for the in-situ treatment of
siderophores which can solubilize and sequester iron from the contaminated soil and ground water. The idea of using metal
soil; production of phytohormones such as auxins and cytokinins, accumulating plants to remove heavy metals and other
which can enhance plant growth; and solubilization of minerals compounds was first introduced in 1983, but the concept has
such as phosphorus (Kloepper et al., 1989; Glick, 1995; Glick et actually been implemented for the past 300 years. The generic
al., 1999; Patten and Glick, 1996). Rhizobacteria produce metal- term ‘Phytoremediation’ consists of the Greek prefix photo
chelating agents called siderophores, which have an important (plant), attached to the Latin root remedium (to correct or remove
role in the acquisition of several heavy metals (Leong, 1986). an evil). This technology can be applied to both organic and
Microbial siderophores are used as iron chelating agents that can inorganic pollutants present in soil (solid substrate), water (liquid
regulate the availability of iron in the plant rhizosphere (Bar- substrate) and the air. The physico-chemical techniques for soil
Ness et al., 1992; Loper and Henkels, 1999). It has been assumed remediation render the land useless for plant growth as they
that competition for iron in the rhizosphere is controlled by the remove all biological activities, including useful microbes such
affinity of the siderophore for iron and ultimately decides the as nitrogen fixing bacteria, mycorrhiza, fungi, as well as fauna in
rhizosphere population structure. The important factors, which the process of decontamination. The conventional methods of
participate, are concentration of various types of siderophore, remediation may cost from 10 to 1000 per cubic meter.
kinetics of exchange, and availability of Fe-complexes to Phytoextraction costs are estimated to be as low as 0.05 per cubic
microbes as well as plants (Loper and Henkels, 1999). meter. Phytoremediation consists of five main processes, shown
Interestingly, the binding affinity of phytosiderophores for iron is in Table 1.
less than the affinity of microbial siderophores, but plants require
a lower iron concentration for normal growth than do microbes Table-1. Phytoremediation includes the following processes
(Meyer, 2000). Metal contaminated soil can be remediated by and mechanisms of contaminant.
chemical, physical and biological techniques. These can be
grouped into two categories. NO. Process
 Ex-situ method- Mechanism Contaminant
It requires removal of contaminated soil for treatment on or 1 . Rhizofiltration Rhizosphere
of site, and returning the treated soil to the resorted site. The accumulation Organics/Inorganics
conventional ex-situ methods applied for remediating the 2 Phytostabilisation Complexation Inorganics
polluted soils relies on excavation, detoxification and/or
destruction of contaminant physically or chemically, as a result 3 Phytoextraction Phytoextraction Inorganics
the contaminant undergo stabilisation, solidification, Hyper-
immobilisation, incineration or destruction. accumulation
 In-situ method- 4 Phytovolatilization Volatilisation
It is remediation without excavation of contaminated site. by leaves Organics/Inorganics
Reed et al. defined in-situ remediation technologies as 5 Phytotransformation Degradation in Organics
destruction or transformation of the contaminant, immobilization plant
to reduce bioavailability and separation of the contaminant from
the bulk soil. In-situ techniques are favored over the ex-situ Rhizobacteria have been shown to possess several traits that
techniques due to their low cost and reduced impact on the can alter heavy metals bioavailability (Lasat, 2002; McGrath et
ecosystem. Conventionally, the ex-situ technique is to excavate al., 2001; Whiting et al., 2001) through the release of chelating
soil contaminated with heavy metal and their burial in landfill substances, acidification of the microenvironment, and by

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influencing changes in redox potential (Smith and Read, 1997). polluted aqueous sources with low contaminant concentration in
For example, Abou-Shanab et al.(2003a) reported that the their roots. Rhizofiltration can partially treat industrial discharge,
addition of Sphingomonas macrogoltabidus, Micro bacterium agricultural runoff, or acid mine drainage. It can be used for lead,
liquefactions’, and Micro bacterium arabinogalactanolyticum to cadmium, copper, nickel, zinc and chromium, which are
Alyssum murals grown in serpentine soil significantly increased primarily retained within the roots. The advantages of
the plant uptake of Ni when compared with the un-inoculated rhizofiltration include it ability to be used as in-situ or ex-situ
controls as a result of soil pH reduction. However, heavy metals applications and species other than hyper accumulators can also
are known to be toxic to plants and most organisms when present be used. Plants like sunflower, Indian mustard, tobacco, rye,
in soils in excessive concentrations. Giller et al. (1998) reported spinach and corn have been studied for their ability to remove
that there was a detrimental effect to soil microbial diversity and lead from effluent, with sunflower having the greatest ability.
microbial activities (indexes of microbial metabolism and of soil Indian mustard has proven to be effective in removing a wide
fertility) in metal-polluted environment. The specificity of the concentration range of lead (4 – 500 mg/l). The technology has
plant-bacteria interaction is dependent upon soil conditions, been tested in the field with uranium (U) contaminated water at
which can alter contaminant bioavailability, root exudates concentrations of 21-874 μg/l; the treated U concentration
composition, and nutrient levels. In addition, the metabolic reported by Dushenkov was < 20 μg/l before discharge into the
requirements for heavy metals remediation may also dictate the environment.
form of the plant-bacteria interaction i.e., specific or nonspecific.  Future of Phytoremediation-
Along with metal toxicity, there are often additional factors that One of the key aspects to the acceptance of phytoextraction
limit plant growth in contaminated soils including arid pertains to the measurement of its performance, ultimate
conditions, lack of soil structure, low water supply and nutrient utilization of by-products and its overall economic viability. To
deficiency. date, commercial phytoextraction has been constrained by the
expectation that site remediation should be achieved in a time
 Role of Rhizobacteria on Phyoremediation- comparable to other clean-up technologies. So far, most of
Rhizosphere microorganisms, which are closely associated experiments have taken place in the lab scale, where plants
with roots, have been termed plant growth promoting grown in hydroponic setting are fed heavy metal diets. While
rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Glick, 1995). Plant growth-promoting these results are promising, scientists are ready to admit that
rhizobacteria include a diverse group of free-living soil bacteria solution culture is quite different from that of soil. In real soil,
that can improve host plant growth and development in heavy many metals are tied up in insoluble forms, and they are less
metal contaminated soils by mitigating toxic effects of heavy available and that is the biggest problem, said Kochian. The
metals on the plants (Belimov et al., 2004). Table-2 future of phytoremediation is still in research and development
Bioavailability of toxic heavy metals Soil rhizobateria can also phase, and there are many technical barriers which need to be
directly influence metal solubility by changing heavy metal addressed. Both agronomic management practices and plant
speciation in the rhizosphere. Study of the roles of mycorrhiza in genetic abilities need to be optimised to develop commercially
metal speciation in the rhizosphere and the impact on increasing useful practices. Many hyper accumulator plants remain to be
host plant tolerance against excessive heavy metals in soil discovered, and there is a need to know more about their
showed that speciations of Cu, Zn and Pb changed significantly physiology. Optimisation of the process, proper understanding of
in the rhizosphere of AM (arbuscular mycorrhiza) infected and plant heavy metal uptake and proper disposal of biomass
non-infected maize in comparison to bulk soil; The greatest produced is still needed. One of the key aspects to the acceptance
change was exchangeable Cu that increased by 26% and 43% in of phytoextraction pertains to the measurement of its
non-infected and AM-infected rhizosphere, respectively, than in performance, ultimate utilization of by-products and its overall
bulk soil. With the exception of organic bound Cu in AM, other economic viability. To date, commercial phytoextraction has
speciations were stable in the rhizosphere of AM and non-AM been constrained by the expectation that site remediation should
treatments. It is understandable that Cu was activated by be achieved in a time comparable to other clean-up technologies.
inducing rhizobacteria (Huang et al., 2005). The organic bound So far, most of the phytoremediation experiments have taken
Zn and Pb increased significantly in the rhizosphere in place in the lab scale, where plants grown in hydroponic setting
comparison to those in the bulked soil. In contrast, carbonate and are fed heavy metal diets. While these results are promising,
Fe-Mn oxides of Zn and Pb did not exhibit significant changes. scientists are ready to admit that solution culture is quite different
The results might indicate that mycorrhiza could protect its host from that of soil. In real soil, many metals are tied up in insoluble
plants from the phytotoxicity of excessive copper, zinc and lead forms, and they are less available and that is the biggest problem,
by changing the speciation from bioavailable to the non- said Kochian. The future of phytoremediation is still in research
bioavailable form. The fact that copper and zinc accumulation in and development phase, and there are many technical barriers
the roots and shoots of mycorrhiza infected plants were which need to be addressed. Both agronomic management
significantly lower than those in the non-infected plants might practices and plant genetic abilities need to be optimised to
also suggest that mycorrhiza efficiently restricted excessive develop commercially useful practices. Many hyper accumulator
copper and zinc absorptions into the host plants (Huang et al., plants remain to be discovered, and there is a need to know more
2005). about their physiology. Optimisation of the process, proper
 Rhizofiltration- understanding of plant heavy metal uptake and proper disposal of
It is defined as the use of plants, both terrestrial and aquatic; biomass produced is still needed.
to absorb, concentrate, and precipitate contaminants from  Effect Heavy Metals toxicity in soil-

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III. CONCLUSION
Heavy metals are elements having atomic weight between Phytoremediation is a fast developing field, since last ten
63.54 and 200.59, and a specific gravity greater than. Trace years lot of field application were initiated all over the world, it
amount of some heavy metals are required by living organisms, includes Phytoremediation of Organic, Inorganic and
however any excess amount of these metals can be detrimental to Radionuclide’s. This sustainable and inexpensive process is fast
the organisms. Nonessential Heavy metals include arsenic, emerging as a viable alternative to conventional remediation
antimony, cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, etc; these metals methods, and will be most suitable for a developing country like
are of particular concern to surface water and soil pollution. India. Most of the studies have been done in developed countries
Stimulation of transport protein. Bacterial survival and and knowledge of suitable plants is particularly limited in India.
proliferation in the environment as well as within various hosts When evaluating the effect of rhizobacteria on phytoremediation
are critically dependent on the uptake and sequestration of in contaminated soil, regardless of the precise effects used by the
transition metals such as manganese, zinc, and iron. For example, bacterium to protect plants, the results from literature suggest
cells may stringently regulate intracellular zinc levels, since high that certain bacteria may eventually find a use in the
concentrations of zinc are toxic to cellular functions and have development of phytoremediation strategies. In this regard,
evolved several types of proteins involved in binding and heavy metals may be removed from polluted soil either by
transport of zinc (Claverys, 2001). Bacteria may also stimulate increasing the metal-accumulating ability of plants or by
the sulfate transport protein, located in the root plasma increasing the amount of plant biomass. In heavily contaminated
membrane, which also transports selenate (Leggett and Epstein, soil where the metal content exceeds the limit of plant tolerance,
1956). Inorganic Hg uptake in higher plants has not been well it may be possible to treat plants with plant growth-promoting
investigated, but has been linked to the passive uptake of rhizobacteria, increasing plant biomass and thereby stabilizing,
lipophilic chloride complexes in phytoplankton (Mason et al., revegetating, and remediating metal-polluted soils. However,
1996). Heavy metal toxicity consists of five main processes, there are many areas of poor understanding or lack of
shown in Table 2. information where more research is needed. They include:-
1. Little has been done to investigate the microorganism
Table-2. Heavy metal toxicities include the following sources induced changes in the rhizosphere of hyper accumulator plants
and Effect of contaminant. in relation to metal accumulation. Similarly, it is difficult to
clarify specific features of microbial-plant and microorganism-
S.N. Metal Sources Effects soil interactions in the rhizosphere.
1 Arsenic Industrial Perforation of nasal 2. Further research is also needed to quantify the effect of
dusts, septum respiratory rhizospheric processes induced by rhizobacteria on the
Polluted cancer, peripheral phytoavailability of heavy metals.
water. neuropathy, dermatoses, 3. Minimal work has been done to examine heavy metal
skin cancer, speciation changes in the rhizosphere and to determine whether
2 Cadmium Industrial Glucosuria, such changes could have altered the accumulation and
dusts & Osteomalacia, distribution of heavy metals.
fumes & aminoaciduria and 4. Rhizobacteria encounter soil solution before it enters the
Polluted emphysemia. root and the sequestration of heavy metals by rhizobacteria from
water & soil solution may play an important part in plant metals uptake.
food. The role played by bacteria from soil solution in plant Cd uptake
3 Chromium Polluted Ulcer and respiratory is still poorly understood.
water & cancer. 5. Finally, we need to further understand the mechanisms
food, involved in mobilization and transfer of metals in order to
Industrial develop future strategies and optimize the phytoextraction
dusts. process. Such knowledge may enable us to understand the role
4 Lead Industrial Anemia, Peripheral, and mechanism of soil rhizobacteria on phytoremediation.
dusts & neuropathy.
fumes &
Polluted ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
food.
I gratefully acknowledge the help and encouragement I
5 Mercury Industrial Chronic rhinitis and
revived from Prof. R.N. Shukla and Prof. (Mrs.) U.K. Chouhan,
fumes, sinusitis, respiratory
Department of environmental Biology, A.P.S. University
vapour, cancer, dermatitis.
Rewa(m.p.), Prof. (Mrs.) Abhilasha Shrivastava, and Dr. Ravi
polluted
Uppadhya, Department of Botany and Biotechnology, Govt.
water &
Model Science College Rewa (M.P.) and Govt. P.G. College
food.
Piparia (M.P.) , and Dr. Shourabh jain , PBR Institute Bhopal
(M.P.). I am al so thank full to the people Village of Dihya
(District Rewa m.p.). Who were the main sources of information
documented in this work.

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[12] Chaudri AM, McGrath SP, Giller KE. Survival of the indigenous population
of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii in soil spiked with Cd, Zn, Cu
and Ni salts. Soil Biol Biochem. 1992;24(7):625–632. doi: 10.1016/0038-
0717(92)90040-5. [Cross Ref]
[13] Dueck TA, Visser P, Ernest WHO, Schat H. Vesiculararbuscular
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[14] Duffy BK, Défago G. Zinc improves biocontrol of Fusarium crown and root
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[15] Reed, D.T., Tasker, I.R., Cunnane, J.C. and Vandegrift, G.F. (1992): – In
Environmental Remediation Removing Organic and Metal Ion Pollutants.
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[16] McNeil, K. R. and Waring, S. (1992): – In Contaminated Land Treatment
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Business Correspondent Model vis-à-vis Financial


Inclusion in India: New practice of Banking to the Poor
Naveen Kolloju

Doctoral Fellow, Centre for the Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Abstract- Financial inclusion i.e., access to adequate and timely formal banking services are not within their ‘reach’. 1 According
credit, and other financial services is of utmost importance for to this report, structural barriers prevent the poor from accessing
socio-economic development of poor and unbanked sections. It banking facilities, thereby resulting in financial exclusion. The
enables them to alleviate their poverty levels through self- study further argues that the poor do not have savings bank
employment generation and promotes them as a part of rural accounts, let alone insurance policies (Ibid).
banking system. Accordingly, Indian Government is being The increasing body of literature delves into the causes for
initiated various financial measures in the banking sector, and financial exclusion. A recurring theme in financial exclusion is
different microfinance models have been playing an active role ‘access to institutional finance’ and lack of it, which not only
in providing microfinance and other financial services to the leads to income inequality but also results in slower economic
rural poor. However, despite these efforts, a large number of growth. Lack of access to adequate institutional credit and other
social groups remained excluded from the basic opportunities financial services compel poor individuals and small enterprises
and services provided by the formal financial sector. In these to depend on their own limited savings and earnings. This
circumstances, as a part of financial inclusion drive, Indian restricts their choice to invest in their small business enterprises
government with the help of Reserve Bank of India (RBI), has and take advantage of growth opportunities (Ellis, 2007:82; Kunt
come up with a new model in the realm of banking sector, called and Patrick, 2009:119; World Bank, 2012: ix). Outlining the
as ‘Business Correspondent (BC) model’. This model primarily causes of financial exclusion, Arora points out that poor human
aims at providing affordable banking facility to the hitherto development, high illiteracy and poor awareness levels prevent a
unbanked population with the help of Information and large section of the population, particularly women, from
Communication Technology (ICT) based application and accessing basic financial services, which prevent them from
capacity building. Against this backdrop, this paper attempts to reaping the benefits of formal financial institutions2 (2012:179).
introduce the concept of financial inclusion and highlights its Recent estimates show that, globally, over three billion people
need. It briefly reviews the Indian banking sector and reports the lack access to basic financial services, of which about 90 percent
level of financial exclusion in India. In the second part, it are from Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East. This
provides a brief understanding on Business Correspondent model has led to a considerable demand from the developing countries
and emphasizes how BC model could significantly helps in for a more inclusive financial system that would cater to the
promoting financial inclusion of the hitherto excluded demands of the poor in these regions (John, Julius and Worapot,
population. It concludes by emphasizing some of the operational 2009:55 and Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP),
challenges in its functioning and suggests a way forward. 2012:1).
The absence or the lack of formal institutional arrangements
Index Terms- Business Correspondent Model, Financial to provide sustainable financial services is believed to be one of
Exclusion, Financial Inclusion, Self-help Groups. the basic causes that force the poor to increasingly turn to and
depend upon the informal financial institutions. For instance, the
United Nations (2006:1) and CGAP (2012:1) reports assert that
I. INTRODUCTION poor households with inadequate access to finance largely
depend upon semi-formal or informal financial providers, such as
F inancial inclusion is a global phenomenon that has gained
wider currency in the development literature in contemporary
times. Given the magnitude of poverty in the Third World
private microfinance institutions (MFIs), pawnshops and
conventional moneylenders, and other rotating savings and credit
economies, wherein a large segment of the population do not associations. However, these informal financial institutions seem
have access to basic financial services, the idea of financial
inclusion – commonly understood as ‘banking to all’ – has
become conspicuous in these economies. A recent United 1 Here, the term ‘reach’ not only signifies the availability
Nations (UN) study observes that financial inclusion of the poor of various financial services, but also accessibility related issues.
is a global challenge to the achievement of the Millennium 2 Primary activities of a financial institution is buying,
Development Goals (MDGs) (2006:1). This report draws selling or holding financial assets. Financial institutions provide
attention to a plethora of problems that are being faced by poor in various types of financial services. Formal financial institutions
accessing financial services, and reveals the stark reality that a such as banks, credit unions, post offices etc. largely run by
large number of people are not in a state of saving money as Government. For more details on Indian financial system, see
Ratti (2012), Indian Financial System & Indian Banking Sector:
A Descriptive Research Study, pp.1-8.

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to be less reliable and insecure, and also expensive than the taking key decisions regarding human and physical capital
formal financial institutions. Inadequate access to financial accumulation. Given the above, the repercussions of financial
services, along with the overarching dominance of the informal exclusion could be a far-reaching, which not only destabilize the
financial providers, may impede the decision-making capability livelihood opportunities but also push them into a complex
of the poor as they are restrained from making a rational choice phenomenon of ‘poverty trap’4 (Mahmoud et al., 2011:5 and
while deciding the investments. Joshi, 2011:81). Some scholars extend this argument beyond
Given this background, financial inclusion is increasingly accessibility dimension by relating financial exclusion to income
becoming a major focus of research, and the recent literature on status of the poor. Income levels of an individual in any country
the subject focuses on emphasizing the possibilities and determine the propensity to save from it. Underlining this view,
prospects of well-designed financial arrangements. Scholars note Joshi (2011:14) observes that majority of population in India
that better financial services lead to the social and economic neither has savings accounts nor receives credit from formal
development of the rural population. With a view to economic financial institutions. They seldom make or receive payments
development, scholars argue, a ‘well-functioning financial through formal financial institutions. Apart from access and
system’3 with access to adequate institutional finance enables the income dimension, Sharma (2008:3) discusses that exclusion
poor to start investing money in various income-generating can be due to problems related with geographical conditions,
activities and maximize the returns, and reduce their transaction cost, lack of experience in marketing or self-
vulnerability to the financial risks that they encounter in their exclusion in response to negative experiences or perceptions. It is
daily lives. It helps to bring poor people into the mainstream of becoming clear from the above arguments that financial
the economy, and allows them to contribute more actively to exclusion is primarily due to lack of income, access and limited
their personal economic development. It enhances mobilization exposure to the financial sphere. These constraints invariably
of savings and contributes to economic growth by supporting have serious repercussions on living standards of the poor.
capital accumulation. While correlating access to banking in
terms of savings with social development, it is argued that
savings in banks enable the poor to invest in education and health III. INDIAN BANKING SECTOR AND LEVEL OF
that facilitate a better living standard, along with a marked social FINANCIAL EXCLUSION
development. Having a bank account and access to other Banking system forms the fulcrum of financial system in
financial services through formal financial institutions helps the India. It carved out a niche in the public sector by providing a
low-income segments to accumulate funds in a secure place. variety of financial services to the people. Post independent India
This, in turn, will have a sobering influence on the informal (particularly during 1947-1980) has initiated several measures in
sector, and hence benefiting those who were otherwise excluded the banking sector such as state cooperative banks (1955), the
from it (Kirkpatrick, 2000:366; United Nations, 2006: iii; Ellis, Reserve Bank of India (1955), nationalization of banks (1969)
2007:82; Beck, et al., 2009: 120). and creation of Regional Rural Banks (1976) etc. (Misra et al.,
2008:279). The 1980s had witnessed a significant shift in the
Indian rural credit by setting up of National Bank for
II. FINANCIAL EXCLUSION Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD). This period
Financial exclusion is broadly related to lack of adequate was marked by the active involvement of RBI and NABARD in
access to a range of financial services. People belonging to the providing microcredit to the rural poor. Banks allocated large
lower income strata are unlikely to get access to mainstream proportions of credit to priority sector, including agriculture,
financial services and products, and reap the benefits out of it.
Further, it prevents the poor and disadvantaged segments in
4 It is argued that poverty traps exist and account for the
continued existence of poverty in low-income economies, and
3 A financial system is the set of institutions and of there are many factors which contribute to poverty trap in these
institutional arrangements that have been established to serve the countries. A poverty trap arises when poor individuals with
financial needs of the people. The main objectives of a financial limited access to credit and capital markets, low income or asset
system are to meet the borrowing requirements of business firms, endowments and poor infrastructure. The Chronic Poverty
individuals and government; to gather and to invest savings; and Report (2008-09) identifies five main traps that underpin
to provide a payment mechanism. A well-functioning financial poverty. Those are (i) insecurity, (ii) limited citizenship (iii)
system has some important characteristics. Those are as follows: spatial disadvantage (iv) social discrimination and (v) poor work
(i) a clear and appropriate policy regulatory framework that is opportunities. The report analyses that the poor people frequently
implemented effectively; (ii) adequate, credible information live in insecure environments and they have limited assets or
available to different market players (including providers, entitlements to cope with the shocks and stresses. They do not
consumers and regulators); (iii) appropriate knowledge-based have meaningful political voice and lack effective political
services to the same players; (iv) access to an effective payments representation. Remoteness, lack of political representation,
infrastructures; (v) effective competition between suppliers; (vi) weak economic integration, lack of access to public and private
a diversity of sustainable suppliers and (vii) an innovation in goods and services and work opportunities etc put them under
products and process. For more details, see Ratti (2012), Indian poverty trap. For more details see, The Chronic Poverty Report
Financial System & Indian Banking Sector: A Descriptive (2008-09), “Escaping Poverty Traps”, Chronic Poverty Research
Research Study, pp.1-8. Centre.

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small-scale industries and other sectors; and identified them as conventional moneylenders were the predominant sources of
critical for bringing about economic and social change in rural debt for these households7.
areas (Basu, 2008:20). In addition to these, financial reforms In terms of region-wise, the report of the Committee of
were initiated in the banking sector in the early 1990s to create Financial Inclusion (2008:5) observes a geographic dimension to
an efficient, competitive and stable financial sector and to understanding the extent of financial exclusion. The report cites
enhance the efficiency and profitability of the banking system. that, inaccessibility, distance and lack of proper infrastructure are
During this phase, the banking sector had introduced two the reasons for financial exclusion in a country like India with a
innovations in the rural credit structure. These include the large rural population. Thus, the report underscores the need for
initiation of microfinance scheme by the NABARD (1992) and expansion of geographical coverage and ensuring outreach of
launching of the Kisan Credit Card5 (KCC) scheme (1998) by various financial services to the entire population without any
RBI. Both innovations exclusively targeted to cater to the demand and supply constraints. This strengthens the fact that
financial needs of the farmers, the poor and women to improve financial exclusion in India is high in general, and it also varies
their socio-economic conditions (Government of India, 1999:61). widely across regions and social groups in India. Thus, the
Despite a well-developed banking system in India, a large absence of institutional credit and the vacuum created by the
number of groups remain excluded from the basic opportunities state as a major credit facilitator was gradually filled up by the
and services provided by the financial sector for a variety of private sector. Under these conditions, in order to provide an
supply and demand side reasons. 6 In one of the major and first of alternative banking structure to branch-based banking services,
its kind, the All India Rural Credit Survey (AIRCS) in 1954 the RBI in the year of 2006 adopted the technology based agent
documents that the credit needs of the financially excluded bank model through Business Correspondents (BCs)/ Business
population are often met by the informal, non-institutional Facilitators (BFs) model.
sources rather than the formal institutions. The excluded sections
are drawn from the small and marginal farmers, women,
unorganized sector workers including artisans, the self-employed IV. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENT MODEL
and pensioners (Dev, 2006: 4310). A more recent study on With the objective of ensuring greater financial inclusion
financial exclusion in India point out that only 55 percent of the and increasing the outreach of the banking sector, the RBI in the
population have deposit accounts, while only a handful 9 percent year 2006 adopted the technology based agent bank model
have credit accounts with banks. Indeed, India has the highest through business correspondent (BC)/business facilitator (BF). It
number of households (145 million) that are excluded from is being acknowledged as an alternative banking structure to
banking system (Biju, 2013:57). The 59 th round survey of branch-based banking services, which enables public sector
National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) (2008) reports banks to use the services of Non-Governmental
that 89 million farmer households in the country (73%) do not Organisations/Self-Help Groups (NGOs/SHGs), Microfinance
have access to credit either from institutional sources. Among the Institutions (MFIs) and other Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
excluded, the plight of financial exclusion of the dalit households as intermediaries in providing financial and banking services
is deplorable. The All India Debt and Investment Survey (AIDIS) (RBI, 2006). The model primarily intended to reach out to the
(2002-03) claims that dalit households in rural India obtained geographically diverse population, particularly rural areas and
more than half of their total debt from informal sources. The those who remained financially excluded from the mainstream
share of formal sources in the total debt of these households was banking fold. The significant feature of this model is to ensure
only 44.8 percent, lower than the corresponding share of 59 doorstep delivery of financial products and services to the above
percent for non-dalit households. Among informal sources, said sections. According to the RBI guidelines, the BCs are
permitted to carry out financial transactions on behalf of bank as
agents, which is called as branchless banking. This model is
5 The Government of India (GoI) introduced Kisan being aided by technology oriented tools as point of service
Credit Card (KCC) scheme in August 1998, which aims at handheld devices, mobile phones and a biometric scanner
providing adequate and timely support in a flexible and cost- (Karmakar, 2009:7).
effective manner to farmers by catering to their cultivation needs, Frost and Sullivan (2009) are of the view that the BC is an
including the purchase of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and authorized agent to undertake transactions on behalf of a
livestock. Currently KCC is being implemented by all the specified bank. The BCs or bank agents have the advantage over
District Central Cooperative Banks, Regional Rural Banks bank branches as they can deliver banking services doorstep
(RRBs) and Public Sector Commercial Banks throughout the across the geographical landscape. One of the significant
country. As on 31 March 2012, the banking system has issued advantages of this model is that it helps people to overcome
11.39 crore KCCs. The total amount sanctioned is INR. 5, regional barriers of language and culture, and inadequate
72,617 crore. See NABARD Annual Report, 2011-12: 63. infrastructure in rural areas. Khan (2012:1450) stresses that BCs
6 In India there are 30,000 rural and semi-urban can bridge the gap between the service providers (the banks) and
commercial banks, 14,000 Regional Rural banks (RRBs), around the service seekers (clients) who are under-served and unbanked;
12,000 District Cooperative Credit Banks (DCCBs) and 1,12,000
Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) at the village level
(however, around 66,000 PACS are stated to be functional; the 7 Cited in Pallavi (2007): Access to Bank Credit:
remaining are dormant) [Report of the Steering Committee on Implication for Dalit Rural Households, Economic and Political
Micro-Finance and Poverty Alleviation, 2007:12]. Weekly, p.3219.

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and this model evolved to counter the scarcity of required The following table provides an understanding of the BC Model.
manpower to reach all people in the current banking system.

Table. I: Salient Features of BC Model

Salient Features of BC Guidelines for engaging BCs


Model
Applicable to The scheduled commercial banks including RRBs and Local Area Banks (LABs). The banks
may formulate a policy for engaging BCs with their Board’s approval.

Eligible 
Individuals like retired bank employees, retired teachers, Retired bank
individual/entities as employees, retired teachers, retired government employees and ex-servicemen,
BC individual owners of kirana/medical/Fair Price shops, agents of Small Savings
schemes of Government of India/Insurance Companies, authorized
functionaries of well run Self Help Groups (SHGs) which are linked to banks
etc.
 NGOs/MFIs set up under Societies/Trust Acts and Sections 25 Companies;
 Cooperative Societies registered under Mutually Aided Cooperative Societies
Acts;
 Post Offices; and
 Companies registered under the Indian Companies Act, 1956 with large and
widespread retail outlets.
The banks will be fully responsible for the actions of the BCs and their retail outlets/sub agents.
Scope of activities may  Identification of borrowers
include  Collection and preliminary processing of loan applications including verification of
primary information/data;
 Creating awareness about savings and other products and education and advice on
managing money and debt counseling;
 Processing and submission of applications to banks;
 Promoting, nurturing and monitoring of Self Help Groups/Joint Liability Groups/Credit
Groups/others;
 Post-sanction monitoring;
 Follow-up for recovery,
 Disbursal of small value credit,
 Recovery of principal/collection of interest
 Collection of small value deposits
 Sale of micro insurance/mutual fund products/pension products/other third party
products and
 Receipt and delivery of small value remittances/other payment instruments.
The above activities can be conducted by BCs at places other than bank’s premises.
KYC norms Banks may use the services of BC for preliminary work relating to account opening formalities.
However, ensuring compliance with KYC norms under the BC model continues to be the
responsibility of banks.
Payment of The banks may pay reasonable commission/fee to the BC but the BCs cannot charge any fee to
commission/fee the customers directly for services rendered by them on behalf of the bank.
The banks (and not BCs) are permitted to collect reasonable service charges from customers in a
transparent manner.
Source: FICCI (2012), Promoting Financial Inclusion: Can the constraints of political economy be overcome?, FICCI Federation
House, New Delhi.pp.66-67.

V. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENT MODEL VIS-A-VIS


FINANCIAL INCLUSION: THE POSSIBILITIES
BC model aims at developing and strengthening the
relationship between unbanked people and the formal financial

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system. The salient features of this model include identifying the


borrowers, collection and verification of loan applications,
creating awareness on various financial services, products and
transactions, post-sanction monitoring, collection of small value
deposits etc. The best advantage through BC model is, on the one
hand banks get vast exposure to the rural population without its
physical presence in terms of branches while on the other the
unbanked people belonging to the remote areas get easy access to
basic banking facilities at their doorstep by the person among
themselves. It also promotes and nurtures SHGs/JLGs wherever
relevant and works as a potential contributors in creating
awareness about various financial operations. It is, therefore
recognized as an economically feasible and customer-friendly
banking model for the poor
Scholars note that under BC model, an authorized agent
(who may or may not be a direct employee of the financial
institution) personally travels within a wide geographical area,
particularly rural regions, to enroll people as bank clients, and
further delivers loans, and collects repayments (Frost and
Sullivan, 2009:19). On the functioning of the BC model, the
report of the committee of financial inclusion (2008:ii) observes
that adopting appropriate technology enables the business
correspondent directly go to the customer instead of the other
way round. Banks can use the services of BCs for opening a bank
account, under the compliance with KYC norms 8. The RBI
guidelines strictly instructed the banks to ensure that BCs cannot
charge any fee to the customers for services on behalf of the
bank. Recently, the RBI has expanded the scope of BC model
responding to government policy of opening ‘no frills accounts’ 9
and some of the electronic benefits has been transferred to these
accounts to process government payments such as the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, Pensions and other social
payments with the help of POS devices (CGAP, 2012:3). In this
regard, BC models can have the potential to deliver the services
even to the rural and geographically typical regions, which is one
of the core strategies of accelerating financial inclusion.

8 With a view to simplify the applying procedures for the


customers, the Reserve Bank India introduced Know Your
Customer (KYC) norms in August 2005. According to the RBI
norms, banks can accept any evidence to their satisfaction for
establishing the identity and address proof of the customer. In
other words, these KYC norms simplified the procedures to open
an account for those whose financial transactions are of modest
amounts. See Ramji (2007:16).
9 The ‘no-frills account’ (NFA) is an important financial
product that allows financially excluded individuals to access
banking services with low or nil minimum balances; and also
either with low or no charges. NFA encourages the poor people
to save more by providing the credit in the form of overdraft
facility. See Khan (2012).

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Table.II: Key Statistics of BC model

Key Statistics on BC model upto March, 2013


Total No. of Bank Branches 105753
Rural Bank Branches 39336
No. of BCs appointed by banks 195380
No. of villages covered under BC model 221341
No. of Point of Sale (POS) devices installed 967740
Source: Reserve Bank of India, Census 2011: Telecom Regulatory Authority of India.

VI. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES


Although BC model shows great promise and holds potential VII. WAY FORWARD
to cater the financial needs of the rural unbanked populace, the The literature on this subject comes up with certain measures
experiences are still mixed. Some of the major reports argue that that would address some of the critical challenges faced by the
the model has not taken off in the way it was envisioned in 2006. BC model. In fact, it requires a holistic approach on the part of
As for as the viability of this model is concerned, CGAP report banking sector, business correspondents and customers as well to
(2013:4) reveals the existing regulations do not allow sufficient improve its service offerings and financial performance. Without
flexibility for the BC arrangement to be viable. It argues that an operationally and financially viable channel, the promise of
most of the banks have not really encouraged and promoted the reaching basic financial services to the underprivileged and
BC banking channel, as required. Further, the report adds, unbanked population will not likely be possible with the BC
majority of the no-frills accounts opened under this model are not model. In this concern, the banks ought to play an instrumental
operational. Opening of such accounts to provide deposit role in developing and promoting BC model. Besides, the banks
services, in order to make these accounts profitable, have not also create awareness on easy accessing and optimum utilization
made the desired progress. This has made it unviable for the of various financial services under BC framework. The RBI
banks to consider this framework further. Similarly, RBI annual review repot on BC model (2009:16) recognizes the fact that the
report (2011-12) observes, despite the efforts of the banks to process of financial inclusion involves the three critical aspects:
provide training to BC staff, the capacity for internalizing new (i) access to banking markets, (ii) access to credit markets and
technologies, new products and systems remain a big challenge. (iii) financial education. It is, therefore the BC model should
From the business correspondent’s perspective, it is pointed out encompass each of the above three aspects in order to be able to
that mobilizing communities for accessing financial services, address the issue of financial inclusion in a holistic manner.
particularly savings, became a big challenge for them. Due to Grameen Foundation report (2013) suggests that the
shortage of sufficient funding, BCs at the village level are unable technology and infrastructure should be robust and easily
to mobilize and conduct group meetings in the case of upgradable. Importantly, it should be cost effective. Training of
SHGs/JLGs to explain the advantages and to promote BC model. BCs and financial literacy must be emphasized. BC model should
Pertaining to the performance of the BC model, FICCI’s be customer centric, in which it must address customer needs,
Report (2012:34) highlights the lacunae regarding the delivers high quality demand-driven services and invest in
recruitment of BCs and functioning of BC model. It identifies customer awareness. The end beneficiaries need to be financially
that although RBI permitted variety of individuals to work as literate to make apt use of banking services. Particularly, women
BCs, very few have been engaged by banks. Regarding the and low-income groups must cultivate the habit of utilizing all
performance of BC staff, the report throws a light on lack of available financial services and products under this model, which
professional orientation. It identifies that they are mostly is essentially redesigned and aimed at their economic upliftment.
irregular in the maintenance of records and delay the processing Given the right impetus by the banks and other financial
of loans, which subsequently generates a low volume of business institutions, the BC banking channel has the great potential to
for banks. With regard to the operational aspects, it observes that ensure the process of financial inclusion and bring the rural
the handling of a large amount of cash is risky, particularly in the unbanked population within the banking fold.
hilly regions due to higher security risks, difficult terrain and
poor connectivity. Since the BC staff often operates in isolation,
there are high chances of fraud and misappropriation. RBI’s REFERENCES
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pp.1447-57. Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. His Ph.D
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Reduction”, The Pakistan Development Review, 2000, Vol. 39, No. 4, initiatives on poverty alleviation and financial inclusion of the
pp.363–88. poor: A study from rural Andhra Pradesh, India. He qualified for
[11] Mahmoud, Mohieldin, Iqbal Zamir, and Xiaochen Fu. “The Role of Islamic Junior Research Fellowship from University Grants Commission.
Finance in Enhancing Financial Inclusion in Organization of Islamic
Cooperation (OIC) Countries”, Policy Research Working Paper, World He published two research papers in an International Refereed
Bank, 2011, No.5920, pp.1-59. Journals and two research papers in edited books. He presented
[12] Misra, Biswa Swarup and. Rau, P.K. Regional Rural Banks in India: Past, 11 research papers in various national and international
Present and Future. In Maboranjan Sharma (ed.), Dynamics of Indian conferences across India.
Banking: Views and Vistas. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors
(p) Ltd, 2008, pp.274-93.
[13] Pallavi, Chavan. “Access to Bank Credit: Implication for Dalit Rural
Households”, Economic and Political Weekly, 2007, Vol. 42, No. 31,
pp.3219-24.
[14] Ramji Minakshi. “Financial Inclusion in Gulbarga: Finding Usage in
Access”, Institute for Financial Management and Research, Centre for
Microfinance, Working paper series, 2009, No.26. pp.1-36
[15] Ratti, Indian Financial System & Indian Banking Sector: A Descriptive
Research Study, 2012 pp.1-8.
[16] Sharma, M. “Index of Financial Inclusion A Concept Note”, ICRIER
Working paper No. 215, Indian Council for Research in International
Economic Relations, New Delhi June 2008, URL:
http://www.icrier.org/pdf/mandira
[17] World Bank. “Finance for All?: Policies and Pitfalls in Expanding Access”,
World Bank Policy Research Paper, Washington DC. 2008.
[18] World Bank. “Banking the Poor: Measuring Banking Access in 54
Economies”, World Bank Research Paper, Washington DC, 2009.

Reports:
[19] CGAP. “Business Correspondents and Facilitators: Pathway to Financial
Inclusion?”, Access Development Service, New Delhi. 2012.
[20] Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP). “Advancing Financial
Access for the World’s Poor”, CGAP, Washington, USA, 2012, pp.1-5.
[21] FICCI. “Promoting Financial Inclusion: Can the constraints of political
economy be overcome?", FICCI Federation House, New Delhi. 2012.
[22] NABARD. “Status of Micro Finance in India 2009-10”, 2011. URL:
http://www.nabard.org
[23] RBI Report. “Basic statistical returns of scheduled commercial banks in
India”, 2009. URL:
http://www.rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/77950.pdf
[24] Report of the Committee on Financial Inclusion, Chaired by Dr. C.
Rangarajan, January 2008. URL:
http://www.nabard.org/reportcomfinancial.asp
[25] World Bank. “Finance For All”, World Bank Policy Research Report,
Washington DC. 2008.
[26] Report of the Steering Committee on ‘Micro-finance and Poverty
Alleviation: The Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-08 - 2011-12)’,
Development Policy Division, Planning Commission, Government of India,
New Delhi. 2012. pp.1-48.
[27] RBI Report of the Working group to review the Business Correspondent
Model. RBI. 2009.
[28] The Chronic Poverty Report (2008-09), “Escaping Poverty Traps”, Chronic
Poverty Research Centre. 2009, pp.54-67. United Nations. “Building
inclusive financial sectors for development”. New York: United Nations.
2006.

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Captive breeding of endangered Barbs Pethia


manipurensis (Menon et.al, 2000) by oral delivery of
gonadotropic signaling molecular analogue WOVA-FH
Yurembam Motilan1, Yumnam Bedajit2 and Wahengbam Sunitibala3
1
Pravabati College Mayang Imphal, Manipur, India, 795132
2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Thoubal, Manipur, India, 795 138
3
Department of Organic Chemistry, Millennium Institute of Sciences, Imphal, 795003

Abstract- Oral delivery of a salmon gonadotropic signaling WOVA-FH a synthetic gonadotropin releasing hormone
molecules WOVA-FH @ of 0.2-0.4 mlkg-1 to endangered Barbs analogue (SGnRH).
Pethia manipurensis to induced spawning of 42-100% within 8-
10 hr.
II. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Index Terms- Ornamental fish, endemic, endangered species, Fishes were collected by netting from Leimeram waterfall
artificial spawning, reintroduction and streams of Baruni hills Chindwin basin. Live fishes were
transported to the laboratory in polythene bags partially filled
with oxygen by following the method of Esther (2008). For
I. INTRODUCTION identification of fish, Kulander and Fang (2005) were followed

F reshwater fish subfamily (Cyprininae) includes barbs which


are characteristic in having large scales, bright colours,
schooling behaviour and are easy to maintain and breed which
for measurements and counts. Measurements were taken point to
point with disital calpers measuring to 0.1 mm. Count were made
on the left side of the species by using stereo zoom microscope.
made them popular in the aquarium trade (Clyde, et.al., 1997). The technique of Clyde (1997) was followed for culture in
Pethia manipurensis locally known as Ngaka meingangbi in aquarium. Fish were culture in laboratory aquaria of size 90 × 45
Manipuri is an economically important fish for preparation of × 30 cm. Temperature of air and water were measured using a
Hentak and Ngari, the two important solid substrate fermented mercury thermometer. The pH of water was measured by digital
fish products which enhance flavour of food for Manipuri pH meter and dissolved oxygen (DO) was measured by
(Sarojnalini and Vishwanath, 1988). The fish is having a medium Winkler’s Method (1948). Free CO2 (FCO2), Carbonate (CO-)
value as fresh used to add flavour to vegetable curry preparation alkalinity and Bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO3) were measured by
after smoking and drying. The fish also fulfils all the characters Welch Method (1888). Maturities of fishes were assessed on the
of ornamental fishes i.e., beautiful colourations, adaptability to basis of genitalia, oozing milt, swollen vent, body colouration
aquarium condition, acceptable to artificial and natural food, and roughness body and pectoral fin. The experiment was
peaceful nature etc., thus the fish becomes an ornamental species. conducted on 2+ year old Pethia manipurensis of 2-3 g body
The species is endemic to Chindwin basin (Vishwanath et al., weight 20 gravid females and 40 males (n=60) in 20 aquarium
2007). The fish is catagorised under threatened according to the sizes of 90 × 45 × 30 cm. Fish were kept starvation for one night.
(IUCN 2010). In their natural habitats the species breed in ponds, Artificial feed of fish were mixed with synthetic hormone
lakes, paddy fields, rivers, streams and small pits. Artificial WOVA-FH and fish were feed in the early morning at different
induction spawning behavior in Puntius ganionotus (Bleeker) doses @ 0.2-0.4mgkg-1. After feeding the hormonal feeds, the
was done by Liley and Tan (1895). Effect of ultrasonic sound on brooders were randomly distributed into different aquaria at the
breeding performance of Puntius sarna (Hamilton) was done by male to female ratio of 2:1. After spawning the fecundity of each
Maily et al., (2006). Orally induced spawning of Thai carp female was determined by randomly taking samples of eggs in a
followed by co-administration of Gly 10 (D-Arg 6) SGnRH 10 ml graded tube. Total number of eggs in 1ml was counted
ethmylmide and domperidone was done by Sukumaravin et al., and was multiplied by the total volume of eggs released.
(2006). The specis will be of important for the ornamental fish Fertilisation rates of eggs were determined by randomly taking a
culture and sun dried fish for the preparation of a Hentak a sample of approximately 100 eggs in a Petri dish. Only fertilized
fermented fish product of Manipur. Hence in order conserve the eggs with an intact nucleus were counted for the percentage of
fish as well as to meet the demand of the fish for ornamental fish fertilization. The environmental conditions of breeding were as
culture seed production of the fish is important. However, no shown in Table 1. The significance of effects of WOVA-FH on
experiment has been so far conducted on induced breeding of P. the egg output, fertilization and hatching rate were calculated by
manipurensis with synthetic hormone WOVA-FH and any other analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a statistical software
hormones till date. The objective of the experiment is induced packaged SPSS version 17.0. The significance of the effects on
breeding of P. manipurensis by oral delivery of hormone the investigating traits was checked by F-test. A probability level
of 0.05 was utilized to account for the statistical significance.

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III. RESULT administration at a dose of 0.4 ml kg-1 of body weight produces


Determination of optimum dose of WOVA-FH the highest spawning rate, egg production and hatching rate in P.
Colouration of fishes increased after the injection of the manipurensis. The positive response of both male and female to
hormones. A varied degree of hormonal response was observed a single dose of WOVA-FH is significant for commercial seed
in relation to different doses of the hormones. Chasing behavior production and it can be utilized for species restoration,
was seen after 8-10 hr post oral delivery of feeds mixed with conservation. The experiment will also help in the income
hormones. None of the control fish spawn, however all the generation of the people.
groups delivered with WOVA-FH @ 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 mlKg-1
spawn successfully. One of the active male paired with female
released milt, the female released eggs and external fertilization ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
took place. Authors greatly appreciate the efforts of M. Indrajit Singh
Effect of WOVA-FH on egg production, fertilization and for collection and maintenance of fish in the aquarium.
hatching
Analysis of variance showed a significant effect(P < 0.5) of
hormonal doses on egg output (P< 0.5) but the rate of REFERENCES
fertilization was not significantly different between the [1] Bedajit, Y., Saha H., Mandal. B and Tandal, R. 2011. Induced breeding in
treatments(P> 0.5 ).The lowest dose of WOVA-FH i.e., 0.2 Anabas testudinus (Bloch, 1792) with Ovatide. The Israeli Journal of
mlkg-1 led to 42.62 ± 3.625% spawning in females. The Aquaculture-Bamidgeh, IJA 63. 2011.766.
spawning rate and number of eggs in the fish treated either with [2] Bhattacharya, S., Dasgupta, S., Datta, M and Basu, D.2002. Biotechnology
Input in Fish Breeding. Indian Journal of Biotechnology, 1: 29-38.
CPE (Positive control) or with 0.4ml kg-1 WOVA-FH were not
[3] Clyde S., Tamaru, Cole. Richard, B. and Brown, C.1997. Manual for
statistically different (Table 1). commercial production of Tiger Barb, Copoetra tetrazona temporary pair
tank spawner. Center for Tropical Subtropical Aquaculture, Publication
Number, 129. 1-48.
IV. DISCUSSION [4] Kumar K., Mohanty. U. K., Dasgupta. S. and Sahu A. K. 2010. Induce
Spawning of Anabas (Anabas testudinus, BLOCH) under captivity in pre-
Various environmental factors such as light, temperature, monsoon and monsoon months. Journal of Inland Fishery Society India,
pH, DO., meteorological condition etc., are known to play 42(2): 8-13.
important role in stimulating the release of gonadotropic [5] Kullander S. O. and Fang F. 2005. Two new species of Puntius from
hormones from the anterior lobe of pituitary glands within the Northern Myanmar. (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Copeia, (2) 290-302.
organisms and thereby controlling breeding behaviors of fish [6] Liley N. R. and Tan E. S. P. 1985. Artificial spawning behavior in Puntius
gonionatus (Bleeker)by treatment with prostaglandins PGF2 . Journal of
(Motilan, et. al ., 2013). Secretion of gonadotropic hormone and Fish Biology, 26.(5): 491-502
gene expression is controlled by the environmental factors [7] Motilan, Y., Bedajit., Y and Vishwanath, W. 2013. Induced breeding of
(Ralston, et. al., 2008). However, the optimum environmental carp minnow Puntius chola (Hamilton, 1822) with synthetic hormone
condition for natural breeding is not available in the aquarium. WOVA-FH. NeBIO, vol. 4, no 3, pp. 21−23, 2013.
Hence, most of the fish lost their natural breeding behaviour. [8] Ralston A and Shaw, K. 2008 “Environmental controls of gene
expression,” Sex determination and the onset of genetic disorders,” Nature
Gonadotropic Releasing Hormone (GnRH) is now the best Education, vol. 1, p. 1,
available biotechnological tool for the breeding of fish [9] Sarkar U. K., Deepak P. K., Kapoor D., Negi R.S., Paul S.K. and Singh,S.
(Bhattacharya, 2002 et. al). Synthetic hormone WOVA-FH oral 2005. Captive breeding of climbing perch Anabas testudineus (Bloch, 1792)
delivery, at the doses of 0.4 mlkg-1 body weight by-passes the with WOVA-FH for conservation and aquaculture. Aquaculture Research,
environmental factors and is sufficient to induce 100% ovulation 36: 941-945.
and spawning. WOVA-FH affected the percentage of [10] Sarojnalini, Ch. and Vishwanath, W. 1988. Composition and digestibility of
fermented fish foods of Manipur. Journal of Food Science Technology,
fertilization, egg production and hatching rate. Similar 25(6): 349-351.
observation was observed by Sukumaravin et al., (2006) by oral [11] Sukumaravin, N., Leelapatra W., Lean E. Mc. and Donaldson E. M. 2006.
delivery (50-100 µg kg -1 body weight) and domperidone (25-50 Orally induced spawning of Thi carp Puntius goninotus (Bleeker) following
mgkg-1 body weight) to Thai carp. However no reports are co-administration of des Gly10 (D-Arg6) s GnRH Ethylamide and
available for standardizing the doses of WOVA-FH in P. domperidone. Journal of Fish Biology, 40(3): 477-479.
manipurensis. [12] Tlusty, M. 2002. The benefits and risks of aquacultural production for the
aquarium trade. Aquaculture, vol. 205, pp. 203−219
In the present observation, egg production, at the doses of
[13] Winkler, L. 1888.The Determination Oxygen in Water, Mathematikaiés
0.4 mlkg-1 (6218.75 ± 32.75) is similar to that of crude pituitary Terészettedomanyi Ertessit, vol. 6, pp. 273
extract (6464.25 ± 250.75). However, the egg production was [14] Welch, P.S. 1948. Limnological methods. Mc Graw-Hill Book Cooperation
significantly (P< 0.05) higher as compared to lower doses. This New York, U. S. A. pp.1−38
shows that the dose of 0.5 ml kg-1 is significant to achieve [15] Vishwanath W., Lakra W. S. and Sarkar, 2007. Fishes of North East India.
ovulation with better results than with CPE. Similar results were National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (Indian Council of Agricultural
Research) Lucknow.
obtained with Anabas testudineus that was treated with (0.3mlkg-
1 [16] W. Vishwanath, W., Ng, H.H., Britz, R., Singh, L.K., Shivaji, C and
) Ovatite (Bedajit et al., 2011) and (0.3 mlkg-1) WOVA-FH Conway, K. W. 2010 The status and distribution of freshwater fishes of the
(Sarkar et al., 2005), whereas Kuldeeg et al., (2010) showed that Eastern Himalaya region ICUN Red List, Status and distribution of
higher doses of Ovaprim (1.5 mlkg-1) is required to obtain early freshwater biodiversity in the Eastern Himalaya, pp. 22−29
and extended normal spawning of Anabas testudineus. The
objective of the present study was fulfilled and WOVA-FH

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 298
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AUTHORS
First Author – Yurembam Motilan, Lecturer Zoology, Pravabati
College Mayang Imphal, Manipur, India, 795132 E. mail:
motilan84@ gmail.com
Second Author – Yumnam Bedajit, Subject Matter Specialist,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Thoubal, Manipur, India, 795 138
Third Author – Wahengbam Sunitibala, Lecturer Organic
Chemistry, Millennium Institute of Sciences, Imphal, 795003

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Fig 1. Live photo of Pethia manipurensis

TABLE1: Physico-chemical parameters of the aquarium system

Atm.Temp Water pH DO FCO2 Carb.alk Bicarb.alk


(⁰C) Temp(⁰C) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
25 ±4.0⁰C 23± 2⁰C 6.8 ±0.9 7.2± 2.0 5±4 3±2 26±4

Table1. Result of induced breeding experiment of Pethia manipurensis by graded doses of WOVA-FH administered equally
to males and femals mlkg-1 body weight.

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Treatment Spawning rate Egg production Fertilization rate Hatching rate Remarks
(mlKg-1) (number g-1) (%) (%)

0.2 42.62 ±3.625a 2213.5 ± 167.5a 87.295 ± 4.675 54.975 ± 3.225a Partial spawning

0.3 88.1 ± 3.6b 3210.5 ± 81.5b 88.95 ± 2.15 73.7 ± 3.2b Complete spawning
0.4 100c 6218.75± 32.75c 89.325 ± 2.125 92.525 ± 1.965c Complete spawning

100mg CPE 100c 6464.25±250.75c 90.475 ± 2.075 81.525 ± 2.025d Complete spawning
0.5ml 0.7% saline 0 0 0 0 No spawning

Values are mean ± SEM (n = 5); different subscript letters indicate significant difference (p < 0.05). Spawning rate = number of fish
spawned/total number of fish injected x 100 ; Egg production = number of egg released / g body weight of female; Fertilization rate
(%) = total number of eggs having faint streak / total number of eggs in sample x 100; Hatching rate (%) = total number of hatched
eggs as a percentage of tail of tail bud embryos.

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A Study on Consumption Trends of Fuel Wood & their


Impact on Forest in Kanker Forest Division of
Chhattisgarh State (India)
Devendra Sharma, Komal Chandrakar, Daneshver Kumar Verma, K.C. Yadav

State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh

Abstract- The continuous dependency of man on fuel wood and two ways relationship between fuel wood collection &
service wood results in serious degradation of the forest in deforestation. On the one hand, demand for fuel wood from
Kanker forest division. A study on the consumption trends of common and forest causes resource degradation to the extent that
fuel wood & their impact on forest were carried out in Chivranj collection exceeds sustainable yield. Forest degradation, on the
& Ichchhapur village of Kanker forest division of Chhattisgarh, other hand, leads to a mounting global ‘fuel wood crisis’ has
and its rural environs. Results show that the villagers of Kanker been envisaged (Dewees, 1989). In addition, there are a number
are highly dependent on fuel wood for cooking purpose. In tribal of other adverse consequences of forest degradation, including
village fuel wood are sold in the form of wood lots which loss of biodiversity, deterioration of watershed management
contains about 20-30 kg fuel wood & averagely pricing about Rs. function, release of carbon into the atmosphere, soil erosion, etc.
110/ lots. Price value of these fuel woods varies from Rs. 20-30
according to their traders & fuel wood species. The rural
population works under the community forest policy, but illegal II. STUDY SITE
harvesting in natural forests is indiscriminate and results in The study was carried out in Kanker District to find out the
severe environmental degradation. This paper calls for some consumption trend of fuel wood & their impact on forest.
basic recommendations & guideline on sustainable management However sampling method was adopted for selecting village and
of these fuel woods & for reducing pressure on fuel wood forest compartments. Two villages namely Chivranj &
consumption. Ichchhapur of Kanker district were surveyed. Village Chivranj &
Ichchhapur is in the south of Kanker and is situated at a distance
Index Terms- Fuel wood, Sustainable management, of 09 km & 11 km, respectively.
Consumption, Calorific value.

III. METHODOLOGY
I. INTRODUCTION
A study has been conducted to record information on the
W ood is one of the oldest source of energy and the
commonest service material known to man & has been
used for over 500000 years (Sharpe, 1976). Fuel wood gathered
fuel wood collection trend in tribal pockets of villages in Kanker
forest division of Chhattisgarh State. The information was
collected & recorded from tribal’s interview of age group from
from the forest, either by lopping branches, collecting fallen 16 to 50 years and resided in villages of Kanker. The study
wood or cutting down dry and diseased trees, is the most revealed socio-economic survey, collection trend of fuel wood,
common source of domestic energy in the rural areas of many quantity collection per household, time spend during fuel wood
developing countries (Cecelski, Dunkerley and Ramsay, 1979). collection, collection season, collection rate, etc.
Demand for fuel wood, which together with animal dung and
agricultural waste residue is one of the main cooking fuels, was
thought to be leading to widespread forest degradation. There are

Table No. 01: Consumption of fuel wood in two villages of Kanker district (C.G.)

S.No. Village Total consumption in a week Total Consumption in a year (in


(in Kg) Quintal)
1. Chivranj 79 300.25
2. Ichchhapur 54 162.56
Total 133 462.81

Table No. 02: Calorific value of some important fuel wood tree species

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S. Trees species Botanical name Family Calorific Smoky/ Less


No. value Smoky
Kcal/Kg
1. Amaltas Cassia fistula Fabaceaae 4200 Smoky
2. Arjun Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae 5080 Less Smoky
3. Babool Acacia nilotica Fabaceae 4950 Less Smoky
4. Ber Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae 4878 Less Smoky
5. Casuarina Casuarinas equisetifolia Casuarinaceae 4950 Less Smoky
6. Dhawda Anogeissus latifolia Combretaceae 4900 Less Smoky
7. Haldu Adina cordifolia Verbenaceae 3855 Smoky
8. Imli Tamarindus indica Fabaceae 4950 Less Smoky
9. Jamun Syzygium cuminii Myrtaceae 830 Smoky
10. Jharberi Zizyphus jujube Rhamnaceae 4900 Less Smoky
11. Jharul Langerstroemia spp. Lytheraceae 4577 Less Smoky
12. Kachnar Bahunia verigeta Fabaceae 4800 Less Smoky
13. Karra Cleistanthus collinus Euphorbiacea 4592 Less Smoky
14. Khair Acacia catechu Fabaceae 4946 Less Smoky
15. Kullu Sterculia urens Sterculiaceae 5244 Smoky
16. Machimudi Lantana camara Verbenaceae 6500 Less Smoky
17. Mahua Madhuca latifolia Sapotaceae 8742 Less Smoky
18. Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae 4742 Less Smoky
19. Mulberry Morus alba Moraceae 4850 Less Smoky
20. Neem Azadirachta indica Myrtaceae 4500 Smoky
21. Nilgiri Eucalyptus spp. Myrtaceae 4880 Less Smoky
22. Palas Butea monosperma Fabaceae 5030 Less Smoky
23. Saja Terminalia tomentosa Combretaceae 4923 Less Smoky
24. Sal Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae 4400 Less Smoky
25. Salai Boswellia serrata Burseraceae 2300 Smoky
26. Semal Bombax ceiba Fabaceae 4800 Smoky
27. Shoe babool Leucaena leucocephala Fabaceae 4400 Less Smoky
28. Siris Albizia spp. Fabaceae 4300 Less smoky
29. Tendu Diospyrus melanoxylon Sapotaceae 5030 Smoky
30. Oak Quercus spp. Fagaceae 4700 Less smoky
Source: S.S. Negi (1997)
(8742 kcal/kg), but it is not used as fuel wood because of its
aesthetic value.
IV. RESULT & DISCUSSION An annual consumption of fuel wood at Chivranj &
Fuel wood from the forests common source of domestic Ichchhapur of Kanker forest division is about 300.25 Quintals &
energy in rural area of developing country as India. Where more 162.56 Quintals, respectively. Average incomes from fuel wood
than 70% population lives in villages and they totally depend on are @ 110 Rs. per lots (20-25 kg). The tribal peoples collect fuel
forest for their basic needs as firewood, fodder, timber, fruits and wood from forest about 90-93 days average in a year and 3 days
NTFP’s produces. in a week. They collects firewood under the Indian forest policy
The use of fuel wood with a higher specific gravity reduces and they collect commonly illegal (felling) from forest. This is
the amount of wood used because such woods have higher the major causative factors of forests degradation in natural
calorific value. Green fuel wood with about 50% moisture forest.
content has 50% available heat energy while air dry fuel wood
with about 20% moisture content has 80% available energy
(Njiti,1984). V. CONCLUSION
The fuel wood collections are depending on their daily Firewood has very important value in tribal life, from the
needs for many purposes. Some fuel wood species Anogeissus ancient time in Kanker district. The consumption trends of fuel
latifolia (Dhawda, 4900 kcal/kg), Clistenthus collinus (Karra, woof fuel wood, collection of fuel wood as well as their
4592 kcal/kg), Terminalia tomentosa (Saja, 4923 kcal/kg), marketing helps in improving socio-economic status and side by
Shorea robusta (Sal, 4400 kcal/kg), Lantana camara side protection of natural forest by JFM, Agroforestry, Social
(Machhimudi, 6500 kcal/kg), and Butea monosperma (Palash, forestry to minimize the tough pressure on forest through
5030 kcal/kg) are used due to their higher calorific value and less alternative source of energy gathered with local population.
smoky properties. Madhuca indica has also higher calorific value

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are highly grateful to Shri Dhirendra Sharma, Principal
Chief Conservator of Forest, Chhattisgarh, Raipur for his
valuable guidance and financial support to carry out the research
work. We extord our sincere thanks to the Divisional Forest
Officer of Kanker Forest Division of Chhattisgarh and his field
staff for their cooperation and logistic support during the
research study.

REFERENCES
[1] Cecelski, E., J. Dunkerley, and W. Ramsay (1979). “Household Energy and
the Poor in the Third World”. in Resources for the Future. Washington,
D.C.
[2] Clement Forkong NJITI (2002): Survey of fuel wood and service wood
production and consumption in the Sudano-Sahelian region of Central
Africa. IRAD/PRASAC, BP 415, Garoua, Cameroun.
[3] Dewees, (1989): ‘The Woodfuel Crisis Reconsidered: Observations on the
Dynamics of Abundance and Scarcity’, Dewees, P.A., in World
Development, Vol. 17, No. 8, pp. 1159-1172 .
[4] Negi, S.S., (1997). Manual of Indian forestry. Published by Gajendra Singh
Gahlot, Dehradun. Vol.4, ppl 145-167.
[5] Njiti C.F., (1984). Energy in wood : The effects of age, diameter, height,
and specific gravity on the heat energy contents of Pin oak (Quercus
palustris Muench) and Black oak (Quercus velutina Lam). Master. Southern
Illinois University, Carbondale, USA.
[6] Sharpe G.W., (1976).’ Introduction to forestry’. 4th edition. MacGraw-Hill
Book company. New York. 554 p.

AUTHORS
First Author – Devendra Sharma, Junior Research Fellow, State
Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,
India; e-mail: [email protected]
Second Author – Komal Chandrakar, Junior Research Fellow,
State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,
India; e-mail: [email protected]
Third Author – Daneshver Kumar Verma, Junior Research
Fellow, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur,
Chhattisgarh, India; e-mail: [email protected]
Fourth Author – Krishna Chandra Yadav, Director, State Forest
Research & Training Institute, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India; e-
mail: [email protected]

Correspondence Author – Devendra Sharma, Junior Research


Fellow, State Forest Research & Training Institute, Raipur,
Chhattisgarh, India; e-mail: [email protected]

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Evaluation of Quality of Life Impairment in Depressive


Patients
Ranganathan Lakshmi1 & Swaminathan S2
1
Research Intern, Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram, Mandaveli, Chennai.
2
Chief of Biochemistry, SRM Medical College & Hospital and Research Centre, Kattankulathur, Kancheepuram District, Chennai, South India.

Abstract- Depression has now become an universal health in subjects with a broad array of different depressive and anxiety
problem and the outcome of such disorder is physical, disorders entering clinical trials. (2) and another study found that
psychological, mental and social problems. Several studies have the degree of disability was related to severity of depression in
shown that depression results in impairment in the quality of life patients with MDD (3).
leading to decreased work performance, The purpose of this According to Diagnostic Manual from American Psychiatric
study is to find out the association between the levels of Association(DSM-IV) classification, a diagnosis of MDD is
depression by scoring systems and the degree of impairment with possible only when there is evidence of significant inference with
the quality of life. This prospective study was carried out as part normal functioning of an individual.. Health-related quality of
of a doctoral research in a prominent yoga centre in the city from life is the most appropriate indicator of social functioning.
January 2012 to July 2013. 34 subjects, both males and females However, despite the high prevalence of MDD in the general
in the age group 18 – 60 years, who sought yoga treatment for population, it is uncommon for clinicians to assess overall
depression, who scored greater than 8 points with Beck’s functioning in a systematic way before making such diagnosis.
depression inventory and signed informal consent were enrolled Impaired quality of life is a significant problem for people with
for this study. The quality of life score were collected using SF – MDD and is often not addressed through symptom remediation
36 questionnaire. Beck’s depression scores and demographic alone.
details were used for statistical analysis using SPSS version 17.0 An important correlate of functioning is QoL, which is
software. Pearson correlation coefficient analysis gave r values typically defined as "patient’s own assessments of how they feel
of -0.582 and -0.585 between depression and physical and about what they have, how they are functioning, and their ability
mental health respectively and the p values was < 0.05 for both to derive pleasure from their life's activities". Individual’s
parameters. This study shows that quality of life is significantly perception of QoL is an additional factor that should be part of a
affected by depression. The negative correlation reveals that the complete assessment. As health-related QoL is a purely
quality of life decreases as depression increases and mental subjective measure, patient-rated questionnaires have been found
health is more affected than physical health. to be most important in this context.
Health-related QoL includes dimensions other than social
Index Terms- Depression, Quality of life, MDD, physical health, functioning, which mostly include physical health and mental
mental health, Beck’s Score. health (including both cognitive and affective problems). The
Short form Health Survey (SF-36) includes subscales relating to
physical and mental health, which, like the social functioning
I. INTRODUCTION subscales, are measured in terms of degrees of well being.
QoL indices have been used in medical practice to estimate
M ajor depressive disorder (MDD) is the fourth leading
disease causing functional impairment, disability and
workforce loss worldwide. It is a prevalent health problem which
the impact of different diseases on functioning and well-being
and to compare outcomes between different treatment modalities.
is associated with substantial mortality, direct medical cost, An integrated view of the issue of quality of life in patients with
diminished life quality, and significant physical and psychosocial depressive disorders can provide important information regarding
impairment. Psychiatric illnesses are strongly associated with the nature and extent of the burden associated with these
impairment in quality of life (QOL), frequently at levels that are disorders and may be useful in the development of strategies to
equal to or exceed those of medical illnesses. Depression deal with it.
negatively impacts a myriad of facets of an individual’s life QoL is used to assess the overall impact of medical
including functioning, satisfaction with work, relationships, treatments from the patient's perspective. Because depression
leisure, physical health, mental health, sexual functioning, sleep affects a person's ability to function at work and at home, the
patterns, future outlook and overall sense of fulfillment or evaluation of various treatments must include an assessment of
contentment with one’s life. Studies have demonstrated that patients' physical, social and psychological status(4). Quality of
patients with MDD have significant impairments in QoL. An life has become an important outcome criterion for psychiatric
analysis from the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve interventions. In chronic disorders with no complete recovery,
Depression (STAR*D) study revealed that severity of depressive the improvement of QoL is an important treatment goal. (5).
symptoms was significantly associated with poor health-related Measuring the individual QoL appears as an adapted needs
QoL (1). A study demonstrated significant impairments in QoL assessment and helps the psychotherapist in focusing on the
patient's problems and desires (6). The purpose of this study is

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therefore to evaluate patients suffering from depression in terms Vs Physical health) <0.05
of Beck’s score to assess the QoL in terms of physical and 5 r and p values (depression Vs - 0.585 ; p
mental health. Mental health) <0.05

Table I gives the results obtained for depression scores as


II. MATERIAL AND METHODS well as scores for physical and mental health. The mean
Subjects depression score for all patients was 21.41 ± 7.02. Mean Quality
This study was conducted at Krishnamacharya Yoga of life scores was 44.97 ± 9.41 for Physical health and 36.17 ±
Mandiram, Chennai, as part of a doctoral research work. The 11.78 for mental health respectively. Pearson correlation
study was approved by the Centre’s Ethics Committee. A total of coefficients obtained were -0.582 for physical and -0.585 for
34 subjects, both males and females in the age group of 18 – 60 mental health respectively. The P value for both physical and
years (13 males and 21 females) were enrolled for this study. mental health was found to be <0.05.
Inclusion criteria: Subjects who scored 8 or more as per
Beck’s Depression Inventory and who were willing to provide Table 2
details in SF – 36 questionnaire and sign an informal consent Depression scores Vs QoL (ANOVA Test)
were included in this study.
Exclusion Criteria: Subjects with Psychotic symptoms, Depression Number of QoL – QoL – Mental
severe life threatening illness as well as those who are already score patients Physical health (x ±
undergoing yoga treatment were excluded. health (x ± 2SD)
Assessment 2SD)
Each subject was interviewed briefly and was asked to 8 - 13 5 53.4 ± 7.23 49.2±10.03
complete the Beck’s Depression inventory and SF36 14 - 18 7 50.85 ± 9.66 41.57 ± 8.94
questionnaire. An informal consent was obtained from each 19 - 28 15 41.86 ±7.81 33.53 ± 10.64
patient. 29 - 32 7 39.71 ± 7.76 27.14 ± 8.02
Becks Depression Inventory: This scale was developed by P value 0.008 0.002
Aaron T Beck, a self-administered four point Likert scale
containing 21-items, designed to assess the severity of the Physical and Mental health scores of QoL was compared
symptoms of depression. The total responses were added to with minimal, mild, moderate and severe depression scores using
determine the overall Beck’s score ranging from zero to 63. ANOVA test. P values for physical and mental health parameters
Based on the total score, the severity of depression was were found to be <0.01. As the stage of depression increased,
classified as, 0 to 13 - minimal depression; 14–19 - mild; 20–28 QoL values (both physical and mental health scores) decreased.
– moderate and 29–63 - severe depression.

Statistical analysis IV. DISCUSSION


Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17.0 Both response and remission in patients with Generalised
(Chicago, IL, USA) was used to analyse the data. Descriptive
Anxiety Disorders (GAD) and remission in patients with MDD
statistics were used for all variables. Pearson’s correlation
are correlated with a 'normal' quality of life enjoyment and
analysis was done to find out the association between depressive
satisfaction. The management of depression is very important to
scores and QOL. QOL and depression score of mild, moderate
improve quality of life as well as distress. (7)
and severe depressive patients were compared using analysis of Although treatment may reduce the severity and frequency
variance (ANOVA) test. Quantitative data are represented as the of target symptoms, the patient's assessment of QoL helps to
mean+ standard deviation (SD) and a p value of <0.05 was
differentiate a true treatment response and remission from a
considered as an expected level of significance.
partial response. The evaluation of what constitutes an adequate
treatment response or remission is complicated and likely
requires multiple parameters assessment in order to develop a
III. RESULTS complete understanding. In both anxiety and depressive
Table I disorders, the patient suffers from impaired functioning, which
Parameters Analysed and Results results in increased healthcare utilization. Because these patients
do respond to treatment, the idea of "wellness" as a high end
S. Parameters Analysed Result state treatment outcome should be an important consideration
No. when selecting a treatment option. (8)
1 Mean depressed scores ( all 21.41 ±7.02 (x In a study involving a large sample of the Australian
subjects) ± 2SD) population, all the dimensions of QoL, as measured by SF-36
2 QOL - Physical health 44.97 ± 9.41 (x items were poor among patients with depression with respect to
± 2SD) the non-depressed general population, with the poorest level
3 QOL - Mental health 36.17 ± 11.78 reached by patients with major depression.(9) Some studies
(x ± 2SD) indicate that the severity of Depression was significant in
4 r and p values (depression -0.582 ; p negatively influencing QoL of patients has been confirmed,

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lower levels of QoL among patients with major depression with [9] Goldney RD, Fisher LJ, Wilson DH, Cheok F. Major depression and its
associated morbidity and quality of life in a random, representative
respect to those with dysthymia and adjustment disorders.(10) Australian community sample. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2000;34:1022-9.
The findings in this present study are consistent with other [10] Trompenaars FJ, Masthoff ED, Van Heck GL, Hodiamont PP, De Vries J.
studies showing significant impairment of QoL in MDD patients Relationship between mood related disorders and quality of life in a
such as STAR*D trial,(1) and the European Factors Influencing population of Dutch adult psychiatric outpatients. Depress Anxiety.
Depression Endpoints Research study (11) and another 2006;23:353-63.
International six country study.(12) The literature investigating [11] Reed C, Monz BU, Perahia DG, Gandhi P, Bauer M, Dantchev N, et al.
Quality of life outcomes among patients with depression after 6 months of
potential sex differences in MDD are quite extensive, but those starting treatment: results from FINDER. J Affect Disord. 2009;113:296-
investigating differences in QoL is sparse.(13) In the present 302.
study no differences in the measurement of QoL or functional [12] De Almeida Fleck MP, Simon G, Herrman H, Bushnell D, Martin M,
impairment are based on sex. Patrick D; Longitudinal Investigation of Depression Outcomes Group.
Major depression and its correlates in primary care settings in six countries.
9-month follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry. 2005;186:41-7.
[13] Angst J, Gamma A, Gastpar M, Lépine JP, Mendlewicz J, Tylee A;
V. LIMITATIONS Depression Research in European Society Study. Gender differences in
depression. Epidemiological findings from the European DEPRES I and II
There are several limitations in this study. First, the sample studies. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2002;252:201-9.
size is small. Depression and QoL measures were self-reported.
This study did not include a control group. Finally, this study
used a sample of convenience of individuals who had consented
to participate in the study. However, in spite of these limitations, AUTHORS
the main results seem to be clear and relevant. First Author – Ranganathan Lakshmi, Research Intern,
Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram, Mandaveli, Chennai.
Second Author – Swaminathan S, Chief of Biochemistry, SRM
VI. CONCLUSION Medical College & Hospital and Research Centre,
Kattankulathur, Kancheepuram District, Chennai, South India.
Patients who are suffering with severe depression will have
poor QoL and severe functional impairment. However,
Correspondence Author – Dr. S. Swaminathan, Chief of
replication of the findings of this study in larger and cross-
cultural samples is recommended. The results suggested the need Biochemistry, Central Lab, SRM Medical College Hospital and
to consider not only symptom based severity, but also functional Research Centre, Kattankulathur. Kancheepuram District 603
impairment and QoL measures in the assessment and treatment 203, South India., Email : [email protected]
of depressive patients.

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[1] Trivedi MH, Rush AJ, Wisniewski SR, Warden D, McKinney W, Downing
M, et al. Factors associated with health-related quality of life among
outpatients with major depressive disorder: a STAR*D report. J Clin
Psychiatry. 2006;67:185-95.
[2] Rapaport MH, Clary C, Fayyad R, Endicott J. Quality-of-life impairment in
depressive and anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:1171-8.
[3] Lépine JP, Gastpar M, Mendlewicz J, Tylee A. Depression in the
community: the first pan-European study DEPRES (Depression Research in
European Society). Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1997;12:19-29.
[4] Kennedy SH, Eisfeld BS, Cooke RG. Quality of life: an important
dimension in assessing the treatment of depression? J Psychiatry Neurosci.
2001;26 Suppl:S23-8.
[5] Aigner M, Förster-Streffleur S, Prause W, Freidl M, Weiss M, Bach M.
What does the WHOQOL-Bref measure? Measurement overlap between
quality of life and depressive symptomatology in chronic somatoform pain
disorder. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2006 Jan;41(1):81-6. Epub
2006 Jan 1.
[6] Frick E, Tyroller M, Panzer M. Anxiety, depression and quality of life of
cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy: a cross-sectional study in a
community hospital outpatient centre. Eur J Cancer Care (Engl). 2007
Mar;16(2):130-6.
[7] Park HY, Lee BJ, Kim JH, Bae JN, Hahm BJ. Rapid improvement of
depression and quality of life with escitalopram treatment in outpatients
with breast cancer: a 12-week, open-label prospective trial. Prog
Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Mar 30;36(2):318-23. doi:
10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.11.010. Epub 2011 Nov 28.
[8] Meltzer-Brody S, Davidson JR. Completeness of response and quality of
life in mood and anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety. 2000;12 Suppl 1:95-
101.

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Case of HIV positive multiple solitary recurrent extra


medullary plasmacytoma
Dr. Koushik*, Dr. Shailaja, P.Jadhav*, Dr. Lata bhoir**
*
Department of General surgery, B.J. Government Medical College and Sassoon general hospital, Pune 411001, India
**Assistant Professor Department of Surgery BJ Medical College and Sassoon Hospital Pune India

Abstract- Objective – HIV is known to increase the chances of


occurrence of B-cell neoplasms. There have been citations of
cases of primary solitary plasmacytomas at various sites in HIV II. CASE REPORT
positive patients. We present a case of HIV positive initially A 63 yr old PLHIV male patient presented with the chief
diagnosed a solitary extra medullary plasmacytoma post complaints of enlarging perianal, chest wall and axillary masses
radiotherapy recurring as multiple solitary extra medullary since 6 months. Patient was diagnosed of left maxillary sinus
plasmacytomas involving de novo soft tissue sites which is a rare plasmacytoma in the year 2010 when he had received 25 cycles
presentation of radiotherapy totaling to 4000cGy. The then investigations
Design – case report included complete haemogram, chest roentgenogram which were
Result—63yr old HIV positive male patient on HAART normal. Serum electrophoresis revealed absent M band and bone
presented with solitary extra medullary plasmacytoma of left marrow biopsy was normal. In the current presentation patient
maxillary sinus in the year 2010 and was treated by radiotherapy had a large 10*7 cms mass in the perianal region situated to the
alone. He presented in the year 2012 with recurrent multiple right of anal orifice. On per rectal examination the mass was
extra medullary plasmacytoma involving the recto sigmoid, chest extending along the anorectal wall occluding the lumen. The
wall skin and left axilla. This patient had absent M band on proximal extent of the mass was not identified.
electrophoresis. Patient was operated with Hartmann’s procedure There was a 4*4 cms mass on the anterior chest wall just
and wide local excision for chest and axillary swellings. right of midline non tender firm with excoriated overlying skin,
Conclusion – extra medullary plasmacytoma can recur at non fluctuant reddish in color.
multiple soft tissue sites. HIV infection is known to cause One more mass of 3*4 cms present in the left axilla close to
increase in severity of B-cell neoplasms. Literature search the medial wall firm to hard in consistency, mild tenderness
reveals cases of plasmacytoma associated with HIV. Case of present. Not freely mobile. Overlying skin being normal. No
multiple solitary recurrent plasmacytoma in a case of HIV is rare associated neurovasculopathy in left upper limb
and has not been cited. .
Figure 7 perianal mass
Index Terms- extramedullary plasmacytoma, recurrent EMP,
HIV with EMP.

I. INTRODUCTION

P lasmacytoma is an immune proliferative, monoclonal disease


of the B-cell line and is classified as non-Hodgkin
lymphoma. It originates as a clone of malignant transformed
plasma cells. Extra medullary plasmacytomas are unusual plasma
cell tumors arising outside the bone marrow. Isolated EMPs are
rare tumors and comprise 4% of all plasma cellular diseases.
Preferred site of EMP is the Upper aero digestive tract in 82.2%.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is likely to play a role in
the onset of plasma cell tumors (PCT). In fact, HIV could be
involved in plasmacytomagenesis in several ways most
importantly chronic viremia and antigen presentation to B cells
and dysfunctioning T-cells in a background of altered cytokines
and interleukins.
We present a case which had a combination of uncommon
presentations in the literature on EMP, in terms of being a
recurrent case with multifocal involvement and involving the less
common sites like colon and skin and being associated with HIV
positivity.

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Patient had an uneventful recovery with tension abdominal


sutures removed on 21st post-operative day.
The limitations In this case were inability to perform a repeat
bone marrow study in this admission due to lack of patient’s
consent and lack of immunohistochemistry testing at our facility
to further investigate the patient. But in view of having a normal
total protein and globulin levels, normal skeletal imaging, no
anemia and renal failure, i.e. absence of major and minor criteria
to diagnose multiple myeloma, the possibility of patient having
progressed to multiple myeloma post radiotherapy in the past
appears less likely.
Patient had been followed up for a period of 6 months and
later lost for follow up.

III. DISCUSSION
Plasmacytoma, or plasmoma, was mentioned by Unna in I89I
and first described by Schridde in I905. It is a tumor composed
almost exclusively of plasma cells arranged in clusters or sheets
with a scant, delicate, supportive, connective tissue stroma.
Plasma cell diseases originate from pathologic plasmablasts
that dedifferentiate during the maturation process from primary
and secondary B blasts to plasmablasts into malignantly
transformed plasmablasts situated in the bone marrow. They
migrate and then return to establish themselves in the bone
marrow. In rare instances, with the assistance of adhesion
Figure 8 chest wall mass molecules, they also may settle in soft tissue or in an
extracellular connective tissue area. This is the origin for
Patient was moderately built and nourished. With no monoclonal plasma cell foci located outside the bone marrow,
associated comorbidities in form of hypertension, diabetes, called extra medullary plasmacytoma (EMP)1
cardiovascular diseases. He had no significant past medical or The different types of plasma cell tumors are: 1.) MGUS 2.)
surgical history. Related organ or tissue injury (end organ damage). 3.)
Treatment history includes HAART for HIV with a CD4 asymptomatic myeloma ( smouldering myeloma) 4.)
count being 327 Symptomatic multiple myeloma. 5.) Solitary bone
No abnormality found in systemic examination. plasmacytoma. 6.)extra medullary plasmacytoma. 7.) Multiple
Complete haemogram revealed normal result. Renal and liver solitary plasmacytomas (+/- recurrent) 8.) plasma cell leukemia2.
function tests were normal. Total serum proteins being 5.6 with Isolated EMPs are rare tumors and comprise 4% of all plasma
maintained albumin and globulin ratio. Chest x-ray revealed cellular diseases
calcified granuloma in the upper and mid lobes of right lung with In a review of more than 400 published articles, 82.2% of
bilateral bulk hila. No bony lesions were noted. extra medullary plasmacytomas were found in the upper aero
Patient did not consent for bone marrow examination in this digestive tract with 17.8% arising in the gastrointestinal tract,
admission. FNAC report from both chest wall and perianal urogenital tract, skin, lung, and breast in that order. Although
lesions were suggestive of neoplastic lesions with plasma cells liver, spleen, and lymph nodes are common extra medullary
seen in clusters and containing large eccentrically placed nuclei manifestations of multiple myeloma, primary extra medullary
suggestive of plasmacytoma. plasmacytomas of these organs—including the pancreas and
Patient was operated with all universal precautions taken. adrenal gland—are extremely rare1
Abdominoperineal resection of the mass was done by infra Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is likely to play a role
umbilical midline laparotomy. End sigmoid colostomy was done. in the onset of plasma cell tumors (PCT). In fact, HIV could be
Resection was done with a proximal 5 cms clear margin. Intra involved in plasmacytomagenesis in several ways: it has the
operatively there was evidence of 4*4 cms mass in the recto ability to lessen the immunosurveillance to such a degree as to
sigmoid region with the mass extending towards right involving impair the immune response against tumor cell growth3.
the right levator ani muscle. And there was also involvement of HIV-induced immune-cell activation is one of the few widely
anal sphincters. There was also another 3*3cms parietal accepted hallmarks of HIV pathogenesis and disease progression.
peritoneal mass in lower abdomen. Laparotomy wound closed The hyper activation of B cells by HIV is characterized by
with tension wire suturing. Wide local excisions of Chest wall several features: hypergammaglobulinaemia; increased
and axillary masses were done. polyclonal B-cell activation; increased cell turnover; increased
Histopathological report of all three masses was consistent expression of activation markers, including CD70, CD71 (also
with plasmacytoma. known as TFRC), CD80 and CD86; an increase in the
differentiation of B cells to plasmablasts as measured by

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phenotypical, functional and morphological measures; increased [7] Produl Hazarika, R. Balakrishnan, Rohit Singh, Kailesh Pujary, Benazim
Aziz: Solitary Extramedullary Plasmacytoma of the Sinonasal Region :
production of autoantibodies; and an increase in the frequency of Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, 2011, Volume
B-cell malignancies4. 63, Number 1, Page 33.
In general, there are no international guidelines for the
treatment of EMP. However, based on the well-known radiation
sensitivity of the plasma cell tumor, radiotherapy is accepted as AUTHORS
the treatment of choice for EMP5.
Surgery alone or combined surgery and RT or chemotherapy First Author – Dr. Koushik – resident at department of General
has also been used in the treatment of EMP surgery in B.J. government medical college and Sassoon general
hospital PUNE INDIA 411001
The main findings in our case are Second Author – Dr. Shailaja .p. jadhav- professor and head of
i) Recurrent case of multifocal plasmacytoma the unit department of general surgery – B.J. government
involving the anorectal region with extension as a medical college and Sassoon general hospital PUNE INDIA
perianal mass, chest wall and axilla. 411001
ii) No anemia, no impaired renal functions, no Third Author - Dr. Lata Bhoir, assistant professor department of
hypercalcemia surgery BJ medical college and Sassoon hospital Pune India
iii) Though serum electrophoresis was not done, in
view of normal serum protein levels and normal Correspondence Author – Dr. koushik. Email address-
albumin to globulin ratio and a normal urine routine [email protected] contact no - +91 8407987044
and microscopy reports, M band is unlikely to have
been present in this patient.
iv) Patient is HIV positive on long term HAART.

These findings suggest this to be a case of multiple solitary


plasmacytoma- recurrent type --- as per international working
group on myeloma classification 2003.
In conclusion HIV positive patients are as such known to be
increasingly susceptible for plasma cell neoplasms due to HIV
induced B cell dysfunction. Plasmacytomas can occur at multiple
sites and can be recurrent. Further studies are hence required to
know if HIV positive status has a role in recurrence of
plasmacytomas. Patients who are diagnosed with plasmacytoma
should be screened for HIV status as this can predict a poorer
prognosis/recurrence6, 7.
Further studies are required for establishing the role of PET
CT and immunohistochemistry in routine work up of a diagnosed
case and in establishing a protocol for follow up of patients with
plasmacytomas.

REFERENCES
[1] Alexiou, C., Kau, R. J., Dietzfelbinger, H., Kremer, M., Spieß, J. C.,
Schratzenstaller, B. and Arnold, W. (1999), Extramedullary plasmacytoma.
Cancer, 85: 2305–2314. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-
142(19990601)85:11<2305::AID-CNCR2>3.0.CO;2-3
[2] The International Myeloma Working Group (2003), Criteria for the
classification of monoclonal gammopathies, multiple myeloma and related
disorders: a report of the International Myeloma Working Group. British
Journal of Haematology, 121: 749–757. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-
2141.2003.04355.x
[3] Vallisa D, Pagani L, Bertè R, Civardi G, Viale P, Paties C, Cavanna L.-
Extramedullary plasmacytoma in a patient with AIDS: report of a case and
review of the literature. PMID:9825007. PUBMED ABSTRACT
[4] Moir S, Fauci AS. B cells in HIV infection and disease. Nat Rev Immunol.
2009;9:235–245.[PMC free article] [PubMed]
[5] Susnerwala SS, Shanks JH, Banerjee SS, Scarffe JH, Farrington WT, Slevin
NJ. Extramedullary plasmacytoma of the head and neck region:
clinicopathological correlation in 25 cases. Br J Cancer 1997; 75:921–7.
[6] Nair RG, Sudha S, Shameena P M, Ipe VV. Plasmacytoma of the oral
cavity associated with HIV infection - Causal or casual coincidence?.J Oral
Maxillofac Pathol 2004;8:91-93

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Management System of Islamic Private Schools in


Nigeria, Madrasah Da’wah al-Islamiyyat, Case Study
Ibrahim, Alli Adelani

Ph. D., Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI), Malaysia

Abstract- This study discusses the establishment of madrasah management system in the mater of the research. The school is
Da’wah al-Islamiyyah, and the school’ management systems situated in Ibadan, the capital city of the South-Western Nigeria.
comprised of the organization structure, finance and physical Although, Islamic Preaching School has contributed immensely
facilities. This study identifies some problems and obstacles that to the educational, religious and moral development of the
inhibit the effectiveness of the madrasah, followd by suggestions Nigerian society, yet, there is a pressing need for the
to improve the school. The data were collected through library improvement to match the current global trends and the
research, interviews with headmaster and five teachers in the contemporary development goals of the country.
madrasah and direct observation. the principal of the madrasah
perception of the problems faced by the by the Islamic private
school in Nigeria reffered to various problems, such as finance, II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
lack of gorvenment support and lack of parental commitment. The educational system Madrasatu al-Da’watu al-Islamiyah,
The researcher provides relevant suggestions to improve the Ibadan, Nigeria (Islamic Preaching School, Ibadan, Nigeria), to
madrsah and enhance student achievement. the educational goals of the Muslim community in Nigeria, is
questionable:
1. Meeting-up with the challenges of the modern world: one of
I. INTRODUCTION the notable

T he establishment of Islamic school (madrasah) in Nigeria problem that is been encountered by the Islamic private
dated back to the pre-colonial era1. The schools were schools in the South-Western Nigeria today is the problem of
founded to fulfill the educational needs of the Muslims how to meet the challenges of providing the most suitable and
community in the country then2. However, it is a common relevant education to the modern Muslims’ children.
knowledge that Nigeria is the most populous black nation in the Undoubtedly, the curriculum of madrasah in general, in Nigeria,
world. The official figure of the population of the country in the needs to be overhauled because it had been designed before the
2006 national population censor is 148 million, out of which colonial era. Although, it was suitable for the educational needs
Muslims account for 60% with 90 million headcounts, thus, and challenges, however, it has became feeble and irrelevant
constituting the majority of all the communities in the country3. after it was subdued by the introduction of Western secular
Hence, since Muslims are the majority in Nigeria, the curricular which substitutes the madrasah curriculum in Nigeria,
establishment of Islamic schools was necessary, given the especially, in the South-Western part of the country6. Although,
adhering of the religion to knowledge. Thus, this was the religious education is part of the Nigerian national educational
rationale behind the establishment of Islamic schools, which policy however, the curriculum did not fulfill the needs of the
flourished for decades, in the country, prior to the advent of the Muslims. This was what later led to the establishment of Islamic
colonial masters4. schools by some Muslim individuals in the country.
However, the period of the colonization of Nigeria by 2. Lack of adequate qualified manpower: most of the teachers
British between 1885 and 1960 was the period that marked the of the Islamic school are not qualified educators. They are
begging of the decline of Islamic education as well as the Islamic mostly graduates of the same school where they work as
schools in the country5. During the period, many Islamic schools teachers. In short, the majority of the teachers are al-
were subdued for the Western oriented schools. This trend thÉnawiyah certificate holders. It is a common knowledge that
continued till the independence of the country in 1960. At that education is an institutionalized profession which requires
time, most of the Islamic schools were converted to Western certain qualification before it can yield the required result. This
oriented schools and they were subjected to the control of the is absent in respect of Islamic Preaching School, Ibadan.
regional and federal governments. However, although the 3. Absence of modern educational facilities: the modern
teaching of Islamic studies continued in the schools, the teaching educational facilities such computers are not available in the
was not as efficient as it was, before the government takeover its school. The school management did not provide for such
control. This trend also led to the reemergence of private Islamic facilities. It is even worth mentioning that while school in the
schools in the country. modern age are using electronic board or PowerPoint for their
A considerable number of private Islamic schools were teaching and learning, what is still in use is the school is
established in the South-Western Nigeria, for the purpose of blackboard and white chalk.
restoration of qualitative Islamic studies, during the period.
Notable among the schools, is Islamic Preaching School which

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In short, as far as research is concern, there is no previous school. At present the school was headed by Alhaji Basser Ballo
research that examined the the management system of madrasah Alli Adelani one of the son of late Alhaji Ballo Alli Adelani8.
school in Nigeria.
Therefore, this study focused on the management system and Philosophy, Motto and Vision of The School Explain below:
problems of madrasah school, Ibadan, Nigeria, in order to Philosophy: Where education is aimed at a balanced growth
contribute to better performance. of personality, through Tarbiyyah of the spirit, the intellect, the
emotions and the physical willingly and joyfully for the sake of
Allah S.W.T.
III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Motto: Knowledge, Discipline and TaqwÉ: the Secret of
1. Presenting the historic background of madrasah Success.
Da’wah al-Islamiyyah (IPS) Vision: To provide Muslim who is knowledgeable, Faithful,
2. Identifying some problems and obstacles that inhibit the good ethics, owns etiquette and noble akhlÉq that are based on
effectiveness of the madrasah the Al-Qur’Én and Sunnah, who turned to be al-taqwÉ servant
3. Contributing to the improvement of the madrasah and vicegerent of Allah, and can contribute to civilization of the
nation and country 9.

IV. ESTABLISHMENT OF ISLAMIC PREACHING


SCHOOL (IPS) V. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE SCHOOL

The Proprietor The aims and objectives of the school are:


The proprietor of IPS, Alhaji Ballo Alli Adelani, is a native of 1. To inculcate Islamic moral into Muslim youths by
Ibadan Oyo State Nigeria. He was born in 1921 at iyalode teaching them Arabic Language and Islamic studies, so
compound, Itabale, isale Osun area Ibadan Oyo State, Nigeria. as tackle the challenge of the day and rescue them from
The proprietor was the second sibling of his father. He learns wrap of Christians who always wage war against
Qur’Énic reading and teaching under the tutelage of Alfa Muslim and Islam in particular.
Agbaleke at Odeoluwo Bere in Ibadan. Late Alhaji Ballo Ali 2. To enlighten the Muslim youths about their roles in the
Adelani died (29/9/ 1997.-28/5/1418.A.H)7. spread of Arabic Language and Islamic studies both in
He was a farmer by profession, and later to trading. He was a Ibadan and Nigeria as a whole.
successful business tycoon. He was a devoted and pious Muslim 3. To enable the qualified Muslim graduating students
that submits himself to the will of God. He devoted all his life to withstand the needs of the society and able to be able to
serve Islam through generous spending in the path of Allah. confront the enemies of Islam 10.
Specifically, the said icon had been known in Ibadan Oyo state of
Nigeria for the establishment of IPS. Structure of the School
The founder and (proprietor) is a trader who had love for The Islamic Preaching School and central mosque of the
Islam. He was not versed in Islamic Education except that he can school are permanently situated at Olorunsogo Akanran Road
recite the Qur’Én and has fundamental knowledge of Islam. But Ibadan. It comprises of three giant buildings.
for the fact of love he had for Arabic and Islamic Studies with 1st Building: it comprises three stories. The first floor
the hope that Islam would attain its goal in nearest future, he contains three spacious classrooms, and the second floor of the
established the school (Islamic Preaching School). building also contains three spacious classroom and Library.
Madrasah Da’wah al-Islamiyyat (Islamic Preaching School) 2nd Building: the first floor of the building comprises of four
is the foremost private madrasah educational institution, which lecture rooms, the second floor stands as hostels for students who
trains students in Islamic studies. Thirty six years had elapsed for came from outside Ibadan.
the establishment of IPS. It was founded in 1974 in Ibadan. In 3rd Building: the third floor consists of lecture hall and
the last 15 years or so, the IPS has developed tremendously and reception rooms for visitors also consist the Central Mosque of
attracted many Muslim students. At the very beginning the the school.
students who graduated from the school were only five students
namely, Alhaji Basheer Imran, Alhaji Luqman Kharazi, Alhaja Level of studies
Nafeesat Musthapa, Alhaji Zainu Habeedin and late Alhaji Ishaq There are three levels of studies in the school, they are:
Yahaya. Currently speaking, the proliferation and increment in 1) Primary level: pupil would spend six academic years in
the number of students is a measure of its success. Presently, accordance with the school syllabus.
there are three thousand students in the school, both girls and 2) Intermediate level: after the completion of primary
boys. Every year, large numbers of applications are turned down level, pupil would promote to this level where he will
due to acute accommodation problem. The accommodation spend three years.
problem was so acute that several hostel rooms have been 3) Secondary level: students would spend three years
converted into classrooms. before he would be graduated.
The school began with five teachers and seventy five
students. First time, in the history of the school Ustadh Hafees
Ibrahim, a Saudi citizen was appointed as the principal of the

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VI. GRADUATION OF STUDENTS On the order hand, in 1986, the proprietor and his son Alhaji
This school has started graduating students consecutively Basheer Adelani jetted out to Kingdom of Saudi Arabia led by
since the academic years of 1978-1979 sessions on continuity Ustadh Hafees Ibrahim from Saudi Arabia to showcase their
basis and most of its products have graduated from various packages but fortunately for them they were favored to get some
universities in Nigeria and abroad especially Saudi Arabia, Egypt assistance for the school. Furthermore they were also supported
and Malaysia. by Muslim World League in Makkah (RÉbita) and given some
books by University of Medina. And at the same time Shaykh
Mohammed Nasr Al-Abudi, Assistance Secretary General,
VII. TEACHING STAFF AND THEIR QUALIFICATION Muslim World League Makkah Al- Mukarama visited Nigeria in
1982 and had written some story about the school 14.
For the academic year 2010, there are thirty teachers serving
as academic staff in the school. Two of them were Master
holders in Arabic and Islamic studies. Nine were B.A degree in IX. FINANCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY THE SCHOOL
Islamic Law (SharÊÑah), another nine have Diploma holder
while ten are al-ThÉnawiyyah holders in Arabic and Islamic Financial management involves of functions including
studies. forecasting, planning, the application of funds and their control
15
. The Islamic school systems in South-Western Nigeria are
purely religious institution by virtue of its activities, and is not
VIII. CENTRAL MOSQUE OF THE SCHOOL recognized by the Nigeria government. So, they are run and
finance by scholars and well meaning Nigeria. These people are
In Islam, the mosque does not serve as a place of worship in fully support of this school by their generosity without
alone’ despite the fact that SalÉt is the major IbÉdah, but it receiving any fund from the government. To some extent, the
served as a four wall and center for Islamic propagation (Halim education offered in some of these schools is free of charge.
et. al, 2010). The prophet Muhammad (S. A. W) has decided to Some of these children are from poor family and less privileged
use mosque as a center for Islamic preaching where he prayed children in the society. Moreover, the school curriculum of these
with his companions and deliver the revealed message of Islam schools was designed by various proprietors to meet their needs
to them (Damas & Sayida, 2011). The prophet (S.A.W) and aspirations.
established knowledge and consolation center. This enables The biggest problem facing IPS just like other madrasahs is
mosque to discharge its role. As a result, the mosque becomes that there has not been a collective platform through which the
meeting point for believers as center for knowledge, culture, students graduating from madrasah could get direct or indirect
preaching and assembling is concern 11. admission into Government Universities in Nigeria and all efforts
In view of the afore-mentioned, the Islamic Preaching School in avail. Of course, those students studying abroad are very small
since its inception has prepared one left side of the first floor of compare to those at home.
the building for Mosque to enable students to observe their Zuhr Also, the stipend or salary of teachers also come from
prayer before they could proceed to their respective houses. This charities obtained from the proprietor or generated fund from
is also applies to the boarding students who normally observe colorful graduation ceremony (walÊmah). In this graduations
their five daily prayers at the well prepared place for SalÉt. ceremony, monetary and non-monetary will be donated by some
Furthermore, the proprietor sees it as matter necessary to build philanthropist to support the school and part of the monetary
central Mosque once and for all. He built this central mosque donation will be used to pay teachers’ salary.
before his death to enable the students to observe their five daily
prayers together with Jum‘at service prayer. This was done
before the death of the proprietor in the year of 1418 A.H. X. ACHIEVEMENT OF THE SCHOOL
corresponding to 1977 but it remains finishing touchiness such as
painting, electricity and tap water for ablution. However, the IPS has contributed to the religious and educational
place could no longer accommodate the students as a result of development of the South-West immensely since its inception in
increasement in number of the students 12. 1974. Many notable scholars have been produced. Among them
are Shaikh Basheer Imran, an Islamic cleric and a preacher in
FINANCIAL SUPPORT Ibadan land and Barrister Ismail Zakariyah a notable legal
For the fact that, IPS and its central mosque was built through practitioner in Ibadan. Therefore, some of these students are
the efforts of the proprietor late Alhaj Bello Adelani. The said situated in different parts of Nigeria and more importantly they
proprietor was taking care of the salaries and wages of the are found in different countries of the world. For instance, gross
teaching and non-teaching staff of the school, also the of them are continuing their studies at al-Azhar University in
maintenance of both school and the central Mosque. This cost the Cairo, Jamiat Imam in Saudi Arabia, Umul Qura, Jamiat
late proprietor a lot of amount of money, but he insisted not to IslÉmiyyah, Saudi Arabia. Presently, there are numbers of ex-
levy any school fees on the students. students of IPS studying at International Islamic University
In light of this, the board of governors of the school together Malaysia and host of others.
with the children of deceased has decided to turn the school and Another major landslide contribution from Egypt since 18
central Mosque to (Waqf) for Allah sake13. This has become a years till date is that al-Azhar has been giving their unflinching
reality seeing all the official and necessary documents before support by sending their delegates for four years duration as a
their legal fractioned in order to support their willingness 13. teacher. Another landmark achievement by the late proprietor,

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Alhaji Ballo Alli Adelani is that he had converted many Christian It is also in conflict with the recommendation of second Word
students to Islam by virtue of his generosity and kindness. Conference on Muslim Education held in 1980 at Islamabad that
proposed the teaching of Arabic as extremely important for the
preparation of Muslims of today in the understanding and the
XI. CURRICULUM OF THE SCHOOL intellectualization of Islamic worldview 17.
Having seen the challenges posed by curriculum in Islamic Since the IPS only provides one course (2 credit hours) for
education in Nigeria and particularly in IPS, the researcher found Islamic religious studies, this is not in keeping with aims and the
that the reform of the curriculum is very paramount and needs to contents of Islamic education which have been recommended by
be restructured and reorganized to meet the standard requirement First and Second World Conference on Muslim Education and
of school in meeting up with the challenges of modernity. Muslim education scholars on Islamic education curriculum.
In addition, the content of the curriculum for Muslim
communities in Islam were well laid out in the national
Conference by the International Institute of Islamic Thought, XII. TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS IN IPS
held in Nigeria in 2005. Islamic Preaching School in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria
The content: the content of the curriculum for Muslim has been using wide variety of creative and innovative approach
communities should be properly scrutinized and carefully to achieve teaching and learning process. However, the school
selected in order to achieve the objective of building an Islamic also has been lacking some essential technology devices that can
community. Textbooks are an important medium through which put them in the league of recognized school in South-West
curriculum content is delivered to student. As good companions Nigeria. It is also being noted that school premises is not
of the learner at school and at home, they should therefore be conducive and congested with ratio 40 students per teacher.
reviewed with a view of Islamizing them without changing their The following items explain the teaching and learning
fundamental content. Muslims must write textbooks in all areas process of the IPS: using creative, innovative and interactive
of the curriculum so that un-Islamic views and theories that techniques and approaches; Adopting instructional,
confuse young Muslims do not find way into the school system. investigational and experiential learning approaches; Applying
Theories of evolution and the like, which emphasize nature and the 3 Rs: Reading, Writing and Arithmetic as foundations of
not Allah the creator, should not be taught in Muslim schools. learning; Using the collaborative approach to encourage
The medium of instruction can remain a foreign language but collective learning through the spirit of brotherhood (Ukhuwwah)
Arabic as the language of Islam should have a prominent place in and teamwork (JamaÑah); No technology aided tools and
Muslim schools system. Physical activities, learning aids and techniques; More student-teacher ratio 40:1.
other instructional materials should be in accordance with In a nutshell, learning and teaching at Islamic Preaching
Islamic teaching 16. School in Ibadan has been suffering from wide range of problem
In brief the content of the curriculum in Islamic preaching from a long time ago for example, outdated curriculum, financial
school in Ibadan seems to suit the yearning and aspiration of the doldrums, lack of essential basic facilities, and many others.
founder. Similarly it was also designed purposely to disseminate The System has not been given adequate support as it required
18
some significant and useful Islamic value. .
The implementation of curriculum in Islamic Preaching
School is something that designed long time ago after the
establishment of the school which was aimed to implant XIII. EVALUATION
Qur’Énic education and Islamic studies to the Muslim students in It is prerequisite for the government to design good
all levels. The researcher tends to find out the relevance of the curriculum for the use of the school and also for proper outcome
curriculum norms to make it suitable for the needs of society. It and evaluation of the course. Educational evaluation is judging
is very obvious that the curriculum used by Islamic Preaching the success and merit of educational programs. This is essential
School is not embodied some subjects of Western education. once the goals have been set forth, and learning activities
However, the fact that the madrasah is a religious centre of selected, a set of procedures is established to assess how well the
learning does not mean that some of the subjects stipulated by curriculum effective to the goals and how far being carried out to
the Ministry of Education in Nigeria should not be incorporated achieve the desire objectives.
into madrasah education. The Islamic Preaching School has been able to come out with
The contents of Islamic studies course at IPS cover all areas something that has served little or no benefit to the overall
related to Islamic religious courses as proposed by all madrasahs requirement of the standard evaluation. Therefore, IPS has been
in South-Western Nigeria. The subjects are as follow: using many ways to evaluate their students’ performances and
‘Aqidah and AkhlÉq (Faith and Ethics), Fiqh (Islamic teachers’ performances within and outside the school 19.
Jurisprudence) Sirah (Biography of the Prophet and History of Basically, formative and summative evaluation is used in IPS.
Islam). AkhlÉq to Allah (S.W.T), human beings and environment Meanwhile, many giant strides have geared in the area of
Qur’Énic Methods, Arabic Reading, writing, Literature, students’ performance; to grade the promotion of the student
Mathematics, English Language, Poetry, Reading, Dictation, from one class to another based on two grade system which
Law of Inheritance, Etymology, Islamic Civilization, Method of minimum is 50 percent and maximum mark to be eligible to be
Preaching and Composition. promoted to another level is 100 percent 20.
It was found that the existing curriculum is totally devoid of
the teaching of Arabic. This is contrary to the teaching of Islam.

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Amongst the methods of evaluation process adopted by the producing teaching materials and using instructional resource in
Islamic Preaching School is to check and to improve the low order to enhance the effective of teaching and learning process
performance of the students at all levels in Qur’Énic and it may upgrade their qualifications. In adition, the schools
memorization and quick introduction of Qur’Én competition to should foster a sense of community where students, parents and
address the performances of the student of the School. Then, a teachers feel they belong by maintaining an open line of
Qur’Énic school board (QSB) was formulated to foresee and fine community between all parties, where parents are encouraged to
tune the affairs of the student so that they can meet up the goal have active involvement in school life.
and objective of the Islamic Preaching School as mentioned in In a nutshell, it is not be denied that geverment have beein
the curriculum. Because the school management believed that playing his own part to inhibit the madrasah education system in
the evaluation process will help the Islamic Preaching School to Nigeria. If only for spiritual and moral developments which are
accomplish its desire goal and objective to improve the overall the National Policy on Education 18981 is yearing for geverment
performances of the student. should be more interested in Islamic Education.
Another thing that researcher would not forget to mention is
that the Islamic Preaching School activities are minimal as
observed by the researcher and this has led to the current REFERENCES
repositioning and restructuring of the curriculum of the school to [1] Aderinoye, R. A. (1993). Toward effective teaching and learning of Islamic
meet the standard pattern of madrasah curriculum. For a simple studies in secondary school on Oyo State of Nigeria: A case study. Muslim
reason evaluation cannot occur unless we know what we are Education Quattery, 11 (1), 41-51.
trying to accomplish. Finally, the evaluation is a fundamental [2] Balogun, I. A. B. (1982). Arabic and Islamic studies vis-à-vis the Nigeria
National policy on Education. Paper delivered at public lecture to mark the
phenomenon to help in achieving some greatness curriculum in 10th anniversary of AISS, Ilorin.
IPS. It is a tool which can be used to help teachers judge whether [3] Aisha, B. L. (2002). Religious education in Nigeria: a case study. Paper
a curriculum or instructional approach is being implemented as presented at Seminar held in Oslo, published by the Oslo Coalition on
planned, and to assess the extent to which stated goals and Freedom of Religion.
objectives are being achieved 21. [4] Fafunwa, R. I. (1975). History of Education in Nigeria. London: George
Allen & Unwin Ltd.
[5] David, C. W. (2001). Education reconstruction and post-colonial curriculum
development: a comparative study of four African countries. International
XIV. DISCUSSION Educational Journal, 2 pp7.
The principals’ perception (Alhaji Ballo Adelani) of the [6] Khalil, I’mÉd Din, (1990). Islamic of knowledge: Methodology of research
problems faced by the madrasah da’wah al-Islamiyyah referred in political Science. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. Vol.
7, No. 2.pp 161-173.
to various problems such as financial problem, school facilities,
[7] Interview with Muili Abdul Azees Atanda, on 10 April 2010, member of
teacher qualification, lack of government support and the school board & Alhajah Shahadat Adelani, (Widow of late Alhaj Ballo
management problem. However, most teachers in the madrasah Adelani).
agreed that financial support is the main problem that is faced by [8] Interview with ex-student Alahaji Basheer Imran on 17 May, 2010).
the school. They mentioned that there are many available [9] Establishment of IPS, Paper presented for 10 years anniversary in 1984).
programs to enhance student’s capability, public speaking, [10] Paper recorded, by Islamic preaching School (1982).
leadership training but the school is short of sources and funds. [11] History book of madrasah Da’wah Islamiyyat, 1992.
They cannot even make an effort to have mini library till now, [12] Islamic Research Center for History, Culture and Arts (IRCICA). (1982).
that was the first problem they faced. The Muslim Pious Foundation (Awqaf) and Real Estates in Palestine,
Istanbul. Abu al-Ajfan, Muhammad “al-Waqf ala almosjid Fi al Magrib Wa
The second and last most common problem faced by al- Andalus” (Waqf on mosques in North West Africa and Andaluthia). In
madrasah Da;wah al-Islamiyyat is the lack of government Dirasat fi al-Iqtisad al- Islami, International Center for Research in Islamic
support, since the schools are religious private schools, running Economic, King Abd al-Aziz University, Jeddah, 1985, pp. 315-342.
the schools without receiving any support from government is a [13] Adelani Family’ leger ducuments, (2001).
very challenging since there are many Muslims in the society. [14] Interviewed with Alhaji, Bashir Ballo Adelani on 10 June, (2010).
[15] Bhagia, N., Briggs, D and Bhagia, S. (1990) Educational Administration in
India and Other Developing Countries. New Delhi: Commonwealth
Publishers.
XV. CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENDATION
[16] Baffa, S. A. & Mansur, U. M. (2005). Muslim education reform activities in
In this short research, researcher been able to state the Nigeria. Abuja: Benchamark Publishers Limited.
condition of madrasah Da’wah al-Islamiyyat (Islamic Preaching [17] Saqeb, G. N. (1998). ‘‘A reflection on two decades of Islamization of
School) (IPS) located in Olohunsogo Akanran Roeal, Ibadan, educatin since the 1977 Makkah world conference: Accomplishments,
Failures and tasks ahead into the 21st century’’. Working paper
pert of Shout- Western Nigeria, highlighting the areas of positive for National Seminar on Islamization of Education: Meeting the Challenge.
inpact on the educational system as well as the weaknesses of the Department of Education, International Islamic University Malaysia, 14th –
madrasah. In this research, Reseacher found that teachers in 16th 1998.
madrasah Da’wah do not have enoght sufficient qualifications [18] Damas, Addeh & Sayida, Fuad. (2011). The Legal framework of Mosque
building and Muslim religious affairs in Egypt: towards a strengthening of
due to majorities Thanawiya certificates among their teachers State control. Cornelis Hulsman January 15, 2011.
and lack of modern technologies skills because the madrasah are [19] Fodiyo, M. B. U. (2002). Nazm al-Awamil an-Nahwiyyah Lil-Imam
still using the old method for teaching and learning. It can Muhyidding ibn Muhammad al-Barkawi. Edited and annoted by Abdullah
recommended that teachers of madrasah Da’wah should seek Muhammad Adam. Sokoto: Al:Akadimiyyau ‘l-Islamiyyah.
additional knowledge concerning teaching methodology,

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ISSN 2250-3153

[20] Halim, Tamuri., Muhamad Faiz & Kamarul, Azmi. (2012). A new
Approach in Islamic Education: Mosque Based Teaching and Learning.
Jornal of Islamic and Arabic Education 4(1), 2012-110.
[21] Garba, S. (2005). Curriculum development and Muslim education reform.
Abuja: Benchmark Publishers Limited.

AUTHORS
First Author – Ibrahim, Alli Adelani, Phd, Sultan Idris
Education University (UPSI), Malaysia,
[email protected]

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Fabrication of Embedded System for Dust Removal on


Solar Photo Voltaic Cell
Poonam R. Chaudhari*, Kuldeep Pande**, Subroto Dutt***
*
Department of Electronics Engg. Yeshwantrao College of Engg., Nagpur
**
Department of Electronics Engg. Yeshwantrao College of Engg., Nagpur
***
Department of Electrical Engg. Rajiv Gandhi College of Engg., Chandrapur.

Abstract- Turning over the pages of history it is found that the 6. Bypass diode failure, faulty circuit breakers or switches
sincere effort are undertaken for gaining efficient output from (Given by: module, inverter, battery, conductors).
solar energy but it has to face lot of shortcoming. While 7. Dust accumulation
analysing toward different factor one of the factor is shadowing
& effect of dust particle. In this topic the survey to this effect on
overall performance of SPV is focused & an embedded System is III. WHAT IS A SHADOWING?
design to solve this problem. The covering of some part of solar panel which distort the ray
of light rather than absorbing which lead to low power output is
Index Terms- Challenges in SPV System, Performance of SPV known as shadowing.
on Intensity, Problem faced by SPV, Shadowing effect in SPV The most obvious result of a shadow is a decrease in power
output from the solar array. The amount of power loss is a
function of the size and shape of the shadow, the geometrical
I. INTRODUCTION and electrical lay-out of the cells in the array, and how the
he significant challenged faced by 2000 era is “how to
T satisfy the overgrowing need of energy within limited
resources??”
shadow falls across the particular solar cell array.

To answer this difficult question we have come forward with IV. CAUSES OF SHADOWING
various renewable energy resources like wind, solar, tidal, 1. Shade from building
biomass etc. And also with many alternative methods (to 2. Trees chimney obstacle
generate electricity from these sources). 3. Clouds
The reliability of photovoltaic modules has always been one 4. Dust & Dirt
of the most important subjects as reliability and lifetime is the 5. Snow & other light blocking obstacle
key for overall system performance and warranty. Photovoltaic 6. Improper Handling of SPV
(pv) reliability has gained attention as the photovoltaic industry 7. Lack of Knowledge
has rapidly grown and the numbers of module makers have 8. Maintenance
increased too. Pv systems produce power in proportion to the
intensity of sunlight striking the solar array surface. The intensity
of light on a surface varies throughout a day, as well as day to
V. UNDESIRABLE OUTCOMES
day, so the actual output of a solar power system can vary
substantial. There are other factors that affect the output of a The undesirable out comes due to shadowing is:
solar power system. These factors need to be understood so that 1. Reduced energy Output
the customer has realistic expectations of overall system output 2. Mismatch Situation
and economic benefits under variable environmental conditions 3. Module Mismatch
over time. 4. Dominos Effect
5. Increased Temperature
6. Over Heating
II. MOST PROBLEMS REGARDING PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS 7. Reduced Efficiency

1. Power limitation by inverter to keep upper limit for line


voltage
2. Partial shading in PV awnings by upper rows
(Shadowing).
3. PV generator operating voltage below inverter input
window.
4. Power loss due to undersized inverter
5. Gear thing or isolation faults

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VI. GRAPHICAL/PRACTICALLY REDUCED POWER RATIO Thus the block diagram can be designed like:

Series Parallel Output power Percentage


MECHANICAL ARM

1 1 Output power 94

4 1 Output power 91 SOLAR PANEL MICROCONTROLLER

16 1 Output power 86

SENSOR
1 4 Output power 58
Fig. No. 2 Block Diagram

2 4 Output power 52
VIII. ALGORITHM
The flow chart for the algorithm is as follow
8 4 Output power 48

START
16 4 Output power 47

Fig.No.1The Effect of a Shadow which Covers


Different Numbers of Cells in Series and parallel INITIALISE
sensor_ip
arm_op=0

Sensor_ip
= = green arm_op=0

arm_op=1

STOP

VII. FABRICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM


yes Sensor_ip
To overcome the problem of solar panel caused due to dust = = red
accumulation the embedded system is design which will
automatically sense the dust on panel with the help of sensor.
The output of the sensor will be the input to the microcontroller
where the algorithm is written & according to the status of input
the arm will be activated.

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ISSN 2250-3153

IX. ADVANTAGES
1. Low power consumption
2. Regular cleaning of solar panel AUTHORS
3. Reduce Maintenance cost First Author – Poonam R. Chaudhari . Yeshwantrao college of
4. Increase performance of Solar panel Engg. Nagpur, [email protected]
5. Reduce Battery related problem Second Author – Kuldeep G.Pande, M.Tech, Yeshwantrao
6. Regulated power output from SPV System college of Engg. Nagpur, [email protected]
7. Increase overall efficiency Third Author – Subroto Dutt, . Raiiv Gandhi College of Engg.,
Chandrapur,[email protected]

X. DEMERITS
1. Cost of sensor
2. Dust Sensor are not readily available

XI. CONCLUSION
Keeping in account the overall performance of the SPV
system the fabrication of such Automatic dust cleaner will
overcome its demerits & will bring revolution in today’s scenario
where each & every country is facing the challenge of energy
crises.

REFERENCES
[1] P.N. Botsaris, K.P. Anagnostopoulos, O. Demesouka, "Using axiomatic
design principles for designing a simple and innovative product: A case
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Physical and Emotional Symptoms Associated to Work


Related Stress in IT Professionals
Jithesh Sathyan

IBAM Academy

Abstract- Based on report published by American stressors by controlling frequency, intensity, and duration of
Psychological Association, the number of Americans reporting the stress reaction to decrease unhealthy conditions 3. In the
extreme stress continues to be significant - around 20 percent broadest sense, stress management may include any type of
in 2012, 22 percent in 2011, 24 percent in 2010 and 23 percent stress intervention; however, it may also include a narrow set
in 2009. Based on latest report from American Psychological of individual-level interventions 4.
Association, work is among the top three sources of stress. The
physical and emotional symptoms associated to stress vary Organizations need to clearly identify the causes of work
based on type of work. Hence understanding of the specific related stress and, the physical and emotional symptoms that
cause in work related stress and associated symptoms help employees have based on these causes while designing stress
organizations to come up with appropriate stress management management program. It is very important to conduct study of
programs to improve organizational effectiveness. Considering stress at industry/domain level so that effective stress
the increasing role of IT (Information Technology) in today’s management programs can be designed that will be beneficial
industry, this study is intended to identify the causes of work and meets the needs of professionals in the specific industry.
related stress in IT professionals and the common physical and
emotional symptoms exhibited by IT professionals with high There is several industry specific stress studies conducted in
level of work related stress. The study collected data from 128 healthcare, academic and defense industry. Some of the
IT professionals, to identify a subset of professionals popular studies published recently on industry specific stress
experiencing high levels of work place stress. 53 of 128 study are given in reference 6,7,8. The purpose of this study is
professionals reported work related issues as primary factor focused on stress of professionals in IT industry. Work related
contributing to stress. Work related issues causing extreme issues causing extreme stress, most frequently experienced
stress, most frequently experienced physical symptoms physical symptoms associated with work related stress and
associated with work related stress and most frequently most frequently experienced emotional symptoms associated
experienced emotional symptoms associated with work related with work related stress, of IT professionals were analyzed as
stress, were identified for the 53 professionals that reported part of this study.
work related issues as primary factor contributing to stress.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Index Terms- Stress, Psychology, Symptoms, IT
The aim of this study was to get data for the following
I. INTRODUCTION research questions:
i) What are the work related issues causing extreme
Cox1, defines stress as a "perceptual phenomenon arising stress in IT professionals?
from a comparison between the demand on the person and his ii) What are the most frequently experienced physical
ability to cope." The interaction model of stress implies that symptoms associated with work related stress in IT
varying demands are made on individuals in any situation. professionals?
These demands may be physical, emotional or environmental iii) What are the most frequently experienced emotional
in nature. The degree of stress experienced by an individual in symptoms associated with work related stress in IT
any single situation will vary due to personal factors. An professionals?
individual's reaction to stress can also be physiological (state of
arousal) 2. This necessarily means that stress can manifest as
emotional and physical symptoms in an individual. According
to Sternberg, disruption in communication among the major
The research approach used in the study to obtain
biological systems during and after serious stress or the data for the research questions is shown in figure 1.
accumulation of multiple, minor, difficult events increase the
risk for physical and emotional illness 5.

Stress management is the ability to reduce or cope with

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Figure 1. Research approach used in this study

The study was conducted by utilizing questionnaire based


self-report to get data from the IT professionals. Self-report
questionnaire involved the administration of many
questions/items to participants who responded by rating the
degree to which each item reflects their experience and can be
scored objectively.

The decision to use a questionnaire instead of interviews was


because:
• It allowed the researcher to reach a wider set of IT
professionals working in different organizations.
• There was time for respondents to consider their
opinions before committing to the response.
• Questionnaire made it convenient for the researcher to
analyze the data obtained.
• Bias was minimized as no middleman was involved
and there was uniformity of question and/or statement
presentation.
• The researcher's own opinion(s) could not influence
respondents to answer questions in a certain manner.
• Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephonic or
face-to-face surveys.

This Stress questionnaire was intended to determine the


causes of stress and factor contributing to highest level of
stress. To ensure that the Stress questionnaire appears neutral,
the factors contributing to stress covered in the questionnaire
included: Family Issues, Work Related Issues, Social and
Interpersonal Issues, Environmental Issues outside Work,
Financial and Legal Issues, Change in Circumstances and
Physical Issues. IT professionals that responded to the stress Figure 2. Characteristics of sample under study
questionnaire were asked to rank the factors contributing to The professionals, who reported work related issues as the
stress corresponding to the level/contribution it has on the primary contributor of stress, were requested to respond to an
stress of the individual. “Rank 1” corresponds to highest additional symptoms questionnaire on work related stress. Out
contributor to stress. of the 128 IT professionals that responded to the questionnaire,
53 reported to have work related issues as primary contributor
to stress, and gave response to both questionnaires. The
distribution of factors based on its contribution to stress on IT
professionals that participated in this study is shown in figure

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3. The characteristics of the sample that reported work related with colleagues
issues as primary contributor to stress are show in figure 2. Problems with authority
They are referred to as sample under study to get better insight 12 5.88
structure / management
on the research questions.
Lack of positive feedback by
24 11.76
managers
Boring routine work 8 3.92
Irregular working hours 34 16.67
Difficulty in deciding future
7 3.43
career

Table 2. Physical Symptoms Associated with Work Related Stress


Number of
Professionals
Physical Symptoms
experiencing
Associated with Work Related %
the symptom
Stress in IT Professionals
most
frequently
Headaches 34 11.07
Muscle pain 18 5.86
Colds 12 3.91
Figure 3. Distribution of primary factor contributing to stress in IT
professionals Disturbed Sleep 17 5.54
Back pain 32 10.42
III. RESULTS
Neck pain 8 2.61
Results of the study provided answers to the research
Tiredness 28 9.12
questions this study intended to resolve. The response of the IT
professionals helped in showing the main causes of work Breathing difficulties/
7 2.28
related stress and the physical and emotional symptoms Shortness of breath
associated to work related stress. The results of the study are Feeling dizzy 12 3.91
presented in table 1, table 2 and table 3. Eye Strain – Itching, Watery
17 5.54
or Dry
Table 1. Work Related Issues Contributing to Stress
An upset stomach or nausea 12 3.91
Number of
Work Related Issues Chest pain 4 1.30
Professionals
Contributing to Stress in IT %
Rating Diarrhea 8 2.61
Professionals
Extreme Stress
Acid indigestion or heartburn 13 4.23
Job Insecurity 12 5.88
Stomach cramps (Not
Unsafe/Unethical work 7 2.28
4 1.96 menstrual)
environment
Constipation 8 2.61
Started with a new career/
7 3.43 Heart pounding when not
position 3 0.98
exercising
Incomplete job description 14 6.86
An infection 2 0.65
Too high workload 32 15.69
Fever 12 3.91
Work environment issues -
limited office space, noise, 13 6.37 Loss of appetite 13 4.23
pollution, privacy etc Trouble Falling asleep 22 7.17
Retrenchment 9 4.41 Skin problem – itching,
18 5.86
Disciplinary conduct/ serious pimple, rash, etc
3 1.47
warnings given by supervisor
Concern on slow tempo of Table 3. Emotional Symptoms Associated with Work Related Stress
promotion or low 17 8.33 Emotional Symptoms Number of
remuneration Associated with Work Related Professionals %
Having relationship problems 8 3.92 Stress in IT Professionals experiencing

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the symptom eliminate irregular work hours and high work load.
most
frequently For the sample used in this research study, the top three most
frequently experienced physical symptoms associated with
Helpless/Can do nothing about
3 1.03 work related stress were:
a situation
a)headaches,
Have lost interest in work 13 4.45 b) back pain
Accept things as they are 7 2.40 c)tiredness.
Boredom at work 18 6.16
Eye strain, disturbed sleep and skin problems were also
Do not wish to participate in common symptoms among IT professionals. IT organizations
12 4.11
activities are strongly suggested to introduce alternative medicine
Have no interest in activities programs that involve exercises like yoga which will help
8 2.74
around you professionals relax mentally and physically. It is strongly
Feel uneasy to go to work 13 4.45 suggested to at least educate employees on eye exercises and
Feels no support at work 23 7.88 stretch exercises that can directly address the top three
symptoms.
Want to isolate and work alone 12 4.11
Feel irritated or easily annoyed 28 9.59 For the sample used in this research study, the top three most
frequently experienced emotional symptoms associated with
Feel aggressive 8 2.74 work related stress were:
Feel inferior 7 2.40 a)trouble concentrating,
Feel guilty 3 1.03 b) fell irritated or easily annoyed,
c)feel insecure.
Getting sad 3 1.03
Afraid without any specific Boredom at work and getting afraid without any specific
18 6.16
reason reason are some of the other emotional symptoms common
Afraid of losing control 21 7.19 among IT professionals with high level of work related stress.
The results show the need for internal initiatives that will
Not exactly sure how to act 8 2.74 improve coping strategies of IT professionals. Lack of internal
Trouble concentrating 32 10.96 initiatives, will result in a hostile work environment that is
disturbing not only to the person experiencing stress, but also
Continuously needs assistance 8 2.74
to other colleagues in the enterprise working with this
Getting into trouble 3 1.03 professional. Multiple research studies have showed the
Too many problems 17 5.82 effectiveness of preventative, as opposed to reactive coping
strategies10,11. For organizational stress management it is
Feel insecure 27 9.25 suggested to come up with preventive coping strategies.
Preventative coping involves developing resources to lessen the
IV. DISCUSSION consequences of stressful events12, which can be achieved
using organizational stress management programs.
The research study showed that for the sample under study,
the top three work related issues causing extreme stress in IT
professionals were: V. CONCLUSION
a)irregular work hours, The Information Technology (IT) industry is growing at a
b) too high workload, rapid pace and the work pressure and expectations from IT
c)lack of positive feedback from managers. workers is increasing exponentially. There is a pressing need
for emphasis to be placed upon research to address the role of
Job insecurity, incomplete job description and work stress and its function and its impact on mental and
environment also were causes of stress which can be expected physiological health of IT professionals. Research in this
based on current economic conditions and studies on direction will help IT organizations to come up with effective
workspace9, conducted recently. Lack of positive feedback is a low-cost strategies and interventions to combat, reduce, or
stress cause which the organizations can address by educating prevent the effects of stress. Reducing some of the sources of
the supervisors and offering employee recognition programs at stress like workload and irregular work hours, may not be
various levels. However high work load and irregular work productive for the enterprise. Hence stress is inevitable for IT
hours, in most cases is stress cause which most organizations professionals. However, knowledge of effective stress
does not want to avoid for achieving productivity and timelines management strategies will help in empowering IT
of IT projects. Hence appropriate stress management programs professionals to become more self-efficacious in the
should be introduced to improve coping strategies of the IT management of their health and well-being.
professionals, as organization may not want to directly

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This study helped in analyzing the work related issues causing AUTHORS
extreme stress, most frequently experienced physical symptoms
associated with work related stress and most frequently Jithesh Sathyan, Ph.D. Student, IBAM Academy, India.
experienced emotional symptoms associated with work related Email: [email protected].
stress in IT professionals. The study included participants from
multiple IT organizations and care was taken to isolate samples
with work related stress as primary contributor of stress. The
study does have limitation, in that other sources of stress may
have also contributed to some degrees in the physical and
emotional symptoms, for those with extreme work related
stress. As future work, the intent is to study the effectiveness of
alternative medicine in stress management of IT professionals,
and analyze how it would reduce the physical and emotional
symptoms from work related stress of IT professionals.

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perspective, Occupational Health Psychology, Chichester,
Wiley-Blackwell, 2010
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[3] Girdano, D.A., Everly, G.S., and Dusek, D.E., Controlling stress
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[4] Murff, S.H., The impact of stress on academic success in college
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[5] Sternberg, E.M., Chrousos, G.P., Wilder, R.L., and Gold, P.W,
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[6] Murff, S.H, The impact of stress on academic success in college
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S., and Wiley, S, The effects of mindfulness-based stress
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[8] Taugis, J, Stress management for police Special Forces, Journal
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[9] Szalma, James L., and Peter A. Hancock, Noise Effects on
Human Performance, Psychological Bulletin 137, no. 4: 682-
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[10] Greenglass, E.R, Proactive coping and quality of life
management. In E. Frydenberg (Ed.), Beyond coping: Meeting
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[11] Schwarzer, R., and Renner, B. Social-cognitive predictors of
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64-80

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Time Stamp Based Mining in Multiple Asynchronous


Text Sequences
Suresh Kumar*, Mrs. D. Saravanapriya**

*
Department of computer science, PA College of engineering and technology,
Pollachi, Coimbatore District, Tamilnadu, India
[email protected]
**
Assistant professor, Department of information technology, PA College of engineering and technology,
Pollachi, Coimbatore District, Tamilnadu, India
[email protected]

Abstract—Text sequences are ubiquitous, multiple text sequence are often related to each other by sharing common topics. The
interactions among these sequences provide more information to derive more meaningful topics. Discovering valuable knowledge
from a text sequence involves extracting topics from the sequence with both semantic and temporal information. The method is
relied on a fundamental assumption that different sequences are always synchronous in time. The documents from different
sequences on the same topic have different time stamp and there is no guarantee that the articles covering the same topic are
indexed by the same time stamps. The key idea is to introduce a generative topic model for utilizing correlation between the
semantic and temporal information in the sequences. Topic model is mainly focused on extracting a set of common topics from
given sequences using their original time stamps. It performs topic extraction and time synchronization alternatively to optimize a
unified objective function. A local optimum is guaranteed with the proposed method.

Index Terms-Asynchronous sequences, temporal text mining, Topic model.

I. INTRODUCTION

T ext mining is the analysis of data contained in natural language text. The application of text mining techniques to solve
business problems is called text analytics. Text mining is alternately referred to as text data mining, roughly equivalent to text
analytics, refers to the process of deriving high-quality information from Text mining is the analysis of data contained in natural
language text. The application of text mining techniques to solve business problems is called text analytics.
Text mining is alternately referred to as text data mining, roughly equivalent to text analytics, refers to the process of
deriving high-quality information from text. Text analysis involves information retrieval, lexical analysis to word
frequencydistributions, pattern recognition, tagging/annotation, information extraction, data mining techniques including link and
association analysis, visualization, and predictive analytics.
Addressing the problem of topic detection is the main focus of in text mining. The goal of the task is to identify a
collection of news articles about a topic. It is viewed as d as natural text streams with publication dates as time stamps. It would be
very useful it can discover, extract, and summarize the evolutionary theme patterns automatically. The algorithm contains several
interesting applications that can make it easier for people to understand the information contained in large knowledge domains,
including exploring topic dynamicsand indicating the role that words play in the semantic content of documents.
Application domains, encounter a stream of text, in each text document has some meaningful time stamp. An event
covered in news articles generally has an underlying temporal and Evolutionary structure consisting of themes characterizing the
beginning, progression, and impact of the event, among others. It is classification of document into topics and actions into
activities.

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Parameter estimation in these models discovers a low-dimensional set of multinomial word distributions called topics in
textual documents. Mixtures of these topics give high likelihood to the training data, and the highest probability words in each
topic provide keywords that briefly summarize the themes in the text collection. The topic models have also been applied to
images, biological findings and other non-textual multi-dimensional discrete data.
The topics addressed by a paper are also one of the first pieces of information a person tries to extract reading a scientific
abstract. Papers are relevant to their interests, search areas are rising or falling in popularity, and the papers are related to one
another. A statistical method is provided for automatically extracting a representation of documents that provides a first-order
approximation to the kind of knowledge available to domain experts. The method discovers a set of topics expressed by
documents, providing quantitative measures that can be used to identify the content of those documents, track changes in content
over time, and express the similarity between documents.
A novel problem of text mining referred to as Baseline Text Mining. The task of comparative text mining is to discover
any latent common themes across all collections as well as summarize the similarity and divergences of these collections along
each common theme. The task of comparative text mining involves discovering the different common themes across all the
collections and for each discovered theme, characterize the common and unique term.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: related work is discussed in Section II; formalize our problem and propose
a generative model with a unified objective function in Section III; how to optimize the objective function in Section IV;
extensions of our model and algorithm are discussed in Section V; and conclude our work in Section VI.
II. RELATED WORK
The authors introducedpresent asynchronous distributed learning algorithms for two well known unsupervised learning
frameworks is Latent DirichletAllocation and Hierarchical Dirichlet Processes the work contain some distinction. It will contain
purely asynchronous communication. It is not applicable to the collapsed sampler for LDA. Another method is mining correlated
busty topic patternsfrom coordinated text streams can reveal interesting latent associations or events behind these streams. It is
effectively discover quite meaningful topic patterns. Using mutual reinforcement across streams discover correlated busty Topic
patterns methods. It is applicable text stream only.
The approach that is to use state space models on the natural parameters of the multinomial distributionsthat represent the
topics. Variational approximations based on Kalman filters and nonparametric wavelet regressions are developed to carry out
approximate posterior inference over the latent topics. In addition to giving quantitative, predictive models of a sequential corpus,
dynamic topic models provide a qualitative window into the contents of a large document collection. The main problem contains
Factorial Hidden Markov models for topic intensity tracking with exponentialorder statistics for implicit data association. At the
problem is data association and intensity tracking of multiple topics over time. The approach detects correct topic intensities even
with 30% topic noise.
Another model capture arbiter nested a possibly sparse correlation between topics and then using a directed acyclic graph.
The leaves of the DAG represent individual words in the vocabulary, each interior node represents correlation among its children
may be words or other interior node. It proposed to correlation among children, may be words or other interior nodes. A
correlation of textual documents parameter estimation in these model distributions called topics. Mixtures of this topic give
likelihood to the training data and the highest probability words in each topic provide keywords that briefly summarize the themes
in the text collection.
The authors introduced a probabilistic model to incorporate contentand time information in a unified framework. This
model gives new representations of both news articles and news events. This algorithm is easy to understand and implement. A
disadvantage is to find better representations of the contents of news articles very difficult.
Symbols Description
WF Total number of words in a
particular sequence
WS Number of words in a all sequence
SW Number of sequence in Database
which a particular word is found

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TE Topic Extraction
IF Inverse frequency
ITE Inverse topic frequency
SD Sequence in Database

Table.1 Symbol and Their Meaning

The novel problem of mining spatiotemporal theme patterns from weblogs and propose a novel probabilistic approach to model
the subtopic themes and spatiotemporal theme patterns simultaneously. The proposed model discovers spatiotemporal theme
patterns by extracting common themes from weblogs. The proposed probabilistic model is general and can be used for
spatiotemporal text mining on any domain with time and location information. The probabilistic model is generally applicable not
to any text collections with time and location information, but also for other text mining problems.
Themodel is Markov assumptions or discretization of timeeach topic is associated with a continuous distribution over
timestamps, and for each generated document, the mixture distribution over topics is influenced by both word co-occurrences and
the document’s timestamp. The meaning of a particular topic can be relied upon as constant, but the topics occurrence and
correlations change significantly over time. More improved topics, better timestamp prediction, and interpretable trends.
Text stream is important to know that the hot burst events detection problem, it is different from TDT. It focuses,
detecting a set of burst features for a burst event. Propose a new novel parameter free probabilistic approach, called feature-pivot
clustering. Main technique is to fully utilize the time information to determine a set of burst features may occur in different time
windows. Detect burst events based on the feature distributions. There is no need to tune or estimate any parameters.
III.PROBLEM STATEMENT
The asynchronies among multiple sequences, i.e., documents from different sequences on the same topic have different
time stamps, is actually very common in practice.The main symbols used throughout the paper are listed in Table 1.
For instance, in news feeds, there is no guarantee that news articles covering the same topic are indexed by the same time
stamps. There can be hours of delay for news agencies, days for newspapers, and even weeks for periodicals, because some
sources try to provide first-hand flashes shortly after the incidents, while others provide more comprehensive reviews afterward.
Another example is research paper archives, the latest research topics are closely followed by newsletters and
communications within weeks or months, and then the full versions may appear in conference proceedings, which are usually
published annually and at last in journals, which may sometimes take more than a year to appear after submission.
IV. PROPOSED ALGORITHEM
Formally address this problem and put forward a novel algorithm based on the generative topic model.
Our algorithm consists of two alternate steps:
 The first step extracts common topics from multiple sequences based on the adjusted time stamps provided by the second
step.
 The second step adjusts the time stamps of the documents according to the time distribution of the topics discovered by
the first step.

V. DISCUSSIONS AND EXTENSIONS


Perform these two steps alternately and after iterations a monotonic convergence of our objective function can be guaranteed. The
effectiveness and advantage of our approach were justified through extensive empirical studies on two real data sets consisting of
six research paper repositories and two news article feeds, respectively.
The current time stamps of all sequences are synchronous and the common topics are extracted and TE is calculated for
each of them. TE/ITF can be calculated for each word using the four values such as number of words in a document, frequency of
a word in a document, the number of total documents, and the number of documents where the word appears. Instead of extracting
words from an e-text, two-word phrases were extracted and TEITF is calculated for each of them.
TE =WS/WF-1 (1)

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Inverse frequency (IF) is essential. In this percentage denoting the number of times a word appears in a document [10]. It
is mathematically expressed as WS/WF, where WS is the number of times a word appears in a document and WF is the total
number of words in the same document. Inverse document frequency (IDF) takes into account that many words occur many times
in many documents. IDF is mathematically expressed as SD/SW, where SD is the total number of sequence in database and SW is
the number of document in which a particular word is found. As SD/SW increases so do the significance of the given word.
ITE=SD/SW-1 (2)
A. Time Synchronization

The timestamps (IF) are adjusted to synchronize the sequences. Once the common topics are extracted,
the documents are matched to the topic. Topic related content retrieval from the various unstructured
document based upon Time Synchronization
IF = TE/ITE (3)

In this (3) and (4) equation gives the global optimum to our objective function in [6].

Given title and


relevant content

Upload the title


and content
Database

Preprocessing

Given
topic and
Searchin
g
NO
YES
Database

Topic extraction Fig.1.Query based browsing

Time
B. The local search stretchy
synchronization

A quantitative estimation of the asynchronism among sequences is available and it is unnecessary to search the entire time
dimension is adjusting the time stamps of documents. It gives the opportunity to reduce the complexity of time synchronization
Stop

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step without causing substantial performance loss, by setting an upper bound for the difference between the time stamps of
documents before and after adjustment in each iteration.

C. The Baseline Method and Implementation

The standard PLSA method as the topic extraction step of our algorithm. Yet in the experiments, we introduced two additional
techniques as used in and this modified version of the PLSA algorithm was used as a baseline method for topic extraction.

Input the Extract Local search


topic and common topic strategy
related and thenstore
content

Fig.1Baseline
Display all Method Time
Database
Sequences synchronization
The first technique is to introduce a background topic into our generative model so that background noise can be removed and
find more burst and meaningful topics.

D. Algorithm

STEP 1: Input to the document or topic.


STEP 2: Give the topic related content.
STEP 3: Using preprocessing state.
STEP 4: Get topic related content,allsequence already synchronous and extract common topic
using topic extraction.
STEP 5: Give the searching string and then pick the searching related content.
STEP 6: Extractcommon topic content to be displayed.
STEP 7: Once the common topics are extract, match documents in all sequences’ and then
display synchronize the Sequences.
STEP 8: Get document content from unstructured Text sequence.

VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The proposed work web search result personalization is focused. From the Table.1 it is clear that the user can get the
efficient results based on their domain. Queries based Browsing provides increased proficiency as in Fig.1.

Domain Number of Response


queries efficiency
Common Login (%) Query based Login (%)

Science 50 52 56
Education 40 68 72
Research 42 45 62
Software 38 67 70
Total 170 232 260

Table.2 Query based browsing

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Based on the user query the related links are displayed. Normally the query is in the form of keywords
as in Fig.2.

Fig.2 Query based browsing

The keywords which match with the sequence are indexed as in Fig.3. The lexical meaning of the keyword is analyzed
through Word Net. Tree Tagger is for annotating text with part of speech and lemma information. Preprocessing or Tokenization
is the process of breaking a stream of text up into words phrases, symbols or other meaningful elements called tokens. The list of
tokens becomes input for further processing such as parsing.

Fig.3 Home page

The related documents are captured and display. The similarity between the topic sequences is calculated.
The documents with more similarity measures are clustered.

VII. CONCLUSIONS
A novel method was introduced to deal with and it automatically discovers and fix potential asynchronism among
sequences and consequentially extract better common topics.
The proposed method is used by utilizing correlation between the semantic and temporal information in the sequences. It
performs topic extraction and time synchronization alternatively to optimize a unified objective function. A local optimum is
guaranteed. Preventing duplications in text sequences considering similarities according to temporal analysis is a constrain
proceed further.
1) The method is able to find meaningful and discriminative topics from asynchronous text sequences;

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2) The performance of our method is robust and stable against different parameter settings and random initialization.
Acknowledgment

The authors are heartily thankful to their supervisor,


Mrs. D. Saravanpriya Department of information technology, P.A college of engineering and technology,
whose sprit to work, guidance and support from the initial to the fine level enabled them to develop an
understanding of the subject. Above all and the most needed, she provided them unflinching encouragement
and support in every possible ways.
Finally, the authors would like to thank everybody who were important and helped them out in every
process to the successful realization of the thesis.
REFERENCES

[1] J. Allan, R. Papka, and V. Lavrenko, ‘On-Line New Event


Detection and Tracking’, Proc. Ann. Int’l ACM SIGIR Conf. Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR),
pp. 37- 45, 1998.
[2] A. Asuncion, P. Smyth, and W. Welling, ‘Asynchronous Distributed Learning of Topic Models’, Proc. Neural Information
Processing Systems, pp. 81-88, 2008.
[3] D. J. Berndt and J. Clifford, ‘Using Dynamic Time Warping to Find
Patterns in Time Series’, Proc. Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) Workshop, pp. 359-370, 1994.
[4] D. M. Bleiand J. D. Lafferty, ‘Correlated Topic Models’, Proc. Neural Information Processing Systems, 2005.
[5] D. M. Blei and J. D. Lafferty, ‘Dynamic Topic Models’, Proc. Int’l
Conf. Machine Learning (ICML), pp. 113-120, 2006.
[6] D. M. Blei, A. Y. Ng., and M. I Jordan., ‘Latent Dirichlet Allocation’, Proc. Neural Information Processing Systems, pp.
601-608, 2001.
[7] G. P. C. Fung, J. X. Yu, P. S. Yu, and H. Lu, ‘Parameter Free Bursty Events Detection in Text Streams’, Proc. Int’l Conf. Very
Large Data Bases (VLDB), pp. 181-192, 2005.
[8] T. Hofmann, ‘Probabilistic Latent Semantic Indexing’, Proc. Ann. Int’l ACM SIGIR Conf. Research and Development in
Information Retrieval (SIGIR), pp. 50-57, 1999.
[9] A. Krause, J. Leskovec, and C. Guestrin, ‘Data Association for Topic Intensity Tracking’, Proc. Int’l Conf. Machine Learning
(ICML), pp. 497-504 , 2006.
[10] W. Li and A. McCallum, ‘Pachinko Allocation: Dag-Structured Mixture Models of Topic Correlations’, Proc. Int’l Conf.
Machine Learning (ICML), pp. 577-584, 2006.
[11] Z. Li, B. Wang,M. Li, andW.Y. MaY, ‘A Probabilistic Model for
Retrospective News Event Detection’, Proc. Ann. Int’l ACM SIGIR Conf. Research and Development in Information
Retrieval (SIGIR), pp. 106-113, 2005.
[12] Mei.Q, Liu.C, Su.H, and Zhai.C (2006), ‘A Probabilistic Approach
to Spatiotemporal Theme Pattern Mining on Weblogs’, Proc. Int’l Conf. World Wide Web (WWW), pp. 533-542.
[13] X. Wang. and A. McCallum, ‘Topics over Time: A Non-Markov
Continuous-Time Model of Topical Trends’, Proc. ACM SIGKDD Int’l Conf. Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining
(KDD), pp. 424- 433, 2006.

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[14] X. Wang, C. X. Zhai,X. Hu and R. Sproat, ‘Mining Correlated


Bursty Topic Patterns from Coordinated Text Streams’, Proc. ACM SIGKDD Int’l Conf. Knowledge Discovery and Data
Mining (KDD), pp. 784-793, 2007.
[15] C. Zhai, A. Velivelliand B. Yu, ‘A Cross-Collection Mixture Model for Comparative Text Mining’, Proc. ACM SIGKDD Int’l
Conf. Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD), pp. 743-748, 2004.

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Poisson-Size-biased Lindley Distribution


Mr. Tanka Raj Adhikari and Prof. R.S. Srivastava

Department of Mathematics and Statistics, DDU Gorakhpur University, India


E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract:
In this paper the general concept of Poisson-size-biased Lindley (PSBL) distribution is presented. Its p.m.f. is obtained. Some of
its properties and the expressions for raw and central moments, coefficients of skewness and kurtosis are derived. The moment
equations and the maximum likelihood estimators of the parameter of this Poisson size-biased Lindley (PSBL) distribution have
been obtained for estimation its parameters. A simulation of a parameter is study has been proposed.

Key Words:
Size-biased Poisson-Lindley distribution; moment’s equation estimation; maximum likelihood estimators;

I. INTRODUCTION

D. V. Lindley [2], has introduced a one-parameter distribution, known as Lindley distribution, given by probability density
function (p.d.f.):

M. Sankaran [10] has introduced one parameter Poisson-Lindley distribution (PLD) to model count data with probability mass
function (p.m.f.):

The distribution arises from the Poisson distribution when its parameter λ follows a Lindley distribution with probability density
function (p.d.f.)

R. Shanker, S. Sharma and R. Shanker [16] proposed a two-parameter Lindley distribution of which the one-parameter Lindley
distribution (LD) is a particular case, for modeling waiting and survival time’s data. R. Shanker and A. Mishra [11] proposed a
two-parameter Quasi Lindley Distribution (QLD) and studies its properties. It is found that in all data-sets the QLD provides
closer fits than those by the Lindley distribution.
R. Shanker, S. Sharma and R. Shanker [15] proposed a discrete two parameter Poisson Lindley distribution (PLD), of which the
M. Shankaran’s [10] Poisson-Lindley distribution is a special case. It is derived by compounding a Poisson distribution with the
discrete two-parameter Lindley distribution of R. Shanker,S. Sharma and R. Shanker [13]. They derived first four moments of
this distribution and have discussed the estimation of the parameters by the moments. They have found that the two-parameter
PLD is better fit and more flexible than the Shankaran’a one-parameter PLD to some data sets.

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M. E. Ghitnany and D. K. Al-Mutairi [9] discussed estimation methods for the discrete Poisson Lindley distribution (1.2) and its
applications. They derived a discrete two-parameter Poisson Lindley distribution by compounding a Poisson distribution with a
two-parameter Lindley distribution obtained by R. Shanker, S. Sharma and R. Shanker [13].
In many a situation experimenters do not work with truly random sample from the population, in which they are interested, either
by design or because of the fact that in many situations it becomes impossible to have random sample from the targeted
population. However, since the observations do not have an equal probability of entering the sample, the resulting sampled
distribution does not follow the original distribution. Statistical models that incorporate these restrictions are called weighted
models. When an investigator records an observation by nature according to certain stochastic model, the recorded observation
will not have the original distribution unless every observation is given an equal chance of being recorded. For example, suppose
that the original observation x0 comes from a distribution with p.m.f./p.d.f. f0(x0) and that observation x is recorded according to a
probability re-weighted by a weight function w(x) > 0, then x comes from a distribution with p.m.f./p.d.f.

C. R. Rao [3] introduced distributions of this type and called them weighted distributions. The weighted distribution with w(x) = x
is called size-biased/length-biased distribution. G. P. Patil and C. R. Rao [4] examined some general models leading to weighted
distributions and showed how the weight w(x) = x occurs in a natural way in many sampling problems. A study of size-biased
sampling and related form-invariant weighted distributions was made by G. D. Patil and J. K. Ord [5]. A survey of real-life
applications of size-biased distributions may be found in G. D. Patil and C. R. Rao [3] and [4].
M. E. Ghitany and D. K. Al-Mutairi [8] proposed Size-biased Poisson-Lindley distribution and suggested its application. They
consider the size-biased version of Poisson-Lindley distribution and obtained the p.m.f. of size-biased Poisson-Lindley (SBPL)
distribution as

Where, is the mean of the Poisson-Lindley distribution with p.m.f. (1.2). The SBPL distribution also arises from the

size-biased Poisson (SBP) distribution with p.m.f.

when its parameter λ follows a size-biased Lindley (SBL) model with p.d.f.

Combining the equations (1.6) and (1.7) then the result will be:

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This is same as equation (1.5). Thus it is clear that the size-biased version of Poisson Lindley distribution is same as that obtained
by compounding size-biased Poisson and size-biased Lindley distributions. The mean (μ), variance (σ 2), coefficient of skewness
(√β1) and coefficient of kurtosis (β2) for the SBPL distribution proposed by M. E. Ghitany and D. K. Al-Mutairi [9] are as:

We propose another size-biased Poisson-Lindley (SBPL) distribution which is obtained by compounding the size-biased Poisson
distribution with Lindley distribution without considering its size-biased form. (This paper is accepted by IJMRS for the process
of publication in Dec., 2013 Volume)[12]. The size-biased Poisson distribution has the p.m.f.

Now if its parameter λ follows the Lindley distribution with p.m.f. (1.1) then the p.m.f. of the size-biased Poisson-Lindley
(SBPL) distribution is obtained as:

We obtained the first four raw moments and their corresponding central moments of this size-biased Poisson-Lindley (SBPL)
distribution (1.10) are as:
Raw Moments:

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And Central Moments:

Thus the mean, variance, skewness, kurtosis and their coefficients are proposed are as:

And

II. PROPOSED PSBL DISTRIBUTION

In this paper we propose Poisson size-biased Lindley (PSBL) distribution which is obtained by compounding the Poisson
distribution without considering its size-biased form with size-biased Lindley distribution. The Poisson distribution has the p.m.f.

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Now if its parameter λ follows the size-biased Lindley (SBL) model with p.d.f. (1.7) then the p.m.f. of the Poisson size-biased
Lindley (PSBL) distribution is obtained as:

Here we get,

The first four raw moments and their corresponding central moments of this Poisson size-biased Lindley (PSBL) distribution (2.2)
comes out to be:
Raw Moments:

And Central Moments:

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Thus the mean, variance, skewness, kurtosis and their coefficients are obtained as:

And

We now give some basic properties of the SBPL model.


(i) Since

It follows that μ<( = ) ( > ) σ 2 for < ( = ) ( > ) θ*, where θ* ≅ 1.671162. That is the SBPL distribution is over-dispersed (equi-
dispered) (under-diapered) for θ<( = ) ( > ) θ*.
(ii) Since

Is a decreasing function in x, f(x; θ) is log-concave. Therefore the PSBL distribution is unimodal, has an increasing failure rate (
IFR ) ( and hence, increasing failure rate average (IFRA), new better than used (NBU), new better than used in expectation

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(NBUE) and decreasing mean residual life (DMRL) in Barlow and Proschan (1981) for more details about the definition of these
aging concepts are given.

III. METHOD OF MOMENTS

Given a random sample x1, x2, x3,………….,xn, of size n from the SBPL distribution with p.m.f.(2.2), the MOM estimate, of θ is

given by

Or,

Or,

Or,

Note that x = 1 if and only if xi = 1 for all i = 1, 2,………….,n. A data set where all observations are ones is not worth analyzing.
This situation, of course, will not lead to any estimate of θ. However, such situation may arise in a simulation experiment when n

is small. For this reason, we will assume throughout this paper that x > 1.

IV. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION

Given a random sample x1,x2,………,xn, of size n from the SBPL distribution with p.m.f. (2.2) is,

The likelihood function will be:

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And

Thus the ML estimate of θ is the solution of the non-linear equation:

The solution may obtained by appropriate numerical methods.

V. SIMULATION STUDY

A simulation may be done using an algorithm to generate random samples from this Poisson-size biased Lindley distribution, a
simulation study may be carried out N = 10,000 times for each pair (θ, n) where θ = 0.5,1, 2, 8 and n = 20 (20) 100. The stud y
calculates the following measures:
(i) Average bias of the simulated estimates:

Where is the MOM estimate i or the ML estimate i .

(ii) Average mean-square error (MSE) of the simulated estimates:

(iii) Coverage probability = percentage of confidence intervals containing θ.

REFERENCES

[1] C. R. Rao, On discrete distributions arising out of ascertainment, In: Classical and Contagious discrete distribution; G.P.
Patil (ed.), Pergamon press and Statistical Publishing Society, Calcutta, 1965, 302-332.
[2] D. V. Lindley, Fiducial Distribution and Bayes Theorem. Journal of Royal Statistical Society, 1958, Ser. B, 20, 102- 107.
[3] G. D. Patil and C. R. Rao, Weighted distributions: a survey of their applications, in: P.R. Krishnaiah (Ed.), Applications of
Statistics Amsterdam, North-Holand, 1975, 383-405.
[4] G. P. Patil and C. R. Rao, Weighted distributions and size-biased sampling with applications to wildlife populations and
human families, Biometrics, 34, 1978, 179-189.
[5] G. P. Patil, and J. K. Ord, on size-biased sampling and related form-invariant weighted distributions, 1975, Sankhya, 38, 48-
61.
[6] J. E. Gentle, Random Number generation and Monte Carlo Methods, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2003, Second edition.

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[7] M. E. Ghitany, B. Atieh and S. Nadarajah, Lindley distribution and its applications, Mathematics and computers in simulation,
2008, Vol. 78, No. 4, pp. 49-506.
[8] M. E. Ghitnany and D. K. Al-Mutairi, Size-biased Poisson-Lindley Distribution and its Application, 2008, Vol. LXVI, n. 3,
pp. 299-311.
[9] M. E. Ghitany and D. K. Al-Mutairi, Estimation Methods for the discrete Poisson-Lindley distribution. Journal of Statistical
Computation and Simulation, 2009, 79(1), 1-9.
[10] M. Shankaran, The discrete Poisson-Lindley distribution. Biometric 26, 1970, 145-149.
[11] R. Shanker and A. Mishra, A Quasi Lindley Distribution: African Journals of Mathematics and Computer Science Research,
2013, Vol. 6(4), pp. 64-71.
[12]R. S. Srivastava and T. R. Adhikari, A Size-biased Poisson-Lindley Distribution, (Accepted for publication in International
Journal of Multidisciplinary, Dec, 2013).
[13] R. Shanker, S. Sharma and R. Shanker, A two-parameter Lindley Distribution for modeling waiting and survival times data.
(Accepted for publication in Applied Mathematics), 20121.
[14] R. E. Barlow and F. Proschan, Statistical Theory of Reliability and Life Testing, Silver Spring, MD: To Begin with, 1981.
[15] R. Shanker,S. Sharma and R. Shanker, A discrete two-parameter Poisson Lindley Distribution: JESA, 2012 2Vol. XXI, pp.
15-22.
[16]R. Shanker, S. Sharma and R. Shanker, A two-parameter Lindley Distribution for Modeling Waiting and Survival Times
Data; doi: 10.4236/am. 2013, 42056 Publishd Online Februry 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/am) Applied Mathematics,
2013, 4 363-368.
[17] R. V. Hogg, J. W. Mckean and A. T. Craig, Introduction to Mathematical Statistics, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005,
Sixth edition.

AUTHORS
First Author – Mr. Tanka Raj Adhikari, M.Sc. in Statistics, Ph.D. Research Scholar in Statistics, Department of Mathematics and
Statistics, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, Email: [email protected].
Second Author - Prof. R.S. Srivastava, M.Sc. and Ph.D. in Statistics, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, DDU Gorakhpur
University, Gorakhpur – 273 009, Email: [email protected].
Correspondence Author – Prof. R. S. Srivastava, Emai: [email protected], 09919139022.

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A Study on Laundry Workers Attitude towards Health


Care Industry in Trichy City
Dr. S. SUKUMAR*, V. KARTHIGA**

* Associate Professor, PRIST School of Business, PRIST University, Trichy, India


** M.B.A., PRIST School of Business, PRIST University, Trichy, India

Abstract- The services sector has become global in Indian growth of the service industry has been uniform, with sectors
context. This paper describes the characteristics of services and such as accountancy, facility management, hospitality,
compares it with the characteristics of the products. It also entertainment, and personal services also showing impressive
brings out the importance of services in case of manufactured growth. The service marketing environment has been
products. The challenges for the service industry have been elaborated on and the service mix elements – product, people,
discussed and the critical success factors have also been physical evidence, and process. Service product, gives an
elaborated. This study also covers international trade understanding of the product in the context of services.
regulations and their impact on the services sector. The Services can be classified in several ways; various
problems facing India’s health care system which have a authors have tried to classify services on the basis of different
greater impact on the poor. The inequal geographic distribution features/aspects such as market segment, tangibility factor, skill
of doctors and hospitals makes it difficult for low-income type and the like.
families to access quality medical facilities. Eighty percent of 1. Tangibility component 2. Skill-type involved 3.
doctors, 75 percent of dispensaries, and 60 percent of hospitals Business goals 4. Regulatory dimension 5. Intensity of labours
are situated in urban areas – making quality health care employed 6. Consumer contacts 7. Place and timing 8.
virtually inaccessible to people who live in remote areas. This Customization 9. Demand and supply 10. Relationship with
study is mainly concerned with laundry workers, their nature of customers
work, their washing material needs, their health issues and the The country’s population is aging faster than
protection in laundry work. The hospital administration is expected. In 1980, the country’s median age was just 20 years
taking care of laundry workers. The area of the study is – it will be 31 by 2026. Between 2000 and 2050, the number of
confined to Trichy city and the primary and secondary data are people between 60 and 80 years of age will increase by 326
used in this study. The data were analysed using appropriate percent. What’s more, lifestyles are increasingly sedentary, and
statistical tools such as percentages, chi-square test and ranking people’s diets have become significantly less healthy. Due to
technique, Likert scaling techniques, correlation and analysis of these changes, the incidence of lifestyle and age-related
variance. diseases like diabetes is growing rapidly and the health care
Index Terms: Health care industry, Laundry services, system as currently structured is ill-equipped to respond.
process, physical facilities, Occupational problems
INTRODUCTION WORKING CONDITIONS
The service sector, which has registered a nine per Cleaning services include a broad range of activities
cent annual growth since the mid-1990s, accounts for 54 %of and are performed in different work environments such as
Indian`s GDP and is currently the fastest growing sector of the homes, offices, industries, schools, shops, aircrafts and
economy. The services sector, which witnessed a double –digit hospitals. The risks that cleaners undertake depend on the
annual growth, includes transportation, telecom, healthcare, tasks they perform but also on the premises they work in.
financial services such as banking and insurance, business Workers need the following skills such as a good observation
services such as advertising, legal services and the like. The skills and attention to detail, to enjoy practical work, normal

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colour vision, a reasonable level of fitness and good time STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
management skills.
The laundry service providers are facing plenty of
Laundry worker are specialist in commercial laundries or
business problems in washing clothes, getting work order,
in the laundry department of a hotel, hospital or other organisation
collection of material, occupational illness, no proper training
that produce large volumes of washing. These facilities are often
and, general problems in washing clothes; cost of operation is
warm and humid and some of the cleaning chemicals used can
high, communication, cross contamination, wet linen storage,
have strong fumes, though work areas are usually well ventilated.
dust, cart space, replacement linens, maintenance, rework,
Laundry workers spend long periods on their feet, and are regularly
overstuffing, tunnel jams and the like. The three biggest
required to lift heavy loads. Some laundry workers may drive vans
problems that plague India’s health care sector today which is
or trucks to collect washing from customers and deliver the cleaned
to be addressed in response to patients’ changing needs are
items when finished. The hours of work may vary, depending on
quality, access and affordability. These problems are execrated
the particular laundry. In some cases shift work - including nights
by: i) A shortage of manpower across India ii) Poor
and weekends – depending upon the need.
infrastructure iii) Poor health resulting in a higher share of
private expenditures.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
The most common accidents in industrial laundries
Cleaners’ are exposed to chemicals depends on the
involve chemical explosure, sharp objects present in soiled
type of products used as well as on the characteristics of the
linen, slips falls in wet floors, infections due to pathogens in
working environment in which they are used and the conditions
contaminated linen, and body parts being misshaped in
of use (such as frequency, quantity, application mode and
machinery. With the heavy workload and tough working
cleaner’s breathing rate).
environment employees easily get short-tempered. This leads
to problems such as violence and workplace bullying. Hence
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
laundry managers must be competent disciplinarians, ready to
Cleaning staff can be also exposed to different types
deal with employees who have attitude problems and
of biological agents such as micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses
additionally some production problem such as Communication,
and moulds) and their products, such as fungal secretions and
Cross-contamination, Wet linen storage, Dust, Cart Space,
bacterial end toxins present in dust as well as in aerosols
Replacement linens, Maintenance, Rework, Overstuffing and
created during the cleaning process, including when
Tunnel jams in offering laundry services. Thus this is
vacuuming.
conducted for examine the method of washing, washing
material used, side effects, treatment, process, life style and the
PHYSICAL HAZARDS
laundry workers attitude.
Physical hazards encountered in cleaning work
encompass among others falls from ladders, elevated platforms
and wet or slippery floors, falling objects, sharp objects, REVIEW OF LITERATURE
moving or rotating machinery parts, not only from the work The researcher mainly concentrated on the laundry
equipment used but also from the environment where the service practices and policies of service providers, consumer
cleaning work is performed. satisfaction towards services, level of usage, quality of service,
and variety of service provided by the laundry service
STAGES OF OPERATION providers. There are a very small number of studies on the
Laundry process goes through six stages. The first general behaviour of laundry service provides and research was
three stages are called "soiled side" operations, such as i) soiled done in some specific areas only but it has not covered all the
retrieval, ii) Soil sorting and iii) washing since it occur before areas. But there is no specific study relating to the
the linen is actually washed. The last three are called "clean consequences faced by the laundry worker attitude towards
side" operations such as iv) processing, v) packaging and vi) their services, behaviour. Hence the researcher in this section
distribution since they involve the handling of clean linen has taken up some important research article relating to attitude

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of laundry workers which appeared in the reputed journals for i) There is no association between the socio economic
review. variables like age, gender, education and the occupational
10
Dr. R. Kavitha has conducted a study on “Health illness.
care industry in India” and it analyzed that the indispensable to ii) There is no association between the working place
prevent the laundry people from being affected by any disease and walk accidents in laundry services.
and to give treatment to laundry workers. The first and For analyzing the attitude of laundry workers, chi
foremost task of hospitals is to getting quality services from square test, ranking technique and percentile analysis have
laundry workers and also to improve the quality of services been used in this study. The above hypothesis framed is tested
where the situation is found very critical. Moreover this study using chi square test. The Likert scaling technique has been
deals with healthcare position in India and the steps are taken used to measure the attitude of laundry workers. The fish bone
by government to improve the laundry workers. analysis was also undertaken to know the cause and effects of
the laundry services.
DATA ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY In the health care industry various types of services
To know about the laundry services offered in the are offered to the society. The researcher made an attempt to
health care industry. analyse the attitude and behaviour of laundry services in health
To study the laundry service provider’s perception care sector. For the purpose of analysis and interpretation, the
and their behaviour in offering laundry services. laundry workers are classified on the basis of Gender viz. Male
To study the cause and effect in discharging laundry and Female.
service.
ANALYSIS OF SOCIO – ECONOMIC
METHODOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE RESPONDENTS
In this section the sample respondent’s socio –
The area of the study is confined to Trichy city which
economic characteristics like age, educational qualifications,
is located in the southern part of India. In Trichy so many
monthly income and family members are taken from the
industries, educational institutions, hospitals are available in
primary data. Percentage analysis has been used for analyzing
large numbers and all the level of people are also living in this
the personal characteristics relating to the sample respondents
city. The primary and secondary data are used in this study.
are presented in the below table no.1.
The secondary data were collected from the health care
Table No. 1. SOCIO ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
industry, manuals, magazines and the like. The survey was
OF RESPONDENTS
conducted to collect primary data for this study from August
2013 to September 2013. The researcher has interviewed a total
number of 60 respondents performing laundry services in
hospitals. These respondents were drawn randomly across the
city of Trichy based on convenient sampling method. As the
responses received 10 respondents were inadequate and
contradictory to the required information, their responses were
rejected and finally responses from 50 sample respondents
were considered for present analysis.
HYPOTHESES
The hypotheses tested in this study are

10
International journal of scientific and research publications,
Vol. 2, August 2012, pp. 1-4.

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Source: Primary Data AGE


It is observed from the Table No. 1 that out of the Male Female
Particulars
sample respondent’s majority of male and female workers falls Res % Res %
in the category of 21 years to 45 years. 39.47 percent of male 21years to 45years 17 44.74 6 50
workers and 33.33 percent of female workers comes under 45 45years to 55years 15 39.47 4 33.33
years to 55 years age category. Majority of respondents have More 55 years 6 15.79 2 16.67
completed only their school education i.e. 78.95 percent in EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
male category and 75 percent in female category. Other Illiterate 8 21.05 3 25
School 30 78.95 9 75
respondents are found illiterate.
Collegiate 0 0 0 0
Above table indicates that the 75 percent of female
MONTHLY INCOME
and 52.63 male respondents earn only less than Rs. 10000 per Less than Rs.
month. 36.84 percent of the male respondents and 25 percent of 10000 20 52.63 9 75
the female respondents earn Rs. 10000 to Rs. 15000 per month. 10000 to15000 14 36.84 3 25
The table 3.2 expresses that 76.31 percent of male and 58.33 Above 15000 4 10.53 0 0
FAMILY MEMBERS
percent of female category have only 3 to 5 members in their
Less than 3
family. members 5 13.15 2 16.66
3 to 5 members 29 76.31 7 58.33
MODE OF WORK More than 5
members 4 10.52 3 25
In present business sector all the works are executed
Total 38 100 12 100
under PPP system i.e. Public Private Participation. In the health
Particulars Male Female
care sector, works are executed under the mode of direct labour Res Rank Res Rank
work and also on contract basis. The researcher analysed this Direct 35 I 12 I
factor and presented in the below table no 2. Reference 2 III 4 II
Neighbours 0 0
Table No. 2 MODE OF WORK Contract Basis 5 II 0
Total 42 16
Particulars Male Female Source: Primary Data
Res % Res %
It is evident from Table no. 3 that the majority of
Direct Laundry work 13 34.21 4 33.33
Contract basis 4 10.52 0 0 laundry workers are getting their orders from the hospital
Both 21 55.26 8 66.66 directly. Hence the first rank has been allotted to this source.
Total 38 100 12 100 Sources such as ‘contract’ and ‘reference’ secure the second
place.

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Source: Primary Data
Table no. 2 depicts that majority of the sample
respondents do their work under direct and contract schemes
34.21 from male category respondents and 33.33 from female
category respondents do their work directly basis.

SOURCE OF GETTING WORK ORDER


Laundry workers are handling various strategies to get
work order from the hospitals such as the workers are contact
directly to consent people, getting through reference, through
neighbours and some contract basis from that people.
Table No. 3 SOURCE OF GETTING WORK ORDER

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Between
groups(Work
5.309 2 2.655 2.894 .000
order& No .of
workers)
Linear term Un
3.981 1 3.981 4.341 .000
weighted
Weighted 5.304 1 5.304 5.782 .020
Deviation .006 1 .006 .006 .937
Within groups 43.11 47 .917
Source: Primary Data.

For V1 = 1(2-1); V2 = 98 (100-2) F = 3.92


The calculated value 2.894 of F is less than the table
value. The Hypothesis is accepted. Hence there is no
significant difference in the sample means.

WASHING PLACE
This work is done in the specific place only. The
workers have various places to undertake their washing works
such as river bed, washing outlets, at their home and at
ANOVA or Analysis of Variance is used to compare hospital. It has been analysed by the researcher and presented
the means of more than two populations. It uncovers the main the result in table no 5.
and interaction effects of classification or independent
variables on one or more dependent variables. ANOVA Table No. 5. WASHING PLACE
analysis uses the F-statistic, which tests if the means of the Male Female
Particulars
groups, formed by one independent variable or a combination Res Rank Res Rank
River-bed 28 II 9 I
of independent variables, are significantly different. The F-
Washing outlet 32 I 9 I
statistic calculates the ratio between the variance due to At home 3 III 3 II
difference between groups and the error variance. At hospital 2 IV 2 III
F = Variance due to difference between groups/Error Total 65 23
variance
One-Way ANOVA is the generalization of the t-test It is learnt from the above table no 5 that the majority
for independent samples to situations with more than two of male and female respondents preferred to wash at ‘washing
groups. It is also known as single classification ANOVA or outlet’ and ‘river bed’. Hence, first and second rank is provided
one-factor ANOVA. It is used to test the difference in a single to these options. The third and fourth rank has been allotted to
dependent variable among two or more groups formed by a the ‘home’ and ‘hospital’.
single independent or classification variable. It can be found
under the Compare Means item in the Analyze menu by the PROBLEMS FACED BY THE LAUNDRY WORKERS
name One-Way ANOVA. Health care industry is providing this opportunity to
The variables are labeled work orders and no of the consent people and at the same time laundry workers are
workers respectively. When there are both, between-groups as facing various problems like water scarcity, time constraint,
well as within-groups factors present in a design, it is referred natural calamities, inadequate space, hazardous chemicals,
to as mixed design. This analysis is carried out using SPSS and inadequate labours and regular monitor by management. The
presented in table no 4. researcher analysed above said problems which faced by the
respondents and the results are presented in table no 6.
Table No. 4 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Sum Table No. 6. PROBLEMS FACED BY THE LAUNDRY
Mean
Work order of df F Sig WORKERS
Square
square

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Particulars Male Female Laundry workers are facing so many accidents while
Res Rank Res Rank working in river bed, home, hospital and washing outlet. The
Water Scarcity 33 I 11 I
laundry workers met accident such as small scratch, Fracture,
Time constraint 14 IV 2 V
Natural Calamities 31 II 11 I Sudden bleeding, Giddiness, Insect bites, Chemical infections,
Inadequate Space 14 IV 4 IV Slips in wet floor and the like. The researcher analysed the
Hazardous accidents faced by the respondents and the results are given the
chemicals 3 VI 2 V
Inadequate labours 22 III 7 III below table no. 8.
Regular monitory by Table No. 8 KINDS OF ACCIDENTS
management 0 0 0 Particulars Male Female
Total 117 37
Res % Res %
Source: Primary Data
Small scratch 8 14.29 2 14.29
It is evident from table no 6 that the majority of
Fracture 13 23.21 2 14.29
workers from male and female category. Suffer from water
Sudden flood 3 5.36 0 0.00
scarcity and are affected some natural calamities. Hence the
Giddiness 15 26.79 5 35.71
first rank and second has been allotted to these problems
Insect bites 0 0.00 0 0.00
respectively. Third rank goes to the problem inadequate labours
Chemical infections 1 1.79 0 0.00
in the field. The remaining problems have low scoring and are
Slips from wet floor 16 28.57 5 35.71
faced by the laundry workers occasionally. Infections to pathogens
from contaminated 0 0.00 0 0.00
clothes
KINDS OF OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESS
Total 56 100 14 100
Due to the work nature, environment, and the
It is inferred from table no 8 Among 56 responses for
chemicals used laundry workers are having occupational illness
men and female category, 16 persons met accident like slips
such as respiratory problems, Backache complaints, Skin
from wet floor and giddiness from the sun lighting. 13
problems, Allergies, Transmitted disease, Infections, Upper
respondents among male and 2 respondents among female have
limp disorder. The researcher made an attempt to analyse the
met accident and got fracture. Other options have minimized
illness and results are presented in the table no 7.
responses such as small scratch, sudden flood, and chemical
Table No. 7. KINDS OF OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESS
infections. Nobody is affected because of handling
Male Female contaminated clothes and insect bites.
Particulars
Res Rank Res Rank ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE WORK PLACE OF
Respiratory problems 4 V 3 V LAUNDRY SERVICE AND ACCIDENT IN WORK SPOT
Backache complaints 29 I 9 II The association between the work place of laundry
Skin problems 25 III 11 I service and accident in work spot has been analyzed with the
Allergies 16 IV 7 IV help of chi-square test based on the basis of null hypothesis
Transmitted disease 0 0 0 0 (Ho), i.e. there is no association between the place of laundry
Infections 1 VI 1 VI service and accident happen in work spot and alternative
Upper limp disorder 29 I 8 III hypothesis (H1), i.e. there is an association between the place of
Total 104 39 laundry service and accident happen in work spot. The
Table no 7 evident that the majority of the respondents researcher have used SPSS to cross tabulate and then test the
of male category affected ‘backache’ and ‘upper limp disorder’ similarity of two distribution using chi square statistics. The
problems and female category are affected by ‘skin problems’. result of the analysis is shown in the below Table. 9
Hence the first and second rank has been allotted to these
illnesses. Following this, the male and female workers are TABLE NO. 9. CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS FOR WORK
affected ‘allergies’ secures fourth place. Fifth place goes to PLACE OF LAUNDRY SERVICE AND ACCIDENT
respiratory problems and infections among the entire category. HAPPEN IN WORK SPOT
KINDS OF ACCIDENTS Particulars River Washing At At

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bed out-let Home Hospital (Five percent level of significance)


Small 0.234 .034 1.705 1.087
The table 10 shows that the calculated value of chi-
scratch
0.401 1.865 .577 .o52 square is less than the table value at 5% level of significance.
Fracture
Sudden 1.121 .701 1.375 .278 Hence the null hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that
flood there is no significance difference in the tendency of
Giddiness .624 1.445 .284 .408 occupational illness to socio economic factors such as age,
Chemical .359 .224 .139 .089 gender and educational qualification.
infections
Slips from .910 .338 .179 .516
wet floor OFFERED PRIVILEGES
Source: Primary Data The researcher analysed about the privileges given by
(Five percent level of significance) the hospital to their laundry workers such as free medical
It is observed from the above table 9 that the checkup, free medic line, discounts in treatment, children
calculated chi-square value is greater than five percent critical welfare, educational assistance and employment opportunities
value for the nature of accidents ‘small scratch’, ‘fracture’, for family members and its results are presented in table 11.
sudden flood, giddiness, chemical infections, slips from wet Table No. 11. PRIVILEGES OFFERED BY THE
flood', in the work spots such as river bed, washing outlet, at HOSPITAL
home, at hospital. Hence the null hypotheses for these Particulars Male Female
accidents happen on the work spot are accepted. Hence it can Res Res
be concluded that there is no association between the work Free medical checkup 16 5
place of laundry service and accident happen in work spot. Free medic line 13 2
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SOCIO-ECONOMIC Discounts in treatment 27 8
FACTORS AND OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESS Children welfare 1 1
The association between the socio economic factors Educational assistance 1 0
such as age, gender, education and occupational illness has Total 58 16
been analyzed with the help of chi-square test based on the Source: Primary Data
basis of null hypothesis (Ho), i.e. there is no association It is clear from the above table 11 shows that the
between socio economic factors such as age, gender, education privileges listed by the researcher and its responses. Among the
and occupational illness and alternative hypothesis (H1), i.e. sample respondents, 27 made respondents and 8 female
there is an association between socio economic factors such as respondents have opined that they are given discounts in
age, gender, education and occupational illness. hospitals. Following this a major portion of the respondents
TABLE NO.10. CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS FOR SOCIO from male and female category avail free medical checkup
ECONOMIC FACTORS SUCH AS AGE, GENDER, from the hospitals. Other privileges also availed by few
EDUCATION AND OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESS. respondents.
Particulars Age Gender Education
Respiratory 2.85 .166 .195 TRAINING AVAILABILITY
problems
Training is an important tool to improve the workers
Backache .008 1.219 .019
complaints quality, skill set, and using machineries in laundry field, update
3.594 .453 1.553 knowledge and knowing the recent techniques available in the
Skin problems
.435 3.631 1.887 field. Level of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of the training
Allergies
Transmitted .359 1.299 .224 methods to their workers and it also differ from one to another
disease person. Hence a question was raised to the respondents
.089 1.161 .701 regarding the training methods. The opinion of the laundry
Infections
Upper limp 1.418 1.722 .307 workers towards this question is presented in table 12
disorder
Source: Primary Data
Table No.12 TRAINING AVAILABILITY

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Particulars Male Female In this step, it is brainstormed that the possible causes
Res Score Res Score
are employment of high time for discharging laundry work.
Strongly Agree 0 0 0 0
Agree 0 0 0 0 The researcher had chosen statistical tools for interpreting the
Neutral 13 39 7 21 causes, namely a fishbone diagram and a Pareto chart. The
disagree 14 28 4 8 researcher had collected response from family members and
Strongly disagree 11 11 1 1
78/190* 30/60* asked the questions, “Which activity would you consider adds
Total 38 12
100 = 41 100 = 50 the most time to your laundry process?” Based on this data, a
Pareto chart and fishbone diagram and presented below.
Table 12 highlights the opinion regarding the level of The researcher has analysed with the additional causes
satisfaction of the respondents towards availability of training during the laundry process through a fishbone diagram. The
to the laundry workers. Majority of respondents disagreed researcher was able to sought out these caused by analyzing the
regarding training. There is no proper training offered by process inputs, process, and outputs. Among the causes easily
anyone from the laundry association. The dissatisfaction scores sought out some processes like sorting and putting clothes
given by the sample of respondents are male category 41 away are concentrated in the Pareto chart as viewed.
percent and female category 50 percent. Hence, the researcher suggest to focus attention on
these factors like folding, soaking and bed liens in order to
LOW OPERATION COST reduce the total amount and time spent performing the entire
Due to the market condition, cost of living, living laundry process. The researcher analyzed the possible causes
style, competition, prices, scarcity of labour, fluctuation of cost and determined from the Pareto chart that the vital few
of material are all the determinant factor of actions. So the consisted of extra time for sorting and gathering clothes as well
researcher asked question to know the opinion about the as the time spent folding and putting the clothes away.
operation cost among the laundry workers and presented in Chart No 1. Pareto Chart
table no3.30.
Pareto Chart

Table No. 3.30 LESS OPERATION COST 12


F
Male Female R 10
Details
Res Score Res Score E
Q 8
Strongly U
0 0 0 0
Agree E 6
N
Agree 0 0 0 0 C 4
Neutral 0 0 0 0 Y
2
disagree 0 0 0 0 0
Strongly Sorting/ Putting Folding Soaking/ Bed
38 38 12 12
disagree Gathering Clothes Socks Pre-Wash Linens
38/190*100 12/60*100 Away
Total 38 12
= 20 = 20
The below diagram depicts the cause and effect of variation in
Table 3.30 highlights the opinion regarding the level time spent on laundry. The various causes are entertainment,
of satisfaction of the respondents toward the cost of operation. distractions laziness and illness etc…
All the respondents are strongly disagreed towards the cost
. of Diagram No. 1. FISHBONE DIAGRAM
activity. The satisfaction scores given by the sample
respondents are 20 percent in both the categories.

CAUSE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS ABOUT LAUNDRY


WORK

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14. 63.63% of the laundry service providers are giving wages


to their labourers on daily basis and few percentage of
respondents are settling on weekly basis.
15. In this study, it is found that most of the laundry workers
are giving fixing wages to their labourer’s on piece rate basis.
16. 50% of female respondents and 44.47% of male
respondents are using the bacterial soap for protecting their
health after the completion of work process.
17. Majority of the respondents have suffered from
occupational illness in their work.
RESEARCH FINDINGS 18. The laundry workers seek assistance from the local bodies
such as, water tank facilities and washing materials at low cost.
1. Among the sample respondents Male category of the Some of the respondents have availed special assistance from
respondents are 76% and very few are from female category. the hospital like housing facilities and safety washing outlet.
2. 96.7 percent of respondents render laundry service as it a 19. Nobody is have availed any insurance policies to
hereditary business. compensate their financial loss and for their medical treatment
3. Majority of the respondents have responded that the due to that their poor financial position and lack of awareness.
material, washing, ironing and delivery the materials from the 20. All the respondents opined that they are recognized by the
various hospitals in a particular timings only. society.
4. 81.57% male respondents and 58.3% of the female 21. Majority of respondents have strongly agreed the statement
respondents have more than 10 years of experience in this field. “accessing order is easy”. The satisfaction scores given by the
5. The laundry service providers completing their work orders sample of respondents are male category 41 percent and female
with the half of hired labours, their neighbours, relations and category 50 percent.
with their life partners. 22. Few respondents are strongly disagreed their hindrances
6. 81.57 % male respondents and 83.33 % of female and cost of action from the male and female category.
respondents are opined that they are not willing to involve their 23. The respondents have strongly disagreed regarding the
heirs in this work. availability of manpower resources.
7. The respondents have opined that they do not give any
additional complements to hospitals for getting wok order. CONCLUSION
8. The hospitals do not receive any gifts (monetary and non- Third parties services play a prominent role in health
monetary) from the laundry workers for procuring work order. care industry. Third party services such as transportation,
9. In this study majority of the respondents are completing their warehousing, cross docking, inventors, packaging, cleaning,
works with the assistance of three members. and washing freight forwarding etc have gained. They are
10. The respondents are completing the work depends up on normally contracted by a health administrators in India also
the availability of water, time taken, raw material availability where high rate of demographic pressure, illiteracy,
and delivery time. They are doing above said works based on environmental pollution. This laundry service types include
their convenience and timings and the respondents are working washing and drying garments such as T-shirts, shorts, pants,
between 8am to 6 pm. and even materials such as blankets and curtains. Most of the
11. All the respondents are using washing soda and laundry service providers also offer laundry services such as
washing powder only for washing. pressing, packaging and delivery. Hence the present research
12. The workers are facing so many problems such as water work will be highly useful to the policy makers in taking vital
scarcity, natural calamities and inadequate space. decision and will help the laundry service to improve their
13. Hospitals are paying bills to their laundry workers at the work life. This piece of research work will gain reputation for
time of delivery. the researcher if it is amply rewarded.

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REFERENCES: Organisation: PRIST School of Business,


PRIST University, Trichy.
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Delhi, 2001.
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Survey’. 1st Edition. Vol. 6. A. P. H Publishing Company; New Delhi: 2003.
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Administration; New Delhi: 1998. pp. 109–121.
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Administration and Planning, 1st Edition, Jaypee Brother. New
Delhi. 1998;1:1–19.

FIRST AUTHOR & CORRESPONDANCE AUTHOR

Name: Dr. S. SUKUMAR


Qualification: M.Com. M.B.A., M.Phil. PGDCA, PGDIM,
Ph.D.
Designation : Associate Professor

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A Numerically efficient power optimization scheme for


coded OFDM systems in achieving minimum frame
error rate
KVBL Deepthi*, V. Rama Krishna Sharma**, G. Santhosh Kumar***

*
Assistant Professor, ECE Department, MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad ,India
**
Associate Professor ,ECE Department, GNITC, Hyderabad, India
***
Assistant Professor, ECE Department, GNITC, Hyderabad ,India

Abstract- Coded OFDM is a transmission technique that is used in many practical communication systems. In a coded OFDM
system, source data are coded, interleaved and multiplexed for transmission over many frequency sub-channels. In a conventional
coded OFDM system, the transmission power of each subcarrier is the same regardless of the channel condition. However, some
subcarrier can suffer deep fading with multi-paths and the power allocated to the faded subcarrier is likely to be wasted. In this
paper, we compute the FER and BER bounds of a coded OFDM system given as convex functions for a given channel coder,
inter-leaver and channel response. The power optimization is shown to be a convex optimization problem that can be solved
numerically with great efficiency. With the proposed power optimization scheme, near-optimum power allocation for a given
coded OFDM system and channel response to minimize FER or BER under a constant transmission power constraint is obtained.
.

Index Terms- FER, BER, OFDM, Convex Optimization, Near-Optimum power allocation

I. INTRODUCTION

I n recent years, the demand for high data rate transmission has increased in wireless communications. High data rate
transmission may require a very complex equalizer which is not desirable in wireless communications. Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a transmission scheme for which a receiver can be implemented that is easily implemented
without an equalizer. Therefore, the OFDM technique has attracted attention for many wireless applications. OFDM is a
transmission technique that divides the data into several frequency sub-channels whose bandwidth is less than the total data rate.
The uncoded performance of an OFDM system can be different in different frequency selective channels. To solve this problem,
some solutions that are used include discrete multi-tone (DMT) and coded OFDM. In the case of DMT, the bits and power are
allocated to each sub-channel with a water-filling optimization. However, a DMT system does not provide frequency diversity,
since each sub-channel is coded independently. In this paper, equation for the bit error rate (BER) and frame error rate(FER)
bounds of a coded OFDM systems. The upper bounds can be expressed as sums of exponential functions or sums of Q-functions
that are convex functions. Therefore, the power allocation to minimize the target BER or FER for a total transmission power
constraint is shown to be a convex function. Optimization problem by solving the present convex power optimization problem, we
can improve the performance of a coded OFDM system compared with that of conventional constant power allocation. This paper
shows the performance improvements with the proposed power allocation. The paper is structured as follows. Section II describes
the system model used in this paper. The proposed power optimization is shown to be convex optimization in Section III.

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II SYSTEM MODEL
In this section, the system model of the proposed coded OFDM system used in the proposed power allocation scheme. The
system model is based on bit-interleaved coded modulation [2] [3]. However, it is also possible to use trellis-coded modulation [4]
with some modification of the model for the power allocation of the coded OFDM system. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of
the proposed coded OFDM system. Information bits are coded with the channel encoder. After channel encoding, the number of
coded bits is larger than that of the uncoded information bits. The coded bits are interleaved at the inter-leaver to achieve
frequency diversity.

The interleaved bits are demultiplexed into several sub-channels. The number of interleaved bits for each sub-channel
islog2M, where M is the constellation size of the modulation. The demultiplexed bits are mapped to a constellation point for the
given modulation scheme. For bit-interleaved coded modulation, a Gray mapping is usually used. After mapping, the transmitter
sends the modulated symbols to the channel.

The channel is wireless channel is assumed to be and quasi-static within the sub-channel for the transmission period of
a frame. After experiencing the Channel, AWGN noise is added to the signal at the receiver. At the receiver, the received signal is
demodulated. Usually a DFT is used to convert the time-domain signal to a frequency-domain signal. After the DFT, the received
signal .The soft metric is de-interleaved at the de-interleaver and sent to the decoder. The receiver also estimates the gain and
phase components of the channel response for coherent detection. Channel gain plays an important role and power allocated
depends upon channel gain

Fig 1.Block diagram of the a coded OFDM system

In the proposed power allocation scheme, a feedback link from the receiver to the transmitter is assumed. The receiver sends
the channel response information to the transmitter and the transmitter computes the power level of each sub-channel. The
transmission power of each sub-channel is adjusted based on the computed power levels.

III POWER OPTIMIZATION

A. Performance Bounds:

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With the system model presented described in the last section, the performance of a coded OFDM system can be
represented by upper bounds. For simple analysis, assume that the channel code is linear and the modulation is BPSK or QPSK.
With these linear conditions, can fix a codeword c0 as the transmitted codeword. For a general non-linear case, an average over
C0 may be required. There is no closed form for the BER or FER of coded systems except for some trivial cases that include
uncoded systems and orthogonal coding. Upper bounds are the conventional method for the performance analysis of coded
systems. The upper bounds of coded systems are obtained with the union bound technique. Using the union bound technique, the
upper bounds of BER and FER are given by

(1)

Where is the pair-wise error probability (PEP) that a codeword

(2)

Where the total number of information is bits in a frame and is the Hamming distance of the source data.

The pair-wise error probability is given by the following equation

(3)

Where is the is the distance between the all-zero codeword and the i-th codeword at the receiver.

(4)

Where is the allocated power at the k-th sub-channel and is the sum of the squared Euclidian distance of coded

symbols located at the k-th carrier of the i-th codeword, when unit power is allocated to each sub channel .From (1), (2) and (3),
BER and FER of a coded OFDM system. The present system is upper bounded by sums of Q functions or sums of
exponential functions. The FER and BER bounds are given as

(5)

(6)

The BER and FER upper bounds in (6) or (7) are expressed as sums of exponential functions or Q-function. These upper bounds
can be shown to be convex functions. The target of the proposed power allocation is to minimize the FER bound in (5) or the
BER bound in of a coded OFDM system under this constraint

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(7)

For k=1…….. (8)

Where is the transmission power of the k-th sub-channel, is the total transmission power and is the number of Sub-

channels in a coded OFDM system. The upper bounds on FER and BER for QAM modulation are convex functions, since FER
and BER are linear sums of conditional FER’s and BER’s which are convex functions [6]. Therefore, the FER or BER bound of
a coded system can be given as a sum of Q functions or a sum of exponential functions which are convex functions. The
constraints for the power optimization of (7) and (8) are also linear inequalities. Therefore, power optimization to minimize the
FER or BER bound under the constant power constraint is a convex optimization problem. Generally, there is no analytical
solution for a convex optimization problem. However, there are many numerical methods which can solve the problem efficiently
[5]. Most of the numerical methods are based on iteration. The number of iterations to obtain an optimized solution depends on
the cost function and choice of a numerical method. The upper bounds to be log-convex functions [5]. For most systems, it
requires less number of iterations to solve the problem using the cost functions .It has so many advantages. Since the proposed
power optimization uses upper bounds as the cost functions, it cannot be said that the proposed power optimization is optimal.
However, the upper bound approach is the best method to analyze the performance of the coded system, since it is impossible to
obtain a closed form formula for the performance of a coded system except some trivial cases. Furthermore, the upper bound is
very close to the actual performance for the most Eb/N0 range of interest. Therefore, it can be said that proposed power
optimization provides a near optimum power allocation for the given channel encoder, modulation scheme and inter-leaver.

IV RESULTS

A. Simulation Environments
In this section, simulation environments are presented for the coded OFDM system used for performance evaluation. For the
performance simulation, a simple coded OFDM system with 16 sub-channels is used. The basic coding and modulation scheme
for the coded OFDM system is bit-interleaved coded modulation. For channel coding, a convolutional code with rate rc = 1/2 and
constraint length k = 9 is used. A simple block inter-leaver and estimation and an ideal Viterbi decoder are assumed. It is also
assumed that there is no error in the feedback information from the receiver to the transmitter. For simple comparison, the average
channel gain is normalized so that

(9)

Where Nc is the number of sub-channels of the OFDM system. The most computationally demanding part for the proposed power
optimization is computing the cost function. The cost function is the FER or BER upper bound of the coded OFDM system. In this
letter, upper bounds are computed using the Nev significant error events of the convolutional code. The Nev significant error
events are computed and all possible time shifts of the error events are considered in computing the coefficients of the upper
bounds. The complexity to compute the upper bound is that of decoding 10 - 1000 frames, depending on the number of terms and

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input variables used for the bounds. Nev = 1000 is used to compute the upper bound of the example system. Ten iterations are
used for the optimization with the interior point method [4].

B. Performance Results

The performance results are obtained for the coded OFDM system described in IV-A with the previous conventional constant
power and the proposed power allocations is the power allocations and the channel gain for a channel response h1(t). The channel
gain has a peak at the center of the sub-channels and nulls at the both ends of the sub-channels. The solid line shows the power
allocation with the proposed power optimization method. The dotted line shows the power allocation obtained from channel
Inversion with some low gain channels dropped. The power allocated to a sub-channel is the proportional to the inverse of the
channel gain in the case of channel inversion technique The channel inversion would require infinite power for the null bands.
Therefore, the performance of channel inversion improves if some sub-channels with lower gains are not used. The figure shows
the best performance power allocation for channel inversion with bad channel dropped. Fig. 2(b) shows the performance results
for the coded OFDM system with the channel response h1(t). The conventional coded OFDM with constant power allocation
shows the worst performance. Using the channel inversion technique with bad channels dropped improves the performance of the
coded OFDM system by 0.5 - 0.6 dB. However, with the proposed power optimization, the performance gain is about 1.2 dB
compared with the conventional constant power allocation. An OFDM system with 7 sub-channels and a data frame composed of
four information bits. For the channel coding, Consider a simple (7,4) Hamming code which has a minimum Hamming distance 3.
The Hamming code is designed to correct one bit error in the codeword with hard decision decoding. Another widely used
transmission scheme is coded OFDM. In a coded OFDM system, data are encoded by a channel coder, interleaved and divided
into several frequency sub-channels. Due to the channel coding and interleaving, frequency diversity can be archived. This coded
OFDM is used in practical communication systems including Wireless LAN. However, the power allocated to the nulls of the
frequency response is likely to be wasted in a coded OFDM system. Therefore, if the power is allocated to the best sub-channels,
the performance of a coded OFDM can be improved .The FER and BER of a coded OFDM system are bounded by sums of
exponential functions or by sums of Q-functions. In this paper, these bounds are shown to be convex functions. Therefore, power
allocation to minimize the target BER or FER is shown to be a convex optimization problem with a total transmission power
constraint. With the power allocation obtained from the optimization, the performance of a coded OFDM system is improved. The
proposed scheme provides a near-optimum power allocation for a given channel coding, inter-leaver and modulation The
performance of the proposed allocation schemes is simulated with a simple OFDM system in static and dynamic channel
environments. From the simulation and analytical results, we show that the proposed allocation schemes provide performance gain
over conventional coded OFDM systems. In static channel environments, DMT shows the best performance. The performance of
coded OFDM with constant power allocation is worse than that of DMT. The proposed power allocation improves the
performance of coded OFDM systems. For the channel models of this dissertation, the proposed schemes can achieve 1-2 dB
performance gain over the conventional coded OFDM systems.

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Fig 2 Performance of channel response

The power allocations and the channel gain for another channel response h2(t). The channel gain in the frequency domain shows
two peaks near sub-channel six and fourteen. The power allocation from the proposed optimization is shown as a solid line. The
power allocation near sub-channel six is similar to channel inversion. However, for the power allocation near sub-channel
fourteen, the higher The channel gain, the higher the allocated power level. The performance results for the coded OFDM system
with the channel response and the power allocations given in above figure. With the power allocation obtained from the proposed
optimization, the performance gain is about 1.2 dB.

V CONCLUSION

In conventional coded OFDM systems, the power of each Sub-channel is the same regardless of the channel and response. With a
feedback link from the receiver to the transmitter, the transmitter can optimize the power of each sub-channel to minimize the
FER or BER under constant total transmission power constraint. In this paper, it is shown that the present power optimization
problem can be solved with convex optimization. Simulation results shows that the proposed power optimization can improve the
performance of coded OFDM systems.

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Fig 3 Performance of channel response

REFERENCES

[1] H. Moon, “Efficient power allocation for coded OFDM systems,” Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University. 2004.

[2] B. Le Floch, M. Alard, and C. Berrou, “Coded orthogonal frequency multiplex,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 83, no. 6, pp. 982-996, June 1995.

[3] T. Keller and L. Hanzo, “Sub-band adaptive pre-equalized OFDM tranmission,” in Proc. IEEE VTC, Amsterdam, Netherlands, Sept. 1999,
pp. 334-338.

[4] C. S. Park and K. B. Lee, “Transmit power allocation for BER performance improvement in multicarrier systems,” IEEE Trans. Commun.,vol. 52, no. 10,
pp. 1658-1663, Oct. 2004.

[5] H.-J. Su and E. Geraniotis, “Power allocation and control for multicarrier systems with soft decoding,” IEEE J. Select. Areas Commun., vol. 17,no. 10, pp.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 358
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1759-1769, Oct. 1999.

[6] W. Bocquet, K. Hayashi, and H. Sakai, “Frequency domain power adaptation scheme for coded OFDM transmissions,” in Proc. 13th European Wireless
Conf., Paris, France, Apr. 2007.

[7] G. Caire, G. Taricco, and E. Biglieri, “Bit-interleaved coded modulation,”IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 927-946, May1998.

[8] J. M. Wozencraft and I. M. Jacobs, Principles of Communication Engineering. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967.

[9] S. Boyd and L. Vandenberghe, Convex Optimization. Cambridge UniversityPress, 2004.

AUTHORS
First Author – KVBL Deepthi, Asst.Professor, MVSR Engineering College, [email protected]
Second Author – V. Rama Krishna Sharma, Assoc. Professor, GNITC, [email protected]
Third Author – G. Santhosh Kumar, Asst. Professor, GNITC, [email protected]

Correspondence Author – V. Rama Krishna Sharma, [email protected]


[email protected]
Contact No: +91-9000217673.

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Balance and Decline of Trade in Early Andhra: (With


special reference to Roman contacts)
Dr. G. Mannepalli
*
Faculty Member,Dept. of History & Archaeology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh

Abstract- The history of early Indian trade also shows a distinct A few words may be said here with regarded to the influence
preference for the study of long-distance trade-both over land of the ocean upon the life of the Andhra people close association
and overseas –the study of exports and imports, especially their with the sea made the inhabitants of the coastal regions fearless
possible identifications on a modern map. The other common and adventurous sailors. The idea conquering the sea always
feature in this historiography is to present urban centers almost haunted them and the result was the discovery of a number of
invariably as thriving commercial canters and to hold places hitherto unknown to them. Going there both as colonists
commercial exchanges as the principal causative factor towards and traders they also widened the geographical horizon of Indian
urbanization. Without belittling the importance of this civilization. Levi (pre -Aryan and pre- Dravidian) has pointed out
conventional narrative approach to the history of trade; it must be that the sea-routes to the East from the ports of South India had
emphasized that an understanding of trade and urban centers can come in to common use many centuries before the Christian era.
hardly be delinked from the agrarian sector. Significantly Trade relations with the West also opened well before said era.
enough, the expansion “agro-cities” has been used to characterize This maritime trade was regulated by the wind currents, better
early Indian urban centers. The trade between Andhra and known as monsoonal wind currents ,which are specially
Roman Empire, Andhra was the much beneficiary compare with important and are perhaps unique in their effects.(Vincent-
Rome. Because of this trade Buddhism, urban centers were commerce of ancient India)The monsoon whose regular action
flourished in that period. was known to Indian sailors from very early times, was
discovered for the west some time about the middle of the first
Index Terms- Exports, Imports, Port towns, Monsoons, Sea century A.D.and since then it dominated the navigation of the
winds, Balance of trade Arabian sea and the Bay of the Bengal till the invention of
steamship of the 19th century . The monsoonal wind current,
likewise, governed sailing over the Bay of Bengal. For a period
I. INTRODUCTION of well over five months, the direction and route of sailing were
determined by these winds and navigators of the Indian Ocean
A ndhradesa as one of the regional hubs of the vast net-work
of international commerce must have experienced a great
amount of material prosperity, herself having accomplished
who had closely studied the action of these phenomena were able
to make full use of them.
production of merchandise so as to actively participate in it. As
such, the Roman connection is increasingly seen as a powerful Objectives of the paper
factor in the urbanization of ports of Peninsular India in the early 1) To identify the trade evidences of Early Andhra.
historic period (S.J. Keay, 1996-97). In spite of the subject 2) To identify the sea winds of early times.
having been studied by so many eminent scholars and 3) To identify the ports and Marts of Early Andhra
distinguished archaeologists, whose works will be briefly 4) to identify the Exports and Imports of Early Andhra
reviewed in the following section as to have set the model for the 5) How Andhra was benefited with Roman contacts
present study, the subject promises opportunities for studies
afresh. Trade relations between India and Roman Empire
Andhra Pradesh is one such state in the Indian Union, with Political upheavals in the country did not affect the trade
its own individuality in matters of language, civilization and between India and other countries. It was carried on as before on
culture, worthy of historical study with useful purpose, and hence international routes and there was great improvement in the sea
the study has been taken up, keeping in mind the need for a trade and as we shall see later on, On account of his profitable
balanced study in accordance with the principles of trade India was the recipient of large amount of Roman gold.
historiography, explained above. However, the fact that no part When the political changes were taking place in Northern India,
of the country is so much individual as to flourish absolutely the Satavahana dynasty was increasing its strength in the deccan.
independent of others, and no region could remain aloof from In the poeriod of Simuka and his younger brother Krishna, the
others to the extent of without influencing, or getting influenced satavahana empire was extended up to Nasik,and in this way as
by others, is never to be ignored. Hence, the present study is not they profess in their later inscriptions, they had in reality become
strictly limited to the region of Andhra Pradesh as a water-tight the rulers of the Deccan. The Satavahana king
compartment and adequate importance has been accorded to VasishtaPutraPulumavi(circa137-155a.d) was the son-in law of
corresponding developments in the regions around, of the same Rudradaman.Even then by defeating his son-in-law Rudradaman
time. annxed some parts of his empire.Another great king of
Satavahana dynasty was SriYajnaSatakarni. Who according

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Rapson issued the ship type coins found in the cholamandala markets, the Chinese records also give the profit as tenfold or a
between Madrasand Cuddalore. ( E.J.Rapson 1908) professor hundred-fold. May people have brought this traffic was
V.V..Mirashi (1941) on the strength of a complete coin of this economically harmful to the Roman Empire in the long run. The
type has ,however, proved that these coins were issued by Roman products failed to balance the Indian imports, and
SriYajnaSatakarni.On the reverse of this coin appears a double exportation of money, discouraged even from Italy in first
mated ship below which a fish and a conch shell symbolize the century B.C. was freely allowed to altogether foreign lands under
sea. The ship raked at both ends is equipped with mats, ropes and Augustus and his successors. We must consider the use of wealth
sails. There is no doubt that this ship symbolizes the Indian by the Romans and estimate whether the exportation of money,
overseas trade which was in full swing in the Satavahana period. silver and gold was detrimental of the Empire. It is a fact that as
But as professor Mirashi’s coin was found in the Guntur district early as 62A.D. the ruinous system of depreciation had begun;
of AndhraPradesh it informs us that ship type coins were in silver alloy from 5% to 20% added before the death of Nero
currency in that region as well. The ship type and Roman coins increased to 30% under Trojan 50%; and more under Severus,
from the Cholamandala inform us that there was a very intimate until finally after 218 A.D. the denarious ceased to be a silver
commercial relation between India and Roman Empire. coin and there was a return to the system of payment in kind. The
One inscription, mention has been made of the Mahachaitya aureus too was depreciated but gold which played a different part
at Kantakasela.There is no doubt that this Kantakasela of in the international economics from silver did not become so
Ptolemy which he places just after the mouth of the Krishna of scare.
the same. Discovery of the inscriptions from a villaged named Before the Roman Empire begin, was rather than commerce
Ghantasala in the Krishna district on the Eastern coast datable to distributed wealth gained by slave -labour, and though war
circa 300 A.D. makes the identification of Kantakasela easy. The Republican Rome became rich by the plunder of the East with its
first inscription mentions the great sea caption Sivaka which hoarded wealth and possession of the mines of Spain and other
supports the view that in the early centuries of the Christian era. regions. Roman capitalist’s speculators and Money-lenders came
Ghantasala was an important port. In the second inscription the to regard money as the only riches and valuable only in
ancient name of Ghantasala is given as Kantakasala(Ancient exchange; hence the new wealth was spent not upon productive
India 1949) these references leave no doubt that in the early enterprises. There was no economic reserve-that was fault we
centuries of Christian era Kantakasala was a big port situated on must not accuse the Romans of blindly meeting their economic
river bank of the Krishna River which carried on trade with the collapse as thought it were caused only or primarily because of
ports of Srilanka and other countries. The first two their Indian trade.
centuries after Christ; we have indicated that close relations Chowstow rightly points out that history has shown
reached between Roman subjects and Indian races. And have examples of preponderance of import over export without
watched the activities of Syrians and Egptian,Greeks backed disastrous consequences, though he appears to think that the
private capital. We have indicated the collapse of this direct trade serious part of Roman-Indian trade was flow of gold to the East;
a sign of the economic and political disintegration of the Western this certainly was continuous as finds of coins in India show, but
empire and reversion of control in to the hands of Persians, the drain of silver, though apparently checked in time, was more
Arabians. serious. The ultimate conclusion of Chowstow is that no
It may be noted that Roman influence on the India had harm appears noticeable as a direct result of this passive Trade of
generally made it’s marks on South india, particularly the places Rome and that if the flow of coin to the East was undesirable; on
and areas that were accessible by sea. Therefore if the invaders the other hand, the trade with the East stimulated barter and
influenced it was in the North India and the peaceful influence tended to develop industries. The drain perhaps did no more than
took place largely in SouthIndia. From the very start the hasten a little financial collapse which would have come to Rome
Roman Empire was unable to counter-balance the inflow of sooner or later in any case. In our survey of the Indian commerce
Indian products, with the result that the Roman sent out coined of the Roman Empire during two centuries we have in reality
money which never returned to them not even in the form of watched that splendor of a great power as reflected in one branch
Indian money. Roman Emperors down to Nero (31BC-68AD) of its commerce; we have seen that Empire feeling its way
have left very large numbers of gold coins and silver coins which towards a direct commerce with the Far East we have seen the
have been found in the Tamil states and of these a phenomenally complete attainment of that aim during.
large number has stamps of Agustus(31BC) ,Tiberious(14-
37AD) those of Agustus occur in all three Tamil kingdoms some
time in large numbers and of those at least some must have come II. MONSOON AND SEA WINDS
in reign. The discovery of monsoon by Hippalus of Alexandia in the
Agustus (27BC-14AD) ,Tiberious (14-37AD),Tarjan (37- late Ptolemaic or early Augustan period brought a revolution in
41AD), Claudius (41-54AD), Nero (54-68AD), Trojan (98- the Indo-Roman trade relation. Both pliny and the author of the
117AD), Hadrian (117-138AD),AntiocusPius (138-161AD), periplus describe how, as a result of this discovery, the Graeco-
Halloogabalus (218-222AD),Constantine (223- 255AD),Aurelian Roman merchants were able to abandon Coastal voyage along
(270-275AD),Plian (361 363AD). the perilous and inhospitable Arabian Coast and could steer from
Important Roman Emperors including those who received the ports near the mouth of red sea a tolerably straight course
Indian embassies. The Indian trade, in spite of sums paid for across the approaches to the Persian Gulf, ‘quite away from the
obtaining and carrying the goods, brought a good profit, for Pliny land’ to the Indus and Baryhara Merchants for Damirica,
says that Indian wares cost a hundred times more in Roman however, sailed directly a little south of east across the Arabian

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Sea, throwing the ships head considerably off the wind and in It is now necessary to look for Indian Sources for the
favourable circumstances reached Muzuris in 40 days pliny knowledge on types of winds, particularly the monsoons.
(Natural History, 1951) Travellers sail back from India in the According to Jainliterature (Avasyaka churni). The successful
beginning of the Egyptian month Tybins-our December- or at all termination of a sea voyage depended much on favourable wind.
events before the 6th day Egyptian month Mechir, that 8 before Pilots were expected to have an expert knowledge of sea. The sea
the ideas of January. In this way they can go out return the same wind is divided into sixteen categories, namely:
year. They sail from India with a South-East wind, and on 1. Prachina vata (easterly wind)
entering the Red Sea Catch the South-West or South (Mc. 2. Udichina vata (northerly wind)
Crindre, 1961). 3. Dakshinatya vata (southerly wind)
Moreover, the technical difference between Sewn boats and 4. Uttarapaurastya (northerly wind moving against
nailed boats was not great. If the Arabs and Indians found their forward movement)
conventional boats unsuitable for heavy seas they could have 5. Sattvasuka (wind blowing in all directions)
changed their method of construction. The use of proper types of 6. Dakshina-purva-tungara (a stormy win roaring in
sails is also essential for smooth navigation. And it seems that south-eastward direction)
like their Mediterranean counter-parts the ancient vessels playing 7. Apara-Dakshina-bijapa (the wind blowing from
on the Arabian Sea had square sails which were used in this south-west)
region even up to the last century (G.L. Adhya, 1966-121p). 8. Apara-bijapa (westerly wind)
Boats with such sails could go before the wind though they could 9. Aparottara-garjabha (north-westerly storm)
not beat into the wind, and this made them quite suitable for 10. Uttara Sattvasuka
voyages with the south-west monsoon (JAOS, LXXX, p.139). 11. Dakshina Sattvasuka
When the Mediterraneans began sailing with the fast- 12. Purvatungara
blowing south-west wind to reach India quicker, they certainly 13. Dakshina bijapa
look some risk, but it was not an exceptional feat as has been 14. Paschima bijapa
suggested (op.cit, p. 136). The south-west monsoon which blows 15. Paschima garjabha
over the Arabian Sea for six months starting from May is really 16. Uttariya garjabha
dangerous along the coast, especially from June to August (Govt.
Pub. 1931). According to the Periplus (39, 49, 56) and Pliny In the categories of the sea winds described above
(VI.104) Mediterranean sailors for India left Egypt in mid-July sattvasuka, tungara and bijapa are nautical terms and it is
and it took them about a couple of months to arrive there (JAOS, difficult to describe them, but there is hardly any doubt that they
LXXX, p. 139). In September, when they reached the Indian are related to favourable and unfavourable sea-winds. This is
ports, the peak period of stormy weather is almost over along the supported further on. After describing the sixteen kinds of winds,
coast, therefore, we may hold that the sailors of Arabia and India the commentator observes that in the absence of cyclones in the
utilized the South-West monsoon without much risk before the sea and in the favourable garjabha wind, the ship which has no
Greeks and the Romans arrived on this region. leaks, piloted by a clever pilot reaches the desired ports safely.
In the western world the south-west monsoon came to be The cyclone which is called Kalikavata caused many ship wrecks
known as Hippalus after the name of the sea-pilot, who, (Moti Chandra, 1972).
according to the periplus (57) made the maiden voyage to India
right across the Arabian Sea “by observing the location of the
ports and condition of the seas”. Pliny (VI.100, 104) also called III. EXPORTS – IMPORTS OF EARLY ANDHRA
this monsoon Hippalus but he seen to suggest that the name was Exports
significant name of a headland in north-eastern Africa (VI, 172) Exports from early Andhra to Rome. Masalia Modern
and the geographer Ptolemy (IV. 7.12) gives the same name to a Machilipatnam famous for it’s a great quantity of Muslins
sea. The use of the south-west trade wind by the Mediterranean (Periplus, p. 47). Other exports from this region are grain, salt,
sailors to reach India through the high seas did not occur all at spices, pepper, bangles, cooking vessels, coarse cloth (H.P.Ray,
once but by stages, as suggested by Pliny (VI, 96-107). The 1986, p.113). Ivory, wool, woolen products, hide, fur, silk, lac,
statement in the periplus that a sailor called Hippalus discovered pearl, onyx-shell, conch shell, tortoise shell, ghi and musti
how to use the south-west monsoon on the outward voyage to (Warmington, 1974, pp. 157.F).
India may or may not have any historical basis, (Tarn, W.W.
1951, p.369), but the significance point here is that by the time of IMPORTS:
the periplus and Pliny the Mediterranean Sailors had begun Wine, Italian preferred also Laodicean and Arabian, Copper,
utilizing the monsoon. We should try to determine the probable Tin and lead; Coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of
time when the westerners started doing this, in other words, the all kinds, bright-coloured girdles a cubit wide, storax, sweet
date of the discovery of Hippalus, as it has some important clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on
bearing on the history of the Indian trade. which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the
The return journey was no problems; departure in country; (Periplus, p.42).
December-January meant that it took place during the begin A question that needs to be answered is; what was the nature
north-east monsoon. And since this lasted from November to of the imports? Did these fall under the category of essential or
April. One could show off even earlier or later (Casson, 1980, Luxury items? For this evidence we would again have to rely on
p.33-34). the periplus. Above commodities wine, dates, glass, tin, lead,

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copper or antimony, realgar coral, gold and silver coins. Further oriental goods, consisting mostly or luxuries gradually increased
proof of this comes from Archaeologicl excavations. to the point of extravagance. From the lamentations of some
Certain varieties of blue glass beads, e.g. .long cylinder, classical writers such as, Pliny in his natural history (xii.xli)
circular, collared and conveu barrel- shaped lenticular with states that “by the lowest reckoning India, China and the Arabian
colours have adopting value between AD 100 to 350 and have Peninsula take from our empire 100 million sesterces a year. This
been found at Satavahana site in A.P – Kondapur (Dikshit 1955, has been taken to indicate a gradual drainage of the empire is
p.90). gold resources which threw the Roman Monetary system in to a
Ivory at Kondapur (Desh Pande 1961, p.55) and Dharani crisis. The figure quoted by Pliny has been questioned on a
Kota (Mukharjee 1970, p.1418). The cult was that of the nude account of several factors. The use of imported spices was
goddess locally known as Lajja-Gowri and Indicated by the widespread in the Roman Empire; they found their way to
occurrence of terracotta or stone plaques depicting the often relatively minor places and were extensively used in drugs
headless goddess with a lotus in place of the hea. These plaques perfumes, cooking and religious services, as antidotes for poisons
have been found from the first century A.D. at sites in Kondapur, and as ingredients in ointments (Miller 1969:2). Even if Pliny’s
Yeleswaram and Nagarjunakonda. The stone plaque from price list is accepted, it is unlikely that the original some paid to
Nagarjunakonda depicts the torso of the goddess in the shape of a the producer’s was high. Prices in Rome may have been
“Ghata” and bears an inscription of the third century A.D. which exorbitant because of the high important duties, cost of
records that the plaque was offered by a queen whose husband transportation and the risks involved. The much better
and sons were alive (Desai, 1981). documented medieval spice trade suggests that tremendous price
Terracotta bullae have been reported from Kondapur fluctuation could occur because of destruction of a convoy,
and Dharanikota in A.P. (Deo and Gupte, 1974, p.76). The bullae warfare, piracy, failure of a convoy to arrive in time to catch the
seem to have been used as ornaments as metallic imitations of last ship of the season, etc and there is no reason to suppose that
Roman coins are also known from NagarjunakKonda (Wheeler prices remained is stable in antiquity and were not affected by
1955, p. 181-2). these variables (Rasche, 1978, p.670).
The pillar of a ruined place at Nagarjunakonda represents a The figures quoted by Pliny have been attributed
male figure nude down to the waist and holding a drinking horn considerable credibility on account of his position as “Financial
(rhyton) in his left hand. Standing on the ground near his left foot Advisor” to Vespasian and it is often assumed that they refer to
is a wine Jar covered with an inverted drinking cup. The figure the export of coins to China and India. Both these views are,
seems to be meant for a crude representation of Dionysius. The however, erroneous. A friend of Vespasian, Pliny died as
very active sea-borne trade between the Roman empire and commander of the fleet at Misenum- an important post but
Andhra in Early Christian era, may account for the presence of military rather than financial. Another serious objection is that
this figure which was obviously copied from some classical both Roman bureaucratic practice and the surviving from Egypt
examples (MASI, 1938, No. 54, p.11). The discovery, from the itself indicate that it would have been impossible for Pliny to
territory of the Andhras, of actual specimens of Roman coins and obtain any accurate figures for the annual quantity of the
their imitations, made locally as ornaments and mostly pierced or balance-of-payments deficit in Rome’s trade with the East
looped for suspension is further evidence of such contact (Rasche, 1978, p.636).
(Wheeler, 1955). Lastly, we may refer to the Alluru inscription Though tax records were more carefully kept in Egypt than
which includes in a list of gifts made by a certain Mahatalavara, in other provinces and a good deal of evidence is available about
Vadalabhi Karo Karodiyo Ya (na) Kadivikayo, i.e., lamps of the transit tolls, accounting practices and customs regulations, yet
shape of the mouth of Vadala fish, manufactured by the Yavanas now here it is indicated that any one kept a record of the coinage
(D.C.Sircar 1939, p.330). Coins jewels, pottery were also (ibid).
analysed in this study in 3rd Chapter. Rome found a market for her manufactured goods, Roman
economy did not derive much benefit from trading with them
(Adhya.G.L. 1966).
IV. BALANCE OF TRADE Her oriental trade, as is revealed by its adverse balance
The Indo-Roman Trade has been discussed in detail by (Warmington 1928) was undoubtedly a great liability, but the
scholars mostly depending on the western sources. Many of the Roman emperors were keen on maintaining regular and smooth
important conclusions in these studies are based on the traffic with India and other Eastern countries. Some of them took
assumption that the western sailors learnt the use of the south- positive measures to keep the route to India unobstructed. Thus
west monsoon (Hippalus). Sometime in the middle of the first Tarjan’s improvement of the canal connection between the Nile
century A.D. and from that time the commercial connection and the Red sea and his maintenance of a Roman fleet in the
between India and the Roman Empire became closer. latter area, and the peaceful polices followed by Hadrian even at
We have stated above the reasons why we believe that the the cost of surrendering certain political rights in Western Asia,
discovery of the Hippalus was much earlier. Unfortunately the are all connected with the purpose of maintaining an
Roman coins found in India are not always very helpful in uninterrupted trade with the East. As a result of these and similar
determining the respective dates of different phases of Indo- measures, Rome’s Commerce with China and India was quite
Roman transactions. However, only after the establishment of intense from the time of Tarjan almost up to the Death of Marcus
peace and order in the Mediterranean region by Augustus did full Aurelius (Ibid, p. 96).
scale trade between India and the west become possible. With the But was there any larger motive behind these imperial
development of her economic condition Rome’s demand for policies, or were they adopted merely to maintain an open

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 363
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passage for importing Indian precious stones and spices so that known as Dakshina Pathapatis Inscription of Balasri (Burges
the Roman citizens could continue their luxurious living? We J.N.SI. Nasik have No; 18, p. 108-09).
know from western authors that imperial Rome nurtured the wish Several attempts have been made by the scholars to locate
to occupy Arabia, Babylon, Bactria, India and China (Statius, and identify the 30 walled towns mentioned by pliny. But it must
Silvae, IV.1, p. 40-42). That a rich country like India which lured be noted that they were spread over the entire Deccan and not
foreign invaders from very early times would also rouse the confined to the limits of the present day Andhra Pradesh alone.
ambition of powerful Roman emperors is no wonder. We know Apart from their capital cities i.e., Amaravati in Guntur district,
of Tarjan’s strong desire to repeat the achievement of Alexander Andhra Pradesh and Paithan in Aurangabad District,
in India and to do it with more lasting success (Dio’s Roman Maharashtra, numerous other sites of the same period have come
History, LX VIII, p. 29). to light, as a result of extensive archaelogical explorations. To
But circumstances beyond their control never allowed the mention a few are Tagara in Kolhapur District, Junnar and other
entry into India of the 70,000 Roman troops with which, sites in the valley of river Ghod in Pune District, Nevasa on the
according to a classical estimate, a commander like Pompey or river pravara, Bahal on Girnar, also in Maharashtra.
Caesar could easily have occupied the land (Plu tarch, Pompey, Khandesh and Maheshwar in central India (Sankalia H.D.)
LXX, 1917). In Andhra Pradesh also a few sites of the same period have been
We have seen above that up till the reign of Marcus Aurelius discovered by the state department of Archaeology and museums
(AD 161-180) trade between Rome and oriental countries was at and some literary evidences. Notable among them; are
a high level. But from the last decade of the second century, Dhanyakataka or Dharanikota, Bhattiprolu, Vijayapuri,
Rome became involved in long drawn-out political trouble, in Ghantasala, Kodduru, Kalingapatnam, Dantapura.
which the army got the upper hand. This unstable situation lasted
throughout the third century and brought in its wake serious Dhanyakataka:
social and economic crisis (Rostov Zeff 1957). Naturally the As already noted Dhanyakataka was the place of
oriental traders last a considerable part of their lucrative market embarkment for merchants bound for foreigners. Dhanyakataka
in the west. The massacre of the Alexandrians by Caracalla had a very rich hinter-land producing large quantities of grain,
probably dealt a great blow to the direct sea trade between the cotton and forest products hence it developed in to a centre of
India and the empire (Warmington 1928, p.136). Possibly this Industry and trade. The word ‘Dhanyakataka means a heard of
trade passed into the hands of the Arabs, especially those of them grain. It was a converging point of different Indeed trade routes
who had settled in Axum (Hitti 1956, p. 56-57). But as Palmyra and it proved a convenient hoarding point on the river Krishna.
remained flourishing almost until end of the third century it Early Inscriptions of the place mention Nigama which means a
seems that the oriental trade with the west through the Persian merchant guild (C. Sivarama Murthy p.43). Most of Donations
Gulf and by the land route survived to some extent (Warmington for the construction and maintenance of the stupa and Vihara
1928, p.137). were made by artisans, merchants and their women folk. A huge
hoard of punch-marked coins has been discovered in the stupa
site. (P.L. Gupta p.43, 1963).
V. PORTS AND MARTS OF EARLY ANDHRA Though it is away from the sea, big ships could travel up to
The inscriptions of Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and the Dhanyakataka and even beyond recently. A navigable canal
nearby Buddhist Centres mention several centres of Industry dated 4th Cen.B.C. connecting the town with the river has been
Trade carried on by nigamas. Some of them are Vaddamanu unearthed (H. Sarcar p.11, 1971), All these, reflect the
(T.V.G. Sastri B.I.A) which was originally a Jaina Ksetra, importance of Dhanyakataka as a trade centre and A.K.
Kavurura, Narasala, and (James Burgers Ganjikula (T.N. Rama Coomaraswamy (A.K. Coormaraswamy, 1971, p.156) and
Chandra Jou. Andha His. Soc) very little is known about nigamas Reginald le may (reginald Le may p.122) were of the view that
of these places. The following are the most important centres of traders and Buddhist missionaries sailed off from Dhanyakataka.
Industry and trade including maritime trade.
Bhattiprolu:
Antiquity: Bhattprolu was another great centre of trade and industry in
The earliest mention of forts or fortified towns in Andhra this region. This is generally identified with Prithunda Nagara of
occurs in the accounts of Megasthenes followed by Pliny. The the Hathigumpha inscription (170 BC) (DC. Sircar, p. 206 of
later stated that they. The Andrae (Andhras) had possessed thirty Kharavela and Pytindra of Ptolemy (130 AD) (Mc. Crindle p. 67)
walled towns, numerous villages and an army of 100,000 Prithunda Nagara appears to be a very Ancient town. The
infantry 2,000 cavalary, and 1,000 elephants (Mc. Crindle, above inscription describes it as (Purva Raja Nirmita) that is built
Megasthenes, Arrian p.140). From this we learn that the Andhras by Ancient kings. Ptolemy mentions it as a centre of textile
i.e., Satavahanas, the earliest rulers of the Andhra country, were Industry a great mart in the region of maisalia. Even to-day
already a political and military force to reckon with. Originally, Bhattiprolu is known for its textiles. The relic coskets (E.I. vol II
being the local chieftains in mid Godavari valley, they slowly p 329) discovered in the stupa of Bhattiprolu clearly reveals that
expanded their power and authority and rose to imperial position it was built on the genuine relic of the Buddha by Raja Kuberaka
in the Deccan when Kanha or Krishna the second member of the with the help of local nigama. The town is just four kms west of
Puranic genealogy, declared independence. Their empire at its the right banks of the Krishna and about 15 kms from the coast.
zenith comprised the whole of the Deccan and hence they were Even very big ships could sail up to the point. At Bhattiprolu we
thus find the three institutions.

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PoliticalRaja, Commercial Nigama and religious Gosti. The It is likely that merchants and Buddhist monks who went to
existence of these institutions certainly indicates that the sputa- maley peninsula sailed from Kalingapattanam.
site was close to a township having in its population several
trading communities conducting their business. Dantapura :
Dantapura in Kalinga figures prominently in Buddhist
VIJAYAPURI: literature (S. Paranavitana 1959, p. 18-27). The tradition is that it
Vijayapuri at the foot of Sriparvata, the most extensive came to be known as Dantapura (Danta-tooth) of the ship which
Buddhist site in Andhra was also a great centre of trade and carried the tooth relic of Buddha to Ceylon halted at the port.
Industry. The inscriptions of the place mention several craft Sylvain Levi identified it with Palura (pallu=teeth in Telugu)
guilds (DC. Sircar Vol. 35, p.5). The later excavations in the (Sylvain Levi part 1. p. 66-69 Indo-Chine). Ptolemy refers to the
Nagarjunakonda valley brought to light an excellent wharf (B.V. opheterian immediately to the south of Palura where the vessels
Krishna Rao, p.323). This only Indicates that ships moved up and found for the Malay Peninsula or Dantapura was due to its
down the Krishna upto Vijayapuri. importance as the point of departure for the Far East.
Yavanas in the early Andhra Country nothing was heard it is
GHANTASALA: however certain that Graeco-Roman influences played a great
Ghantasala is identified with Kantakossyla of Ptolemy part in the fashioning of the Amaravati tope, and as will be
(J.W.M.C. crindle p.66-68) shown below the inscription from Alluru. (IA.Vol. XL) is
Or Kantakassyla (James Burgers 1887, p.85-93) of the another piece of evidence for Greek influence. Of the Sakas
Inscriptions. It might have been named after Kantaka the something was heard. An Amaravati inscription of the second
favourite horse of prince Siddhartha, the future Buddha. century A.D. mentions a Saka-guri not as akagiri as read by
Ghantasala also had very rich hinter land producing rice and Chanda, or pi (si?) giri as read by F.W. Thomas) (E.I. Vol. XV)
Textiles which helped it to develop in to an international mart. another mentions a …. Ratika Nekhavama’ and Nekhavana
Though it is six miles away from the coast it is connected with curiously reminds us of the person’s name Nahapana (Ibid)
the sea by a big dain called upputeru. The tidal waves helped the More Sakas would seem to have entered early Andhra in the
ships to move into and out of the port. An inscription of about wake of the marriage of Virupurushadata with the daughter of a
270 A.D. Mentions a mahanavika (EP. Andhrica Vol.II p.12) Western Ksatrapa. A Nagarjunakonda epigraph (E.I. Vol.XX)
leader of a fleet. The discovery of a large number of Roman gold mentioned a saka ‘Joy’ and his Buddhist sister Budhi. Among the
coins (H. Sarcar Op Cit. p. 14-16) is a proof of the Profitable Sculptures excavated by Mr. Longhurst at Nagarjunakonda there
trade which the port carries on. There is a temple of Jaladhisvara are two showing a warrior in Scythian dress.
in Ghantasala. (S.I. Vol. V. p.52-53). Jaladhisvara means Lord of
the sea. It is probable that the sailory worshipped the god before Scholars Opinions:
embarking upon distant voyages. Stein argues that forma social point of view ‘Yavanas’
whoever they might have been were absorbed by Indian society
Kodduru: and it is unlikely that Greek colonies existed around the
Ptolemy mentions kodduru as a prominent port (Mc. Crindle beginning of the Christian era (Stein 1934). Kosambi has,
op. cit. 668) it is mentioned even in an inscription from however, opposed this view and suggested that Deogadh on the
Amaravati. (James Bugess op. cit p.93). There are many kodus opposite curve of hills from Karle be identified as Dhenukataka
around modern Machilipatnam. However koduru in divi Taluq and that a Greek settlement may have been situated at the site
divisima kodurus agrees with the description of Ptolemy. It is (Kosambi-1955). He has also read one donar’s name as Milinda
considered as the chief port of embarkation in Andhradesa for the the Physician instead of Mitidasa and suggests that he may also
land of gold. have been a Yavana (ibid) Sircar (Sircar 1942) has pointed out
The importance of the place continued upto about the 17 th that Dhenukataka should not be confused with Dhanyakataka, the
C.A.D. as indicated by the name of a neighbouring village ancient name of Amaravati.
Vallandapalem (C.P. Brown 1952, p.172) Vallandu is the Telugu The view, repeatedly expressed by many scholars, that trade
name for Hollender or the Dutch. The Dutch or hollenders who ceased in the third century AD and was slightly revived during or
came to India during the 17th C.A.D. had many settlements on the soon after the reign of Constantine 1 (fourth century AD), (K.V.
east coast and vallandu pattana is one of them. Koduru and its Raman. 1992) is erroneous. It may be noted that coins of almost
neighbourhood thus served as an important centre of foreign all Roman rulers right from Augustus to Justinus 1 (AD 518-27)
trade from Ancient to modern times. has been unearthed in India in varying numbers and there is no
reason to believe that trade activities ceased in the third century
Kalingapattanam : AD. Instead, the process of Delcine beginning in the late 1 st
Out side the Maisolia region several ports flourished on the century AD, continued slowly but steadily till the sixth-eight
Andhra coast, especially in the North. One of such is centuries AD.
Kalingapattanam (Cummingham, 1924, p.592). It is in the When contacts finally ceased. It is difficult to determine the
Srikakulam district, twenty four kms away from the district precise date of the end of trade activities.
headquarters of the same name. Some scholars identify it with
the capital of Ancient Kalinga. Recently a huge Buddhist stupa
has been exposed at this place. The famous Buddhist centre of
salihundam is about eight miles to the west of Kalingapattanam.

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VI. CONCLUSION [19] Mukherjee 1970. An ivory seal matrix of the Satavahana period, Journal of
Asiatic society, XII, p. 141.
Andhradesa entered the System of money economy during [20] Desai 1981, b. “Mother Goddess” in Ghosh, A.ed. “Encyclopaedia of Indian
the Pre-Mauryan period that is 4th century B.C. This is attested Archaeology” ICHR, Project.
by the large quantities of silver punch-marked coins that were [21] S.B.Deo and R.S.Gupte. 1974, Excavation at Bhokardan, Nagpur,
discovered at a number of places. Archaeological sources clearly Aurangabad.
revealed that the Amaravati Mahachaitya has an established trade [22] Wheeler 1955, Rome beyond the imperial frontiers, London.
communication from the north through Vidarbha in the pre- [23] Memoris of Archaeological survey of India, 1938, No. 54, p.11.
Mauryan period. The existence of punch marked coins at [24] Wheeler 1955, O.P.Cit.
Amaravati, Singavaram, Gudivada and some places in [25] D.C. Sircar 1939, successors of the Satavahanas in the lower Deccan,
Calcutta, 1939, p.330
Telangana, which are proved to be pre-Mauryan witnessed some
[26] Pliny- Natural History Tr.H. Rockhem and others, London Cambridge
trade activities. Early inscriptions and some of the names of the Mass, 1942-61 (leob)
villages also attest the existence of industrial activities for [27] James Innes Miller, spice trade of Roman Empire: 1969 Oxford Press, New
commercial purpose. These factors clearly indicate that Delhi.
Andhradesa had trade contacts with the North even before the [28] M.G...Rasche, 1978 “New studies in Roman commerce with East, Aufstie
early historical period. The rise of Satavahanas coinciding with a and Niedergang der Romischer welt, Berlin.
proliferation of settlements in Modern Andhra Pradesh can in [29] G.L.Adhya.. 1966. Early Indian Economics, Asia Pub. House, Bombay, p.
part be attributed to an expansion of internal, long distance trade 137.
as well as increased overseas demand supported by the [30] Warmington 1928. The commerce between the Roman Empire and India
Cambridge, p. 272
development of an agricultural base. The reasons for this
[31] Statius – Silvae, Tr. J.H. Mozley, London, Newyork, 1928 (Loeb).
expansion may be ascribed to both geographical and historical
[32] Dio’s Roman History, Tr.E.Cary London, New York, 1904-27 (Loeb).
factors.
[33] Plutarch- Lives (Vol.v) Tr.B. Perrin, London, Newyork, 1917, (Loeb).
That the Indo-Roman contacts were not confined to mere
[34] M. Rostov zeff,.1 1957, Social and Economic History of Roman Empire (2
commercial ties. They extended to the exchange of diplomatic vols). Revised Ed. Oxford 1957, p.
embassies and cultural interaction. The focus here, however, has [35] Warmington, 1928, op.cit, p. 136.
been on an intensive study of Roman contacts with Andhra [36] P.K. Hitti. History of the Arabs, London-1956, pp. 56-57.
Pradesh and their significance in trade, especially maritime trade. [37] Warmington, op.cit, p. 137.
[38] IA, Vol. XL.
REFERENCES [39] E.I Vol,XV , Epigraphia Indica.
[1] S.J. keay , Italica MCC. Actos De Las Tornados Del 2200 Anniversario De [40] E.I, VOL, XX ‘’
Fundaction De Italica A Baballos Keay, 1996-97. ‘Early Roman Italica [41] Stein- Yavanas in Early Indian Inscription, Indian Culture, 1, 1934, p. 343-
and the Romanisation of Western Baetica, in and P. Leon, 57.
(Seville, 1996-97).
[42] Kosambi, Dhenukataka Journal of Asiatic society of Bombay 1955, Vol.
[2] S. Levi, and others, pre-Aryan and pre-Dravidian in India, translated P.C. XXX, p.50-71.
Bougchi Calcutta, 1929, pp. 125 F.
[43] D.C. Sircar -1942. Select inscriptions, Culcutta p .239, Early Roman Coins
[3] W.D.O Vincent, The commerce and navigation of the Ancients in the in India , JNSI, Vol, XLVI.
Indian Ocean 2 Vols. London, 1807, P.41
[44] T.V.G. Sastri. The Vaddamanu excavations, Birla Institute of Archaeology,
[4] Pliny, Natural History, Loeb Classical Series, 10, Vol.3, London; VI, 23. pp. 1-10 op cit
[5] Ancient India as described in classical literature, translated and annotated [45] James Burgess, Buddhist stupa of Amaravati and Jaggayyapet p.78, 55 &
by 93. Op. cit
[6] J.W. Mc.Crindle, West Minster, 1901, pp. 111, 112. [46] T.N. Rama Chandra. Journal of Andhra Historical Research Society Vol.
[7] Journal of the America Oriental Society, LXXX, p. 136. To p. 139. XVIII, p.27.
[8] Winds, Weather and currents on the coasts of India and the laws of storms, [47] M.C. Crindle, Ancient India as Described by Megastenese and Arrian p.
Calcutta, 1931, p P3-10, Govt. of India Pub. 140. Op. Cit.
[9] Jurnal of the American Oriental Society, LXXX, p.139, No.24. [48] James Burgess, Nasik cave Inscription of Goutami Balasri, Budhist cave
[10] W.W. Torn. The Greeks in Bactria, India, Cambridge, 1951, p. 369. Temples and their inscriptions, No. 18, pp. 108-109.
[11] L. Casson. 1980, Rome’s trade with the east; the sea voyage to Africa and [49] H.D. Sankalia Aspects of Indian Archaeology Article : Archaeology and
India; Transaction of the Tradition pp. 274-275.
American Philological Association, p. 33-34. [50] C. Siva Rama Murthy, Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Govt. Museums
[12] Motichandra, Trade and Trade routes in Ancient India. Abhinav pub., New p.43.
Delhi, 1977, p. 165 [51] P.L. Gupta, Coins, p.43, N.B.T., New Delhi 1963.
[13] Periplus. The periplus of the erythrian sea travel and trade in the Indian [52] H. Sarcar p.11 corpus of the Inscriptions of Java (upto 928 AD) K.L.M.
Ocean by A merchant of the first century. Longmans Green and Co., Calcutta 1971.
Newyork, 1912, p.47, Translated by Wilfred H.Schoff printed in [53] A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesia art, p.156
India, Munshiram Manoharlal Pub.New Delhi. munshiramManohar Lal Pub. New Delhi, 1971
[14] H.P.Ray, 1986, Monastery and Guild Commerce under the Satavahanas, [54] Reginald Le May p.122, The Culture of the South East Asia.
Oxford Pub. New Delhi,p. 113.
[55] D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. 1 p. 206 p.73.
[15] E.H. Warmington 1974 (First Pub. 192J). The commerce between the
Roman Empire and India, 2nd ed. New Delhi. [56] Mc. Crindle Op. Cit, p.67.
[16] Periplus, p. 42, op.cit. [57] E.I. Vol. II, p.329.
[17] Dikshit 1955, some beads from Kondapur, Hyderabad, A.S.I series, 16. [58] T.V.G. Sastri. The Vaddamanu excavations, Birla Institute of Archaeology,
pp. 1-10 Op. Cit.
[18] Desh Pande, 1961. Some observations on the ivory figure from Ter, Lalit
Kala, X p. 55-5

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[59] James Burgess, Buddhist stupa of Amaravati and Jaggayyapet p.78, 55 & [67] A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesia art, p.156
93. Op. Cit. Nonshiram Manohar Lal Pub. New Delhi,1971
[60] T.N. Rama Chandra. Journal of Andhra Historical Research Society Vol. [68] Reginald Le May p.122, The Culture of the South East Asia.
XVIII,p.27. [69] D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. 1 p. 206 p.73.
[61] M.C. Crindle, Ancient India as Described by Megastenese and Arrian p. [70] Mc. Crindle Op. Cit, p.67.
140. Op.Cit.
[71] E.I. Vol. II, p.329.
[62] J.A.S. Burgess, Nasik cave Inscription of Goutami Balasri, Budhist cave
[72] K.V. Raman;”Roman coins from Tamilnadu” SSIC, vol. 11, 1992, pp.19-34
Temples and their inscriptions, No. 18, pp. 108-109.
[63] H.D. Sankalia. Aspects of Indian Archaeology Article : Archaeology and
Tradition pp. 274-275.
[64] C. Siva Rama Murthy, Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Govt. Museums AUTHORS
p.43.
[65] P.L. Gupta, Coins, p.43, N.B.T., New Delhi 1963.
First Author – Dr. G. Mannepalli, Mobile no:9490005981,
[66] H. Sarcar p.11 corpus of the Inscriptions of Java (upto 928 AD) K.L.M.
Email.Id: [email protected], Faculty Member,Dept. of
Calcutta 1971. History & Archaeology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur,
Andhra Pradesh

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OPTIMISED DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL OF INDUCTION


MOTOR FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE PROPULSION
ARYA GOWRI G.
PRINCE A.
Dept.of Electrical and Electronics
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology Associate Professor
Kottayam, Kerala Dept. of Electrical and Electronics
Email:[email protected] Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology
Kottayam, Kerala

Abstract—This paper presents Electric Vehicle (EV) reference speed which is directly applied by the
propulsion using a three phase squirrel cage induction motor.
The motor control at different operating conditions is carried out
pedal of the vehicle is the input of the motor
by a direct torque control technique with an energy optimization controller. [2][3]
strategy. The operating flux of the motor is chosen optimally Furthermore, DTC typical advantages are not
using model based control strategy. Simulation tests have been
carried out using MATLAB SIMULINK to check the consistency
sufficient. EVs induction motor drive has also to
and performance of the proposed scheme. possess a high efficiency in order to extend the
Keywords—induction motor; EV propulsion; DTC; loss running distance per battery charge. Therefore, DTC
minimization;optimisation.
should be associated to a loss-minimization strategy
so as to maximize the drive efficiency. In this
Introduction paper DTC control scheme along with a loss
Electric Vehicles (EVs) [1] are a solution for minimization strategy is implemented.[7]
the environmental problems caused by vehicles with
internal combustion engines. The advantages of Direct Torque Control
EVs include energy efficiency, virtually lack of In DTC the electromagnetic torque and stator
pollution, and the availability of electric energy flux linkage of the machine are controlled directly
through electric distribution systems. Among by the selection of optimum inverter switching
disadvantages, they have low energy density and modes. The use of a switching table for voltage
long charging time for the present batteries. Hence, vector selection provides quick response and it has a
optimal energy management is very important in simple control structure. The flux and torque errors
EVs. The other major factors include optimum are restricted within respective flux and torque
design of the motor, selection of a proper drive, and hysteresis bands with the optimum selection being
optimal control strategy. made. The DTC control scheme utilizes hysteresis
The electric propulsion system of EV consists of controllers for torque and flux to select the
the motor drive, transmission device, and wheels. switching voltage vector. These hysteresis
The motor drive, comprising of the electric motor, controllers maintain the flux and torque within an
power converter, and electronic controller, is the allowed upper and lower limit. [4] The generic
core of the EV propulsion system. Direct Torque Control scheme for an inverter fed
Desired features of the propulsion system (motor) induction motor drive is as shown in Fig. 1. The
for an EV DTC scheme comprises of flux and torque
are high ratio of “torque/inertia” and estimator, hysteresis controllers for torque and flux
“power/weight,” high maximum torque capability, and a switching table.
high speed, low level of audible noise, low
maintenance, small size, low weight, reasonable
cost, high efficiency over low-and high-speed
ranges, energy recovery on braking, and non
S(A,B,C)
sensitivity to acceleration forces. Squirrel-cage VSI IM
induction motors have most of the above-mentioned
features.
Among the various control techniques available Stator currents
and voltages
Direct Torque Control (DTC) appears to be very ωr
ϴ Ψsref
convenient for EV propulsion. The input currents
are measured; flux, torque are estimated. The
Flux and
Switching
www.ijsrp.org
torque
Table estimator
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 368
ISSN 2250-3153

dψ Flux Comparator Ψs level comparator. The digitized outputs of the


and Controller
torque controller are defined as
H T
1 dT   HB T

H T
0  HB  dT  HB
T T
(7)
dT Torque Te
Comparator and H T
 1 dT   HB T
Controller
and those of flux controller are
Teref H  1 d   HB
(8)
ωr H  0 d   HB
Speed Comparator
and Controller

ωrref The total hysteresis band width of the flux loop


Pedal command controller is 2HBΨ and of the torque controller is
2HBT. The actual stator flux is constrained within
this band and it tracks the command flux in zigzag
Fig.1.Basic DTC Scheme path, Fig.3.The feedback flux and torque are
calculated from the machine terminal voltages and
currents. The sector number in which the flux vector
currently lies is computed by the signal computation
Stator Flux and Torque Control block. There are six active voltage vectors each
The induction motor stator flux Ψs can be spanning 60 degrees. The voltage vector table
estimated as follows receives HΨ, HT and sector Si and generates
  V  R I dt 
S S
(1)S S SO
appropriate control for the inverter from a look-up
where Vs is the stator voltage ,Is the stator current, table as in TABLE I.
Rs the stator resistance, Ψso the initial flux vector .
Selection of appropriate voltage vector in the
inverter is based on stator equation by (2) TABLE I
SWITCHING TABLE FOR DTC TECHNIQUE
V  R I  dt  V t
t

  
S S (2)
SO
 S S S S
dψ dT S(1) S(2) S(3) S(4) S(5) S(6)
o

Hence, variation of stator flux space vector can 1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1


be achieved by the application of stator voltage Vs 1 0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0
for a time interval of Δt. -1 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
    1 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1 V2
2 2 2

s (3) ds qs

0 0 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7
The electromagnetic torque is estimated using(4) -1 V5 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4
T 2 2
3 p
 i  i 
e ds qs qs ds
The stator input voltages are evaluated in order
to determine the stator voltage vector. Having the
Where p indicates the pole pair , ψds and ψqs are control strategy (switching pattern), the stator
the stator flux in stationary d q frame ,ids and iqs , d voltage vector can be directly calculated as follows:
and q axis stator currents respectively. (9)
S
j 2  j 2
2
   Sbe  Sce
v 
3V
3 3
s a

Voltage Source Inverter and Switching Table where V is the supply voltage of the inverter (EV
The torque control of the inverter fed machine battery), and Sa , Sb, Sc are numbers 0 or 1 that are
is performed by hysteresis control of magnitude of the output of the switching table.
stator flux and torque which selects one of the six
active and two zero inverter voltage vectors Vs(i),
as shown in Fig.2.This selection is made in order to
maintain the torque and flux error inside the V3 (010) V2 (110) Δψ3 Δψ2

(5)
specified hysteresis band. The errors are indicated
by dT and dψ respectively. Δψ4 Δψ1
dT  T eref
T e

d  (6) sref
  S
Ψs
Δψ5 Δψ6
The flux loop controller is a two-level V4 (011)
comparator and the torque comparator is a three- V1 (100)

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flux is equal to the loss depending on the current in


quadrature to the rotor. [5][6] The proposed loss
minimization DTC scheme for EV propulsion is
V0 (000)
V7 (000) shown by Fig.4.
V5 (001) V6 (101)

VSI IM
Fig.2. Inverter Voltage Vectors and corresponding stator flux
variation in time Δt

Stator currents
and voltages
fs ωr

S(3) S(2) Loss


Model
ψs
Flux Comparator
S(4) S(1) dψ Ψsref
and Controller
Switching Ψs
Table Flux Comparator
Flux Comparatorand Flux and
S(5) S(6) Switching Controller
and Controller Torque
Table
ψsre Estimator
ϴ
f Torque Comparator
and Controller

dT
Te
Fig.3.Trajectory of Stator Flux Vectors Torque Comparator
VSI
and Controller

Teref

VSI
Speed Comparator ωr
Induction Motor Losses Model and Controller

Choosing the flux level in the induction motor ωrref


remains an open problem from the perspective of
Pedal command
maximizing motor efficiency. Many operation
schemes have been proposed by researchers Fig.4.DTC scheme with model based control
concerning the optimal choice of excitation current
or flux level for a given operating point .One among
these technique is the loss-model-based approach
which consists of computing losses by using the
machine model and selecting a flux level that Results and Discussions
minimizes these losses. It is observed that the motor The optimized DTC control scheme has been
loss in steady state consists of the following simulated in MATLAB along with Simulink
components: toolbox. The simulation is
P  R i  i 
2 2
S S
(10) sd sq carried out for following conditions.
  
L  s m 2 A. Transient Response of Vehicle Motor During
P Ri r i r sq sd
R fs Starting,
(11) 2

P   L 
i 2 sd Acceleration and Deceleration (Regenerative
fe s m
R fs
Braking)
Where P is the stator copper loss, P the rotor (12)
S r Fig. 5. shows that the motor drawn inrush
copper loss, Pfe the core loss and ωs is the stator current during starting (zero to 150 rpm) of the
angular velocity. motor. This current can be reduced by first
The minimum loss is found by differentiating establishing the flux with zero speed command for
the total losses with respect to the current ratio and the first few cycles and then giving the speed
the motor losses are found to be minimal when the command to the drive. The motor is accelerated
loss depending on the current direct with the rotor from (150 rpm to 500 rpm at 1.1 second) with in
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current/ torque limit and one can observe the


variation of the frequency of the currents as the
drive accelerates. Then the motor is decelerated to
150 rpm at 2.5 second to show the drive behavior
during regenerative braking (reversal of phase
current). When the motor is slowed down, that
means negative torque is applied to the electric
vehicle, it behaves as a generator that produces
electrical power to recharge the battery. Motor
currents are at maximum during acceleration and
deceleration.Fig.6 shows the torque, current
variations when the vehicle is accelerated above it
base speed(field weakening).

Fig.5.Transient response of the vehicle motor during starting,


acceleration (above rated speed) and deceleration

Conclusions
The DTC technique has been employed for the
speed control of an induction motor, above and
below the rated speed. The input of the control
Fig.5.Transient response of the vehicle motor during starting, system is the speed reference provided by the pedal
acceleration and deceleration of the EV. The required measurements are currents
of two phases of the motor. The value of the battery
voltage and instantaneous values of the control
signals can be used in the place of the measured
voltages. Hysteresis controllers were used to control
torque and flux independently. Use of the optimum
flux during the steady-state operation of the motor
can reduce the amplitude of the current and flux and
improve the efficiency. The proposed speed scheme
is capable of providing acceleration, braking and
above rated speed (Flux weakening) feature of the
electric vehicle drive.

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Appendix
Induction Machine Parameters

2 HP, 50 Hz, 4 pole

Rs=14.85mΩ, Rr=9.295mΩ,Ls=Lr=0.3027mH,

Lm=10.46mH, J=3.1kgm2.

References

[1] C.C. Chan, “The state of the art of electric and hybrid vehicles,”
Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 90, n°2, pp. 247-275, February 2002.
[2] G.S. Buja et al., “Direct torque control of PWM inverter-fed ac motors—
A survey,” IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics, vol. 51, n°4,
pp 744-757, August 2004.
[3] C. Lascu et al., “A sensorless hybrid DTC drive for high-volume low-
cost applications,” IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics, vol. 51, n°5, pp
1048-1055, October 2004.
[4] J. Faiz et al., “Sensorless direct torque control of induction motors used
in electric vehicle,” IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 18, n°1, pp.
1-10, March 2003
[5] S. Lim et al., “Loss-minimising control scheme for induction motor,”
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., vol. 151, n°4, pp. 385-397, July 2004.
[6] F. Abrahamsen et al., “Efficiency-optimized control of medium-size
induction motor drives,” IEEE Trans. Industry Applications, vol. 37,
n°6, pp 1761-1767, November-December 2001
[7] Bhim Singh et al., “Speed Sensorless Electric Vehicle Propulsion
System Using DTC IM Drive,” Proceedings of India Int Conf Power
Elec, 2006

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Power Generation through Gravity and Kinetic Energy


Md.Muqtar Ahmed*, Heena Naaz**

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, St.Marys College, Hyderabad


Department of Electronics and Communication, Jyothishmathi College Karimnagar

Abstract- Power generation is done through various methods, But in practice these designs could not be brought into physical
some of which uses Renewable energy sources and some use body as their functioning did not work as thought theoretically.
Non Renewable Energy Resources. But all this methods can be Some researchers have been made earlier in this field
used to produce the Electrical energy only for some extent. The but they could not be applied successfully due to some
energy generated from Renewable sources is also not continuous limitations. The mechanism employed for harvesting energy
throughout the day for 24hrs.Therefore a source through which from gravity was lacking specifications in various aspects. Some
energy can be harvested continuously for 24hrs is to be found. designs were made with the mechanism arranged in an order
Gravity is the force that is present on the earth at every instant of such that the kinetic energy of solid bodies could be converted
time, hence with suitable mechanism it can be used as a source to into electrical energy.
generate Electrical energy. An arrangement is made in such a
way that the Kinetic Energy of a body due to the gravitational Principle: This machine is based on the simple principle i.e.,
force is converted into electrical energy. when an object is placed on a higher level ground then due to the
gravitational force it experiences a pull towards the lower level
Index Terms- Electromagnetic induction, Gravitational force, and gains kinetic energy. This kinetic energy can be utilized in a
hydraulic power, kinetic energy. précised manner in which it can be transformed into electrical
energy.
I. INTRODUCTION
Working: Two spheres of different weights connected together
T his paper presents a new Innovative method of power
generation using the Gravitational force of our Earth which
is present all the time and can be utilized at any place on the
with a shaft are balanced on another shaft placed vertical to the
plane. These two spheres rest on a circular ring type platform
Earth. Energy demand is increasing day by day with rapid which is supported by three hydraulic towers. Initially the two
growth in industrial as well as house hold utilization. But the spheres rest at certain angle on the horizontal plane.
energy resources are gradually decreasing at a higher rate. With
this scenario the energy resources would come to an end within a
few years and hence there will be scarcity of fuel (coal, wood,
water, etc.,) for power generation. The other sources like solar,
wind, biomass, etc., are available only for a particular duration of
time during the day and the night. Therefore it is the time to look
for other resources, or to find a new method to generate power in
order to fulfill our Energy demands and requirements.

Fig 2: BLOCK DIAGRAM SW VIEW

In this, the power generation is based on the kinetic


energy of Sphere S1 but not that of the other sphere S2. The
reason for this will be explained in the next chapter.
Let us suppose, the sphere S1 is at the point A as shown
in the fig 2. Then the base of the circular platform at Tower-1
will be raised up hydraulically till the specified height, therefore
as the platform is raised up, the sphere above it also rise upwards
Fig 1: BLOCK DIAGRAM TOP VIEW
and therefore due to the gravitational pull of our Earth the sphere
tends to move forward in downward motion and hence builds up

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kinetic energy. Then the sphere S1 reaches the point B and 3. Tower-2 lowers half its raising height.
therefore the base of the platform at Tower-2 raises up and
simultaneously the base at Tower-1 go downwards and hence the 2. Electrically: The electrical connections for the lifting system
sphere S1 moves further towards the point C. Then again Base of
are as shown in the Fig 3.
the platform at Tower-3 raises up and simultaneously the base at
Tower-2 go downwards, therefore the sphere S1 moves further in
forward clockwise direction and reaches the point A. Then once
again the base at Tower-1 rises up and the same process repeats
throughout the process. Therefore as the sphere moves, the
vertical shaft connected to it also rotates. The vertical shaft is
connected to a generator through gears. Hence the Armature of
the Generator starts rotating and Electrical power is generated.
There is a big problem with the weight of the Sphere S 1,
the larger the sphere, the heavier it will be and therefore the
hydraulic system used to raise the platform base as well as the
Sphere S1 should be of higher capacity. In this case the energy
required to raise the tower up will be more than the energy
generated and therefore it would be of no use.
This problem is solved by connecting another sphere to
the other end of the horizontal shaft. The two spheres S 1 and S2
are balanced on the vertical shaft such that only 5% to 10% of
the weight of sphere S1 falls on the circular platform. Therefore
now when the tower raises up, it has carry additional weight of
only 5% to 10% of the sphere S1.Hence the power consumed in
raising the tower up will be less and therefore this mechanism Fig 3: HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
works with much more efficiency.
The mechanism used in lifting and lowering the base
II. LIFTING SYSTEM ELECTRICAL part of the tower is as shown in the fig 4.
CONNECTIONS: A rectangular shaft with saw tooth edges on one side is
We can use two methods for lifting up the towers. connected to the gear box of the motor as shown in fig 4.
Therefore as the motor revolves forward and backwards, the
1. Hydraulically tower shaft moves up and down, thereby lifting up and the base
2. Electrically of the platform.
1. Hydraulically: Hydraulic lifting arrangement can be done on
the top of the three Towers as shown in the Fig 2.With the help
of a control unit the raising and lowering of the towers can be
controlled till the specified height. The tower must be raised
within a short period of time and as soon as the sphere S 1 reaches
the next point it must lower down only till half of its raised
height. Then when the sphere S1 reaches 2nd point, this tower
must completely lower down till its base point. With this process
the sphere S1 can make continuous rotations and hence power
can be generated continuously.

Hydraulic Specification: When the sphere S1 reaches the points


A,B,C placed after the three towers, the following actions are
done.
At point A:
1. Tower-1 lifts up completely.
2. Tower-2 lowers down completely.
Fig 4: ELECTRICAL ELEVATION MECHANISM
3. Tower-3 lowers half its raising height.
At point B: The lifting and lowering of the towers must be done in a
1. Tower-2 lifts up completely. précised manner. For this operation the motors must rotate
2. Tower-3 lowers down completely. clockwise and anti clockwise only for the defined period of time.
3. Tower-1 lowers half its raising height. This means the supply given to these motors should be
At point C: controlled. This is done with the help of a switching mechanism
1. Tower-3 lifts up completely. through which the electrical supply is given to the motors on for
2. Tower-1 lowers down completely. a particular duration of time.

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For this operation DC motors are used. By changing the fuel or supply resources like water, coal, wind etc., for power
polarity of the supply terminals, the direction of rotation of the generation.
motor is changed and hence performs the lifting and lower
operation of towers. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We first thank ALLAH for making us able to do this
The electrical supply connections are shown in fig 5. Electrical
project by his mercy and blessings.
supply to the motors is fed through the brushes connected to the
We express our heartiest thanks to our Parents
horizontal shaft in between the spheres. The two brushes
MD.NAZEER AHMED, GOUSIA BEGUM and
connected to the shaft make contact with the metal strips laid
MD.MUSHEERUDDIN, ATHIYA SULTANA who have been a
along the circular path and serve as supply terminals. Whenever
constant source of inspiration for us and helped us in every
these two brushes make contact with the metal strips, the
aspect, guiding and motivating us in successfully completion of
corresponding motors get activated through the line connection
this project.
made on the metal strips and therefore perform the desirable task
We extend our special thanks to our family members
of lifting and lowering of the platform base.
for their continuous encouragement throughout the completion of
our project.

REFERENCES
[1] B.L.THERAJA, Electrical Technology, Volume-II, AC & DC Machines,
Ed.S.Chand, 2009, pp 887-1030.
[2] Bunsal, Hydraulics, Radiant publications, 2010.

AUTHORS
First Author – MOHAMMED MUQTAR AHMED, M.Tech
Power Electronics, Asst.prof., St.Marys College of engineering
and technology.
Email: [email protected]
Ph no: +91-7382600721

Second Author – HEENA NAAZ, (M.Tech, VLSI Design),


Asst.prof., Jyothishmathi College of Engineering and Technology.
Fig 5: ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS SW VIEW Email: [email protected]
Ph no: +91-9059947819
When the sphere S1 reaches the points A,B,C placed after the
three towers, the following switching operation of the motors is
performed.
At point A:
1. Motor-1 is in forward direction and lifts up Tower-1.
2. Motor-2 is in reverse direction and lowers Tower-2.
3. Motor-3 is also in reverse direction and lowers Tower-3.
At point B:
1. Motor-2 is in forward direction and Tower-2 lifts up.
2. Motor-3 is in reverse direction and lowers Tower-3.
3. Motor-1 is also in reverse direction and lowers Tower-1.
At point C:
1. Motor-3 is in forward direction and lifts up Tower-3.
2. Motor-1 is in reverse direction and lowers Tower-1.
3. Motor-2 is also in reverse direction and lowers Tower-2.

III. CONCLUSION
Therefore compared with the other power generation
methods like solar, hydel, wind etc., this method of power
generation through kinetic energy produced by the gravitational
force is very efficient. As the power generated by this method is
available throughout the day. This power unit can be installed at
any place nearer to the populated areas as it doesn’t require any

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Foetal weight estimation methods – Clinical, Sonographic


and MRI imaging
Nidhi Sharma*, K. Jayashree Srinivasan*, M. Benjamin Sagayaraj**, D. V. Lal**
*
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Saveetha Medical College and Hospital
**
Department of Paediatrics, Saveetha Medical College and Hospital

Abstract- Background: Knowledge of the weight of the foetus in hospital where delivery should occur is completely based on the
utero is important for the obstetricians to decide the time and estimated foetal weight (2,3,4,5).High rate of perinatal mortality
mode of delivery. It can be estimated clinically, biochemically or (40 per 1000) is still a major concern in Tamil Nadu while
by radiological imaging .None of the diagnostic tools are direct compared to developed nations(3-4 /1000 ).A large proportion of
.Interestingly clinically estimated foetal weight is being found this problem is related to birth weight which remains the single
more precise than radiological estimation most important parameter that determines the neonatal
Aim:. This study was designed to find the error percentage in survival(6,7,8,9).It is estimated that 16% of live born infants
ultrasound and clinical methods. We also studied the research have low birth weight ,a condition associated with high perinatal
papers on the role of ultrasound and MRI in the diverse strata of mortality and morbidity. On the other hand foetal macrosomia is
birth weights. associated with maternal morbidity, shoulder dystocia, birth
Results: The average error in all the weight groups except in asphyxia and birth trauma (10).
>3500 grams group was least with Dare’s Formula, closely Precise foetal weight estimation would help in successful
followed by Hadlock’s Ultrasound Method. Average error in the management of labour and care of newborn. This will prepare us
>3500 grams group was least with Johnson’s formula. For birth for any complications associated with low birth weight or
weight below 3500 grams clinical estimation by Dare’s Formula macrosomia. Perinatal morbidity and mortality may decrease if
gave the least average absolute error while in birth weights above timely intervention is undertaken (2, 3, 4, 11, 12 ).The available
3500 grams clinical estimation by Johnson’s Formula gave the techniques can be broadly classified as
least average absolute error. Dare’s Formula had a tendency to a) Clinical Methods: In clinical methods tactile assessment
underestimate the foetal weight and had least error in <3500 of foetal size, clinical risk factor estimation, Maternal
grams group. Johnson’s and Ultrasound method overestimated self estimated foetal weight and Prediction equations of
the foetal weight. Ultrasound methods showed advantage in birth weight are included.
intrauterine growth restricted and macrosomic babies. MRI is b) Imaging Methods: This includes ultrasonography and
important to detect central fat deposition in babies of diabetic and magnetic resonance imaging. Some investigators
hypothyroid mothers. consider sonographic estimates to be superior to clinical
Conclusion: The abdominal girth multiplication by estimates others confer similar level of accuracy.
symphysiofundal height can be a great concern in developing Several studies indicate that physician conducted
countries. It is easy and simple and can be used by even by physical examination of pregnant women and estimated
midwives. Ultrasound may be reserved to detect abnormal blood foetal weight are superior to ultrasonic foetal
flow in umbilical arteries in growth restricted babies and measurement (3-7,12-46).Williams textbook concludes
detecting central fat deposition in clinically macrosomic babies. that estimation of foetal weight from ultrasonic
This would ensure a better use of clinical and diagnostic measurements is not proven to be reliable(47).It even
modalities available to us carries a risk of sonologically induced chromosomal
anomalies.
Index Terms- Abdominal girth, estimated foetal weight, MRI,
Symphysio fundal height
II. NUMEROUS RESEARCH ARTICLES
Fetal weight estimation methods have been discussed by
I. INTRODUCTION various authors.

T He Accurate estimation of foetal weight is important in


modern obstetrics .During the past two decades estimated
foetal weight is incorporated into the standard routine antepartum
Tactile assessment of foetal size
Dare et al used this technique by multiplying the abdominal
girth (cm) with symphysiofundal height (cm) and calculated the
evaluation of high risk pregnancy. Management of diabetic estimated foetal weight in grams (21).However, this is less
pregnancy, vaginal birth after caesarean section and breech accurate for obese than non obese and carries a significant intra
presentation is guided by the estimated foetal weight .(1,2).In observer variation. The inherent growth potential of the baby and
preterm deliveries and intrauterine growth restriction, perinatal nutritional status of the mother are concurrently measured. The
counselling on the likelihood of survival ,the intervention taken resultant estimate is closest to the actual birth weight as pointed
to postpone delivery ,optimal route of delivery or the level of by several prospective studies (1, 26, 27, 29, 34).

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Clinical risk Factor Biparietal Diameter (BPD),and Head Circumference (HC) both
This method involves quantitative assessment of clinical risk singly and in combination have been used (3,10,18,25,37-
factors and has been shown to be valuable in predicting foetal 42).When other sonographic foetal measurements are used for
weight. In case of foetal macrosomia ,the presence of risk factors estimating foetal weight e.g. humerous soft tissue thickness,
,such as maternal diabetes mellitus ,prolonged pregnancy, obesity ratio of subcutaneous tissue to, femur length, cheek to cheek
,pregnancy weight gain of >20 kg, maternal age >35 years, distance, these nonstandard measurements do not help to predict
maternal height> 5ft 3 inches, multiparity, male foetal sex and birth weight except in special subgroups e.g. Diabetic
white race should be added. In low estimated birth weight mothers(32).Multiple sonographic foetal biometery also do not
socioeconomic status, constitutionally small mother, poor improve prediction(25,26). Foetal imaging is limited by maternal
maternal weight gain, foetal infections, congenital obesity, oligohydramnios and anterior placentation. Besides these
malformations, chromosomal abnormality, teratogenic exposure, formulas are obtained from populations which do not include
maternal anaemia, Anti phospholipid Antibody syndrome and pregnant women of all genetic background resulting in an
other medical disorders complicating pregnancy should be inherent sampling error.
mentioned.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Maternal Self estimation There is use of fast acquisition protocols, including echo
In literate society maternal self estimation of foetal birth planer MRI and T1 weighted and T2 weighted imaging for foetal
weight in multiparous women show comparable accuracy to volume calculation. The data so far does not suggest any better
clinical palpation in some studies for predicting abnormally large prediction (49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54) than ultrasonography. For
foetus (24,29). weight calculation, foetal volume is multiplied by foetal density
although the exact value of latter is not known.In addition foetal
Birth weight Prediction equations density is a function of gestational age owing to changes in
Various calculations and formulae based on measuring proportion of tissue represented by muscle, bone and fatty tissue.
uterine fundal height above symphysis pubis have been In majority of cases the authors selected a density value of
developed. Ojwang et al used the product of symphysiofundal 1.031g/ml (51, 52, 54, 55), but value of 1gm/ml (50) and 1.07
height and abdominal girth measurement at various levels in gm/ml (53) were also used .The great majority of measurements
centimetres above symphysis pubis in obtaining a fairly were calculated at term. As less adipose tissue is present at early
acceptable predictive value but with considerable variation from gestational ages and growth restricted foetus, a different density
the mean(20).Dare et al simplified and used the product of value may be required for these estimations. Reported
symphysiofundal height(Mc Donald’s measurement) and disadvantages of the method include higher cost and longer
abdominal girth at the level of umbilicus measured in centimetres processing time (45 minutes).The vast number of articles
and result expressed in grams to estimate foetal weight in uteru at published on the topic point that no currently available tool is
term ,and the estimation correlated well with birth weight (21). precise. This study aims to determine the most accurate method
Johnson’s formula for estimation of foetal weight in vertex of foetal weight estimation at term by comparing the various
presentation is as follows publications.
Foetal weight (grams) = (Mc Donald’s measurement of
symphysiofundal height in cm –X) x 155 where X = 13, when
presenting part was not engaged, X = 12 when presenting part is III. DISCUSSION
at 0 station and X = 11 when presenting part was at +1 station. If Now it is the time to articulate the research work with ideas
a patient weighs more than 91 kg, 1cm is subtracted from the gathered in above steps by understanding the biophysics of fetal
fundal height. growth.
Dawn’s formula states that weight (grams) = longitudinal
diameter of the uterus x transverse diameter of the uterus x Biophysics of fetal growth
1.44/2 .Measurements are made with pelvimeter. Double Human foetal growth is characterised by sequential patterns
abdominal wall thickness was also measured pelvimeter. If of tissue and organ growth, differentiation and maturation. This
Double abdominal wall thickness was more than 3 cm, the excess is determined, by maternal provision of substrate, placental
was deducted from the longitudinal diameter. transfer of these substrate and foetal growth potential governed
by genomes. Foetal growth has been divided into three
Obstetrical ultrasonography consecutive cell growth phases. The initial phase of hyperplasia
Early expectations that this method might provide an occurs during the first sixteen weeks and is characterised by a
objective standard for identifying foetus of abnormal size for rapid increase in cell number. The second phase which extends
gestation age was recently undermined by prospective studies upto 32 weeks, includes both cellular hyperplasia and
that showed sonographic estimates of foetal weight to be no hypertrophy. After 32 weeks, foetal growth occurs via cellular
better than clinical palpation for predicting foetal weight (1, 26, hypertrophy and it is during this phase that most foetal fat and
27, 29, 34).Susiki et al used ultrasound measurement of foetal glycogen deposition take place (47).
heart volume to estimate foetal weight (44). Paulos et al used The foetal growth is complex involving biophysical and
foetal volume by ultrasound (45). Sonographic predictions based biochemical dimensions. Although many factors have been
on algorithms using various combinations of foetal parameters implicated in the process of foetal growth, the precise cellular
,such as abdominal circumference (AC), Femur Length(FL), and molecular mechanism by which normal foetal growth occurs

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is not well understood. The foetal growth rate is 5 gm/day at 15 Advantage of MRI
weeks, 15-20 gms at 24 weeks and 30-35 gms at 34 weeks. Foetal volumetric measurements have also become a field of
In early foetal life the major determinant of growth is foetal interest for magnetic resonance imaging. There is use of fast
genome, but later in pregnancy environmental, nutritional and acquisition management protocols , including echoplaner MRI
hormonal influences become increasingly important. There is a and T1 weighted and T2 weighted imaging for foetal volume
considerable evidence that insulin like growth factors and insulin calculation .Foetal volume can be calculated either using the
(c –peptide) concentrations have a role in the regulation of foetal Cavlieri principal or semi automatically with special software.
birth weight. Insulin like growth factors and insulin levels were None of the programmes available allow fully automatic volume
measured throughout gestation in women without diabetes and it assessment .For weight calculation; foetal volume is multiplied
was found that levels correlated with birth weight. The insulin by foetal density although the exact value for the latter is not
like growth factors , structurally proinsulin like peptide are known. A recent concept is to MRI segment the foetal body into
produced by virtually by all foetal organs from early various compartments of different tissue consistency (56)
development and are potent stimulators of cell division and .Volume of each segment can be multiplied with specific tissue
differentiation . Insulin like growth factor 1 and 2 and foetal density of each segment. The weights of each segment can be
insulin in umbilical circulation are all related to foetal growth added to derive the total birth weight.
and weight gain, but IGF-1 correlates best birth weight. Insulin is
mainly related to foetal overgrowth (macrosomia) while IGF To Sum up
binding protein may be a growth inhibitor (47). Foetal fat Clinical assessment of foetal weight is extensively used
deposition represents approximately 90% of calorie accretion at because it is both convenient and virtually costless. However, it
term. The quantity of foetal adipose tissue is the cause of is less accurate for an obese gravida and cases of
incorrect estimation of weight by ultrasonography. Neonatal fat polyhydraamnios. There is significant inter observer variation
mass constitutes only 12-14 % of birth weight it explains 46% of .But interestingly both nature (the inherent growth potential of
its variance (22) .Foetal fat deposition in the extremities was the baby) and nurture (the nutritional status of the mother) are
found to be characterised by an exponential increase when concurrently measured (47). The resultant estimates are closest to
plotted against gestational age (56). Since the discovery of the the actual birth weight as pointed out by several prospective
obesity gene and its protein product leptin, which is synthesised studies. This study aims at resolving these controversies by
in adipose tissue there has been an interest in leptin levels in determining the most accurate method of foetal weight
maternal and umbilical circulation. Foetal levels increase during estimation of the three available in our institute. We have made
the first two trimester and they correlate with birth weight. an attempt in standardising the methods of estimation and
achieving the best estimated foetal weight.
Indirect Estimation Foetal macrosomia and intrauterine growth restriction has to
All currently available techniques have a significant degree be detected prenatally to reduce perinatal mortality and morbidity
of inaccuracy. The vast number of articles published on the topic in term of long term neurological and developmental disorders
point that no currently available tool is precise. A good estimate (10). Intrauterine growth restriction after 37 weeks is an
will help to screen high risk cases and timely perinatal indication of immediate delivery. A diagnosis of macrosomia
management may reduce morbidity and mortality. Foetal weight helps us to do a timely lower segment caesarean section and
is not directly proportional to foetal volume. Ultrasounds reduce the risk of macrosomia. The aim of our study was to
methods do not estimate foetal weight directly rather they do so reduce the perinatal morbidity by devising a protocol where we
indirectly by measuring the various segments of the body. Two measure the biacromial diameter if the estimated foetal weight is
dimensional ultrasonography is routinely used for the purpose, two standard deviation above the mean. A Doppler study of
and the estimated foetal weight is calculated using appropriate umbilical artery should be added if estimated foetal weight is less
tables or integrated computer programmes. The most frequently than two standard deviation below the mean. This requires
used parameters include the biparietal diameter, abdominal accurate assessment of foetal weight prenataly.
circumference and femur length. There is a cumulative error As foetal weight cannot be measured directly it has to be
inherent in each of the foetal dimensions measured. Then, there estimated from foetal and maternal anatomic and biochemical
is acoustic shadowing at extreme ends of diaphysis. A single characteristics. Ultrasound only measures foetal characteristics.
formula is not capable of covering the entire range of foetal Interestingly, while intrauterine growth retarded babies have a
weight (22). Weight of smaller foetus tends to be overestimated compromised blood flow, macrosomic foetus do not have an
while that of large foetus tends to be under estimated. The increased uteroplacental blood flow. For, similar birth weight
potential errors of measurement of each dimension add to the babies fat deposition is more in the foetus of diabetic mothers
error when the values are put in a formula. So increasing the (47). The higher birth weight baby is an issue of abnormal
individual dimensions to be measured will only increase the error content with preferential central fat deposition (56). Large foetus
in the estimated foetal weight. Using three dimensional with truncal obesity should be differentiated from symmetrically
ultrasonography reproducible measurements of circumference large foetus. So an objective assessment of humeral soft tissue
and volume have become possible through simultaneous thickness and abdominal circumference should be measured and
visualisation of three orthogonal foetal limb sections. This reported while estimating birth weight of higher orders (56).
technique has the advantage of obtaining limb circumference Clinical estimation is as accurate routine ultrasonographic
measurements at the exact midpoints. estimation in average birth weight is emphasised by other authors
as well (57).

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All currently available techniques have a significant degree [8] Dawn CS, Modale GC, Galosh A. A simple procedure for determination of
antenatal fetal weight. J Obstet gynecol 1983; 33:133-7.
of inaccuracy. A vast number of articles published on the topic
[9] Tiwari R, Sood M. Comparative study of various methods of fetal weight
point that no currently available tool is precise. estimation at term pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol 1989; 39:279-86.
[10] Nahum G. Estimation of fetal weight-a review article last updated on 11
July 2002 (http://www.emedicine.com)
IV. LEARNING POINTS [11] Mhaskar R ,Mhaskar A, Molly SR, Symphysiofundal height (SFH)
measurement for prediction of birth weight-A new formula. J obstet
 Foetal growth is complex with biophysical and Gynaecol Ind 2001; 51:73-6
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 Clinical estimates of birth weight are more precise than ultrasound estimation of fetal weight. Am J Perinatol 2000; 17:233-6.
ultrasound estimations as they measure the growth [13] Wilcox AJ, Skjaerven R. Birth weight and perinatal mortality: the effect of
potential of the foetus and nutritional status of mother gestational age. Am J public health 1992; 82:378-82.
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fetal weight values estimayed by ultrasound according to gestational age].
 Ultrasound formula measurements can be inaccurate as Cad Saude Publica Brazil 2000; 16:1083-90.
they are not representative of the genetic background [15] Johar R, Rayburn W, Weir D, Eggert l. Birth weight in term infants. A 50-
and acoustic shadowing inhibits anatomical vision. year prospective. J Reprod Med1988; 33:813-6.
 Ultrasound Doppler can be used to measure umbilical [16] Hulsey TC, Levkoff AH, Alexander GR. Birth weights of infants of black
artery vascular indices in cases of intrauterine growth and white mothers without pregnancy complications. Am J Obstet gynecol
1991; 164(pt 1):1299-302.
restriction.
[17] Richards M, Hardy R, Kuh D, Wadsworth ME. Birth weight and cognitive
 3-D ultrasound and MRI should be reserved for function in british 1946 cohort. Longitudinal population based study. BMJ
detecting central and peripheral fat deposition in 2001; 322:199-203.
macrosomic foetus. [18] Hadlock FP, Harrist RB, Sharman RS, Deter RL, Park SK. Estimation of
fetal weight with the use of head, body and femur measurements-a
prospective study. Am J Obstet gynaecol 1985; 151:33-7.
[19] Ebomoyi E, Adetoro OO, Wickremasinghe AR. Birth weight and
V. COMPETING INTERESTS sociological factors in lorin, Nigeria. J Bio Soc 1991; 23:417-23.
We do not have any commercial association that might pose [20] Ojwang S, Ouko BC. Prediction of fetal weights in utero by fundal
a conflict of interest in connection with the manuscript. We height/girth measurements. J Obstet Gynecol East Central Afr 1984; 3:111.
certify that neither this manuscript nor one with substantially [21] Dare FO, Ademowore AS, Ifaturoti OO, Nganwuchu A. The value of
symphysiofundal height/abdominal girth measurement in predicting fetal
similar content under our authorship has been published or is weight. Int J gynaecol Obstet 1990; 31:243-8.
being considered for publication elsewhere. [22] Schild RL, Fimmers R, Hansmann M. Fetal weight estimation by three-
dimensional ultrasound. Ultrasound Obstet Gynaecol (England) 2000;
16:445-52.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT [23] Benacerraf BR, Gelman R, Frigoletto FD, Jr. Sonographically estimated
fetal weight: accuracy and limitation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;
We acknowledge the work of Dr R.L. Shield on 3D 159:1118-21.
ultrasound and MRI estimation of fetal weight to help us review [24] Chauhan SP, Lutton PM, Bailey KJ, Guerrieri JP, Morrison JC.
the various methods. With his work we were able to devise a Intrapartum clinical, sonographic, and parous patients’estimates of newborn
protocol for our institution. birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 79:956-8.
[25] Nzeb DA, Rimmar S, More WMO, Hunt l. Prediction of birth weight by
fetal ultrasound biometry. Br J Radiol 1992; 66:987-9.
[26] Ratanasiri T, Jirapornkul S, Sombooporn W, Seejorn K, Patumnakul P.
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[2] Chauhan SP, Hendrix NW, Magann EF, Morrison JC, Jenney SP, Devoe [28] Lawn J. E, Cousens S and Zupan J. Four Million neonatal deaths: When?
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experience with 1034 parturients. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:72-7. [29] Banin JD, Gussman D, Stone P. Clinical and patient estimation of fetal
[3] Nzeh DA, Oyawoye O, Adetoro OO. Ultrasound estimation of birth weight weight vs. ultrasound estimation. J Reprod Med 2002; 47:194-8.
in late pregnancy among African women. West African J ultrasound 2000; [30] Nahum GG, Stanislaw H, Huffakar BJ. Accurate prediction term birth-
1:9-14. weight from prospectively measurable maternal charecteristics. J Reprod
[4] Hanretty KP, Neilson JP, Fleming EE. Re-evaluation of clinical estimation Med 1999; 44:705-12.
of fetal weight: a comparison with ultrasound. J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; [31] Pernoll ML, Taylor CM. Normal pregnancy and perinatal care. In:
10:199-201. DeCherney AH, Pernoll ML, editors. Current obstetrics and gyaecologic
[5] Hendrix NW, Grady CS, Chauhan SP. Clinical versus sonographic diagnosis & treatment. 8th ed. Connecticut: Appleton and Lange,1994:183-
estimates of birth weight in term parturients. A randomized clinical trial. J 7.
Reprod Med 2000; 45:317-22. [32] Abramowicz JS, Sherer DM, Bar-Tov E, Woods JR,jr. The cheek-to-cheek
[6] Raman S, Urquhart R, Yusof M. Clinical versus ultrasound estimation of diameter in ultrasonographic assessment of fetal growth. Am J Obtet
fetal weight. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1992; 32:196-9. Gynaecol 1991; 165(pt 1):846-52.
[7] Watson WJ, Soissons AP, Harlass FE. Estimated weight of the term fetus. [33] .Abramson JH, Gahlinger M. Computer Programme for Epidemiologist
Accuracy of ultrasound vs. clinical examination. J Reprod Med 1988; (PEPI) version 3.10. llanidloes: Brixton Books, 1999.
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[34] Titapant V, Chawanpaiboon S, Mingmitpatanakul K. A comparison of [57] Akinola S. Shittu, Oluwafemi Kuti, Earnest O. Orji, Niyi O. Makinde,
clinical and ultrasound estimation of fetal weight. J Med Assoc Thai Solomon O, Ogunniyi, Oluwagbemiga O. Ayoola.Clinical versus
2001;84:1251-7. sonographic estimation of foetal weight in South west Nigeria. J Health
[35] Shamley KT, Landon MB. Accuracy and modifying factors for Popul Nutr 2007 Mar; 25(1):14-23
ultrasonographic determination of fetal weight at term. Obstet Gynecol
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[36] Johnstone FD, Prescott RJ, Steel JM, Mao JH, Chambers S, Muir N.
Clinical and ultrasound prediction of macrosomia in diabetic pregnancy. Br
AUTHORS
J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 103:747-54. First Author – Nidhi Sharma, MBBS, MS, Assistant Professor,
[37] Campbells, Wilkin D. ultrasonic measurement of foetal abdominal Saveetha Medical College, No.162 Poonamalle High
circumference in the estimation of fetal weight. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975;
82:689-97.
Road,Chennai -6000077, [email protected]
[38] Combs CA, Jaekle RK, Rosenn B, Pope M, Miodovnik M, Siddiqi TA.
Second Author – K. Jayashree Srinivasan, MBBS, MD,
Sonographic estimation of fetal weight based on a model of fetal volume. Professor, Saveetha Medical College, No.162 Poonamalle High
Obstet Gynecol 1993; 82:365-70. Road,Chennai -6000077, India.drjayaschennai @yahoo.co.in
[39] Ott WJ, Doyle S, Flamm S, Wittman J. accurate ultrasonic estimation of Third Author – M. Benjamin Sagayaraj, MBBS, MD,Associate
fetal weight. Prospective analysis of new ultrasonic formulas. A m J Professor, Saveetha Medical College, No.162 Poonamalle High
Perinatol 1986;3:307-10.
Road,Chennai -6000077, [email protected]
[40] Warsof SL, Wolf P, Coulehan J, Queenan JT. Comparison of fetal weight
estimation formulas with and without head measurements. Obstet Gynecol Fourth Author – D. V. Lal, MBBS ,DNB, Senior Resident,
1986;67:569-73 Saveetha Medical College, No.162 Poonamalle High
[41] Shepard MJ, Richards VA, Berkowitz RL, Warsof SL, Hobbins JC. An Road,Chennai -6000077, [email protected]
evaluation of two equations for predicting fetal weight by ultrasound. Am J
Obstet Gynecol 1982; 142:47-54.
Correspondence Author – Nidhi Sharma, MBBS, MS,
[42] Deter RL, Hadlock FP. Use of ultrasound in the detection of macrosomia: a
review. J Clin Ultrasound 1985;13:519
Assistant Professor, Saveetha Medical College, No.162
[43] Richards M, Hardy R, Kuh D, Wadsworth ME. Birth weight and cognitive
Poonamalle High Road,Chennai -6000077,
function in the British 1946 birth cohort: longitudinal population-based [email protected]
study. BMJ 2001; 322:199-203.
[44] Susuki K, Minei LJ, Schintzer LE. Ultrasonographic measurement of foetal
heart volume for estimation of birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 1974; 43:867-
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[45] Poulos PP, Langstadt JR. The volume of the uterus during labor and its
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[46] Wikstrom I, Bergstrom R, Bakketaig L. Prediction of high birth weight
from internal characteristics, symphisio-fundal health and ultrasound
biometry. Gynaecol Obstet Invest 1993;35:27-33.
[47] Williams Obstetrics 21st edition. Chapter 29. Fetal growth disorders Pg
743-760.
[48] Bhandary Amritha A, Pinto Palric J, Shetty Ashwin P. Comparitive study
of various methods of foetal weight estimation at term pregnancy. Ind J
Obstet Gynaecol 2004; 54:336-339.
[49] Duncan KR, Issa B, Moore R, Baker PN, Johnson IR, Gowland PA. A
comparison of foetal organ measurements by echoplanar magnetic
resonance imaging and ultrasound. BJOG 2005; 112:43-49.
[50] Gong QY, Roberts N, Garden AS, Whitehouse GH. Fetal and fetal brain
volume estimation in the third trimester of human pregnancy using gradient
echo MR imaging. Magn Reson Imaging 1998; 16:235-240.
[51] Hassibi S, Farhataziz N, Zartesky M, McIntire D, Twickler DM.
Optimisation of fetal weight estimates using MRI: comparison of
acquisitions. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004; 183:487-492.
[52] Kubik-Huch RA, Wildermuth S, Cettuzzi L, Rake A, Seifert B, Chaoui R,
Marincek B. Fetus and uteroplacental unit: fast MR imaging with three-
dimensional reconstruction and volumetry—feasibility study. Radiology
2001; 219:567-573.
[53] Uotila J, Dastidar P, Heinonen T, Ryymin P, Punnonen R, Laasonen E.
Magnetic resonance imaging compared to ultrasonography in fetal weight
and volume estimation in diabetic and normal pregnancy. Acta Obstet
Gynecol Scand 2000; 79:255-259.
[54] Zartesky MV, Reichel TF, McIntire DD, Twickler DM. Comparison of
magnetic resonance imaging to ultrasound in the estimation of birth weight
at term. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189: 1017-1020
[55] Baker PN, Johnson IR, Gowland PA, Hykin J, Adams V, Mansfield P,
Worthington BS. Measurement of foetal liver, brain and placental volumes
with echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;
102:35-39.
[56] R.L. Shield. Three dimensional volumetry and fetal weight
measurement.Ultrasound Obstet gynaecol 2007; 30: 799-803

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A Study on the impact of nutrition education programme


conducted for adolescent girls and parents of
Changanacherry Taluk of Kottayam district
Renjini M R

Department of Food Science and Quality Control, N.S.S Hindu College, Changanacherry,Kerala,India

Abstract- The present study was conducted to assess the documented the high prevalence of unhealthy dietary behaviors
nutritional knowledge of the adolescent girls participating in the among adolescent girls (Felts et al., 1996). Hence nutrition
nutritional awareness programme in Anganwadis of education was given to both girls and parents to increase the
Changanacherry Taluk of Kottayam district and to educate the awareness regarding the role of diet and to find out the
girls and parents about the importance and the ways to achieve effectiveness of nutrition education.
optimum nutrition during adolescence. Data on the dietary
pattern and anthropometric assessments like height and weight
were collected using a pre-structured interview schedule. It is II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
clear from the results that majority of the subjects were assessed 30 Adolescent girls (12 to16years) and parents were selected
to have either poor or fair levels of awareness about the purposively from Anganwadis as a part of execution of Kishori
importance of nutrition. Hence during nutrition education, Shakti Yojana {KSY} under Ministry of Women and Child
emphasis was given to the dietary guidelines during adolescence Development. The area selected was the Anganwadis of
as diet influences the future nutritional status. Changanacherry Taluk of Kottayam district. Anthropometric
measurements like weight and height, data on socio economic
Index Terms- Nutrition education, Adolescence, Dietary status and dietary assessment were done using a prestuctured
guidelines, Anthropometric assessment,Growth spurt and growth interview schedule. Nutrition education was given using
velocity developed pamphlet and charts showing the necessary dietary
guidelines and importance of nutrition during adolescence. To
find out the effectiveness of nutrition education, a simple
I. INTRODUCTION questionnaire was distributed among the subjects to answer,

A dolescence is the period of transition from childhood to


adulthood with accelerated physical, mental and emotional
development (Srilakshmi, 2002).During this period, the final
before and after nutrition education. The parents were also
oriented regarding the physiological and mental changes during
adolescence.
growth spurt occurs. There are many body changes occurs due to The nutrition education was l using colourful charts and
the influence of hormones and with profound growth there is pamphlets and the class was very simple for the subjects to
increased demands for energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins. understand . The content of the class were as follows:
The process of maturation becomes rapid from the puberty stage 1 Growth velocity is maximum for girls between 10 to 13
,that is from 11 to13 years (Easwaran and Poorani,1991).To years
strengthen any nation, there is need of healthy mothers as they 2 Adequate well balanced nutritious foods should be
only can produce healthy citizens (Elizebeth,2000). taken to prevent under nutrition or obesity.
According to the Society for Nutrition Education and 3 No meal of the day should be missed, especially
Behavior, nutrition education is any combination of educational breakfast which is regarded as the ‘food for brain’
strategies, accompanied by environmental supports, designed to 4 Calorie and protein rich foods should be taken to
facilitate voluntary adoptions of food choices and other food and support the growth spurt
nutrition related behaviors conducive to health and well being. 5 The girls need to ensure adequate intake of iron as they
Nutrition education is delivered through multiple venues and lose 0.5mg/day by way of menstruation ( if this lost iron
involves activities at the individual, community and policy levels is not replaced, it pre disposes to iron deficiency
(Jones and Bartlett, 2007).The importance of nutrition education anemia)
as a means for improving the nutrition of the community in the 6 Bone growth during adolescence demands more calcium as
developing countries, has been increasingly realized during the deficiency causes susceptibility for osteoporosis later in
recent years. their life
Anganwadis functions under the Integrated Child 7 Include fruits and vegetables in the diet to meet the vitamins,
Development Service programmes conducted basic health-care minerals and fibre requirements
activities which include contraceptive counseling and supply, 8 Home based diets are best for children’s growth
nutrition education and supplementation, as well as pre-school 9 Avoid foods which uses un permitted colours or flavours
activities (National Population Policy, 2008).Studies have 10 Avoid empty calorie foods such as carbonated beverages

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 381
ISSN 2250-3153

11 Parents should encourage the adolescents to cook at home, III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
nutritious and tasty food From the height and weight taken, BMI (Body Mass Index)
12 Adolescents need to be encouraged to do physical activities was measured According to Visweswara Rao (1999), BMI is one
as it regulates appetite of the best set of indices found useful
for nutritional status of adolescents.

TABLE I
BMI of the subjects

N=30

BMI Grade/Diagnosis Number percentage

<18.5 Undernourished 14 47
18.5-25 Normal 15 50
25-30 Overweight 1 3
>30 Obese - -
Total 30 100

Source: NIN, Hyderabad


Table- 1 clearly depicts that 50% of the subjects belonged to had the habit of skipping meals especially breakfast (89%).
normal weight category, 47% were under nourished and only 3% Anaemia was prevalent in a small number of subjects; the
overweight. That is proper nutrition or nutritional awareness is requirement for iron is higher in adolescent girls than boys’ to
still lacking among certain groups combat the menstrual loss. So the importance of the inclusion of
Most of the subjects were non vegetarians (80%), 11% locally available iron rich foods like green leafy vegetables was
ovovegetarians and 9% pisovegetarians. No subjects had the emphasized during lectures.
habit of regular outside food consumption. Mean nutrient intake
of samples shows that there is a deficit intake in case of vitamin
C and Iron by -13 and -8.33 respectively. Most of the subjects

Table-II
Details on the socioeconomic status of the subjects

Criteria Number Percentage


A) Religion
Hindu 17 56
Christian
Muslim 13 40

1 4
Total 30 100
B) Type of family
Joint 6 20
Nuclear
24 80
Total 30 100
N=30

Table 1clearly depicts the socioeconomic status of the target percent from middle income families with family income of
group. Majority of the subjects selected were Hindus (56 per Rs.4500-7500 per month. Nobody belonged to high income
cent) and (40 per cent) were Christians and only 4 per cent were families, 30 percent from low income families and 53 percent
Muslims. Of the 30 subjects, 80 per cent came from nuclear had a family income of less than Rs.2100, which is, below
family, while only 20 per cent were from joint family.Only 17 poverty line as per HUDCO classification, 2002

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ISSN 2250-3153

TABLE III

Details of the marks obtained by the subjects for the distributed questionnaire

N=30
Before nutrition After nutrition education
Marks education
Obtained Number of % Number %
subjects of subjects
0-5 22 73 - -
5-10 7 23 2 7
10-15 1 4 18 60
15-20 - - 10 33
Total 30 100 30 100

The table clearly shows that the nutrition education was [4] Greger J L and Divilabiss L ,Indian Journal of Ecology of Food and
Nutrition,1979,no.4,p.p-213-218Nutrition Education:Linking search,theory
very much effective for the subjects to increase their nutritional and practice, Jones and Bartlett,2007
awareness and to make necessary dietary modifications during [5] Sri lakshmi.B,Dietetics New Age International(P)Limited,5th ed.,2006.
adolescence.For the questionnaire distributed among the subjects, [6] Visweswara Rao.K, Bio statistics, Jaypee brothers, Medical publishers (P)
73 per cent of the subjects had only 0-5 marks before nutrition Ltd, New delhi.
education, and after the classes no one belonged to this category.
Only four per cent got 10-15 marks and none had 15-20 marks
before nutrition education, which is replaced by 60 and 33 per AUTHORS
cent respectively.
To find out whether there is statistical significance in the First Author – Renjini M R,M Sc,UGC NET,Lecturer,N S S
increase in nutritional awareness after nutrition education, t-test Hindu College,Changanacherry,Kerala,India
has been applied. Since the calculated t-value is (10.80) greater
than the table value (2.58 which is significant at 0.01 level) there Correspondence Author – Kalathil -Rajagiri, Perunna P O,
exist significant difference between the groups which means the Changanacherry, Email ID: [email protected]
effect of nutrition education on the adolescent girls and parents
was statistically significant. That is, the nutrition education was
effective in elevating the nutritional knowledge of the subjects.

IV. CONCLUSION
The nutrition education programme was reached the real
beneficiaries as most of the Indian women and girl’s diet is
lacking in many nutrients and having low haemoglobin levels
(Greger and Divilabiss, 1979and Jondhale et al., 1999).So the
nutrition education was given to adolescent girls and parents
regarding the importance of nutrition, well balanced diet, calcium
and iron rich foods, break fast and exercise. Diet in adolescence
is very crucial because it influences the future nutritional status.
So it is important to conduct awareness programmes on food
choices and nutritional requirements on a regular basis especially
among low income groups.

REFERENCES
[1] Easwaran PP and Poorani R, The Indian Journal of Nutrition and
Dietetics,1991,28,p.p207-213
[2] Elizabeth B M, Developmental Psychology: a lifespan approach,5th ed.,
Tata McGraw Hill,2000
[3] Felts MW,ParilloA,ChenierT,Dunn P.Adolescent’s Perceptions of relative
weight and self-reported weight loss activities :Analysis of YRBS
National data. Journal of Adolescent health, 1996:18:20-

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ISSN 2250-3153

Analysis on big data over the years


R.Devakunchari

Computer Science Department,


Arul Murugan College of Engineering & Technology, Karur.

Abstract- Big Data is characterized by increasing volume and velocity of data.IBM estimates that every day 2.5 quintillion bytes of
data are created – so much that 90% of the data in the world today has been created in the last two years. The traditional data-intensive
sciences such as astronomy, high energy physics, meteorology, genomics, biological and environmental research in which peta- and
Exabyte of data are generated are common domain examples. Here even the capture and storage of the data is a challenge. Google
implemented hundreds of special-purpose computations that process large amounts of raw data, such as crawled documents, Web
request logs, etc., to compute various kinds of derived data, such as inverted indices, various representations of the graph structure of
Web documents, summaries of the number of pages crawled per host, and the set of most frequent queries in a given day. In this paper
big data that is navigating in years from the past to present and to the future is analyzed. To address the problem space of unstructured
analytics, Map Reduce with Hadoop distributed File System (HDFS) is also discussed. To process terabytes of data efficiently on
daily basis some of tools and techniques available and challenges, issues and benefits of big data is also listed.

Index Terms- Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), MapReduce, NoSQL,NLP, Big Data, Name Node(NN)

I. INTRODUCTION

T The amount of Digital data being produced, in real time, has been exploding at an unknown rate, even across the developing
world, just as we all go about our daily lives. Today, 98 percent of all stored data is in digital form whereas storing in paper goes
hand in hand along with digital form some 15 years before. The size of the databases has been growing at exponential rates in today’s
enterprises. The need to process and analyzethese large volumes of data for decision making in businesses has also increased along
with it. There is also a need to process petabytes of data in efficient manner on daily basis in several business and scientific
applications.
The interactions of billions of people using mobile devices and Internet every day, generates a flood of data. The increasing volume
of enterprise information, genomics, medical records, information- sensing mobile devices, multimedia and social media will fuel
exponential growth in data in the future. This has given rise to the big data problem due to the inability of conventional database
systems and software tools to manage or process the big data sets within tolerable time limits by the industries.
The International Data Corporation (IDC) study predicts that overall data will grow by 50 times by 2020, driven in large part more by
embedded systems such as sensors in clothing, medical devices and structures like buildings and bridges. This study also determined
that unstructured information - such as files, email and video - will account for 90% of all data created over the next decade [12].
Analyzing and making intelligent decision out of these large data sets comprising of unstructured, semi structured and structured big
data—will become a key basis of competition in business and technology.

II. BIG DATA –WHAT AND WHY?


Big data is a term that came from the need of big companies like yahoo, google, Facebook, Etc. and in many enterprises and R&D
to analyze big amounts of unstructured data they are generating every second.
Big Data, in general, falls into 3 categories:
 Business application data (e.g. CRM, SAP or Oracle ERP)
 Human-generated content (e.g., Internet text, social media traffic etc.) and
 Machine data (e.g., M2M, RFID, Log Files, sensors etc.).
The most common definition for big data which is used by many others is “Big data refers to the large data sets which are very
difficult to store, analyze and manage due to their size as well as complexity. Their size ranges fromthousands of terabytes to peta-,
[10]
and exa- bytes.”

A. Big Data Characteristics

The most common characteristics of big data arises from 3v’s by Gartner namely

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 Volume – The size of data is very large and in terabytes and petabytes.
 Velocity –The pace at which data flows in from sources. The time plays a key role. The reasons for data getting generated
faster includes,
a. Increasingly automated processes
b. Increasingly interconnected systems
c. Increasing social interaction by people
 Variety –It includes structured,semi-structured and unstructured data of all varieties: text, audio, video, posts, log files etc

In addition many papers propose new v’s other than the above 3v’s by Gartner to characterize big data. They are,

 Veracity –It refers to the biases, noise and abnormality in data. Is the data that is being stored, and mined meaningful to the
problem being analyzed.
 Value –Measures the usefulness of data in making decisions. The purpose of computing is insight and not numbers

B.Big data Trends

"Information is one of the four powerful forces changing the way business is done," said Regina Casonato, managing vice
president at Gartner, Inc. and they have identified Big data as one of the top technology trends that will play key roles in modernizing
information management (IM) in 2013 and beyond.

Figure 1: Gartner Hype cycle [11]

III. EVOLUTION OF BIG DATA

1944 Wesleyan University Librarian estimated and published in a book "The Scholar and the Future of the
Research"[1] that American university libraries were doubling in size every sixteen years
1956
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FICO, then called Fair, Isaac, and Company, a leading provider of credit scoring, decision management,
fraud detection and credit risk score services was founded which works on the principle that data, used
intelligently, can improve business decisions.
1958 FICO builds its first credit scoring system for American Investments.
1961 Derek Price publishes "Science since Babylon", in which he charts the growth of scientific knowledge
by looking at the growth(doubling every fifteen years) inthe number of scientific journals and papers.
Price calls this the “law of exponential increase,” explaining that “each [scientific] advance generates a
newseries of advances at a reasonably constant birth rate, so that the number of births is strictly
proportional to the size of the population of discoveries at any given time.”
1967 B. A. Marron and P. A. D. de Maine publish “Automatic data compression” in the Communications of
the ACM, stating that”The ‘information explosion’ noted in recent years makes it essential that storage
requirements for all information be kept to a minimum.” The paper describes“a fully automatic and
rapid three-part compressor which can be used with ‘any’ body of information to greatly reduce slow
external storage requirements and to increase the rate of information transmission through a computer.”

1971 Arthur Miller writes in "The Assault on Privacy" [1] that “Too many information handlers seem to
measure a man by the number of bits of storage capacity his dossier will occupy.”

1975 The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications in Japan starts conducting the Information Flow
Census, tracking the volume of information (“amount of words” as the unifying unit of measurement)
circulating in Japan. The 1975 censusalready finds that information supply is increasing much faster
than information consumptionand in 1978 it reports that “the demand for information provided by mass
media, which are one-way communication, has become stagnant, and the demand for information
provided by personal telecommunications media, which are characterized by two-way communications,
has drastically increased. Our society is moving toward a new stage… in which more priority is placed
on segmented, more detailed information to meet individual needs, instead of conventional mass
reproduced conformed information.”

1980 I.A. Tjomsland gives a talk titled “Where Do We Go From Here?”at the Fourth IEEE Symposium on
[April] Mass Storage Systems, in which he says“Those associatedwith storage devices long ago realized that
Parkinson’s First Law may be paraphrased to describe our industry—‘Data expands to fill the space
available’…. I believe that large amounts of data are being retained because users have no way of
identifying obsolete data; the penalties for storing obsolete data are less apparent than are the penalties
for discarding potentially useful data.”

1980 The CPG / Retail industry transitioned from bi-monthly audit data to scanner data changed the
dynamics of the industry.

1981 The Hungarian Central Statistics Office starts a research project to account for the country’s
information industries, including measuring information volume inbits.
1983 Ithiel de Sola Pool publishes “Tracking the Flow of Information” in Science. Looking at growth trends
in 17 major communications media from 1960 to 1977, heconcludes that “words made available to
Americans (over the age of 10) through these media grew at a rate of 8.9 percent per year. In the period
ofobservation, much of the growth in the flow of information was due to the growth in broadcasting.But
toward the end of that period [1977] the situation was changing: point-to-point media were growing
faster than broadcasting.”
1986 Hal B. Becker publishes “Can users really absorb data at today’s rates? Tomorrow’s?” in Data
Communications. [1] Becker estimates that “the recoding density achieved by Gutenberg was
approximately 500 symbols (characters) per cubic inch—500 times the density of [4,000 B.C.
Sumerian] clay tablets. By the year 2000, semiconductor random access memory should be storing
1.25X10^11 bytes per cubic inch.”

1996 The world’s leading online travel company which is a small division within Microsoft launched online
[October] travel booking site Expedia.com®, giving consumers a revolutionary new way to research and book
travel
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1996 Digital storage becomes more cost-effective for storing data than paper according to R.J.T. Morris and
B.J. Truskowski, in “The Evolution of StorageSystems,” IBM Systems Journal, July 1, 2003.

1997 The first article in the ACM digital library to use the term “big data” was published. Michael Cox and
[October] David Ellsworth publish “Application controlled demand paging for out-of-core visualization” [2] in the
Proceedings ofthe IEEE 8th conference on Visualization. They start the article with“Visualization
provides an interestingchallenge for computer systems: data sets are generally quite large, taxing the
capacities of main memory, local disk, and even remote disk. We call this the problem of big data."

1997 Michael Lesk publishes “How much information is there in the world?”Lesk concludes that “There may
[October] be a few thousand petabytes of information all told; and the production of tape and disk will reach that
level by the year 2000. So in only a few years, (a) we will be able [to] save everything–no information
will haveto be thrown out, and (b) the typical piece of information will never be looked at by a human
being.”
1998 Most visited website in the world Google was founded. It has been estimated to run more than one
million servers in data centers and to process over one billion search requests and about 24 petabytes
of user-generated data each day.

1998 John R. Masey, Chief Scientist at SGI, presents at a USENIX meeting a paper titled “Big Data… and
[April] the Next Wave of Infrastress.”
1998 K.G. Coffman and Andrew Odlyzko publish “The Size and Growth Rate of the Internet.” They
[October] conclude that “the growth rate of traffic on the public Internet, while lower than is often cited, is still
about 100% per year, much higher than for traffic on other networks. Hence, if present growth trends
continue, data traffic in the U. S. will overtake voice traffic around the year 2002 and will be dominated
by the Internet.”
1999 comScore,an American Internet analytics company providing marketing data and analytics to many of
the world's largest enterprises, agencies, and publishers was founded.[4]

1999 Steve Bryson, David Kenwright, Michael Cox, David Ellsworth, and Robert Haimes publish “Visually
[August] exploring gigabyte data sets in real time” in the Communications of the ACM. It is the first CACM
article to use the term “Big Data” (the title of one of the article’s sections is “Big Data for Scientific
Visualization”). The article opens with the following statement: “Very powerful computers are a
blessing to many fields of inquiry. They are also a curse; fast computations spew out massive amounts
of data. . Richard W.Hamming, mathematician and pioneer computer scientist, pointed out, the purpose
of computing is insight, not numbers.”

1999 Bryson, Kenwright and Haimes join David Banks, Robert van Liere, and Sam Uselton on a panel titled
[October] “Automation or interaction: what’s best for big data?” at the IEEE 1999 conference on Visualization.

2000 Peak of dot-com boom, also known as dot-com bubble, the Internet bubble and the information
technology bubble. [5]

2000 Peter Lyman and Hal R. Varian at UC Berkeley publish “How Much Information?” It is the first
[October] comprehensive study to quantify, in computer storage terms, the total amount of new and original
information (not counting copies) created in the world annually and stored in four physical media:
paper, film, optical (CDs and DVDs), and magnetic. The study finds that in 1999, the world produced
about 1.5 exabytes of unique information, or about 250 megabytes for every man, woman, and child on
earth. It also finds that “a vast amount of unique information is created and stored by individuals”and
that “not only is digitalinformation production the largest in total, it is also the most rapidly growing.

2001 Paper on 3D Data management [6] by Doug laney explaining about 3 v's.

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2004 Facebook is a social networking service was launched. Google published a paper on MapReduce

2005 Apache Hadoop, an open-source software framework for storage and large scale processing of data-sets
on clusters of commodity hardware, was created by Doug Cutting and Mike Cafarella.

2006 Twitter called as "the SMS of the Internet" an online social networking and microblogging service was
[July] launched.
2007 The first generation iPhone (smart phone from Apple inc) was released

2008 Facebook reaches 100M users.

2010 Special report on Data, data everywhere by "The Econonmist", EMC buys Greenplum,IBM buys Netezza

2011 Mckinsey report on big data, oracle buys endecea,Hp buys vertica.
2012 Big Data becomes buzz word after Gartner prediction, Facebook user hits 1B
2013 Fast Data era, YouTube hits 1B users

V. SQL VS NOSQL
A big truth about big datain traditional databases: it’s easier toget the data in than out. Database gets overloaded and “Time out
error occurs on inserting into database”.The trouble comes when we want totake that accumulated data, collectedover months or years,
and learn somethingfrom it—and naturally we wantthe answer in seconds or minutes. The pathologies of big data are primarilythose
of analysis. Traditional methods of database shard, scaling with queue, RDBMS-based dimensionalmodeling and cube-based OLAP
(onlineanalytical processing) turn outto be either too slow or too limited tosupport big data.SQL based databases are data warehouses
and data marts where dimensional and normalized approaches of storing is done.

To solve several needs of big data a variety of “NoSQL (NOT ONLY SQL) databases have appeared .

1. For storing and managing unstructured data (non-relational data).


2. Focus on high-performance scalable data storage, and provide low-level access to a data management layer (data validity
and integrity). Also called key-value stores, schema-free massive scaling on-demand Databases.
[8]
3. NOSQL databases separate data management and data storage.
4. Relaxes the consistency requirement. Relaxing consistency is often called eventual consistency.
[3]
5. Also has ACID properties and follows CAP theorem (consistency, availability and tolerance of network partition),
customized replication, high availability and greater flexibility in storing heterogeneously structured data.

VI. BIG DATA TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS


.
Big data is spawning new tools that are mix of significant processing power, parallelism and statistical, machine learning, or pattern
recognition techniques. A wide variety of techniques and technologies has been developedand adapted to aggregate, manipulate,
analyze, and visualizebig dataincludes massively parallel processing (MPP) databases, data mining, grids, distributed file systems,
distributed databases, cloudcomputing platforms, the Internet, and scalable storagesystems
 Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques (Lexical/morphological analysis,Syntactic analysis,Semantic analysis) to
extract information from unstructured data
 CBIR (Content-Based Image Retrieval) enable us to pave the way toward new accessibility for large-volumemultimedia
collections.
 Sentiment analysis uses semantic technologies
 SAP HANA
 Hadoop - reliable data storage and high-performance parallel data processing
 Cloud is extensible, flexible, scalable, elastic, self-healing, on-demand, etc. and provides the inexpensive hardware/software
platform with all applications with lower capital cost requirements
 For streaming data it includes IBM’s InfoSphere Streams and emerging Twitter’s Storm, and Yahoo S4
 Using multi/many cores, wide SIMD and dynamic optimization of the applications requiring exascale computing
 IBM Infosphere Big Insights

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 WX2 kognitio Analytical Platform(fast and scalable in-memory analytic database)


 SAND Analytic Platform(columnar analytic database)
 IBM Infosphere Streams(analysis of massive volumes of streaming data in sub-millisecond)
 New parallel programming models and programming languages such as Map Reduce, Software Transactional
Memory,Galois,CUDA,X10,Chapel,Fortress,POSIX Threads,C++ Thread Support Library,MPI,OpenMP,OpenCLTask Parallel
Library, Threading Building Blocks, CilkPlus

VII. UNSTRUCTURED DATA ANALYSIS


A. Hadoop and Map Reduce
Hadoop is both a distributed file system (HDFS) modeled on GFS (2004), a distributed processing framework, using Map Reduce
concepts and a distributed database called HBase. It is a framework for distributed computing and large datasets on a scale-out shared-
nothing architecture to address processing of large unstructured data sets.It is open-source software, reliable and scalable. The
principle here is “Moving computation is cheaper than Moving data” [7]
HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System):
 fault tolerance
 run on commodity hardware
 high throughput access
 store data across thousands of servers
 running work (Map/Reduce jobs) across those machines,
 running the work near the data
 Master/slave architecture.
B. HDFS System Architecture
 Hadoop cluster contains1 MN (master node) and no of slaves or WN (worker nodes).
 MN consist of
a. Job tracker(JT)-schedules jobs across TT slaves
b. Task tracker(TT)- Runs tasks within job
c. Name node (NN) -contains metadata of DN,mapping of file blocks to DN(replication).
d. Data node(DN)(acts also as TT) -stores and serves blocks of data
e. Secondary NN (SNN) -snapshots of the name node's memory structures, preventing file system corruption and reducing
loss of data.
 User data is stored in files.
 File is split into one or more blocks
 It stores each file as a sequence of blocks
 Blocks are stored in a set of Data Node
 Name Node determines the mapping of blocks to Data nodes.
C. Map Reduce Programming
 It is a Software framework introduced by Google in 2004
 Map step
a. Master nodes(MN) takes the input, partitions it up into smaller sub-problems and distributes it to worker
nodes(WN)
b. Multi-level tree structure (WN distribute again) is used to sort.
c. WN passes answer to MN
 Reduce step
Merges answers to all sub-problems to form output.

VIII. BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF BIG DATA PROCESSING

Some bigger benefits that enterprises and organizations utilize includes,


 Making more informed decisions
 Increase productivity and reduce costs
 Increase transparency
 Improve citizen service and satisfaction for government
 Predicting trends
 Identify irregular patterns and activities that are often a sign of error or fraud

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 Improve mission outcomes


 Ability to find, acquires, extract, manipulate, analyze, connect and visualize data with the tools of choice
 The capability of Hadoop for volumes to manage vast amounts of data, in or out of the Cloud, with validation and
verification.
 Real-time monitoring and forecasting of events that impact either business performance or operation

Big data incurs management issue, transportissue, processing issue and storage issues. Some of the design and analytical challenges of
big data include,
 Real time requirements
 Memory management
 Load balancing
 Support for Data Partitioning
 Latency-Throughput trade-off
 Multi-tenancy
 Data ownership
 Compliance & Security
 Data getting in is easier than getting it out
 Quality versus Quantity
 Need retrospective analysis due to expanding data
 Speed versus scale
 Distributed data and processing
 Turning straw into gold(processing large discrete data points into high valued data)
 Finding the needle in the haystack(finding key data among large)
 Need to address arising unpredicted effects due to data from diverse sources.

IX. CONCLUSION
The key skills in today’s big data environments are dataintegration, triangulation, pattern recognition, predictive models and
simulations. Big data has a lot to learn about projection, bias correction and sampling, which, when applied correctly, could yield even
more important big data Insight...In a study by Mc Kinsey Global Institute (MGI) firm calculated that U.S faces shortage of 140,000 to
190,000 people with analytical expertise and 1.5 million managers and analysts with skills to understand and make decisions based on
analysis of Big Data [9].But while the big data issues are fixable, big research’s issues areendemic.To be competitive, organizations
will require new technology with clear implementation strategies, iterative test-and-learn environments and data science talent.

REFERENCES
[1] http://www.forbes.com/sites/gilpress/2013/05/09/a-very-short-history-of-big-data/
[2] http://www.nas.nasa.gov/assets/pdf/techreports/1997/nas-97-010.pdf.
[3] https://blogs.oracle.com/MAA/entry/the_cap_theorem_consistency_and
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ComScore
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_bubble
[6] http://blogs.gartner.com/doug-laney/files/2012/01/ad949-3D-Data-Management- Controlling-Data-Volume-Velocity-and-Variety.pdf
[7] http://hadoop.apache.org/docs/stable1/hdfs_design.html
[8] Deka Ganesh Chandra, Ravi Prakash and Swati Lamdharia “A Study on Cloud Database “ in proc.Fourth Int’l Conference on Compu’nal Intelligence and
Communication Networks,2012.
[9] http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/business_technology/big_data_the_next_frontier_for_innovation
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data.
[11] Gartner Hype Cycle 2012 ,http://www.gartner.com/id=2065716
[12] World's data will grow by 50X in next decade, IDC study predicts
http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9217988/World_s_data_will_grow_by_50X_in_next_decade_IDC_study_predicts

AUTHORS
R.Devakunchari, B.Tech(I.T),M.Tech(CSE),Assistant Professor,Department of Computer Science and Enginering,
Arul Murugan College of Engineering and Technology,Karurand [email protected].

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Heavy Metal (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Cr and Fe) Content in


Almeda Textile Industry Sludge, Northern Tigrai,
Ethiopia
Mehari Muuz Weldemariam, Amha Woldu Kahsay

Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekelle University, P.O.Box: 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia

Abstract- The present study was carried out with specimens of Heavy metals are very harmful because of their non-
sludge from Apex Weaving and Finishing Mills in Almeda biodegradable nature, long biological half-lives and their
Textile Industry, Northern Tigrai, Ethiopia, to determine the potential to accumulate in different body parts [7-10]. Excessive
concentration of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb) in the accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural soils through
sludge samples and an assessment was made with the heavy wastewater irrigation may not only result in soil contamination,
metal content in agricultural soil. Atomic Absorption but also affect food quality and safety [11]. Some research also
Spectroscopy (AAS) method was employed for the analysis confirmed that heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn and Ni have
purpose. The mean concentrations of Cd, Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb carcinogenic or toxic effects on human beings and environment
in mg/kg were 1.13, 47.00, 16827, 290, 410, and 13 respectively. [12-14].
All the heavy metal concentrations except Pb and Cr in the The management of sludge is becoming increasingly difficult
sludge samples were higher than that of in agricultural soil. due to the presence of heavy metals [15]. It is now established
Finally, the study concluded that pre-treatment process for that application of sludge into land can increase soil water-
reducing the amount of heavy metal is mandatory before the holding capacity, decrease soil bulk density, increase soil
sludge can be used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer in the aeration and root penetrability and stimulate soil microorganism
agricultural soil. activity [16]. In addition, land utilization of sludge could
represent a step forward to more sustainable farming practices
Index Terms- Textile waste, contaminated soil, toxic trace metal, and municipal waste management. Achieving this purpose it is
waste water management pivotal to know the heavy metal content in textile sludge as
without investigating toxic substances it is not feasible to use
sludge as a soil conditioner or fertilizer in agricultural land.
I. INTRODUCTION

A gricultural soils normally contain low background levels of


heavy metals. Contamination from industrial activities or
byproducts can increase the natural levels of heavy metals in soil,
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sludge sample collection
creating a health hazard to people, livestock and plants. The sludge samples were collected from Almeda Textile
Fertilizers and other soil amendments also add small amounts of Industry, Northern Tigrai, Ethiopia in first October, 2013. The
heavy metals to the soil, which can build up over time with collected samples were stored into separate plastic container and
repeated applications [1]. The actual toxicity of a heavy metal stored at ambient temperature prior to treatment. The sludge
will be affected by soil texture, organic matter, and pH. The samples were homogenized by manual mixing, air-dried for 24 h,
health effects of exposure to heavy metals depend on the amount disaggregated using a pestle and mortar made by porcelain to
and duration of exposure, i.e. the volume of contaminated soil or pass through a 2 mm mesh sieve.
food consumed over time [2]. Digestion of Sample with Aqua-Regia
The final disposal of industrial sludge in Ethioipia has become An aliquot of 0.200 g of powdered sludge of each sample was
a critical issue due to public concern and the limited availability taken in a silica crucible (150 cm3). Then 1 M concentrated
of land. The most effective strategy is to reduce the quantity of hydrochloric acid (9Cm3) was added followed by 1 M
sludge produced by various industrial processes. If this reduction concentrated nitric acid (3cm3). The content of crucible was
is not feasible, then the reuse of sludge should be considered [3]. carefully heated in sandbath nearly to dryness in fumhood. After
One of the biggest industries, Textile and dyeing, are now cooling the crucible at room temperature, deionized water was
viewed as a major environmental threat in the industrial area of added to the sample and was filtrated through a filter paper
Ethipia and they contribute huge amounts of sludge in (Whatman N0. 42). The filtrate was collected in the measuring
wastewater treatment processes [4]. Although characteristics of flask and was preserved for the determination of Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu,
sludge depend on the wastewater treatment process and sludge Cr and Fe. All reagents used were Merk, Analytical grade (AR)
stabilization methods, it contains substantial amounts of toxic including standard stock solutions of known concentrations of
heavy metals [4, 5]. Another recent investigation reported that different heavy metals.
elevated levels of heavy metals in vegetables are found from the Heavy Metal Analysis
areas having long term uses of treated or untreated wastewater Heavy metals analysis was carried out using Varian AA240
[6]. FS Fast Sequential Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The

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AAS was calibrated for all the metals by running different in agricultural soil in China is ≤0.20 mg kg-1 [17]. The values of
concentrations of standard solutions. Average values of three Cd found in the present investigation were higher than those of
replicates were taken for each determination. The detection limits above critical value set by the international guidelines and other
for the selected heavy metals were 1.00 ppm. researchers. In addition, some cadmium compounds are able to
leach through soils to ground water. When cadmium compounds
bind the sediments of rivers, they can be more easily bio-
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION accumulated or re-dissolved when sediments are disturbed, such
The present study found that the average concentration of lead as during flooding. Therefore, the use of sludge as a soil
in the sludge samples was 13 mg kg-1, Table 1. This result conditioner or fertilizer in arable soils can cause severe pollution
revealed that examined sludge samples contained relatively with Cd and the production of crops and vegetables may be at a
lower amount of Pb than that of agricultural soil. According the risk whenever its concentration is above the permissible values.
US Envirnmental Protection Agency (EPA) and NY Department The maximum Zn value in light soil used in cultivation in India
of Envirnmental Conservation (NYSDEC) guidelines, threshold given by [18] was 100 mg kg-1. The threshold natural
natural background of Pb in agricultural soil is 200 mg kg-1 [1]. background value of Zn in crop soils and paddy soils in China is
The average concentration of cadmium of the sludge samples ≤100 mg kg-1. In Table 1, the concentration of Zn was found 410
was 1.13 mg kg-1 in Table 1. The permissible level of Cd in mg kg-1 in the sludge samples, which was higher than those of
agricultural soils set by US Envirnmental Protection Agency permissible levels given by different guidelines and nations.
(EPA) and NY Department of Envirnmental Conservation
(NYSDEC) is 0.43 mg kg-1 [1]. Natural background level of Cd

Table 1: Comparison of heavy metal content (mg kg -1) in soil

Heavy metals Present study Control (uncontaminated) soil sample SEPA limit in Chinaa

Pb 13 - 350
Cd 1.13 1.6 0.6
Zn 410 107 300
Cu 290 26.4 100
Cr 47 1.4 250
Fe 16827 11418 NA
NA: Not Available, a source: SEPA (1995)
standard as the Department of Environment; Government of
Similarly, the Cu content in the sludge samples was 290 mg Ethiopia has not yet established any standard for heavy metal
kg-1 which was also extremely higher than that of in China (≤35 content in agricultural soil. Therefore, it is very necessary to
mg kg-1) and India (20-30 mg kg-1). Some well documented establish a safe or standard limit for the concentration of heavy
studies disclosed that heavy metals such as zinc (Zn) and copper metal in sludge that can be used as a fertilizer as well as soil
(Cu) are the principal elements restricting the use of sludge for conditioner. The study also concluded that pre-treatment process
agricultural purposes [19-21]. for reducing the amount of heavy metal is mandatory before the
The average concentration of chromium (Cr) in these samples sludge can be used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer in the
was 47 mg kg-1. The maximum content of Cr reported by [16] in agricultural soil.
soil used in cultivation was 100 mg kg-1. Natural background of
Cr in agricultural soils in China is ≤ 90 mg kg-1. The Cr content
in soils obtained from the present study was lower than the ACKDNOWLEDGEMENT
permissible levels recommended by the above sources. The author gratefully acknowledge to Chemistry and Biology
Long term exposure of iron from the sludge into soils may departments, College of Natural and Computational Sciences,
contaminate it and change the soil structure and thus make it Mekelle University, Ethiopia for providing portable instruments
harmful for cultivation. The concentrations of Fe in agricultural for physico-chemical analysis of different samples.
soils in India varying from 289.3-338.5 mg kg-1 dry weight [22].
The Fe content in soils obtained from the present study was
16827 mg kg-1 which is higher than the permissible value
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described by above researcher.
[1] Vern Grubinger and Don Ross, "Interpreting the results of soil tests for
heavy metals", University of Vermont.
[2] Mehari Muuz Weldemariam and Mulu Berhe Desta, "Distribution of trace
IV. CONCLUSION metals in two commercially important fish species (Tilapia zilli and
Oreochromis niloticus) sediment and water from lake Gudbahri, Eastern
The concentrations of Cd, Zn, Cu and Fe in the sludge Tigray of Northern Ethiopia", Vol. 3, International Journal of Scientific and
samples were exceed the safe limit set by SEPA limit in China Research Publications, 2013, pp. 2250-3153.
whereas Pb and Cr found within the safe limit (Table 1). The [3] Ab. Aziz Abdul Latiff, Ahmad armizi Abd. Karim, Ahmad Shukri Ahmad,
present study failed to compare the results with Ethiopian "Phytoremediation of Metals in Industrial Sludge by Cyperus Kyllin ia-

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Rasi a, Asystassia Intrusa and Scindapsus Pictus Var Ar yaeus Plant [15] Kocasoy, G. and V. Sahin, "Heavy metal removal from industrial
Species," Vol. 4, International Journal of Integrated Engineering, 2012, wastewater by clinoptilolite," Vol.42, J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A, 2007,
pp.18. pp. 2139-2146.
[4] Karim, M.M., A.K. Das and S.H. Lee, "Treatment of colored effluent of the [16] Zorpas, A.A., V.J. Inglezakis and M. Loizidou, "Heavy metals fractionation
textile industry in Bangladesh using zinc chloride treated indigenous before, during and after composting of sewage sludge with natural zeolite,"
activated carbons," Vol.576, Anal. Chimica. Acta., 2006, pp.37-42. Vol.28, Waste Manage., 2008, pp.2054-2060.
Chen, Y., C. Wang and Z. Wang, "Residues and source identification of [17] Kvarnstrom, E., C Morel, J. Fardeau and J. Morel, "Changes in the
persistent organic pollutants in farmland soils irrigated by effluents from phosphorus availability of a chemically precipitated urban sewage sludge as
biological treatment plants," Vol.31, Environ. Int.,2005, pp. 778-783. a result of different dewatering processes," Vol.18, Waste Manage., 2000,
[5] Singh, K.P., D. Mohan, S. Sinha and R. Dalwani, "Impact assessment of pp.249-258.
treated/untreated wastewater toxicants discharged by sewage treatment [18] Wong, S.C., et al., "Heavy metals in agricultural soils of the pearl river
plants on health, agricultural and environmental quality in the wastewater delta, South China," Vol.119, Environ. Pollut., 2002, pp. 33-44.
disposal area," Vol.55, Chemosphere, 2004, pp. 227-255. [19] Kabata-Pendias, A. and H. Pendias, "Trace Elements in Soils and Plants,"
[6] Sharma, R.K., M. Agrawal and F. Marshall, "Heavy metal contamination of 3rd Edn., CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL., USA., 2000, pp. 431.
soil and vegetables in suburban areas of Varansi," Vol.66, India. Ecotoxicol. [20] Su, D.C. and J.W.C. Wong, "Chemical speciation and phytoavailability of
Environ. Safety,2007, pp. 258-266. Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd in soil amended with fly ash-stabilized sewage sludge,"
[7] Manaham, S.E., "Environmental Chemistry," 8th Edn., Boca Raton, Florida, Vol. 29, Environ. Int., 2003, pp.895-900.
Lewis Publisher, 2005, ISBN 1566706335. [21] Udom, B.E., et al., "Distributions of zinc, copper, cadmium and lead in a
[8] Mehari Muuz Weldemariam, "Physico-Chemical Analysis of Gudbahri tropical ultisol after long-term disposal of sewag," Vol. 30, Environ. Int.,
River Water of Wukro, Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia," Vol.3, International 2004, pp.467-470.
Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,2013. [22] Dai, J.Y., et.al., "Heavy metals in the sewage sludge from six wastewater
[9] Amhawold, M. Mehari* et al. "CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND treatment plants in Beijing," Vol.66, China Chemosphere, 2007, pp.353-
ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF LANTANA 361.
CAMARA.L OF MEKELLE, ETHIOPIA," Vol.5, International Journal of [23] Kisku, G.C., S.C. Barman and S.K. Bhargava, "Contamination of soil and
Pharmacy & Technology, 2013, pp 5129-5135. plants with potentially toxic effluents irrigated with mixed industrial
[10] Mehari Muuz et al., "Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of effluent and its impact on the environment,"Vol.120, Water Air Soil
Essential Oil of Mentha Longifolia L of Mekelle, Ethiopia," Vol.1, Journal Pollut.,2000, pp.121-137.
of Biological and Scientific Opinion, 2013.
[11] Wilson, B. and F.B. Pyatt, "Heavy metal dispersion, persistence, and AUTHORS
bioaccumulation around an ancient copper mine situated in Anglesey,"
Vol.66, UK. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety, 2007, pp.224-231. First Author – Mehari Muuz Weldemariam, Department of
[12] Muchuweti et al., "Heavy metal content of vegetables irrigated with mixture Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences,
of wastewater and sewage sludge in Zimbabwe: Implications for human Mekelle University, P.O.Box: 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia.
health," Vol.112, Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 2006, pp. 41-48.
([email protected])
[13] Trichopoulos, D., "Epidemiology of Cancer", Lippincott Company,
Philadelphia, 2001, pp: 231-258.
[14] Turkdogan, M.K., et al., "Heavy metals in soil, vegetables and fruits in the
Second Author – Amha Woldu Kahsay, Department of
endemic upper gastrointestinal cancer region of Turkey," Vol.13, Environ. Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences,
Toxicol. Pharmacol., 2002, pp.175-179. Mekelle University, P.O.Box: 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia.

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Library and Information Services in College Library of


Hisar: A User Survey
Neera Bansal

Librarian , F.C.College for Women, Hisar

Abstract- Knowledge about the users and their demands is scholars towards library and information services in Shivaji
necessary to make library and information services more University’s Barr. Balasaheb Khardekar Library. Majority of
effective and user oriented. The present study deals with users researchers were found to be aware of the information services.
attitude towards information sources and information services in But CAS,SDI and ILL services were not satisfactory. Users were
the library of F.C.College for Women, Hisar. Data is collected not satisfied with the availability of journals but physical
from the students as well as faculty members of the college. 100 facilities were up to the mark. Kannappanavar and Swamy
out of 125 questionnaires are taken for consideration. The paper (2004) in their work checked library and information services in
attempts to analyse use pattern, adequacy of library collection, University of Agricultural Sciences in Karnataka. It is seen that
users opinion on information sources and services. Maximum reading materials are adequate but users are not satisfied about
users are found satisfied with the physical facilities and the physical facilities of library. The users are unaware of the
collection as well as arrangement of library reading material majority of library services. Singh (2013) in his paper studies
information seeking behavior of users of Dr. B.R.Ambedkar NIT
Index Terms- Information resources, Library and information Central Library. His conclusion is that Most students use library
services, users, adequacy, college library daily. Users prefer to use books and CD –ROMs. Interestingly
users use controlled vocabulary for information searching
purpose.
IV. INTRODUCTION

F C.College was started in 1935 at Lahore and in 1954 college


was reestablished in Hisar. Library has been an integral part
of the college since its inception. Value of library for an
II. OBJECTIVES
The study was undertaken to find out the existing library and
educational institution is felt at that time by the governing body. information service facilities in the Shrimati Janki Devi Library
Addition of new books has been a regular feature of the library.. situated in Fateh Chand College for Women, Hisar for the year
Library was shifted to a separate new building in 2001. At 2013-2014. The specific objectives of the study are as follows :-
present the library has over 36000 books related to different 1. To find out the information needs of the users.
streams. Rapid accumulation and dissemination of information is 2. To find out the method that the readers of the library
the major concern of each academic library. Library is fully adopt to locate the required information sources.
computerized and all sections are fully automated using LIBSYS 3. To ascertain the opinion of the users regarding the
software. Library has started its own blog for direct and online adequacy of information resources and services
communication with users. available in the library.
4. To find out the types of information sources required by
the library users.
I. LITERATURE REVIEW 5. To know the problems faced by the users in using the
Review of related literature is very important for every library.
research. Many scholars have surveyed to get acquainted with 6. To know users opinion with regard to behavior of
user information seeking behavior and status of information library staff.
sources and information services of library from user point of
view. A few research works are reviewed in the present study.
Tadasad and Talikoto (2000) have carried a survey to study the III. METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION
awareness and utilization of resources and services of City The methodology adopted for this study was descriptive
Central Library, Gulbarga. Major findings are that many users survey method. A structured questionnaire is prepared for the
are unaware of the resources and services. Majority of users are purpose of data collection and circulated to both the students as
satisfied with information services. Maximum users visit library well as the faculty members of the college. Questionnaire
to borrow and return books. Mahapatra and Panda(2000) in their consisting of 25 questions was designed to elicit the options of
study analysed reading interests and utilization of information the users. Total 125 questionnaires were distributed, out of which
resources by working journalists of Orissa. Study makes it clear 110 users responded. But 10 questionnaires were not fully filled,
that 79.64 % of the working journalists assigned top priority to so 100 questionnaires are taken for analysis.
reading newspapers and popular magazines compared to other The details of the sample size along with the responses have been
form of documents. Khot and Patil (2002) studied the attitude of provided in the following Table-1.

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Table – 1 hour
Sample Size and Responses for the Questionnaire 4 2 hour to 3 4 1 5
hour
Categories of Questionnaires Responses Responses 5 More than 3 1 3 4
Respondents Distributed Responded Percentage hour
Students 75 60 80.00
Teaching 45 40 88.88 Table 3 indicates clearly the time spent by the users in
Faculty library. It shows majority of users spent ½ hour to 1 hour,
whereas 26 % users spent 1 hour to 2 hour. It is interesting to
Analysis and Interpretation of Data notice that 4 % users are using the library more than 3 hours,
although the percentage is very low yet this is very motivating.
Frequency of Visit to the Library
Frequency of library visit of users is the best way to measure Purpose of Visit to the Library
the use of the library. Table 1 is a great help in knowing this Every library wants to enhance and improve its services and
factor. for this purpose it becomes necessary to know the purpose of
visit of the users to library.
Table – 2
Frequency of Visit to the Library Table – 4
Purpose of Visit to the Library
Sr.No. Frequency of No. of No. of Total No.
Library Visit Responses Responses of Sr. Purpose No. of No. of Total No.
(Students) (Teachers) Responses No. Responses Responses of
1 Daily 23 16 39 (Students) (Teachers) Responses
2 Once in a 13 3 16 1 To borrow books 17 15 32
Week 2 To consult 10 3 13
3 Twice in a 20 16 36 periodicals
week 3 To read 19 13 32
4 Once in 15 2 1 3 newspapers
Days 4 To consult 14 9 23
5 Once in a 1 1 2 reference books
Month
6 Occasionally 1 3 4 From Table 4 gives necessary information to the librarian on
Total 60 40 100 the documents and type of information that the library users are
interested in . 32 % users visit library to borrow books and to
Users are using the library frequently, but how frequently read newspapers as well. Second preference is given to reference
they use the library is a big question. Table 2 reflects the details section by the users.
of frequency of visit to the library by the users. It shows 39 % of
users are using the library everyday followed by 36 % of users Use of Library Information Sources
are using the library twice in a week, 16 % are using the library Each and every type of information source has its own value..
once in a week. The percentage of occasional visitors is very Users use these kind of sources for their specific needs.
low, which is a good sign for library.
Table – 5
Time Spent in the Library User’s Preference to Information Sources
It is very important for a librarian to know that how much
time users spend in the library for reading or some other Sr. Resource User’s Preference Order
purposes. No Type
1 2 3 4 5
Table – 3 1 Books 41 27 14 6 -
Time Spent in the Library 2 Newspapers 32 32 18 19 -
3 Periodicals 3 15 16 44 11
Sr. No. Time No. of No. of Total No.
4 Reference 13 15 38 20 2
Responses Responses of
Books
(Students) (Teachers) Responses
5 CD-ROMs - - 2 11 75
1 Below ½ 6 10 16
hour
Table 5 depicts ranking of preferences stated by the users.
2 ½ hour to 1 31 18 49
Total 12 users have not responded on this question. Books are the
hour
most preferred resource used by users and 32 users have given
3 1 hour to 2 18 8 26
first preference to newspapers. It is clear from the table that the

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users are either not aware of CD-ROM or they do not use this Every reader has its own specific needs of information for
type of resources. which she comes to the library. It is necessary to find out user’s
approach to locate required information.
Users Opinion on Library Information Sources
Each academic library has the responsibility to fulfill the Table – 7
needs of its patrons. Users need advanced study material which User’s Approach to Locate Information
consists of various information sources like books, journals,
reference books, CD-ROM etc. Table 6 clarifies what users think Sr. Method No. of No. of Total No.
about the adequacy of library collection No. Responses Responses of
(Students) (Teachers) Responses
Table – 6 1 Consulting 16 9 25
Adequacy of Library Collection Catalogue/OPAC
2 Assistance of 9 15 24
Sr. No. User’s No. of No. of Total No. library staff
Opinion Responses Responses of 3 Guidance of 11 1 12
(Students) (Teachers) Students Subject Expert
1 Adequate 47 30 77 4 Help of Friends 6 2 8
2 Partially 10 8 18 5 Self 18 13 31
3 Inadequate 1 - 1
4 No 2 2 4 Table 7 demonstrates that 31 users locate the required
Response reading material by themselves, followed by 25 search by
consulting catalogue and 24 users find their required information
Every library needs to know whether the existing collection with the assistance of library staff.
of information sources is adequate enough to meet the
information requirements of its users. 77 % users are satisfied User’s Views on Library Collection
with library collection and 19 % users are of the opinion that Collection development is the major concern area of every
library collection is not adequate. Librarian must take care of academic library. Libraries regularly update their collection with
this. the inclusion of latest publications. Its very important to know
user’s opinion about library collection.
Users Approach to Locate Information

Table – 8
Types of Problems Faced by the Users

Sr. No. Users views on collection No. of Responses No. of Responses Total No. of
(Students) (Teachers) Responses
1 Books are in bad condition 1 - 1
2 Less no. of copies of needed books 16 16 32
3 Latest books are not available 9 1 10
4 Important books are for reference only 12 1 13
5 No such problem exists 22 22 44

Table 8 attempts to identify the reasons of user’s Arrangement of Library Collection


dissatisfaction in the context of library collection. 44 % readers Proper arrangement of reading material is very important for
stated that there is no such problem, 32 % readers feel that there libraries. Users can not find the required material if it is not
is less number of copies of needed books, only 1 % reader feels properly shelved. Users opinion in this regard is very important.
that books are in bad condition.

Table – 9
Arrangement of Reading Material in the Library

Sr. Type of Information Source Satisfactory Unsatisfactory


No.
Students Teachers Total Students Teachers Total
1 Text Books 58 39 97 2 1 3
2 Newspapers/Periodicals 58 39 97 2 1 3
3 General Books 56 38 94 4 2 6

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Table 9 denotes maximum number of users have expressed Readers Views on Library Services
their satisfaction with the arrangement of text books, periodicals, Academic libraries provide various information services to its
general books in the library. A few percent readers have shown readers. Library wants to investigate whether the users are aware
their dissatisfaction regarding arrangement. of these services.

Table – 10
User Awareness of Library and Information Services

Sr. No. Library and Information Yes No


Services Students Teachers Total Students Teachers Total
1 Circulation 55 37 92 5 3 8
2 Reference 55 37 92 5 3 8
3 Reading Facilities 55 39 94 5 1 6
4 CAS 39 28 67 21 12 33
5 Reprographic 35 28 63 25 12 37
6 OPAC 9 9 18 51 31 72

Table 10 shows that 94 % readers are aware of reading Every library introduce many information services for the
facilities, 92 % readers knows about both circulation and benefit of user community. It is required to measure satisfaction
reference services. Only 18 % users are aware of OPAC service. level of users.

Evaluation of Library & Information Services

Table – 11
Rating of Satisfaction of Users with the Library Services

Sr. No. Library and Information Satisfactory Unsatisfactory


Services Students Teachers Total Students Teachers Total
1 Circulation 54 39 93 6 1 7
2 Reference 58 39 97 2 1 3
3 Reading Facilities 58 39 97 2 1 3
4 CAS 46 39 85 14 1 15
5 Reprographic 45 35 80 15 5 20
6 OPAC 24 15 39 36 25 61

Table 11 makes it clear that 97 % users are satisfied with Attitude of Library Staff
reference and reading facilities, followed by 93 % users with The attitude of library staff towards users plays an important
circulation service. 61 % users are not satisfied with OPAC role. The reputation of the library is somehow based on the
service. behavior of its staff also. Users responses are given here.

Table – 12
Users Opinion on Behaviour of Library Staff

Sr. No. Attitude of Yes No


Library Staff Students Teachers Total Students Teachers Total
1 Friendly & easy to talk 58 40 98 2 0 2
2 Available when you need them 52 39 91 8 1 9

Table 12 reveals the data about users opinion on library staff. and 91 % users think that staff is always available to help them
98 % users believe that library staff is friendly and easy to talk whenever they need them.

Physical Facilities
Table – 13
Users Opinion on Quality of Physical Facilities

Sr. No. Physical Facilities Satisfactory Unsatisfactory


Students Teachers Total Students Teachers Total

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1 Reading Space 57 36 93 3 4 7
2 Cleanliness 60 36 96 - 4 4
3 Ventilation 55 37 92 5 3 8
4 Computing Facilities 51 30 81 9 10 19
5 Lighting 59 38 97 1 2 3
6 Property Counter 52 38 90 8 2 10
7 Furniture 58 40 98 2 - 2

Every library tries to provide good physical facilities to its


users so that overall good reading environment could be given to
the users. User’s opinions are tabulated in table 13. Table shows
that maximum users are satisfied with all mentioned physical
facilities. Computing facilities need a little check.

IV. CONCLUSION
From this study, it is found that majority of users visit library
to read newspapers or borrow books. Users do not prefer to use
CD-ROM as compared to other information sources. Less
number of copies of needed books is another finding, hence
library has to work in this direction so that users can take
maximum benefit of library. A good percentage of users are not
aware of CAS , reprographic and OPAC services. OPAC is not
fully used by users is another finding. Almost every reader is
satisfied with the behavior of library staff. Users are satisfied
with physical facilities like reading space, cleanliness, lighting,
ventilation, property counter and furniture etc.

REFERENCES
[1] Tadasad, P G and Talikoti, S C. , Awareness and Utilization of Resources,
Services and Facilities of City Central Libraries : A User Survey
of City Central Library, Gulbarga , ILA Bulletin, 2000; 36 (3) , 80-86.
[2] Mahapatra, R.K. and Panda, K.C. , State of Reading Interest and Utilization
of Information Resources by the Working Journalists in Orissa : A Study,
ILA Bulletin, 2000; 16 (3) , 93-99
[3] Kannappanavar, B.U. and Swamy, C., Library and Information Services in
University of Agricultural Sciences in Karnatka : A Users Survey, Rao,
N.L. (Eds.), 49th All India Library Conference ,Bundelkhand University
Jhansi, ILA, Delh, 2004, pp. 210-225
[4] Khot, N.B. and Patil, S., Library and Information Services in Shivaji
University’s Barr. Balasaheb Khardekar Library : A Survey, Rao, N.L.
(Eds.), 49th All India Library Conference ,Bundelkhand University Jhansi,
ILA, Delh, 2004, pp. 226-237
[5] Singh, H., Information Seeking Behaviour of Users of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
NIT Central Library, DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information
Technology,2013; 33(4), pp. 338-342.

AUTHORS
First Author – Neera Bansal, Librarian , F.C.College for
Women, HIsar

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Effect of Asanas and Pranayama on Self Concept of


School Going Children
Dr. Uday Bhanu Kundu1 , Dr. Tarak Nath Pramanik2
1
Assistant Professor, Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education (NERC), Tepesia, Sonapur, Guwahati, Assam, India.
2
Assistant Professor . IGIPESS, University Of Delhi. Vikaspuri, New Delhi , India.

Abstract- The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of  To compare the effect of Asanas and Pranayama and
Asanas and Pranayama on self concept (Behaviour, Intellectual their combination on self concept level of school going
and school status, Physical appearance and attributes, Anxiety, children.
Popularity, Happiness and satisfaction) of school going children.  To compare the three treatments and its effect on the
120 subjects were equally assigned to the four groups by using self concept level.
random sampling procedure i.e. three experimental groups and
one control group. The experimental Group A was administered
Asanas, Group B was administered Pranayama and Group C was III. HYPOTHESES
administered combination of Asana Pranayama and Group D
control group was given no training of an experimental period of
H1 There will be significant effect of Asanas Practice on self
twelve weeks. Analysis of covariance was used exclusively to
concept level of school going children.
compare the effect of three yogic experimental treatments
H2 There will be significant effect of Pranayama Practice on self
programme for school going children. After statistical analysis
concept level of school going children.
findings show significant effect of all three experimental groups.
H3 There will be significant effect of Asana Pranayama Practice
on self concept level of school going children.
Index Terms- Asana, Pranayama, and self concept.
H4 There will not be any significant different between three
treatment groups.
I. INTRODUCTION

Y oga, the wealth of India, is one of the greatest gifts of India


to the world. Part of daily routine for the Indians for the
years. Today yoga is popular not so much as a system of
IV. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS
One hundred twenty (120) school going boys were selected
randomly as subjects in the age group of 8-10 years from Muni
philosophy as a system of practical discipline .the application is
International School, A-2/16-18, Mohan Garden, Uttam Nagar
yogic techniques is considered beneficial for health and cure of
New Delhi-110059, India. The subjects were divided into three
certain disease and for improving general efficiency of individual
treatment groups and one control group using random method.
is different fields, yoga is being utilized from the most
Group A was allotted Asanas treatment group consisted of 30
fundamentally personal to the social and educational implication
subjects, Group B was allotted Pranayama treatment group
of the society as a whole. No matter how times and life styles
consisted of 30 subjects, Group C was allotted combination of
change the judgment of the ancient sages in matters relating to
Asana Pranayama treatment group consisted of 30 subjects and
life and conduct is still relevant. Event though our attitude to the
Group D control group consisted of 30 subjects. The study was
nature of yoga itself may be different from those who were
confined to 12 weeks of training programme .
instalment. In its evolution, its wisdom applies. It is also a
spiritual pursuit for many seekers of truth. In the modern world,
western countries like America use yoga as a tool for mental,
physical and spiritual up liftmen. V. EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL
A period of twelve weeks training programme. Experimental
population of 90 subjects were assembled in Activity Hall at
II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Muni International School, A-2/16-18, Mohan Garden, Uttam
Nagar, New Delhi-110059, India. Experimental training was
executed from 9:00 AM onwards for 45 minutes, for six days a
 To study the effect of Asanas on self concept level of
week and Sunday has been observed as weekly off. Each subjects
school going children.
of the experimental group was ready to learn Asanas and
 To study the effect of Pranayama on self concept level Pranayamas. Group ‘A’ acts as Asanas Group, ‘B’ acts as
of school going children. Pranayama group, Group ‘C’ acts as Combination of Asana and
 To study the combination effect of Asana Pranayama on Pranayama group and Group ‘D’ acts as control group which did
self concept level of school going children. not participate in the training programme. The subjects of
experimental group ‘A’ practiced Asana (Surya Namaskar,

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Sarvangasana, Matsyasana, Halasana, Bhujangasana, TABLE-2


Shalvhasana, Dhanurasana, Chakrasana, Ardha DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED
Matsyendrasana, Paschimottanasana, Vajrasana, Yogamudra, IN THE POST-TESTING AFTER ADJUSTMENT WITH
Standing kati chakrasana, Tadasana and Shavasana) and group THE INITIAL DIFFERENCE BEHAVIOUR
‘B’ practiced Pranayama (Anuloma Vilom and Bhastrika) and 95%
group ‘C’ practiced combination of Asana and Pranayama CONFIDENCE
(Surya Namaskar, Sarvangasana, Matsyasana, Halasana, INTERVAL
Bhujangasana, Shalvhasana, Dhanurasana, Chakrasana, Ardha TREATMENT STD. LOWER UPPER
Matsyendrasana, Paschimottanasana, Vajrasana, Yogamudra, GROUP MEAN ERROR BOUND BOUND
Standing kati chakrasana, Tadasana ,Shavasana, Anuloma Vilom Asanas Group 11.56a 0.37 10.82 12.30
pranayama and Bhastrika pranayama). Pranayama Group 11.82a 0.37 11.08 12.56
Asana Pranayama
12.07a 0.37 11.33 12.81
Group
VI. TOOL USED Control Group 9.46 a
0.37 8.72 10.21
Self concept scores of the subject were obtained by using
children’s self concept scale (CSCS) by Dr. S.P Ahluwalia and (a) Covariates appearing in the model are
Dr. Hari Shankar Singh. evaluated at the following values: pre
behaviour = 8.86

VII. RESULTS The mean and standard error of different post-testing Groups
after adjustment have been shown in table 2. Which is for Asanas
TABLE-1
Group 11.56 & 0.37, Pranayama Group 11.82 & 0.37, Asana
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED
Pranayama Group 12.07 & 0.37 and Control Group 9.46 & 0.37.
IN THE POST TESTING BEHAVIOUR
TABLE-3
TREATMENT STD.
ANCOVA TABLE FOR THE POST-TEST DATA ON
GROUP MEAN DEVIATION N
BEHAVIOUR
Asanas Group 11.66 2.46 30
Pranayama
11.96 2.73 30 SIG.
Group
Asana SUM OF MEAN (p-
Pranayama 11.93 2.72 30 SOURCE SQUARES DF SQUARE F value)
Group Pre
304.72 1 304.72 72.34 0.00
Control Group 9.36 2.39 30 behavior
Total 11.23 2.77 120 Treatment
128.38 3 42.79 10.16 0.00
Group
Table no.1 indicates the values of descriptive statistics of the Error 484.36 115 4.21
experimental Groups (Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana Corrected
917.46 119
Pranayama Group) & Control Group for psychological variable Total
of behaviour, which shows that the mean and S.D. values of
Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana Pranayama Group and Table no. 3 indicates the values test of difference between
the Control Group were found to be 11.66±2.46, 11.96±2.73, the subject effects, which shows that there was a significant
11.93±2.72 and 9.36±2.39 respectively. Total the same was difference in pre test values of psychological variable of
11.23±2.77. behaviour for the four selected Groups, as the value was found to
be 72.34, which proves to be the base of Analysis of Co-
Variance. Also, a significant difference was found between the
post test values of the experimental and Control Group as the
value was found to be 10.16, which was significant at 0.05 level.

TABLE-4
POST HOC COMPARISON FOR THE GROUP MEANS IN POST-MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED WITH THE INITIAL
DIFFERENCES
BEHAVIOUR

MEAN
(I) TREATMENT DIFFERENCE (I- SIG.a
GROUP (J) TREATMENT GROUP J) (p-value)
Asanas Group Pranayama Group -0.25 0.62

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Asana Pranayama Group -0.51 0.33


*
Control Group 2.09 0.00
Pranayama Group Asanas Group 0.25 0.62
Asana Pranayama Group -0.25 0.63
Control Group 2.35* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group Asanas Group 0.51 0.33
Pranayama Group 0.25 0.63
*
Control Group 2.60 0.00
Control Group Asanas Group -2.09* 0.00
Pranayama Group -2.35* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group -2.60 *
0.00
test values of Asanas Group and the Control Group as the value
Based on estimated marginal means was found to be 2.09 which was significant at 0.05 level, the post
a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant test values of Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the
Difference (equivalent to no adjustments). value was found to be 2.35 which was significant at 0.05 level,
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Asana Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the value was
Table no. 4 indicates the values of post hoc test for the found to be 2.60 which was significant at 0.05 level (uday, 2010)
selected Groups for psychological variable of behaviour, which
shows that a significant difference was found between the post

FIGURE:-1

COMPARISON OF THE MEANS ON BEHAVIOUR OF THE CONTROL GROUP AND THREE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS

TABLE-5
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST TESTING INTELLECTUAL AND SCHOOL
STATUS

TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. DEVIATION N


Asanas Group 14.16 2.19 30
Pranayama Group 13.33 3.43 30
Asana Pranayama Group 14.16 2.56 30
Control Group 11.76 2.78 30
Total 13.35 2.91 120

Table no.5 indicates the values of descriptive statistics of the Pranayama Group and the Control Group were found to be
experimental Groups (Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana 14.16±2.19, 13.33±3.43, 14.16±2.56 and 11.76±2.78
Pranayama Group) & Control Group for psychological variable respectively. Total the same was 13.35±2.91.
of intellectual and school status, which shows that the mean and
S.D. values of Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana

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TABLE-6
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST-TESTING AFTER ADJUSTMENT WITH THE
INITIAL DIFFERENCE INTELLECTUAL AND SCHOOL STATUS

95%
CONFIDENCE
INTERVAL

LOWER UPPER
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. ERROR BOUND BOUND
Asanas Group 13.72a 0.397 12.93 14.51
Pranayama Group 13.23a 0.394 12.45 14.01
Asana Pranayama Group 14.44a 0.395 13.66 15.23
Control Group 12.02a 0.395 11.24 12.81

(a) Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pre intellectual and school status = 11.63

The mean and standard error of different post-testing Groups Pranayama Group 14.44 & 0.395and Control Group 12.02 &
after adjustment have been shown in table 6.Which is for Asana 0.395.
Group13.72 & 0.397, Pranayama Group 13.23 & 0.394, Asana

TABLE-7
ANCOVA TABLE FOR THE POST-TEST DATA ON INTELLECTUAL AND SCHOOL STATUS

SIG.
SUM OF MEAN (p-
SOURCE SQUARES DF SQUARE F value)
Pre intellectual and school status 384.90 1 384.90 82.64 0.00
Treatment Group 93.11 3 31.03 6.66 0.00
Error 535.57 115 4.65
Corrected Total 1013.59 119

Table no. 7 indicates the values test of difference between Analysis of Co-Variance. Also, a significant difference was
the subject effects, which shows that there was a significant found between the post test values of the experimental and
difference in pre test values of psychological variable of Control Group as the value was found to be 6.66, which was
intellectual and school status for the four selected Groups, as the significant at 0.05 level.
value was found to be 82.64, which proves to be the base of

TABLE-8
POST HOC COMPARISON FOR THE GROUP MEANS IN POST-MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED WITH THE INITIAL
DIFFERENCES
INTELLECTUAL AND SCHOOL STATUS

MEAN
(I) TREATMENT DIFFERENCE (I- SIG.a
GROUP (J) TREATMENT GROUP J) (p-value)
Asanas Group Pranayama Group 0.49 0.38
Asana Pranayama Group -0.72 0.20
Control Group 1.69* 0.003
Pranayama Group Asanas Group -0.49 0.38
Asana Pranayama Group -1.21* 0.03
Control Group 1.20* 0.03
Asana Pranayama Group AsanaGroup 0.72 0.20
Pranayama Group 1.21* 0.03
*
Control Group 2.42 0.00
Control Group AsanaGroup -1.69* 0.003

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Pranayama Group -1.20* 0.03


Based on estimated marginal means
a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table no. 8 indicates the values of post hoc test for the and the Control Group as the value was found to be 1.20 which
selected Groups for psychological variable of intellectual and was significant at 0.05 level, Asana Pranayama Group and the
school status, which shows that a significant difference was Control Group as the value was found to be 2.42 which was
found between the post test values of Asanas Group and the significant at 0.05 level and Asana Pranayama Group and the
Control Group as the value was found to be 1.69 which was Pranayama Group as the value was found to be 1.21 which was
significant at 0.05 level, the post test values of Pranayama Group significant at 0.05 level.

FIGURE:-2

COMPARISON OF THE MEANS ON INTELLECTUAL AND SCHOOL STATUS OF THE CONTROL GROUP AND
THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

TABLE-9
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST TESTING PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND
ATTRIBUTES

STD.
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN DEVIATION N
Asanas Group 10.60 1.30 30
Pranayama Group 10.56 1.38 30
Asana Pranayama Group 10.50 1.47 30
Control Group 8.93 1.98 30
Total 10.15 1.69 120

Table no.9 indicates the values of descriptive statistics of the and S.D. values of Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana
experimental Groups (Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana Pranayama Group and the Control Group were found to be
Pranayama Group) & Control Group for psychological variable 10.60±1.30, 10.56±1.38, 10.50±1.47and 8.93±1.98respectively.
of physical appearance and attributes, which shows that the mean Total the same was 10.15±1.69.

TABLE-10
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST-TESTING AFTER ADJUSTMENT WITH THE
INITIAL DIFFERENCE PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND ATTRIBUTES

95%
CONFIDENCE
INTERVAL
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. ERROR LOWER UPPER

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BOUND BOUND
Asanas Group 10.66a 0.24 10.17 11.15
Pranayama Group 10.61a 0.24 10.12 11.11
Asana Pranayama Group 10.49a 0.24 10.00 10.98
Control Group 8.82a 0.25 8.32 9.31

(a)Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: physical appearance and attributes pre test = 8.68.

The mean and standard error of different post-testing Groups Asana Pranayama Group 10.49 & 0.24 and Control Group 8.82 &
after adjustment have been shown in table 10. Which is for 0.25.
Asanas Group 10.66 & 0.24, Pranayama Group 10.61 & 0.24,

TABLE-11
ANCOVA TABLE FOR THE POST-TEST DATA ON PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND ATTRIBUTES

SUM OF MEAN SIG.


SOURCE SQUARES DF SQUARE F (p-value)
Pre physical appearance and
57.23 1 57.23 30.81 0.00
attributes
Treatment Group 70.46 3 23.48 12.64 0.00
Error 213.60 115 1.85
Corrected Total 341.30 119

Table no. 11 indicates the values test of difference between Analysis of Co-Variance. Also, a significant difference was
the subject effects, which shows that there was a significant found between the post test values of the experimental and
difference in pre test values of psychological variable of physical Control Group as the value was found to be 12.64, which was
appearance and attributes for the four selected Groups, as the significant at 0.05 level.
value was found to be 30.81, which proves to be the base of

TABLE-12
POST HOC COMPARISON FOR THE GROUP MEANS IN POST-MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED WITH THE INITIAL
DIFFERENCES
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND ATTRIBUTES

MEAN SIG.a
(I) TREATMENT DIFFERENCE (I- (p-
GROUP (J) TREATMENT GROUP J) value)
Asanas Group Pranayama Group 0.04 0.89
Asana Pranayama Group 0.17 0.63
Control Group 1.84* 0.00
Pranayama Group Asanas Group -0.04 0.89
Asana Pranayama Group 0.12 0.72
Control Group 1.79* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group Asanas Group -0.17 0.63
Pranayama Group -0.12 0.72
*
Control Group 1.67 0.00
Control Group Asanas Group -1.84* 0.00
Pranayama Group -1.79* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group -1.67* 0.00

Based on estimated marginal means


a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

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Table no.12 indicates the values of post hoc test for the which was significant at 0.05 level, the post test values of
selected Groups for psychological variable of physical Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the value was found
appearance and attributes, which shows that a significant to be 1.79which was significant at 0.05 level, Asana Pranayama
difference was found between the post test values of Asanas Group and the Control Group as the value was found to be 1.67
Group and the Control Group as the value was found to be 1.84 which was significant at 0.05 level.

FIGURE:-3

COMPARISON OF THE MEANS ON PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE CONTROL GROUP AND
THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

TABLE-13
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST TESTING ANXIETY

TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. DEVIATION N


Asanas Group 5.73 1.77 30
Pranayama Group 5.80 2.02 30
Asana Pranayama Group 5.00 1.76 30
Control Group 7.66 2.89 30
Total 6.05 2.35 120

Table no.13 indicates the values of descriptive statistics of the experimental Groups (Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana
Pranayama Group) & Control Group for psychological variable of anxiety, which shows that the mean and S.D. values of Asanas
Group, Pranayama Group, Asana Pranayama Group and the Control Group were found to be 5.73±1.77, 5.80±2.02, 5.00±1.76and
7.66±2.89 respectively. Total the same was 6.05±2.35.
TABLE-14
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST-TESTING AFTER ADJUSTMENT WITH THE
INITIAL DIFFERENCE ANXIETY

95%
CONFIDENCE
INTERVAL
LOWER UPPER
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. ERROR BOUND BOUND
Asanas Group 5.68a 0.26 5.15 6.20
Pranayama Group 5.61a 0.26 5.08 6.13
Asana Pranayama Group 5.16a 0.26 4.63 5.68
Control Group 7.75a 0.26 7.22 8.27
(a) Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: general anxiety scale for children pre test = 7.54.

The mean and standard error of different post-testing Groups Asanas Group 5.68 & .26, Pranayama Group 5.61 & 0.26, Asana
after adjustment have been shown in table 14. Which is for Pranayama Group 5.16 & 0.26 and Control Group 7.75 & 0.26.

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TABLE-15
ANCOVA TABLE FOR THE POST-TEST DATA ON ANXIETY

SIG.
SUM OF MEAN (p-
SOURCE SQUARES DF SQUARE F value)
Pre Anxiety Scale For Children 298.94 1 298.94 142.95 0.00
Treatment Group 120.26 3 40.09 19.17 0.00
Error 240.48 115 2.09
Corrected Total 659.70 119

Table no.15 indicates the values test of difference between 142.95, which proves to be the base of Analysis of Co-Variance.
the subject effects, which shows that there was a significant Also, a significant difference was found between the post test
difference in pre test values of psychological variable of anxiety values of the experimental and Control Group as the value was
for the four selected Groups, as the value was found to be found to be 19.17, which was significant at 0.05 level.

TABLE-16
POST HOC COMPARISON FOR THE GROUP MEANS IN POST-MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED WITH THE INITIAL
DIFFERENCES ANXIETY

(I) TREATMENT MEAN SIG.a(p-


GROUP (J) TREATMENT GROUP DIFFERENCE (I-J) value)
Asanas Group Pranayama Group 0.07 0.85
Asana Pranayama Group 0.51 0.16
Control Group -2.07* 0.00
Pranayama Group Asanas Group -0.07 0.85
Asana Pranayama Group 0.44 0.23
Control Group -2.14* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Asanas Group -0.51 0.16
Group Pranayama Group -0.44 0.23
*
Control Group -2.58 0.00
Control Group Asanas Group 2.07* 0.00
Pranayama Group 2.14* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group 2.58* 0.00
Based on estimated marginal means
a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table no. 16 indicates the values of post hoc test for the test values of Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the
selected Groups for psychological variable of anxiety, which value was found to be 2.14 which was significant at 0.05 level,
shows that a significant difference was found between the post Asana Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the value was
test values of Asanas Group and the Control Group as the value found to be 2.58 which was significant at 0.05 level.
was found to be 2.07 which was significant at 0.05 level, the post

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FIGURE:-4

COMPARISON OF THE MEANS ON ANXIETY OF THE CONTROL GROUP AND THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

TABLE-17
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST TESTING POPULARITY

STD.
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN DEVIATION N
AsanaGroup 9.16 2.15 30
Pranayama Group 9.20 1.98 30
Asana Pranayama Group 9.70 1.91 30
Control Group 6.26 2.28 30
Total 8.58 2.47 120

Table no.17 indicates the values of descriptive statistics of values of Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana Pranayama
the experimental Groups (Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Group and the Control Group were found to be 9.16±2.15,
Asana Pranayama Group) & Control Group for psychological 9.20±1.98, 9.70±1.91and 6.26±2.28 respectively. Total the same
variable of popularity, which shows that the mean and S.D. was 8.58±2.47.

TABLE-18
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST-TESTING AFTER ADJUSTMENT WITH THE
INITIAL DIFFERENCE POPULARITY

95%
CONFIDENCE
INTERVAL
LOWER UPPER
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. ERROR BOUND BOUND
AsanaGroup 9.00a 0.270 8.46 9.53
Pranayama Group 9.21a 0.270 8.68 9.74
Asana Pranayama Group 9.55a 0.270 9.02 10.09
Control Group 6.55a 0.271 6.02 7.09

(a) Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: popularity pre test = 6.95.

The mean and standard error of different post-testing Groups Asana Pranayama Group 9.55 & 0.270and Control Group 6.55 &
after adjustment have been shown in table 18. Which is for 0.271.
Asanas Group 9.00 & 0.270, Pranayama Group 9.21 & 0.270,

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TABLE-19
ANCOVA TABLE FOR THE POST-TEST DATA ON POPULARITY

SUM OF MEAN SIG.


SOURCE SQUARES DF SQUARE F (p-value)
Pre popularity 309.54 1 309.54 141.70 0.00
Treatment Group 166.41 3 55.47 25.39 0.00
Error 251.21 115 2.18
Corrected Total 727.16 119

Table no.19 indicates the values test of difference between be 141.70, which proves to be the base of Analysis of Co-
the subject effects, which shows that there was a significant Variance. Also, a significant difference was found between the
difference in pre test values of psychological variable of post test values of the experimental and Control Group as the
popularity for the four selected Groups, as the value was found to value was found to be 25.39, which was significant at 0.05 level.

TABLE-20
POST HOC COMPARISON FOR THE GROUP MEANS IN POST-MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED WITH THE INITIAL
DIFFERENCES
POPULARITY

MEAN
(I) TREATMENT DIFFERENCE (I- SIG.a
GROUP (J) TREATMENT GROUP J) (p-value)
AsanaGroup Pranayama Group -0.21 0.58
AsanaPranayama Group -0.55 0.15
Control Group 2.44* 0.00
Pranayama Group AsanaGroup 0.21 0.58
Asana Pranayama Group -0.34 0.37
Control Group 2.65* 0.00
AsanaPranayama AsanaGroup 0.55 0.15
Group Pranayama Group 0.34 0.37
*
Control Group 2.99 0.00
Control Group AsanaGroup -2.44* 0.00
Pranayama Group -2.65* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group -2.99 *
0.00

Based on estimated marginal means


a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table no.20 indicates the values of post hoc test for the test values of Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the
selected Groups for psychological variable of popularity, which value was found to be 2.65which was significant at 0.05 level,
shows that a significant difference was found between the post Asana Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the value was
test values of Asanas Group and the Control Group as the value found to be 2.99 which was significant at 0.05 level.
was found to be 2.44 which was significant at 0.05 level, the post

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FIGURE:-5

COMPARISON OF THE MEANS ON POPULARITY OF THE CONTROL GROUP AND THREE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS

TABLE-21
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST TESTING HAPPINESS AND SATISFACTION

STD.
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN DEVIATION N
AsanaGroup 7.93 1.41 30
Pranayama Group 8.00 1.43 30
Asana Pranayama Group 7.86 1.52 30
Control Group 6.00 1.41 30
Total 7.45 1.65 120

Table no.21 indicates the values of descriptive statistics of mean and S.D. values of Asanas Group, Pranayama Group,
the experimental Groups (Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana Pranayama Group and the Control Group were found to be
Asana Pranayama Group) & Control Group for psychological 7.93±1.41, 8.00±1.43, 7.86±1.52and 6.00±1.41respectively.
variable of happiness and satisfaction, which shows that the Total the same was 7.45±1.65.

TABLE-22
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST-TESTING AFTER ADJUSTMENT WITH THE
INITIAL DIFFERENCE HAPPINESS AND SATISFACTION

95%
CONFIDENCE
INTERVAL
LOWER UPPER
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. ERROR BOUND BOUND
Asanas Group 7.95a 0.22 7.50 8.40
Pranayama Group 8.05a 0.22 7.60 8.50
Asana Pranayama Group 7.86a 0.22 7.41 8.31
Control Group 5.92a 0.22 5.47 6.37

(a)Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: happiness and satisfaction pre test = 6.22.

The mean and standard error of different post-testing Groups Asana Pranayama Group 7.86 & 0.22and Control Group 5.92 &
after adjustment have been shown in table 22.Which is for 0.22.
Asanas Group 7.95 & 0.22, Pranayama Group 8.05 & 0.22,

TABLE-23
ANCOVA TABLE FOR THE POST-TEST DATA ON HAPPINESS AND SATISFACTION

SUM OF MEAN SIG.


SOURCE SQUARES DF SQUARE F (p-

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value)
Pre happiness and satisfaction 55.91 1 55.91 35.98 0.00
Treatment Group 93.08 3 31.02 19.96 0.00
Error 178.69 115 1.55
Corrected Total 327.70 119

Table no. 23 indicates the values test of difference between Analysis of Co-Variance. Also, a significant difference was
the subject effects, which shows that there was a significant found between the post test values of the experimental and
difference in pre test values of psychological variable of Control Group as the value was found to be 19.96, which was
happiness and satisfaction for the four selected Groups, as the significant at 0.05 level.
value was found to be 35.98, which proves to be the base of

TABLE-24
POST HOC COMPARISON FOR THE GROUP MEANS IN POST-MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED WITH THE INITIAL
DIFFERENCES
HAPPINESS AND SATISFACTION

MEAN
(I) TREATMENT DIFFERENCE SIG.a
GROUP (J) TREATMENT GROUP (I-J) (p-value)
Asanas Group Pranayama Group -0.09 0.76
Asana Pranayama Group 0.09 0.76
Control Group 2.03* 0.00
Pranayama Group Asanas Group 0.09 0.76
Asana Pranayama Group 0.19 0.55
Control Group 2.12* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Asanas Group -0.09 0.76
Group Pranayama Group -0.19 0.55
*
Control Group 1.93 0.00
Control Group Asanas Group -2.03* 0.00
Pranayama Group -2.12* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group -1.93* 0.00

Based on estimated marginal means


a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table no. 24 indicates the values of post hoc test for the 0.05 level, the post test values of Pranayama Group and the
selected Groups for psychological variable of happiness and Control Group as the value was found to be 2.12 which was
satisfaction, which shows that a significant difference was found significant at 0.05 level, Asana Pranayama Group and the
between the post test values of Asanas Group and the Control Control Group as the value was found to be 1.93 which was
Group as the value was found to be 2.03 which was significant at significant at 0.05 level.

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FIGURE:-6

COMPARISON OF THE MEANS ON HAPPINESS AND SATISFACTION OF THE CONTROL GROUP AND THREE
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

TABLE-25
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST TESTING SELF CONCEPT

STD.
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN DEVIATION N
Asanas Group 59.26 5.53 30
Pranayama Group 58.86 6.32 30
Asana Pranayama Group 59.16 5.66 30
Control Group 50.00 7.31 30
Total 56.82 7.33 120

Table no.25 indicates the values of descriptive statistics of values of Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Asana Pranayama
the experimental Groups (Asanas Group, Pranayama Group, Group and the Control Group were found to be 59.26±5.53,
Asana Pranayama Group) & Control Group for psychological 58.86±6.32, 59.16±5.66and 50.00±7.31respectively. Total the
variable of self concept, which shows that the mean and S.D. same was 56.82±7.33.

TABLE-26
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE DATA MEASURED IN THE POST-TESTING AFTER ADJUSTMENT WITH THE
INITIAL DIFFERENCE
SELF CONCEPT

95%
CONFIDENCE
INTERVAL
LOWER UPPER
TREATMENT GROUP MEAN STD. ERROR BOUND BOUND
Asanas Group 58.69a 0.761 57.19 60.20
Pranayama Group 58.63a 0.760 57.12 60.13
Asana Pranayama Group 59.55a 0.760 58.05 61.06
Control Group 50.41a 0.760 48.90 51.91

(a)Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: self concept pre test = 49.90.

The mean and standard error of different post-testing Groups Asana Pranayama Group 59.55 & 0.760and Control Group 50.41
after adjustment have been shown in table 26.Which is for & 0.760.
Asanas Group 58.69 & 0.761, Pranayama Group 58.63 & 0.760,

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TABLE-27
ANCOVA TABLE FOR THE POST-TEST DATA ON
SELF CONCEPT

SIG.
SUM OF MEAN (p-
SOURCE SQUARES DF SQUARE F value)
Pre self concept 2749.35 1 2749.35 158.92 0.00
Treatment Group 1658.47 3 552.82 31.95 0.00
Error 1989.49 115 17.30
Corrected Total 6397.32 119

Table no. 27 indicates the values test of difference between be 158.92, which proves to be the base of Analysis of Co-
the subject effects, which shows that there was a significant Variance. Also, a significant difference was found between the
difference in pre test values of psychological variable of self post test values of the experimental and Control Group as the
concept for the four selected Groups, as the value was found to value was found to be 31.95, which was significant at 0.05 level.

TABLE-28
POST HOC COMPARISON FOR THE GROUP MEANS IN POST-MEASUREMENT ADJUSTED WITH THE INITIAL
DIFFERENCES
SELF CONCEPT

MEAN SIG.a
(I) TREATMENT DIFFERENCE (I- (p-
GROUP (J) TREATMENT GROUP J) value)
Asanas Group Pranayama Group 0.06 0.95
Asana Pranayama Group -0.86 0.42
Control Group 8.28* 0.00
Pranayama Group Asanas Group -0.06 0.95
Asana Pranayama Group -0.92 0.39
Control Group 8.22* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Asanas Group 0.86 0.42
Group Pranayama Group 0.92 0.39
*
Control Group 9.14 0.00
Control Group Asanas Group -8.28* 0.00
Pranayama Group -8.22* 0.00
Asana Pranayama Group -9.14 *
0.00

Based on estimated marginal means


a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table no. 28 indicates the values of post hoc test for the test values of Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the
selected Groups for psychological variable of self concept, which value was found to be 8.22 which was significant at 0.05 level,
shows that a significant difference was found between the post Asana Pranayama Group and the Control Group as the value was
test values of Asanas Group and the Control Group as the value found to be 9.14 which was significant at 0.05 level.
was found to be 8.28 which was significant at 0.05 level, the post

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FIGURE:-7

COMPARISON OF THE MEANS ON SELF CONCEPT OF THE CONTROL GROUP AND THREE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS

VIII. DISCUSSION The post hoc test (Table 12) revealed that physical
BEHAVIOUR appearance and attributes was significantly improved in Asanas
Table 3 was referred back into the result section. It could be among the three experimental programme followed by
seen from the table that there was a significant difference in case Pranayama programme and Asana Pranayama programme
of behaviour after administrating the different training Groups.
programme namely Asana, Pranayama and combination of Asana The effectiveness of Asanas programme in comparison to
Pranayama. other training programme may be due to the reason that Asanas
The post hoc test (Table 4) revealed that behaviour was programme increase physical appearance and attributes.
significantly improved in Asana Pranayama among the three Therefore, proposed hypothesis has been accepted in case of
experimental programme followed by Pranayama programme physical appearance and attributes.
and Asanas programme Groups.
The effectiveness of combination of Asana Pranayama ANXIETY
programme in comparison to other training programme may be Table 15 was referred back into the result section. It could be
due to the reason that both Asana Pranayama programme seen from the table that there was a significant difference in case
increase the level of behaviour. Therefore, proposed hypothesis of anxiety after administrating the different training programme
has been accepted in case of behaviour. namely Asana, Pranayama and combination of Asana
Pranayama.
INTELLECTUAL AND SCHOOL STATUS The post hoc test (Table 16) revealed that anxiety was
Table 7 was referred back into the result section. It could be significantly improved in Asana Pranayama among the three
seen from the table that there was a significant difference in case experimental programme followed by Pranayama programme
of intellectual and school status after administrating the different and Asanas programme Groups.
training programme namely Asana, Pranayama and combination The effectiveness of combination of Asana Pranayama
of Asana Pranayama. programme in comparison to other training programme may be
The post hoc test (Table 8) revealed that intellectual and due to the reason that both Asana Pranayama programme
school status was significantly improved in Asana Pranayama decrease the level of anxiety of individuals. Therefore, proposed
among the three experimental programme followed by Asanas hypothesis has been accepted in case of anxiety.
programme and Pranayama programme Groups.
The effectiveness of combination of Asana Pranayama POPULARITY
programme in comparison to other training programme may be Table 19 was referred back into the result section. It could be
due to the reason that both Asana Pranayama programme seen from the table that there was a significant difference in case
increase the level of intellectual and school status. Therefore, of popularity after administrating the different training
proposed hypothesis has been accepted in case of intellectual and programme namely Asana, Pranayama and combination of Asana
school status. Pranayama.
The post hoc test (Table 20) revealed that popularity was
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND ATTRIBUTES significantly improved in Asana Pranayama among the three
Table 11 was referred back into the result section. It could be experimental programme followed by Pranayama programme
seen from the table that there was a significant difference in case and Asanas programme Groups.
of physical appearance and attributes after administrating the The effectiveness of combination of Asana Pranayama
different training programme namely Asana, Pranayama and programme in comparison to other training programme may be
combination of Asana Pranayama. due to the reason that both Asana Pranayama programme

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increase popularity. Therefore, proposed hypothesis has been X. RECOMMENDATIONS


accepted in case of popularity. It will be appreciated if following studies may be executed in
future for upliftment of humen beings like
HAPPINESS AND SATISFACTION  Sportsmen from different games and sports.
Table 23 was referred back into the result section. It could be  Boys of different age groups (Childhood, College
seen from the table that there was a significant difference in case going).
of happiness and satisfaction after administrating the different  Girls of different groups (Childhood, Adolescent &
training programme namely Asana, Pranayama and combination College going).
of Asana Pranayama.  Working and non working males and females from
The post hoc test (Table 24) revealed that happiness and different work of life’s.
satisfaction was significantly improved in Pranayama among the  Senior Citizens male and female .
three experimental programme followed by Asanas programme  It is further noted that the same research may be
and Asana Pranayama programme Groups. conducted on larger population of different age groups
The effectiveness of Pranayama programme in comparison to and genders.
other training programme may be due to the reason that
Pranayama programme increase happiness and satisfaction.
Therefore, proposed hypothesis has been accepted in case of REFERENCES
happiness and satisfaction.
[1] Alvarez, J. A. (1993) A study of high school students perceptions of school
stress, coping resources and stress responses. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis,
SELF CONCEPT Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 55(3), 468.
Table 27 was referred back into the result section. It could be [2] Archer,J.&Lamin,A(1985)An investigation of personal and academic
seen from the table that there was a significant difference in case stressors on college campuses,/ou/7ia/ of College Student
of self concept after administrating the different training Personnel.Vol.26(3),2l0-215.
programme namely Asana, Pranayama and combination of Asana [3] Asha, C.B. (2003) Creativity, Intelligence, Academic Stress And Mental
Health. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, Vol. 20 (1), 41-47'.
Pranayama.
[4] Bisht, A.R (1980) Interactive effect of school climate and need for
The post hoc test (Table 28) revealed that self concept was academic achievement onThe Academic Stress of Students. Education,
significantly improved in Asana Pranayama among the three Almora Constituent College, Kumon University.
experimental programme followed by Pranayama programme [5] Bisht, A .R(1987) Bisht battery of stress scales.National Psychological
and Asanas programme Groups. Corporation Agra.Chauhan S.S (1978) Advanced Educational Psychology,
Vikash Publication Pvt. Ltd.
The effectiveness of combination of Asana Pranayama
[6] Dewan(2003)Journal of Educational Research and Extension.Vol. 41(3),
programme in comparison to other training programme may be July-Sep. (2004)
due to the reason that both Asana Pranayama programme [7] Flocco, D. C. (2005) School schedules and how they impact student
increase self awareness of an individual regarding self and perceptions of stress.Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Dissertation Abstracts
others. Therefore, proposed hypothesis has been accepted in case International, June Vol.65 (12), 4411.
of self concept. [8] Graver et.al (1988) Role of Yoga in the treatment of Psychoneurosis, PGI
Psychiatry, 29 253 -258.
[9] Kochar.H.C (1972) Yoga practice as a variable in neuroticism, anxiety and
hostility, Yoga
IX. CONCLUSIONS
[10] Mimansa, 15, 37-46.
1. Asanas, Pranayama and combination of Asana [11]
Pranayama also improve the Behaviour of school going [12] Kochar,H.C(1976)Influence of Yogic Practices on mental Fatigue. Yoga-
children. Mimansa Vol. 28 (2), 3.
2. Asanas, Pranayama and combination of Asana [13] Kochar, H.C (1976-77) Effect of yogic practices on immediate memory,
Pranayama also improve the Intellectual and school Yoga Mimansa 18,57-
status of school going children. [14] 61.
3. Asanas, Pranayama and combination of Asana [15] Kumari, Santosh et.al (2005) Impact of Yogic Shatkriyas and Pranayamas
on stress of senior
Pranayama also improve the Physical appearance and
[16] secondary student, Yoga Mimansa, Vol. 37, No. 1 & 2.,23-30.
attributes of school going children.
[17] Mangal, S.K(2002) Advance Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of
4. Asanas, Pranayama and combination of Asana India Private Lim.
Pranayama also improve the Anxiety of school going [18] Pratap, V. (1971) Investigation on Tratka, collected papers on yoga,
children. Lonavala, Kaivalyadhama,16.
5. Asanas, Pranayama and combination of Asana [19] Tirth, Omanand (1960) Patanjal Yog Paradeep, Geeta Press Gorkhpur.
Pranayama also improve the Popularity of school going Sahu.R.J & Bhole.M.V. (1983) Effect of three week Yogic training
programme on psychomotor performance, Yoga Mimansa,22,59-62.
children.
6. Asanas, Pranayama and combination of Asana
Pranayama also improve the Happiness and satisfaction
of school going children. AUTHORS
7. Asanas, Pranayama and combination of Asana First Author – Dr. Uday Bhanu Kundu, Assistant Professor,
Pranayama also improve the self concept of school Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education (NERC),
going children. Tepesia, Sonapur, Guwahati, Assam, India

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Second Author – Dr. Tarak Nath Pramanik , Assistant Professor


. IGIPESS, University Of Delhi. Vikaspuri, New Delhi , India.

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Synthesis, Characterization of Water Soluble PS-b-PEO-


b-PS Tri-block Copolymers and its Corrosion Inhibition
Behaviour on Mild Steel in Acidic Solution
Anil Barak1, Palash Jyoti Das2, Hemlata Vashisht3, Sudershan Kumar 4
1
Department of Chemistry, Shyamlal College, University of Delhi,
2
Department of Chemistry, Hans Raj College, University of Delhi,
3
Department of Chemistry, Maharaja Agrasen College, University of Delhi,
4
Department of Chemistry, Hindu College, University of Delhi

Abstract- The high molecular weight poly (ethylene oxide) was containing nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen are being used as
used to synthesize telechelic bromine terminated poly (ethylene inhibitors.5 The most efficient inhibitors are organic compounds
oxide) polymers. The low molecular weight polystyrene anion having pi bonds in their structures. Owing to the multiple
was generated by living anionic polymerization by controlling adsorption sites, polymeric compounds adsorb more strongly on
monomer/initiator ratio. The living polystyrene anion was the metal surface compared with their monomer analogues.
reacted with telechelic bromine terminated poly (ethylene oxide) Therefore, it is expected that the polymers will be better
polymers to obtain water soluble polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene corrosion inhibitors.6-16 However, by increasing the hydrocarbon
oxide)-b-polystyrene tri-block copolymers. The effect of chain length, solubility of the polymer decreases. Thus, the
polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene oxide)-b-polystyrene (PS-b-PEO-b- presence of hydrophilic functional groups which increase the
PS) block copolymer on the mild steel corrosion in 1M sulfuric solubility is required. The PEO was used as hydrophilic block in
acid solution has been investigated at various inhibitor many polymers.10,17-22 Depending on the ratio of hydrophilic and
concentrations and temperatures by Potentiodynamic hydrophilic block solution behaviour of the block copolymers
Polarization Study. The investigated results showed that the may change. For instance if the block copolymers consist of
corrosion rate decreased significantly with increase in the bulkier hydrophilic block and smaller hydrophobic block then it
concentration of inhibitors. The shape of polarization profiles of can directly dissolve in water to studied the solution behaviour. 23
the polymer at various concentrations indicated their mixed-type Since the concept was established by Szwarc in 1956. 24 The
nature of inhibition. living anionic polymerization method has become a very useful
technique to synthesize well-defined polymeric materials with
Index Terms- poly(ethylene oxide), PS-b-PEO-b-PS block controlled molecular weight and narrow polydispersity index. 25
copolymer , anionic polymerization, potentiodynamic This technique is very helpful to design the degree of
polarization studies. polymerization in requisite block by simply controlling the
monomer/initiator ratio for the synthesis of block copolymers by
sequential living anionic polymerization.26-28 But due to due to
I. INTRODUCTION the low nucleophilic reactivity of poly(ethylene oxide) oxyanion
which cannot initiate the polymerization of styrene, 28,29 it was
M ild steel is an alloy, which is one of the commercial forms
of iron and is very prone to corrosion particularly in acidic
medium. Acidic solutions are extensively used for different
difficult to synthesize amphiphilic polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene
oxide)-b-polystyrene (PS-b-PEO-b-PS) triblock copolymers
purposes in chemical laboratories and in several industrial through living anionic polymerization.28 The synthesis of PS-b-
processes such as acid pickling, acid cleaning, acid descaling and PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers was carried out by our research
oil well acidizing, etc. Iron and its alloys could corrode during group by using telechelic bromine-terminated PEO oligomer (Br-
these acidic applications particularly with the use of hydrochloric PEO-Br).30 However, the low contents of PEO block results
acid and sulphuric acid, which effects in dreadful waste of both poor water solubility of. In this report, telechelic bromine-
resources and money. One way to protect the metal against terminated PEO polymers was used to synthesize water soluble
corrosion is to add certain organic molecules, which adsorb on PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers through living anionic
the surface and form a protective layer.1-4 The unique advantage polymerization by controlling monomer/initiator ratio.
of the possibility of adding inhibitors is that this can be done The water soluble PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers were
without disruption of the industrial process. Specific chemical used to study its inhibition action on the mild steel corrosion in
compounds are often used as inhibitors in these processes mainly H2SO4 solution at a temperature range of 298 K-328 K. The work
to control the metal dissolution reaction and thereby increasing is carried out to establish the effective concentration for good
the service life of steel materials. Organic corrosion inhibitors are inhibition action for mild steel corrosion in H2SO4 solution.
useful when their addition in small amounts prevents corrosion.
At higher concentrations of organic compounds added additional
testing for environmental impact is required. Compounds

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II. MATERIALS AND METHODS Synthesis of PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers using Br-
Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG, Aldrich, USA) of molecular PEO-Br
weight 20000, were dried by azeotropic distillation with toluene To synthesize PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers, first,
prior to use. A trace of residual toluene was removed under Br-PEO-Br was prepared as reported in the literature. 31 Then, in
vacuum just prior to use. Styrene (Aldrich, USA) was washed a reaction flask, living polystyryl anion (PSLi) was generated as
with 10 % (w/v) of aqueous NaOH solution followed by washing reported in the literature.32 In a separate reaction flask, fitted with
with distilled water to remove the inhibitor and stirred over CaH 2 the 3-way stopcock which consists of argon containing balloon,
overnight. Then, the styrene was distilled under reduce pressure required quantity of Br-PEO-Br was taken and vacuum of 10-6
and the middle portion was stored under argon atmosphere until mm/Hg was applied at 80 °C for 6 h to remove any traces of
use. Tetrahydrofuran (THF, Spectrochem, India) was first moisture. Then, a known quantity of freshly freeze-pump-thawed
distilled and then the middle portion was refluxed over Na- THF was vacuum-transferred into the flask containing Br-PEO-
benzophenone complex until the purple colour persists. Br. The resulting THF solution of Br-PEO-Br (20 % w/v) was
Phosphorous tribromide (Spectrochem, India) and sec- transferred into the living PSLi (polystyrene anion: Br-PEO-Br
butyllithium (sec-BuLi, Aldrich, USA) were used as received. = 2.4:1 molar ratio) under argon atmosphere at -78 °C using
flamed dried cannula. Within few seconds, the persisting orange
The chemical compositions weight % of mild steel was as red colour of living PSLi was disappeared and turns into
follows: colourless solution. The solution was stirred for another 3 h at -
78 °C and then warmed to room temperature. At the end, the
C Si S P Mn Fe
reaction mixture was poured into ten fold excess of hexane and
0.15 0.31 0.025 0.025 1.02 Balance
the resulting white precipitate was filtered, dried, washed with
cyclohexane to remove homo polystyrene.
All solutions were prepared from doubly distilled water and
AR grade H2SO4 was used. The concentration range of inhibitor Characterization
employed was 1600ppm, 1200ppm, 800ppm and 400ppm in 1 M Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra were recorded as
H2SO4. KBr pellets using Nicolet Impact 400 FTIR spectrophotometer.
The working electrode (WE) for the potentiodynamic studies Fourier-transform nuclear magnetic resonance (FT-NMR)
was cut from mild steel rod and was soldered on one end with an spectra were recorded using a Bruker DPX-300 NMR instrument
insulated copper wire and it was then embedded in chemical using deuterated chloroform (CDCl3) as the solvent and
epoxy resin (ARALDITE) leaving the exposed surface area of 1
cm2 for the studies. The counter electrode was platinum and tetramethylsilane as an internal standard. Number average (
Mn )
reference was saturated calomel electrode (SCE) coupled to
luggin capillary. The potential of the metal electrode versus
M
and weight-average ( w ) molecular weights and molecular
reference electrode was measured with the help of Galvanostat. weight distribution (MWD) were determined by using a gel
A steady state potential was achieved in 4-5 hours. permeation chromatography (GPC; Waters, USA) instrument
Potentiodynamic polarization measurements were performed equipped with a 2414 differential refractometer (RI Detector) and
using electrochemical analyzer CHI 6021B under aerated three µ-styragel columns (105, 104, 103 Å) in series. HPLC grade
conditions. Potentiodynamic anodic and cathodic polarization THF was used as an eluent at a flow rate of 1.0 mL min -1 and
curves were obtained with a scan rate of 0.001Vs-1 in the molecular weight calibrations were carried out using polystyrene
potential range from -1.2V to 0.2V relative to the corrosion standards. Differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) studies were
potential (Ecorr). carried out using a DSC Q200 instrument (TA Instruments,
USA) at a heating rate of 10 oC/min. under nitrogen atmosphere.
All the glass transition temperatures (Tg) considered in this
III. EXPERIMENTAL investigation are the middle points between the onset and offset
Synthesis of bromine terminated poly(ethylene oxide) (Br- points.
PEO-Br)
Bromine terminated poly(ethylene oxide) (Br-PEO-Br) was Potentiodynamic Polarization Studies
prepared as reported in the literature.31 The procedure to prepare In the present study, 1 M H2SO4 was used for the polarization
Br-PEO-Br from PEG of molecular weight 20000 (PEG) is of mild steel at four temperatures namely 298K, 308K, 318K,
presented here as reference procedure. Dried PEG (25 g, 1.25 and 328K. Solutions of various concentrations of inhibitor were
mmol) was taken in a 250 mL two necked round bottom flask, prepared in 1M H2SO4 namely1600ppm, 1200ppm, 800 ppm and
which was kept under argon atmosphere after applying vacuum 400 ppm which were then used for the polarization studies.
for two hours. Phosphorous tribromide (PBr 3) (0.1 mL, 1.25 Potential values were plotted against the logarithm of current
mmol) was added over a period of 30 min and the mixture was densities and various parameters were calculated which are given
stirred at 110 °C for 5 h. The unreacted PBr 3 was removed by in table 3. Figure 4 gives the cathodic and anodic polarization
applying vacuum of 10-6 torr at 60 °C and after cooling, curves for these solutions at 298K. An increase in corrosion
chloroform (100 mL) was added to the reaction mixture, which current values for 1 M H2SO4 is observed with the increase in
was then filtered. Chloroform was evaporated in vacuum to get temperature thereby indicating that the extent of corrosion
Br-PEO-Br as white waxy material. increases with the increase in temperature. Ecorr almost remains

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constant with increase in temperature. Anodic and cathodic Tafel comparing the integration values of –OH and –CH2-CH2-O
slopes remain almost constant with temperature and b c ≈ ba. protons of PEG. The complete conversion of –OH to Br was also
confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy41 using the peak at 3600-3400
The inhibition efficiency was calculated using the following cm-1 for –OH in PEG which is missing in Br-PEO-Br as shown
expression: in figure 2(b). In figure 2 (b) the absorption band at 1110 cm-1 is
due to the stretching vibration of -C-O-C- of -CH2-CH2-O
repeating units. GPC analysis of Br-PEO-Br and PEG was
carried out and the results are presented in Table 1. GPC analysis
shows that there is no molecular weight reduction during the
synthesis of Br-PEO-Br and absence of any side reaction during
where, io is the corrosion current in the uninhibited solution and i the synthesis of Br-PEO-Br.
is the corrosion current in the inhibited solution. After successful synthesis of Br-PEO-Br, as shown in
The corrosion current values are much lower in the presence Scheme 1, it was reacted with PSLi to get PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-
of the inhibitor than in pure acid. The inhibition efficiency block copolymers and the results are presented in Table 2. For
increases with the increase in concentration of the inhibitor. This the polymerization, the molar concentration of Br-PEO-Br was
shows that the inhibition is due to the adsorption of the additive calculated by using the molecular weight of Br-PEO-Br
on the mild steel surface. The values of bc and ba show irregular obtained through 1H NMR in DMSO d6. The stoichiometry of 1:
trend indicating the involvement of other species/anions present PSLi is very crucial factor to obtain PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block
in the solution in the adsorption process. Ecorr remains constant copolymer otherwise it may give mixture of di-block and tri-
indicating that polyethylene oxide is a mixed type of inhibitor i.e. block copolymers. To ensure the formation of tri-block
blocks both cathodic and anodic reactions to an equal extent. copolymers, the mole ratio between Br-PEO-Br and living PSLi
was maintained at 1: 2.4 and the excess polystyrene was removed
by washing the product with cyclohexane. To confirm the
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION formation of the tri-block copolymers, GPC was carried out and
the results are presented in Table 2. The theoretical molecular
Living anionic polymerization is playing a major role for the weight matches with the experimental molecular weight and
synthesis of well-defined block copolymers by simply MWD of all the tri-block copolymers are narrow. These results
controlling the initiator/monomer ratio. Depending on the nature show that the formation of tri-block copolymers is through living
and ratio of other block, the block copolymers having polymerization.
hydrophilic block like PEO shows solubility in water. The PS-b-
PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers may act as efficient mild steel Spectral studies of PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers
corrosion inhibitor due to presence of pi bond to its structure as After successful synthesis, the structure of the PS-b-PEO-b-
well as hetero elements like oxygen. It is an amphiphilic block PS tri-block copolymers was confirmed using 1H NMR
copolymers. To increase the solubility in water the telechelic spectroscopy and 1H NMR spectrum of P2 shown in Figure 1(c).
bromine-terminated PEO polymer was used to synthesize PS-b- The -CH2 protons of CH2-CH2-O repeating units of PEO appear
PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers through living anionic at 3.65 ppm, but the peaks at 3.4 ppm and 3.7 ppm are absent due
polymerization. The degree of polymerization of polystyrene to the removal of Br during the synthesis of tri-block
(PS) was controlled by styrene/sec-BuLi ratio. copolymers. The terminal -CH3 protons of sec-BuLi appear at
0.56 ppm. The -CH and -CH2 protons of polystyrene block
Synthesis of PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers from Br- generally appear at 1.90 ppm and 1.42 ppm respectively, but in
PEO-Br the present case, they merge with the -CH2 and -CH protons of
The well-known reaction between alkyl bromide and PSLi
was effectively used33-38 by reacting bromide terminated PEO sec-BuLi at 1.22-1.92 ppm. The
Mn values of the tri-block
with PSLi to obtain PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block as shown in copolymers were calculated also using 1H NMR spectra by
Scheme 2. For the synthesis of PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block comparing the integration values of -OCH2-CH2 protons of PEO
copolymers, bromine terminated PEO, Br-PEO-Br, was and phenyl protons present in the polystyrene block of the tri-
prepared from PEG (Mn, 20000) using the known procedure.31 M n values
The complete substitution of hydroxyl group by bromine can be block copolymers. It is interesting to note that the
confirmed by the absence of OH signal in the 1H NMR calculated through 1H NMR spectra match with the
spectrum30,39 of Br-PEO-Br, as depicted in Figure 1(b). The - Mn
CH2 protons of -CH2-CH2-O- repeating units present in Br-PEO- determined through GPC as summarized in Table 2. These
Br resonate at 3.65 ppm, and -CH2-Br and -OCH2 protons of - results, again, confirm the formation of PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block
OCH2-CH2-Br group resonate at 3.4 ppm and 3.7 ppm copolymers. The PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymer, P2.To
respectively. Though 1H NMR in CDCl3 confirms complete confirm the structure further, FT-IR spectra of PS-b-PEO-b-PS
substitution of OH by Br, the molecular weight determination of tri-block copolymer were obtained. Figure 2 (c) depicts the FT-
PEG using the 1H NMR in CDCl3 was not accurate as reported IR spectrum of PS-b-PEO-b-PS triblock copolymer P2 (c.f Table
by Jankova.28 To know the molecular weight of PEG through 2). In the FT-IR spectrum of PS-b-PEO-b-PS triblock copolymer,
NMR, similar to Jonkova, 1H NMR spectrum of PEG in DMSO -C-H asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of -CH2
d6 was used.40 The molecular weight was determined by groups present in PSt and PEO are observed at 2853-3058 cm-1.

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The absorption band at 1110 cm-1 is due to the stretching glass transition temperatures in the PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block
vibration of -C-O-C- of -CH2-CH2-O repeating units present in copolymers shows the presence of phase separation in the tri-
PEO block. In addition to these absorption peaks, new peaks block copolymers.
were observed at 3060-3095 cm-1, 1601 cm-1, 1454-1492 cm-1,
and 757-698 cm-1 which are due to the -C=C-H stretching of
phenyl ring, -C=C- stretching of phenyl ring, benzene ring V. CONCLUSIONS
stretching and -C=C-H out plane bending of phenyl ring of PSt PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers are synthesized by
blocks respectively. These new peaks were not present in the FT- living anionic polymerization. The PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block
IR spectrum of Br-PEO-Br. The presence of all peaks which copolymers found to be water soluble having low content of
corresponds to PEO block and new peaks of PSt blocks further polystyrene block. These PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri block copolymers
support the formation of PS-b-PEO-b-PS triblock copolymer. are found to be an excellent inhibitor for mild steel in H2SO4. The
inhibition efficiencies increase with increase in concentration but
Thermal studies of PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers decrease with increase in temperature for PS-b-PEO-b-PS. Ecorr
PS-b-PEO-b-PS triblock (P2) copolymer and Br-PEO-Br remains constant indicating that PS-b-PEO-b-PS is a mixed type
were further characterized by DSC and the results are presented of inhibitor in 1 M H2SO4 i.e., blocking both cathodic and anodic
in Figure 3. PEO segment present in Br-PEO-Br shows Tg at -77 reactions almost to an equal extent. Adsorption of PS-b-PEO-b-
°C and melting point (Tm) and crystallization temperature (Tc) of PS may have the involvement of other species/anions present in
Br-PEO-Br were observed at 18 °C and -45 °C respectively. The the solution as indicated by the irregular trends of b c and ba.
glass transition temperatures of the PEO and the PS segments
present in the PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers were
observed at -70 °C and 72 °C respectively. The presence of two

the solution as indicated by the irregular trends of b c and ba.

Table 1: Characterization of PEG and Br-PEO-Br


For Mn = 20,000

Polymer M n ,th 10 3 M n NMR  103 GPC results

M n  10 3 M w  10 3 M w M n
/
PEG 20.00 20.86 21.34 23.26 1.09

Br-PEO-Br 21.12 21.36 21.46 23.61 1.10

Table 2: Synthesis of PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers by using 1 at -78 °C

a
Code Styrene sec-BuLi sec-BuLi Br-PEO-Br b
M n ,th c
M n , NMR GPC Results
(mmol) (mmol) : Styrene (mmol)
 10 3  10 3 Mn Mw Mw Mn
/
3 3
 10  10
P1 9.27 10.87 1:0.852 5.435 20.41 20.89 21.07 23.18 1.10
P2 12.13 4.25 1:2.854 2.125 20.83 21.25 21.89 23.20 1.06
P3 13.45 2.77 1:4.855 1.385 21.24 21.67 22.13 23.45 1.06
P4 28.79 1.53 1:18.816 0.765 24.16 24.78 25.37 27.14 1.07
P5 65.87 1.69 1:38.976 0.845 28.33 28.96 29.89 32.28 1.08

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Table 3: Corrosion Parameters of mild steel in 1 M H 2SO4 in the presence of PS-b-PEO-b-PS triblock copolymer

Temp.(K) Conc. Icorr. -Ecorr vs SCE ba bc IE%


(ppm) (mA/cm2) (mV) (mV/dec.) (mV/dec.)
298 K Blank 9.679 465 70.59 60.89 -
400 1.682 447 127.19 75.19 82.62
800 0.962 460 268.13 77.79 90.06
1200 0.362 457 241.14 82.16 96.26
1600 0.124 441 283.45 89.13 98.72
308 K Blank 17.12 475 59.24 52.82 -
400 3.371 441 83.47 65.45 80.31
800 2.280 425 87.52 81.79 86.68
1200 1.349 432 123.12 85.48 92.12
1600 0.656 425 163.67 88.19 96.17
318 K Blank 19.54 481 50.91 48.05 -
400 7.296 427 74.97 59.09 62.66
800 6.049 451 72.11 65.52 69.04
1200 3.836 428 83.32 61.78 80.37
1600 1.155 473 165.31 59.14 94.09
328 K Blank 22.09 490 58.00 47.05 -
400 8.889 429 79.19 53.13 59.76
800 8.137 485 43.21 49.51 63.16
1200 7.405 424 81.54 54.32 66.48
1600 6.746 438 78.09 59.25 69.46

Scheme 1: Synthesis of Br-PEO-Br from PEG

HO O PBr3 Br O
O n OH O n Br
140 °C

Scheme 2: Synthesis of PS-b-PEO-b-PS triblock copolymers by living anionic polymerization

m-2 Li Br O
2 + O
n
Br

THF -78°C and R.T

O
m-2 O m-2
n

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Figure 1: 1H NMR spectra of (a) PEG (b) Br-PEO-Br and (c) PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymers, P2

(c)
Transmittance (%)

(b)

(a)

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000


-1
Wavenumber (cm )

Figure 2: FT-IR spectra of (a) PEG, (b) Br-PEO-Br and (c) PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-
block copolymer, P2
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Exo
Tg= -70 °C
(b)

Tg= 72 °C

Heat Flow
Tg= - 77 °C

TC= - 45 °C

(a)
Endo

Tm= 18 °C

-100 -50 0 50 100 150


Temperature (°C)

Figure 3: DSC curves of Br-PEO-Br and (b) PS-b-PEO-b-PS tri-


block copolymer, P2

Figure 4: Tafel polarization curves of mild steel in 1M H2SO4 and in the presence of different concentrations of PS-b-

PEO-b-PS tri-block copolymer, P2 at 298K.

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[38] Zhao, Y.; Higashihara, T.; Sugiyama, K.; Hairo, A., Macromolecules 40,
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Scope of education and dropout among tribal students in


Kerala -A study of Scheduled tribes in Attappady
Dr.HaseenaV.A
Assistant professor
Post Graduate Department of Economics
M.E.S Asmabi college,P.Vemaballur,Kodungallur,Kerala
[email protected]
&

Dr.Ajims P. Mohammed
Principal
M.E.S Asmabi College
P.Vemballur
Email:[email protected]

ABSTARCT
Scheduled Tribes in India are generally considered to be ‘Adivasis,’ meaning indigenous people or original
inhabitants of the country. The tribes have been confined to low status and are often physically and socially
isolated instead of being absorbed in the mainstream Hindu population. Psychologically, the Scheduled Tribes
often experience passive indifference that may take the form of exclusion from educational opportunities, social
participation, and access to their own land. All tribal communities are not alike. They are products of different
historical and social conditions. They belong to different racial stocks and religious backgrounds and speak
different dialects. Discrimination against women, occupational differentiation, and emphasis on status and
hierarchical social ordering that characterize the predominant mainstream culture are generally absent among
the tribal groups. Adivasis are not as a general rule regarded as unclean or polluted in the same way as the
Scheduled Caste population is perceived by the mainstream culture. However, the mainstream Hindu population
considers the general tribal population as primitive, technologically backward, and illiterate. Since the 16th
century, the tribes have been perceived as sub-humans who live under primitive conditions. All the reasons are
the route cause of the alienation of tribals in education and the Dropout. By giving more emphasis on other
activities in the tribal hamlet, they are ignoring the value of education.

Key words: Adivasis, tribal culture, Dropout, Alienation, Mainstream culture

INTRODUCTION

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India is homeland to a number of tribal communities with diverse eco-cultural, socio-economic and geographical
backgrounds. According to the 2001 Census, Scheduled Tribes (notified by the Government of India under Article
342 of the Indian Constitution) constitute 8.14% of the total population of the country, numbering 84.51 million. In
the state of Kerala, 1% of the total population is tribal population, comprising of 36 unique Scheduled Tribes (ST)
whose livelihoods are also varied: hunting-gathering, shifting cultivation, settled agriculture, contract labour, etc.,
are some of them. According to the 2001 Census, the literacy rate of the Scheduled Tribes of India is only 47.10%.
Against the National literacy rate of 65.8%, this is appalling. Even in the State of Kerala with a high literacy rate at
90.92%, that of the Scheduled Tribes is far behind, at only 64.5%. Realizing that Scheduled Tribes are one of the
most deprived and marginalized groups with respect to education, a host of programmes and measures have been
initiated ever since independence of the country. Education of ST children is important not just due to a
Constitutional obligation to equality of its citizen or special entitlements to ST, but because it is a crucial input in the
nation‘s strategy of total development of tribal communities. However, despite nation‘s efforts to ensure
constitutional equality, dignity and development that they themselves wish for, the tribal people have lagged behind
in education owing to external as well as internal constraints, socio-economic and cultural background of the tribals
and psychological problems of first generation learners etc.

The Scheduled Tribe population represents one of the most economically impoverished and marginalized
groups in India. Although Scheduled Tribes are a minority, they constitute about 8.2 % of the total population in
India (Census of India, 2001), or 85 million people in absolute number. The Scheduled Tribes are not
discriminated against in the same way by the mainstream Hindu population as the Scheduled Caste population
in India. While the latter group belongs to the lowest hierarchy of social order and is often considered impure or
unclean, the Scheduled Tribes have, for the most part, been socially distanced and living outside the mainstream
Hindu society. The areas inhabited by the tribal population constitute a significant part of the underdeveloped
areas of the country. Scheduled Tribe population represents one of the most economically impoverished and
marginalized groups in India.

Education is the most important instrument for human resource development and has a great significance. One
cannot imagine education without schools as it plays a major role in moulding the basic ideas, habits and
attitudes of the children, with a view to producing well balanced individuals. Schools provide not only
education to the children but also keep them away from the social evils. The main problem in schools is the
problem of stagnation and drop out phenomena. Education is the key that opens the door of life. It plays a
pivotal role in social change and it brings perfections in human life, an upward mobility in social status, radical
transformation in outlook and perception. Education is widely accepted as the essential tool for the attainment
of the developmental goals and leads to political consciousness, awareness of rights and duties among the

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people of a nation and it is the most important instrument for human resource development and has a great
significance in the context of developing countries.

The Indian Constitution identifies and provides special consideration for certain ethnic minority groups,
traditionally referred to as tribes or tribals, as Scheduled Tribes (STs) who constitute around 8 per cent of the
total population of the country. There are 573 STs living in different parts of the country. Most of the tribal
communities have their own languages and culture different from the language spoken in the state where they
are located. There are more than 270 such languages. Tribal communities in Kerala are scattered in different
districts. Of these the highest concentration is located in wayanad, Idukki and Attappady block of Plakkad
District. There are more than 37 tribal communities in kerala.

Scheduled Tribes who have been historically out of the mainstream development initiatives partly due to the
still continuing socio-economic barriers and partly due to the inadequacy of the Government programmes in
reaching these disadvantaged groups, still find themselves in difficult to compete with other sections of the
society. Tribes are very important in constituting the population of the country as they are 8.2 percent of the
total population of India. They constitute 3.2 percent of the total population of Kerala. Tribal education has
many problems to face as hindrance for development. These are external constraints and internal constraints.

External constrains: ST students constitutes 1.2 percent of the total enrollment in schools. The perspective
adopted for educational development among tribal communities fails to adequately address the specific
disadvantages characterizing tribal population .For instance, the population and distance norms formed by the
government have not been beneficial to tribal locations because of their sparse population and sporadic
residential patterns. Thogh Kerakla’s performance compares well with those of other states. The disparities
between the marginalized communities and other social groups in terms of quantitative and qualitative
indicators. The disparities increase at higher and higher levels of education, particularly in technical and
professional education which provide better access to more remunerative jobs. It theses disparities within the
state that matter more in view of the high unemployment rate in the state and consequently the highly
competitive nature of the labour market Further, in formulating policies and programmes for tribal education it
is essential to understand the complex realities of tribal life and the expectation of tribals from the system, and
this has never been done either by the tribal welfare department or by the education department. Consequently,
no worthwhile policy for tribal education has been formed. Because the more pass percentage rate from the
schools of STs can only produces more students for higher education. Besides most of the increase in

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employment in the country and the state is taking place in the private sector rather than in the public sector. In
such a context job reservation for STs in the public sector become less relevant today in accessing jobs by them.
Internal constraints: The internal problems of tribal education refer to the quality of school provision, suitable
teachers, relevance of content and curriculum, medium of instruction, pedagogy, and special supervision. A
majority of schools in tribal areas are without basic infrastructure facilities. Normally, school buildings in tribal
areas have thatched roofs, dilapidated walls, and non-plastered floors. Research evidence shows that a large
number of tribal schools do not have teaching-learning materials, or even blackboards. In tribal areas the
opening of a school is equated with the posting of a teacher and same is the case with 'ashram' schools. Though
the demand for changing the content and curriculum to suit the tribal context has been an old one, no serious
effort has been made in this direction in any state, except for some sporadic pilot projects. The uniform structure
and transaction of curriculum has put tribal children at a disadvantage. Apart from all this lack of awareness of
the teachers about tribal culture and environment also force the tribal students to withdraw from education. All
these issues are emerging in their primary and high school levels. These constraints force them to drop-out their
education at very early levels and higher education will be only a dream for them.
Review of Literature
Review of related literature is pre-requisite to actual planning of any scientific research. It allows the researcher
to acquaint himself with current knowledge in the field or area in which he is going to conduct his research.
A comparison of the traditional and modern system and tribal higher education was made by Narmadeswer
Prased (1991) who found that the tribe’s men desire an education which may enables them to fit in to the
modern world. Most of the students are dropping their education because of lack of suitability of present
education with the tribal culture. The author suggested that the tribe’s men should concentrate more on skilled
occupations. Another important suggestion was for the setting up of special schools for them where adequate
attention for them is ensured.
Bairathi (1991) has examined the role of education for tribal upliftment has said that the condition of school
particularly in the interior parts of tribal settlements is worse. These are not well managed and there is shortage
of teachers in most of the schools at all time. Primary level schools are managed by a single teacher. The
teacher has to take care of not only the management of school, but also to teach many classes simultaneously in
one big room. In such a condition a good standard of education cannot be attained. Shortage of teachers, lack of
basic amenities as sitting arrangements, drinking water facilities, and high distance from home to school leads
them to loose the interest in education and this force them to drop their study. He made the suggestion for
improving the infrastructure facilities to improve the conditions of education and to remove Drop-out.

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Gadgil and Dandekar(1991) has studied about the problem of wastages in tribal education by taking a batch of
students in first standard in a given year following up in the subsequent years till the last grade are reached. i.e,
fifth Drop-outs from school before completing the final grading of primary education constitutes wastes; and
the incidence of wastage is computed from the proportion of Drop-out to the initial enrolment in the first grade.
He reached the conclusion that attention by the teacher to a great extent can remove drop out. When the students
are continuing their education in a better perspective then only they can easily get accessability to higher
education.
The National Council of educational Research and training made substantial contribution to the area of
tribal education. A seminar on tribal education in India (1993) organized by the National council of educational
research and Training discussed the various aspects of tribal education like the facilities available, coverage,
wastage and stagnation, utilization of financial assistance, basic problem of tribal education, socio-economic
problems, curriculum, methods and text books and the relative roles of Government and voluntary agencies in
the education of tribal people. The seminar altogether has suggested a new revised curriculum for tribal
education. Familiarity in tribal language by the teachers also is essential for the improvement in tribal
educational attainment.
The evaluation committee on the welfare of scheduled castes scheduled tribes and other backward
communities in their Report (1993), reviewed the different stages of tribal education in Kerala. Many
suggestions were put forward regarding pre-primary education, primary education, higher education welfare of
tribal students, improvement of tribal schools, compulsory primary education, education concession, methods to
identify the drop-outs, encouragements to the drop-outs to continue in their study etc.
Bapat (1994) studied about tribal education and a well planned system of education for tribals was suggested
by to remove the ignorance prevalent among tribals. After analyzing the reasons for the slow progress in tribal
education and to remove increased drop-out among tribal children, the author suggested the type of education
for the tribal children and adults. The educational system for them should be based on the current cultural
history of the tribals. At the end a few suggestions are put forward for the improvement of tribal education by
the author by focusing mainly on tribal culture. Authorities should focus mainly on their culture.
Tapse (1995) Enumerating the difficulties likely to be experienced in the field of higher education among the
tribal students recommended the remedial measures by which these difficulties should be overcome. He pleaded
that tribal education must conserve and develop the aboriginal culture and religion.
Srivastava (1996).The author’s argument was that when the percentage of literacy among the tribal
communities increased when they attained sufficiently high levels of educational development and when they
properly understood their rights and privileges, the integration would automatically be achieved if proper
arrangements for tribal development would be taken.

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Burman (1996) has given the figures relating to tribal literacy and has revealed the then existing state of affairs
in the field of education with regard to literacy. The author found out that inadequate use of tribal language
always leads them to make a wrong view about tribal education. Difficulty in the use of tribal languages will
force the students to drop their course at very stage of their education.
Objectives of the study
1. To examine the educational facilities available to the tribal students in higher education in Kerala.
2. To study the constraints in tribal education
3. To find out the causes of Drop-out among Tribal students in kerala.
4. To document the policies and programmes initiated by the Government to improve the educational attainments
of Tribal students.
Hypothesis
1. There is a positive relationship between the cultural factors and educational attainment among tribal students in
Kerala.
2. There is an exclusionary disparity between the STs and non STs in terms of enrollment and attainment in higher
education.
Table 1: Dropout arte in Attappady

Location 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011

Percenta
Percentag Number
Number of ge of Number of Percentage of
e of of
Dropouts Drop Dropouts Drop outs
Drop outs Dropouts
outs

Agali 187 32.5 149 33.2 120 30.9

Pudhoor 190 33.1 145 32.3 124 27.6

Sholayoor 197 34.2 154 34.3 144 32.1

Source: Survey Data

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Tribesfolk in Attappady

Tribal hamlets of Attappady are found in all the three panchayaths, namely, Agali, Pudhur, and Sholayoor. Irula
hamlets dominate in all the three panchayaths. Kurumbas reside only in Pudhur and Sholayoor is an exclusively
Irula Panchayath. Numerically, Irulas form the largest tribal community (82.25 per cent) followed by Mudugas
(12.53 per cent), and Kurumbas (5.22 per cent). The annual compound growth rate of Kurumbas during the
period 1961 to 1981 was 2.44 per cent as against 1.61 per cent in the case of Mudugas, and 2.41 per cent in the
case of lrulas

Table 2: Reasons for dropout from the perception of teachers

Reasons Frequency Percent Rank

Lack of interest in study 60 100.0 1

Economic problem 55 91.7 2

Health problem 40 66.7 5

Distance from home to school 48 80.0 4

Increases household responsibilities 51 85.0 3

Lack of awareness of parents 32 53.3 7

Crime activities in school 5 8.3 11

Language problem 24 40.0 8

Early marriage 19 31.7 9

Lack of food 5 8.3 10

Lack of proper guidance 34 56.7 6

Source: Survey Data

Reasons for Drop-out among tribal students

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1. Low socio-economic status: - Tribals enjoy low socio-economic status. Miller (1988) has identified four
major classes of variables such as cognitive variables, physical variables and motivational variables where
disadvantaged learners show poor performance as compared with the advantaged groups.

2. Tribal concepts of pleasure:- Tribals are giving more importance for their pleasure such as dance, music
and other types of entertainments prevalent in the society.

3. Existence of ethnic stereotypes: - Stereo typing is a natural and inevitable. It helps us to organize life. But
such typing turns in to prejudice or stereotypes when based on little facts and it is used as a mechanism to
establish the myth of racial or cultural superiority.

4. Tribal concept of learning:- In most of the tribal cultures learning is an active pleasurable event mostly
carried on among peers. But the existing system of education does not take in to account their learning style.

5. Linguistic problems:-Tribal languages, except a very few, belong to Austro-Asiatic language family and are
different from dominant non tribal languages of India which belong either to the Indo European or the
Dravidian family. In most of the time tribals face acute problems in language.

6. Problem of learning English: - Tribals need for English is great, they face problems in learning than their
non-tribal counterparts. For tribals their typical use of regional languages interferes with English. For them
English are 5th or 6th languages.

7. Problems in learning to read:-Tribals have long oral tradition. Their culture is oral. Their history, myths
and traditions are orally handed down from generation to generation. Most of the language does not have scripts
of their own; their oral tradition still continues to exist.

8. Psychological problems: - Financial problems of the tribals always make the tribals in a very depressed
condition. They have lots of wants and but the means to satisfying them is very less. It leads to many
psychological issues

9. Academic and administrative problems: - Even though the number of programmes for the upliftment of
tribal education is many, the percentage of people receiving these benefits is very less. Administrative
authorities are always showing very neutral attitude towards the education of the tribals.

10. Indifferent attitude of tribal parents: - Tribal parents are mostly illiterate. They always show a very
indifferent attitude towards the education of their children. They are interested in providing household
responsibilities to their children a very early stage of their education. “The parents of these students do not have

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any relationship with the society outside and are unaware of the importance of education. All teachers are talented.
Teaching such children is a herculean task”.

11. Indifferent attitude of tribal teachers: Teachers do not take much effort to improve the educational level
of the tribal students. Lack of communication, high level of absenteeism in the class, bad result in study, lack of
attention in classroom by the tribals are some of the factors that has increased the indifferent attitude of the
teachers towards the tribal students.

12. Indifferent attitude of tribal students: Students clearly said don’t like someone forcing me to get up early in
the morning. So, I was unhappy to go to school… Subjects like Malayalam and Science are good for me, but,
English, Hindi and Mathematics are very tough. I could not follow English and Hindi classes. Whenever I commit
mistakes, in front of others, teachers used to scold me, beat and pinch my ears. You ask others; almost 90% of the
children have similar experiences. See, their beating caused swelling on my legs. Moreover, the staffs ridicule us by
calling , adivasi Fed up with all these, my two friends and I decided to run away from the school. One day, we
climbed on the compound wall and got on to the branch of a tree outside that was almost touching the compound
wall, climbed down, and somehow or other managed to reach our settlement”,

In addition to all the above causes some other causes can also be cited as the background for the reasons for
Drop-out. They are:

1. Extreme level of poverty, deprivation and vulnerability

2. High levels of exclusion, developmental, social and economic

3. Extremely low level of empowerment-political, social and economic

4. Low level of access to entitlement

5. Practically zero participation in development matters with no autonomy in any form of decision-making

6. Poor human development with low level of literacy and access to health care

7. Rapid alienation of assets like land

8. Alarming depletion of social capital especially traditional forms of organization and leadership.

9. Quick deterioration of traditional knowledge system and cultural attainment.

10. Fast increasing tendency to use tribal people as ‘cat’s –paws in criminal activities like illicit distillation,
cultivation of narcotic plants, stealing of forest wealth etc.

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11. Dependency-inducing developmental programmes relying on distribution of benefits rather than


building up of capabilities.

12. Implementation of ad hoc and stereotyped developmental programmes in the absence of proper
planning.

13. Weak delivery system of public services.

14. Very weak monitoring system.

15. High level of exploitation of women by out-side

Change in curriculum would remain incomplete unless patterns of teacher-student interaction also change in the
direction of coercion-free involvement of the ST students. The knowledge of social reality that teachers bring to
the classroom, and their perception of the role of education are among the key determinants of teacher‘s
behavior. To a great extent, the norms of teacher-student interaction are shaped by the training that teachers
receive prior to employment. Knowledge of social reality‘ and role of education under prevailing social
conditions do form a part of present training curricula, but like much else in teacher training, these segments
receive a ritualistic observance. Teachers cannot be oriented towards new types of classroom interactions
without being exposed to specific issues of social reality and functioning of school.

Tribal child’s days in usual days inside their habitat A child‘s day in a settlement begins with a choice:
whether to get up early or laze around is his/her own choice and not forced upon. It is not unusual to see many
children sleeping in the open with their pet dogs even during the noon-time. When compared to boys, girls get up
early and they help their parents and grandparents in daily chores like fetching water from the nearby river, cleaning
utensils, washing clothes, collecting fire-wood, cooking and serving food, looking after younger siblings, cleaning
rooms, yard, etc. When parents go for work, a girl child takes care of the home along with her grandparents (if they
stay back) and her younger siblings till her parents come back home. The boys usually move inside the forest, either
with their parents or with their friends, for collection of forest produce. While roaming inside the forests, they eat
whatever edible items they get on their way and whenever they come across a river, they never miss a chance to take
a bath and do fishing. They also help their parents in the transaction of collected n.w.f.p (non-wood forest products)
item with tribal co-operative society/agents/non-tribes and buy provisions. In addition to these, they help their
parents‘in house construction. Bringing bamboo from the forests, cutting and shaping them for making walls and
doors for house, making hearth etc., are some of their jobs in the settlement. Both boys and girls do various activities
in their settlements such as climbing on trees, swimming, fishing, making poonikotta (bamboo basket used for the
collection of forest resources), singing etc. Small children, irrespective of gender, play kitchen activities by imitating
their parents. There is no hard and fast rule or appropriate timing for any of their daily activities. Moreover, they are

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not controlled by the elders. Punishments in the form of scolding, abusing, beating etc., are usually very rare. They
do not even abuse their children for any wrong they commit. If they commit any wrong, it is taken easily and the
elders very patiently and politely teach the young ones and advise them not to repeat it again. In any tribal settlement
inside the forests, a common scene that one can notice is that of children playing, fishing and swimming in the river
nearby. Children are free birds‘ in their habitat and have unrestricted freedom to move around and enjoy their life.
―They learn through participation in economic production and other activities organized by adults, beginning as
voluntary participants who perform simple and repetitive tasks while having observational access to the mature
practices of elders. It may be that no one pays attention unless one does something wrong; they receive instruction
only as a corrective feedback and guidance. Gradually they progress to more advanced tasks they see others perform.
In short, a typical day in the forest habitat of a tribal child is care free and uncontrolled.

Relevance of the finding for policy formulation


In a broad sense, the socio-economic and cultural factors among tribals can be outlined as poverty and poor
economic conditions, social customs, cultural ethos, lack of awareness and understanding of the value of formal
education, conflict and gap between the home and school, etc. Studies on educational deprivation of tribals have
inevitably linked it to their poor economic condition and poverty.
Education of tribals cannot be left to short-term Plan strategies. It is important that planners take a long-term
view which is embedded in a meaningful policy framework. The most important need to improve the
educational status of STs is to improve the strength of the students in school levels. Following are some
important findings on tribal education for policy framework.
• Emphasis should be on quality and equity rather than quantity as has been the case in the past. The prime
focus should be on provision of quality education that makes tribal communities economically effective and
independent.
• In the tribal context, it is essential that the school schedule be prepared as per local requirement rather than
following a directive from the state.
• Though it has been highlighted time and again, non concrete step has been taken to provide locally relevant
material to tribal students. Availability of locally relevant materials will not only facilitate faster learning but
also help children develop a sense of affiliation to school.
• In order to make education effective and sustainable, building partnership between the community and the
government is important
• Environment building is of immense importance in the context of educational development among tribal
communities. Community awareness and community mobilization, which are its core elements, should received
equate importance and attention.

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•The level of motivation for education is very low among drop out students. . Age factor is influencing drop out
to a great extent. Stagnation is common among and high among the drop outs and is a contributing factor to
become dropout. Irregular attendance in the class is the route for drop out. Most of the drop outs are from very
poor and low income families. Many dropouts are daily wagers. The unawareness about the importance of
education is a contributing factor for drop out. Peer group influence also influences the students to stop their
education at very early stages. Drop out rat among boys and girls are same in all area.

• Decentralization of education management is another aspect that needs special consideration in the context of
tribal areas.

• Skill development, competency building, and teacher’s motivation also need to be strengthened for sustaining
educational development. The teacher should be made the centre of educational transformation, and therefore,
must remain the primary facilitator.
•.Historical injustice toward tribals should be removed. STs who are studying for higher education are very
low. Even in UG and PG courses their strength is very low.
•.in a broader level the first step to improve and to increase tribal’s participation in Higher education is to
improve their interest in study even from the primary level. Motivation classes, awareness programmes, special
incentives, more number of schools in tribal areas, more flexible teachers etc. has to be included in the
educational streams. Automatically the pass percentage ratio of the STs will increase. That will produce more
Ts in higher education.
REFERNCES

(1)N.K Ambasht, “ Impact of education on tribal cultures”, ‘Indian science Congress,New Delhi,199,pp.34-45

(2)Alaxander, K.C, Prasad R.R and Jahagirdar, M.P. Tribal Education andTribal Development”, Tribal culture
in India. Rawat publications, New Delhi. (1984), pp.23-29’

(3)Bapat, N.V, “A few thoughts on Tribal Education”, Vanyajathi Journal,(1994), pp.54-49’

(4)Budhadeb chaudhari.,Contemporary Society in Tribal Studies, Tribals in Meghalaya, Concept publishing


company, (1987).

(5)Chaudhari. (1992). “Socio-Economic and Educational development”, India Publications, New Delhi, pp.22-
34.

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(6) Christoph Von Haimendorf, The problems of Tribal education, Tribes of India, the struggle for survival,
Oxford University Press, Walton street, Oxford OX26DP, pp.67-74.

(7) Shashi Bairathi,Status of education among tribals,‘Tribal culture, economy and health, Rawat publications,
New Delhi, (1992).

(8) Gardner, P. M, (1966), “Symmetric Respect and Memorate Knowledge, the Structure and Ecology of
Individualistic Culture”, South Western Journal of Anthropology, Volume 2, PP.389-415.

(9) Gosh, and Das, “Forest and the Tribals- A study of Inter relation ship in the Tribal Development in India”,
Inter India publications, New Delhi, (1982), P.24.

(10) Govind Kelkar Nath, “Gender and Tribes”, Forest Economy, Crescent publishers(1991),, P.87

(11) Haimendorf, The problems of Tribal education, Tribes of India, the struggle for survival, Oxford
University Press, Walton street, Oxford OX26DP, (1990).

(12) Majumdar D.N “The affairs of a Tribe”, Lucknow, Universal publishers, Lucknow , (1995).

(13) Nayar, P.K.B,(1995).“ Evaluation of the educational facilities of Scheduled caste and Scheduled tribe
students in Kerala State”. Tribal empowerment conference, Trivandrum, Kerala

(14) Roy Burman, B.K, “problems of tribal language in education-A supplement to the special problems of
tribes”, vanyajathi, (1996)

(15) Srikanth, L.M. “Measures proposed for the spread of education among the Scheduled Tribes”. Indian
tribes, serials publishers, New Delhi, (1997), pp.90-96

(16) Srivastava, L.R.N “The problem of integration of the tribal people”, ‘The Indian journal of Social work”
.Kurukshethtra,(1996) pp.67-76.

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Phytochemical screening and evaluation of genotoxicity


and acute toxicity of aqueous extract of Croton tiglium L.
Thangal Yumnamcha*, Upendra Nongthomba** and M. Damayanti Devi*
*
Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal - 795003
**
Molecular Reproduction, Development and Genetics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore – 560012

Abstract- Extensive and indiscriminate use of synthetic genotoxicity of the traditional medicines is very important as
compounds and natural compounds obtained from plant sources damage to the genetic material may lead to mutagenesis and
have resulted into serious threats to not only the aquatic carcinogenesis as well as other toxic effects [9, 10, 11].
ecosystem but also to human health. Aqueous seed extract of the Croton tiglium L. is a shrub native to South East Asia and
plant Croton tiglium L. is used in many traditional medicines to belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is indigenous to India
treat various ailments in many developing countries. The extract and widely distributed in North-Eastern part of India. In the state
is also used for killing fishes for consumption in Manipur, India. of Manipur, it is used as folk medicine for treating
However, the side effects and safety measures are not well gastrointestinal disorders. The seeds and young leaves of this
studied and evaluated. The present study aims to investigate plant are extremely toxic to fishes, as a result it has been
major phytochemical constituents, acute toxicity and extensively used as a source for killing fishes for consumption.
genotoxicity of the aqueous extract. The phytochemical The oil obtained from the seeds of Croton tiglium has been
screening was carried out using chemical methods; acute toxicity shown to act as a potent tumour-promoting agent in mouse skin
test was performed using zebrafish as a model organism and and a potent mitogenic agent in contact inhibited tissue cultures
genotoxicity potential was evaluated by in vitro plasmid DNA [12, 13]. Phorbol esters extracted from the seeds of Croton
fragmentation analysis. Our results show that the exposure of tiglium showed inhibitory effect on HIV-induced cytopathic
aqueous extract of Croton tiglium cause increase plasmid DNA effect (CPE) on MT-4 cells and a potent inhibitory effect on the
strand breakage in a dose dependent manner. The aqueous extract proliferiation of HIV-1 [14]. In Ayurvedic system of medicine,
of Croton tiglium also showed pisicidal activity. So, the plant the croton seed and oil has been used in minute doses in dropsy,
extract need to be evaluated for its long term human health constipation, cold, cough, asthma and fevers. From ancient times,
hazards and safety thoroughly before it could be used for Chinese people have been using this plant to treat gastrointestinal
therapeutic medicinal interventions. disorders, intestinal inflammation, rheumatism, headache, peptic
ulcer and visceral pain [15, 16, 17, 18]. Previous reports also
Index Terms- Phytochemical screening, Genotoxicity, Acute have shown that the oil of Croton tiglium has purgative,
toxicity, Zebrafish, Croton tiglium. analgesic, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties [15,
18]. Moreover, this plant is used as a pisicidal plant in North
Eastern part of India. The pisicidal and molluscidal effects of this
I. INTRODUCTION plant had also been reported [19, 20, 21].
Despite the popular use of this plant as folk medicine and as
T reatment of various ailments using medicinal plants has been
practiced from prehistoric times. Their use has been
considerably increased among the populations of developing
a fish poison, there is no scientific data available for
phytochemical screening, acute toxicity and genotoxicity of the
countries because of their beneficial and having few significant aqueous extract of Croton tiglium L. The present study aims to
side effects [1, 2]. However, there is limited report of the proper investigate the genotoxicity of this plant extract by in vitro DNA
evaluations of the toxicity of these medicinal plants. Thus, proper strand breakage analysis using plasmid DNA and acute toxicity
phytochemical screening of the plant is necessary because plants test using zebrafish as model organism. Moreover, the major
can synthesize toxic substances to protect themselves against phytochemical constituents of the aqueous extract of Croton
infections, insects and other organisms which feed on them. tiglium are being reported for the first time.
Various groups of compounds are responsible for the toxic
effects of these plants. Major bioactive compounds responsible
for these toxic effects include alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
phorbol esters, lectins and cynogenic glycosides. Previous Plant extract preparation
studies had reported the cases of acute poisoning of patients The seeds of Croton tiglium were collected from Nambol,
admitted to hospitals and resulted into death mainly due to Manipur state, India in September 2011. The seeds were washed
ingestion of toxic medicinal plants [3, 4, 5]. Recent with tap water and cut into small pieces and subjected to shade
investigations have also revealed the presence of genotoxic, dry at 28°C. Then the seed-pieces were crushed into fine powder
mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds in many plants used as with mortar and pestle. 40gm of the powder was mixed with
traditional medicine or food both in vitro and in vivo assays [2, 6, 80mL of distilled water and then after proper maceration, the
7]. However, some toxic plants are used by doctors for the suspensions were kept for 24hours at 28°C. The resultant
treatment of diseases [8]. Assessment of the potential suspension was filtered with nylon cloth. The filtrate so obtained

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was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 minutes. The clear plasmid DNA treated with different concentrations of AECT.
supernatant was subjected to lyophilization, and then the dried Here the electrophoresis assay was performed to separate
aqueous extract of Croton tiglium (AECT) were kept at -20°C different conformational form of plasmid DNA in order to
until further use. analyse strand breaks in the plasmid DNA treated with different
concentrations of AECT. A comparison between the plant
Phytochemical screening extracts treated DNA bands and the positive and negative control
Phytochemical screening was performed for the detection of DNA bands was used to access any possible genotoxic effects of
various bioactive compounds from the aqueous extract of Croton the plant extracts. In this experiment pTZ57R/T plasmid DNA
tiglium using chemical methods. The following major classes of aliquots (1µg) were incubated with different concentrations of
bioactive compounds were screened: phenolic compounds (ferric the AECT (300µg/mL, 225µg/mL, 150µg/mL and 75µg/mL), at
chloride test and lead acetate test); alkaloids (Mayer’s test, 37°C for 40 min. Negative control was performed using ultrapure
Wagner’s test, Hager’s test and Dragendorff’s test); saponins Milli-Q water and positive control with SnCl2 solution
(Foam test); terpenoids (Libermann-Burchard test); cardiac (200µg/mL) with the same incubation temperature and time
glycosides (Keller-Killani test); anthraquinone glycosides period. After incubation, each sample was mixed with loading
(Borntrager test); flavonoids (Alkaline reagent test, Shinoda’s buffer (0.2% xylene cyanol FF; bromophenol blue; 30% glycerol
test) and carbohydrates (Molisch’s test, Fehling’s test, Brafoed’s in water), loaded in a horizontal 0.8% agarose gel electrophoresis
test and Benedict’s test). Among the phenolic compounds the chamber in Tris acetate-EDTA buffer at pH 8 and run at 6V/cm.
presence of tannin was screened using the gelatin test and the Then the DNA bands were visualised in the agarose gel coupled
presence of flavonoids using the NH 4OH-test. These entire tests with ethidium bromide staining (O.5µg/mL) by fluorescence
were carried out using the protocol given elsewhere [22, 23, 24]. using an ultraviolet trans-illuminator system [6]. The assay was
repeated three times and the best image was documented using
Experimental animal the gel documentation system, JH Bio AlphaDigiDocRT2.
Wild type Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were obtained from local
vendors, India. The fish were acclimatised for one month in a
glass aquarium of 50 litre capacity and kept in continuously well III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
aerated water containing 2mg/L Instant ocean salt at In the present study, we investigate the acute toxicity and
approximately 28°C under a 14h:10h light-dark photoperiod. genotoxicity of the AECT. Moreover, we also perform the
Zebrafish were fed with commercial food twice a day with flakes phytochemical investigation of the AECT for the first time.
in the morning and live artemia in the evening. The pH, Phytochemical analysis of AECT using chemical methods
dissolved oxygen content and total hardness of the aquarium showed the presence of saponins, alkaloids, phenolic compounds,
water were analysed by standard methods [25]. tannins, triterpenoids and carbohydrates (Table 1). We have used
the crude aqueous extract for all our experiments. We presume
Acute toxicity testing of AECT that studying the crude aqueous extract form is the most
A 48 hour acute toxicity (LC50) test of the AECT was appropriate as people have been found using the crude aqueous
conducted using adult zebrafish (length 2.6-2.8cm and weighed extract only for folk medicine and/or for killing fishes. Working
0.2-0.3 g) in a static water renewal experiment, according to the with crude extracts, means working with complex mixtures of
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development biologically active compounds, some of the compounds in such a
(OCED) guideline for testing of chemicals [26]. Ten randomly mixture can be genotoxic or antigenotoxic. So, screening of the
selected zebrafish of both sexes were exposed to a particular dose genotoxic and antigenotoxic properties is important to predict the
in a 5 litre capacity rectangular glass tank containing different potential health hazards of using the plant for medicinal
concentrations of the AECT. Five different concentration of purposes.
AECT (4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24mg/L), each with two replicates along In order to fully understand the genotoxic potential of the
with one control were used for this test. The selections of the test AECT, we performed in vitro plasmid DNA fragmentation
concentration of AECT were based from the result obtained from analysis. From the in vitro DNA fragmentation analysis, we
the range finding experiment. Mortality was monitored observed that exposure of AECT caused increased plasmid DNA
continuously and the fish were considered dead when operculum breakage in a concentration dependent manner. The untreated
movement was no longer detected and the fishes could not control pTZ57R/T plasmid consists of the supercoil form (SC)
response when contacted with a glass rod. The dead fish were and open circular form (OC). After treatment with different
immediately removed from the tank. After 24 hours the fish were concentrations of AECT, we observed that some part of the super
transferred to new tanks containing their respective coiled form (SC) changed to linear form (L) and open circular
concentrations of the AECT. The fish were not fed prior to or form (OC) which is not observed in the control plasmid. Same
during the experimental period. During the experiment, the effect is also observed in case of the positive control experiment
behaviour of the experimental fish was monitored regularly. also. This showed that AECT contain some compouds which can
damage the plasmid DNA. The open circular form results from
Plasmid DNA fragmentation analysis single strand breaks and the linear form results from double
pTZ57R/T plasmids were isolated from the transformed strand breaks. In addition to this observation, we showed DNA
DH5-Alpha E. coli cultures following the protocol given in smear formation and this effect was more pronounced in the
GeneJET Plasmid Miniprep Kit (Thermoscientific). Agarose gel plasmid DNA treated with higher concentration of the AECT.
electrophoresis (0.8%) was performed in order to evaluate This also showed that AECT also contains other compounds

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which act on the plasmid DNA but with different mechanisms. IV. CONCLUSION
Our in vitro plasmid DNA fragmentation analysis assay clearly The present study clearly illustrates that aqueous seed extract
showed that AECT has the ability to mediate DNA strand breaks of Croton tiglium have the potential to cause pisicidal activity as
and damage in the plasmid pTZ57R/T DNA, in a concentration well as genotoxic activity. However, there is evidence that
dependent manner. The plasmid strand breakage after treating specific genotoxins can induce different responses in prokaryotic
with AECT is shown in Fig. 1. Previous study had also reported and eukaryotic organism. So, further in vivo study is required to
the genotoxicity of the plant extracts in plasmid DNA [6, 27]. identify the active compounds responsible for causing
But no single test is enough to predict the genotoxic potential of genotoxicity to ensure the safe use of using Croton tiglium for
a compound. So, we performed the in vivo assay using the medicinal purposes. The present finding may help to predict the
micronucleus test and comet assay in zebrafish. We observed the ecotoxicity assessment and potential health risk of using Croton
genotoxic effects after treating the zebrafish with AECT (Data tiglium as fish poison and traditional medicine.
unpublished). The results obtained in our study are in agreement
with the reports of Lopes et al., [28]. It is difficult to speculate on
the compounds responsible for the genotoxic response detected
Bioactive compounds Aqueous extract of
with this extract but we speculate that certain saponin mixture
C. tiglium
and alkaloids might be responsible for the genotoxic effects of
Phenolic compounds +
AECT to plasmid DNA. Previous study had also reported that
certain group of bioactive compound like alkaloids and saponin Alkaloids +
mixtures are associated with DNA damage [29]. But further
studies with other test system are required for confirming the Saponins +
genotoxic potential of AECT.
In order to evaluate the acute toxicity test of the AECT, we Terpenoids +
used zebrafish as a test model organism. The fundamental
similarities in cell structure and biochemistry between animals Cardiac glycosides -
and humans facilitate the use of this model animal for the early Anthraquinone -
prediction of the likely effects of chemicals and complex
mixtures on human populations. From acute toxicity test, we Flavonoids -
observed that AECT has pisicidal activity and also observed that
fish mortality rate increased with increasing concentration of Carbohydrates +
AECT. But we observed a negative correlation between LC
values and exposure period. The LC50 value exhibited a decrease Tannins +
from 11.883mg/L for 24h to 8.159mg/L for 48h. The LC 50 values +: Present; - : Absent.
of the AECT for two different time periods are shown in Table 2. Table1. Qualitative analysis of phytochemicals present in
Previous studies had reported the compounds mainly responsible aqueous extract of Croton tiglium
for most of the ichthyotoxic properties of plants; these include
rotenoids, phorbol esters and saponin etc. [30, 19]. As the AECT
contains a mixture of compounds, we can’t predict which Exposure Estimates Limits (mg/L)
bioactive compounds are responsible for fish death but as per our period (mg/L) LCL UCL
expectations it may be mainly due to the presence of a saponin 24h LC10=5.210 3.127 6.852
mixture and phorbol esters. After exposure of the extracts, the 24h LC50=11.883 9.807 14.049
fish behaviour was also assessed. After some minutes of the
24h LC90=27.099 21.421 41.362
exposure of AECT to the zebrafish, the zebrafish showed the
signs of stress. The behaviour observed after exposure include 48h LC10=3.062 1.501 4.429
increased respiratory rate, loss of equilibrium, jerky movements 48h LC50=8.159 6.169 9.978
and circular swimming just before they lose equilibrium. After 48h LC90=21.742 16.923 33.683
long exposure they cannot move and finally sank to the bottom.
No such behaviour was observed in the control fishes. There are Table2. Acute toxicity (LC50) for the aqueous extract of
reports that genotoxicity can be correlated with gametic loss, Croton tiglium at different intervals against zebrafish. LCL:
embryonic mortality and heritable mutation, thereby affecting Lower confidence limit; UCL: Upper confidence limit.
survival at the individual and population level [31, 32, 33]. As
the AECT contains genotoxic compounds and also have pisicidal
activity, the extensive and indiscriminate use of this pisicidal
plant for killing fish might cause loss of aquatic bio resources. It
had also reported that used of higher quantities of pisicidal plants
to catch fish resulted in the loss of biodiversity in natural aquatic
ecosystem [34].

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Ethnopharmacology, 122(1): 136-142. in marine invertebrates. Mutat Res, 399 (1): 109-122.
[8] Botha, C.J., Penrith, M.L. (2008). Poisonous plants of veterinary and human [33] Bickham, J.W., Sandhu, S., Hebert, P.D., Chikhi, L., Athwal, R. (2000).
importance in southern Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 119: 549– Effects of chemical contaminants on genetic diversity in natural
558. populations: implications for biomonitoring and ecotoxicology. Mutat Res,
[9] Umbuzeiro-Valent G, Roubiecek DA, Haebisch EM.(1999). Mutagenic and 463 (1): 33-51.
antimutagenic evaluation of the juice of leaves of Bryophyllum calycinum [34] Ramanujam, S.N. and Dominic, R. (2012). Median Lethal concentration
(Kalanchoe pinnata), a plant with antihistamine activity. Environ Mol (LC50) of Pisicidal Plants and Their Utilization in Aquaculture. Journal of
Mutag, 33: 325–327. applied Aquaculture, 24(4): 326-333.
[10] Lopes D, Oliveira RR, Kaplan MAC, Lage CS, Leitao AC. (2001).
Photosensitization and mutation induced in Escherichia coli and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains by dorstenin, a psoralen analog isolated
from Dorstenia bahiensis. Planta Med., 67: 820–824. AUTHORS
[11] Ramos A, Piloto J, Visozo A, Garcia A, Lastra H, de Leon HP.( 2001).
Mutagenicity and antioxidant assessment of Stachitarpheta jamaicensis (L.) First Author –Thangal Yumnamcha, PhD student, Department
Vahl. Phytother Res, 15: 360 –363. of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal -
[12] Van Duuren, B. L., and Orris, L. (1965). The Tumor-enhancing Principles 795003. Email: [email protected]
of Croton tiglium L. Cancer Res., 25: 1871-1875. Second Author – Dr. Upendra Nongthomba, Assistant
[13] Sivak, A. and Van Duuren, B. L. (1967). Phenotypic Expression of Professor, Molecular Reproduction, Development and Genetics,
Transformation: Induction in Cell Culture by a Phorbol Ester. Science, 157: Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore – 560012. Email:
1443-1444.
[email protected]
[14] EI-Mekkawy S, Meselhy MR, Nakamura N, Hattori M, Kawahata T and
Otake T. (2000). Anti-HIV phorbol esters from the seeds of Croton tiglium. Third Author – M. Damayanti Devi, Associate Professor,
Phytochem., 53: 457-464. Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur,
[15] Qiu, HX. (1996). Flora of China. Science Press, Beijing, p. 133. Imphal -795003. Email: [email protected]
[16] Wang, X., Lan, M., Wu, H.P., Shi, Y.Q., Lu, J., Ding, J., Wu, K.C., Jin,
J.P., Fan, D.M. (2002a). Direct effect of croton oil on intestinal epithelial Correspondence Author – M. Damayanti Devi, Associate
cells and colonic smooth muscle cells. World Journal of Gastroenterology,
8: 103–107.
professor, Genetics Laboratory, Department of Life Sciences,

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Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal -795003.


Email:[email protected]. Mobile No-09856000236

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NONHOLONOMIC FRAMES FOR FINSLER SPACE WITH


SPECIAL ( )-METRICS
NARASIMHAMURTHY S.K., MALLIKARJUN Y. KUMBAR., KAVYASHREE A.R.
Department of P.G. Studies and Research in Mathematics,
Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta - 577451,
Shimoga, Karnataka, INDIA
E-mail:[email protected] and [email protected]

Abstract: The main aim of this paper is to, first we determine the two Finsler deformations to the special
Finsler ( )-metrics. Consequently, we obtain the nonholonomic frame for the special ( )-metrics, such as

(Ist Approximate Matsumoto metric) and (Infinite series -metric).

Key Words: Finsler Space, ( )-metrics, GL-metric, Nonholonomic Finsler frame.

1. INTRODUCTION

In 1982, P.R. Holland ([1][2]), studies a unified formalism that uses a nonholonomic frame on space-
time arising from consideration of a charged particle moving in an external electromagnetic field. In fact, R.S.
Ingarden [3] was first to point out that the Lorentz force law can be written in this case as geodesic equation on
a Finsler space called Randers space. The author Beil R.G. ([5][6]), have studied a gauge transformation viewed
as a nonholonomic frame on the tangent bundle of a four dimensional base manifold. The geometry that follows
from these considerations gives a unified approach to gravitation and gauge symmetries. The above authors
used the common Finsler idea to study the existence of a nonholonomic frame on the vertical subbundle V TM
of the tangent bundle of a base manifold M.

In this paper, the fundamental tensor field might be taught as the result of two Finsler deformation. Then
we can determine a corresponding frame for each of these two Finsler deformations. Consequently, a
nonholonomic frame for a Finsler space with special ( )-metrics such as Ist Approximate Matsumoto metric
and Infinite series ( )-metrics will appear as a product of two Finsler frames formerly determined. This is an
extension work of Ioan Bucataru and Radu Miron [10].
Consider , the components of a Riemannian metric on the base manifold M, a(x, y) > 0 and
two functions on TM and B(x, y) = a vertical 1-form on TM. Then
(1.1)
is a generalized Lagrange metric, called the Beil metric . We say also that the metric tensor is a Beil
deformation of the Riemannian metric . It has been studied and applied by R.Miron and R.K. Tavakol in

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General Relativity for and b = 0. The case a(x, y) = 1 with various choices of b and
was introduced and studied by R.G. Beil for constructing a new unified field theory [6].
2. PRELIMINARIES
An important class of Finsler spaces is the class of Finsler spaces with -metrics [11]. The first
Finsler spaces with -metrics were introduced by the physicist G.Randers in 1940, are called Randers
spaces [4]. Recently, R.G. Beil suggested to consider a more general case, the class of Lagrange spaces with
( )-metric, which was discussed in [12]. A unified formalism which uses a nonholonomic frame on space
time, a sort of plastic deformation, arising from consideration of a charged particle moving in an external
electromagnetic field in the background space time viewed as a strained mechanism studied by P.R.Holland
[1][2]. If we do not ask for the function L to be homogeneous of order two with respect to the ( ) variables,
then we have a Lagrange space with ( )-metric. Next we look for some different Finsler space with ( )-
metrics.
Definition 2.1: A Finsler space is called with -metric if there exists a -homogeneous
function of two variables such that the Finsler metric is given by,

Where is a Riemannian metric on , and (2.1)


is a 1-form on .

Consider the fundamental tensor of the Randers space . Taking into account the

homogeneity of and we have the following formulae:

(2.2)

With respect to these notations, the metric tensors and are related by [13],

(2.3)

Theorem 2.1[10]: For a Finsler space consider the matrix with the entries:

(2.4)

defined on . Then is an nonholonomic frame.

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Theorem 2.2 [7]: With respect to frame the holonomic components of the Finsler metric tensor is the
Randers metric ,i.e,

. (2.5)

Throughout this section we shall rise and lower indices only with the Riemannian metric that is
, and so on. For a Finsler space with -metric we
have the Finsler invariants [13].

(2.6)

where subscripts 1, 0, -1, -2 gives us the degree of homogeneity of these invariants.


For a Finsler space with -metric we have,
(2.7)
with respect to the notations we have that the metric tensor of a Finsler space with -metric is given by
[13].
. (2.8)
From (2.8) we can see that is the result of two Finsler deformations:

i)

(2.9)
ii) .

The nonholonomic Finsler frame that corresponding to the deformation (2.9) is according to the theorem
(7.9.1) in [10], given by,

(2.10)

where
This metric tensor and are related by,
. (2.11)
again the frame that corresponds to the deformation given by,

(2.12)

where .

The metric tensor and are related by the formula;

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(2.13)
Theorem 2.3: [10] Let be the metric function of a Finsler space with -
metric for which the condition (2.7) is true. Then

is a nonholonomic Finsler frame with and are given by (2.10) and (2.12) respectively.
3. NONHOLONOMIC FRAMES FOR FINSLER SPACE WITH SPECIAL ( )-METRICS
In this section we consider two Finlser space with special -metrics, such as Ist Approximate
Matusmoto metric and Infinite series -metric, then we construct nonholonomic Finsler frames.

3.1. NONHOLONOMIC FRAME FOR :

In the first case, for a Finsler space with the fundamental function , the Finsler

invariants (2.6) are given by:

(3.1)

Using (3.1) in (2.10) we have,

; (3.2)
Again using (3.1) in (2.12) we have,

(3.3)

where

Theorem 3.1: Consider a Finsler space , for which the condition (2.7) is true. Then

is a nonholonomic Finsler frame with and are given by (3.2) and (3.3) respectively.

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3.2. NONHOLONOMIC FRAME FOR :

In the second case, for a Finsler space with the fundamental function , the Finsler invariants (2.6) are
given by:

(3.4)

Using (3.4) in (2.10) we have,

; (3.5)
Again using (3.4) in (2.12) we have,

(3.6)

where

Theorem 3.2: Consider a Finsler space , for which the condition (2.7) is true. Then

is a nonholonomic Finsler frame with and are given by (3.5) and (3.6) respectively.
4. CONCLUSION
Nonholonomic frame relates a semi-Riemannian metric (the Minkowski or the Lorentz metric) with an
induced Finsler metric. Antonelli P.L., Bucataru I. ([7][8]), has been determined such a nonholonomic frame
for two important classes of Finsler spaces that are dual in the sense of Randers and Kropina spaces [9]. As
Randers and Kropina spaces are members of a bigger class of Finsler spaces, namely the Finsler spaces with
( )-metric, it appears a natural question: Does how many Finsler space with ( )-metrics have such a
nonholonomic frame? The answer is yes, there are many Finsler space with ( )-metrics.
In this work, we consider the two special Finsler metrics and we determine the nonholonomic Finsler
frames. Each of the frames we found here induces a Finsler connection on TM with torsion and no curvature.
But, in Finsler geometry, there are many -metrics, in future work we can determine the frames for them
also.
5. REFERENCES

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1) Holland. P.R.: Electromagnetism, Particles and Anholonomy. Physics Letters, 91 (6), 275-278 (1982).
2) Holland, P.R.: Anholonomic deformations in the ether: a significance for the electrodynamic potentials. In:
Hiley, B.J. Peat, F.D. (eds.), Quantum Implications. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London and New York,
295-311 (1987).
3) Ingarden, R.S.: On Physical interpretations of Finsler and Kawaguchi spaces. Tensor N.S., 46, 354-360
(1987).
4) Randers, G.: On asymmetric metric in the four space of general rela-tivity. Phys. Rev., 59, 195-199 (1941).
5) Beil, R.G.: Comparison of unified field theories. Tensor N.S., 56, 175-183 (1995).
6) Beil, R.G.: Equations of Motion from Finsler Geometric Methods. In: Antonelli, P.L. (ed), Finslerian
Geometries. A meeting of minds. Kluwer Academic Publisher, FTPH, no. 109, 95-111 (2000).
7) Antonelli, P.L., Bucataru, I.: On Holland's frame for Randers space and its applications in physics. In:
Kozma, L. (ed), Steps in Differential Geometry. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Differential Geometry,
Debrecen, Hungary, July 25-30, 2000. Debrecen: Univ. Debrecen, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics,
39-54 (2001).
8) Antonelli, P.L., Bucataru, I.: Finsler connections in anholonomic geometry of a Kropina space. Nonlinear
Studies, 8 (1), 171-184 (2001).
9) Hrimiuc, D., Shimada, H.: On the L-duality between Lagrange and Hamilton manifolds. Nonlinear World,
3, 613-641 (1996).
10) Ioan Bucataru, Radu Miron: Finsler-Lagrange Geometry. Applications to dynamical systems CEEX ET
3174/2005-2007 & CEEX M III 12595/2007 (2007).
11) Matsumoto, M.: Theory of Finsler spaces with ( )-metric. Rep. Math. Phys., 31, 43-83 (1992).
12) Bucataru, I.: Nonholonomic frames on Finsler geometry. Balkan Journal of Geometry and its Applications,
7 (1), 13-27 (2002).
13) Matsumoto.M: Foundations of Finsler geometry and special Finsler spaces, Kaishesha Press, Otsu, Japan,
1986.

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Vehicle Propulsion using Switching Magnetic(SM)


Energy
Gopi Krishna. N

John Deere Technology Centre

Abstract- “Today’s theories shape tomorrow’s reality” and The figure below shows the shape of the magnetic field around
“tomorrow’s standard of living will depend on the success of the wire. In this figure, the cross section of the wire has magnetic
today’s theories”. These old truths, having proved themselves so field around it. The green circle in the figure is the cross-section
many times in our history, should make us responsible for the of the wire itself. A circular magnetic field develops around the
implementation, creation, development, distribution of new wire, as shown by the circular lines. The field weakens (so the
scientific theories. lines are farther apart as they get farther from the wire). One can
The idea of Switching Magnetic Energy is obtained from the see that the field is perpendicular to the wire and that the field's
principle of Electromagnetic Induction. Electromagnetic direction depends on which direction the current is flowing in the
induction like in Maglev principle involves the use of wire. The compass needle aligns itself with this field
electromagnets, which by changing their polarity, sets up (perpendicular to the wire). If the battery is flipped around and
attractive and repulsive forces on the lateral sides to propel the repeat the experiment, one will see that the compass needle
train forward and levitate. This magnetic push-pull principle is aligns itself in the opposite direction.
used in this project to propel an automobile.
This concept of mine aims at designing and fabricating a
prototype model of a vehicle which runs on an alternative form
of propulsion technique i.e., magnetic power. The vehicle was
built, assembling of mechanical and electrical components,
which perform the desired function of energy conversion from
electrical to magnetic power and thus to mechanical energy of
rotation. For this purpose various components were designed and
were chosen accordingly to meet the requirements of the
prototype vehicle and which could give satisfactory results Fig.1: Electromagnet- Working phenomenon
regarding its performance parameters such as power, speed,
overall efficiency, etc., which can make this concept a very 1.2 Objective of the project
feasible one. Steps have been taken to use this principle i.e. electromagnetic
The performance of the prototype was done by various tests principle in an IC engine with modifications to run the engine
conducted. These tests showed the efficiency of the prototype at and to acquire a certain speed as achieved by diesel or a petrol
the crankshaft which was between 70 to 72% sustaining 300W of engine.
input power. In this, electromagnetic coils which pulls the piston to and fro
and the piston rod is connected to a crank which through
I. INTRODUCTION effective transmission powers the rear wheel. The stand model is
1.1 An Electromagnet made with the rear wheels powered by magnetic coils and the
An electromagnet is set up with a battery (or some other source front wheels are shown idle. Legs are provided to make the stand
of power) and a wire. If on looks at the battery, say at a normal D model. The wheels are rotating with high speed and the speed
cell from a flashlight, one can see that there are two ends, one control is provided to vary the speed.
marked plus (+) and the other marked minus (-). Electrons collect Basically this project is under innovative stage. By the
at the negative end of the battery, and, if you let them, they will application of some heavy magnetized electromagnet, desired
gladly flow to the positive end. The way you "let them" flow is reciprocating motion can be achieved which in turn completely
with a wire. If a wire is attached directly between the positive revolutionizes the whole automobile industry. As we know day
and negative terminals of a D cell, three things will happen: by day the quantity of fossil fuels is degrading in ocean and
Electrons will flow from the negative side of the battery to the earth, steps have been taken to change the concept of movement
positive side as fast as they can. The battery will drain fairly of vehicle into concept of electromagnets, which will run as
quickly (in a matter of several minutes). For that reason, it is engines
generally not a good idea to connect the two terminals of a 1.3 Implementation of the concept in the automobile industry
battery to one another directly. Normally, it can be connected to Magnetic propulsion technique was never implemented in
some kind of load in the middle of the wire so the electrons can automobiles till now. Hence the project aims at adopting this
do useful work. The load might be a motor, a light bulb, a radio. technology in automobiles which could be used as an alternative
A small magnetic field is generated in the wire. It is this small way of propulsion with numerous advantages such as zero
magnetic field that is the basis of an electromagnet. emission, reduction in noise pollution, less wear of mechanical

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parts and hence less maintenance which could one day This section specifies whether if the set objectives are achieved
revolutionize the automobile industry and thus decreasing the based on the experimental results obtained, the future scope of
dependency on fossil fuels which would one day exhaust. the technology, benefits and its drawbacks, etc.
Upon research, it’s observed that this particular technology has
never found a place in automobile industry probably due to very II. WORKING PRINCIPLE & METHODOLOGY
recent invention of the maglev principle application, various 2.1 Topic:
other alternatives already in use such as Electric vehicles which For well over a century and half, electrical current and magnetic
run on electric motors, Conventional vehicles that run on petrol, fields/forces have known to possess a corresponding relationship
diesel, etc. that can be described and predicted through mathematical
1.4 Objective formulae. One-half of this relationship is observed when the
Steps have been taken to use this principle i.e. electromagnetic movement of electricity, electrical current, through a wire
principle in an IC engine with modifications to run the engine correspondingly creates a magnetic force or field around the
and to acquire a certain speed as achieved by diesel or a petrol wire. This half of the relationship or principle is the basis for the
engine. The system was designed to sustain 300W of input operation of many types of electric motors, pumps, etc.
power. Conversely, the other half of the relationship is observed when
In this, electromagnetic coils which pulls the piston to and fro the movement of a magnetic force or field over a wire
and the piston rod is connected to a crank which through correspondingly creates electrical current in that wire. This half
effective transmission powers the rear wheel. The stand model is of the principle forms the basis for the operation of many types
made with the rear wheels powered by magnetic coils and the of electrical generators and alternators. In both halves of the
front wheels are shown idle. Legs are provided to make the stand relationship, the strengths and properties of two fields are
model. The wheels are rotating with high speed and the speed proportional to one another. With this understanding, various
control is provided to vary the speed. applications have been developed using electrical/magnetic
Basically this project is under innovative stage. By the forces to create various propulsion systems and methodologies
application of some heavy magnetized electromagnet, desired for solenoid/inducer-based power trains or power apparatuses.
reciprocating motion can be achieved which in turn completely The basic definition of a solenoid is a cylindrical coil of wire
revolutionizes the whole automobile industry. As we know day which creates a magnetic field within itself when an electric
by day the quantity of fossil fuels is degrading in ocean and current passes through it to draw a core of iron or steel within the
earth, steps have been taken to change the concept of movement coil.
of vehicle into concept of electromagnets, which will run as The solenoid generally uses electrically conductive, non-
engines. magnetic and insulated wire of specific length that is coiled or
1.5 Report Organization wrapped around a tube or hollow cylinder. The core, in general
 Introduction terms, is a magnetic object, a portion of which moves in at least a
 Working principle& Methodology portion of the tubes interior. The passing of an electrical current
This section contains information regarding the model working, through the wire coiled around the tube generates a
its concept and principles. corresponding magnetic field or force around the tube/wire coil.
 Design and Selection of Components This effect, commonly known as the Electro Motive Force
This section contains a detailed design of all the individual (EMF), denotes that the polarity and strength of the electrical
components, selection of various components based on the current passing through the wire coil will correspondingly
design calculations and verification for safe design. determine the polarity and strength ofthe resulting magnetic field
 Fabrication and Assembly or force. In this manner, the manipulation of the various
This section contains fabrication of various parts which were attributes of the electrical current (e.g.,polarity, duration and
chosen on the basis of design analysis carried out previously. It strength, etc.) respectively controls the attributes of the resulting
also includes the Bill of Materials which specify the materials, magnetic field and the movement of the magnetic object in
their price and the quantity of the various parts used. It even relation to the magnetic field. In controlling the electrical current
covers the assembly process of the vehicle which would describe to the solenoid or inducer, the subsequently created magnetic
the manner and the order in which the parts are assembled field draws, holds or expels the magnetic or polar object in
together. relation to the interior of the wire wrapped tube.
 Performance Analysis, Testing& Experimental results For the magnetic force to be able act upon an object, the object
This section contains the various experimental tests conducted on generally is required to be magnetic: e.g., have those properties
the vehicle which includes recording of various performance that are responsive to magnetic forces or fields. The
parameters such as Power, Speed, Overall Efficiency, Power to incorporation of ferromagnetic material, such as an iron-based
Weight ratio, maximum payload, losses associated, etc. alloy, can also provide these magnetic/polar properties. The
Also the results of various tests conducted on the vehicle which object can also obtain these properties through the incorporation
are shown in the form of graphs are shown. These graphs of a wire coil set that can be energized to create an
indicate the variation of various performance parameters such as electromagnetic field or force (i.e., a solenoid inside a solenoid).
speed (constant and varying), load (constant and varying), overall Correspondingly, the Counter EMF (CEMF) occurs when a
efficiency, power output and input, etc. magnetic object, by passing near an electrically conductive wire
 Conclusion coil, generates a corresponding electrical current within that wire
coil set. This CEMF occurs within a solenoid when a magnetic

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object moves within a non-energized wire coil set of a solenoid,


creating an electrical current in the otherwise non-energized wire
coil set.
Another manifestation of the Counter EMF (CEMF) starts
when the electrical current is first sent through a wire coil set
which has some form of built in resistance. The majority of the
kinetic energy of the electrical current is stored as energy in the
resulting magnetic field (the remainder of the kinetic energy is
lost as heat). When the electrical current no longer passes
through from the wire, the magnetic field collapses and returns
its kinetic energy as electricalcurrent or avoltage spike to the
otherwise de-energized wire coil set.
2.2 Scope:
Two solenoid coils have been held one after the other and a shaft
is being housed between them. The basic definition of a solenoid
is a cylindrical coil of wire which creates a magnetic field within
itself when an electric current passes through it to draw a core of
iron or steel or any ferromagnetic material within the coil. The
solenoid generally uses electrically conductive, non-magnetic
and insulated wire of specific length that is coiled or wrapped Figure2: Block Diagram of the working.
around a tube or hollow cylinder. The core, in general terms, is a
magnetic object, a portion of which moves in at least a portion of III. DESIGN & SELECTION OF COMPONENTS
the tube's interior. The passing of an electrical current through For the vehicle to perform its desired functions various parts
the wire coiled around the tube generates a corresponding have to be designed so that we can get to know values of various
magnetic field or force around the tube/wire coil. This effect, physical quantities such as working stress, torque, power, force,
commonly known as the Electro Motive Force (EMF), denotes velocity etc.
that the polarity and strength of the electrical current passing 3.1 Selection of D.C. motor
through the wire coil will correspondingly determine the polarity 3.2 Selection of solenoid coils
and strength of the resulting magnetic field or force. In this 3.3 Spur gears
manner, the manipulation of the various attributes of the 3.4 Rear axle
electrical current (e.g., polarity, duration and strength, etc.) 3.5 Rectifier circuit
respectively controls the attributes of the resulting magnetic field 3.6 Speed control circuit
and the movement of the magnetic object in relation to the
magnetic field. In controlling the electrical current to the 3.1 Selection of the starter motor to drive the vehicle for starting
solenoid or inducer, the subsequently created magnetic field torque.
draws, holds or expels the magnetic or polar object in relation to
the interior of the wire wrapped tube.
In the first half of the cycle, the first coil is energized it will
pull the shaft which in turn makes half rotation of the crank
wheel.
In the second cycle, the coil is energized which in turn makes
another half rotation of the crank wheel and hence completes one
full rotation. The speed is controlled by the accelerator through
the circuit. The timing of energizing the coil is done by control
circuit, which is activated by accelerator sector which governs
the speed of spindle. The spindle is coupled on the rear axle of
the vehicle, which drives the axle resulting in the forward
motion/movement. The chassis is made of mild steel flat and two Figure3: Simple Brushed DC motor construction
wheels are fixed on the hub of the front axle and two wheels are
fixed to the rear axle.. DC motors consist of rotor-mounted windings (armature) and
There is no steering mechanism in this model since it is at the stationary windings (field poles). In all DC motors, current must
initial stage of the technology. The vehicle has to be pushed for be conducted to the armature windings by passing current
the starting momentum and for this we are using DC motor through carbon brushes that slide over a set of copper surfaces
which acts like the starter when the particular momentum is called a commutator, which is mounted on the rotor. The
reached, the motor can be disconnected, it will continue the drive commutator bars are soldered to armature coils. The
by magnetic propulsion. The batteries for the DC motor is inbuilt brush/commutator combination makes a sliding switch that
in the vehicle and the battery used to drive the energizing of coils energizes particular portions of the armature, based on the
is external connected through the wires. position of the rotor. This process creates north and south
magnetic poles on the rotor that are attracted to or repelled by

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north and south poles on the stator, which are formed by passing
direct current through the field windings. It's this magnetic
attraction and repulsion that causes the rotor to rotate.[2]
Selection of DC motor was primarily done based on the initial
power requirements. The power was determined based on the
initial velocity of the vehicle.
After the power requirement for the initial velocity was
known, the torque needed to generate the speed was obtained.
After the torque in kg-cm was known a DC motor was selected
of the required capacity and RPM. DC motor speed was chosen
based on the assumption that the vehicle should propel at 0.5m/s.
In order to select the DC motor for the specific application the
following procedure is adopted.
Assuming the following data: Figure 4: Solenoid coil
Speed at which the DC motor should run the vehicle = 1.8-2.0
Kmph Coils were bought based on the strength of the magnetic field
Total weight of the vehicle = 25 Kgs. needed. Each coil of specified number of turns exhibits varying
Thus we know that power required to propel the vehicle is given force depending on the ferromagnetic material used. Force
by, exerted by the coils on the piston is far greater which by
reduction gear gives the required speed.
[4] Since the piston was made up of mild steel material a coil of
= Tractive effort in Newtons. 240 turns was chosen which could exert force at a range of 50 to
v = Velocity of the vehicle in m/s. 90 kN which would obviously vary due to a varying electric field
= Transmission efficiency. as per the variations done in the speed control circuit.
But R= Newtons where, Specifications of the coil:
=Coefficient of road resistance. No. of turns in the coil =230
For smooth surfaces =0.0059; Piston radius =14mm.
Assuming =90% we get =0.0059 250 =1.475 Newtons. Clearance =1mm.
Thickness of the coil =10mm.
Inner diameter of the coil =30mm.
Now power required
Outer diameter of the coil =40mm.
= = 0.91W Length of the coil =50mm.
Piston material used is C30 steel.
The Torque transmitted is obtained from the Equation
Magnetic field generated by the solenoid:
; where is the turn density = =4600/m.
T= where P= power transmitted in watts

=Magnetic field in teslas.


N= speed in RPM
=Permeability of the material.
The circumference of the wheel ( ) = 70.5 cms
I =Current in Amperes.
N = No. of turns.
Then the linear velocity v& rpm‘N ’are related by;
L =Length of the coil.
But =K* where = Absolute permeability= 4π T/mA.
K = Relative permeability for steel = 100
Let v = 2 kmph (Required speed of the vehicle) then the value of Therefore =K* = 100 4π = 4π T/mA.
N obtained from the above formula = 47.28rpm;
Hence
Torque transmitted, T = = 4π 25
= 14.45Teslas.
=
3.3 Design of the drive gear which drives the driven gear
=0.184 N-m(approx. 2kg-cm) mounted on the drive axle

But a 2 Kg-cm D.C. motor produces only N= 10-15 RPM. Hence Designing of gears was done after knowing the power
a 6 kg-cm D.C. motor is selected which produces 35-40 RPM requirements i.e after knowing the desired speed in which the
which can propel the vehicle with velocity of 2 kmph. vehicle should accelerate. Based on this gear of required number
3.2 Selection of coils to generate electromagnetic force to pull of teeth and module was chosen. With knowledge of Machine
the piston. Design it was conclusive that the design was safe.

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Gears of cast steel material was chosen for the power Working stress =
transmission process and the working stress was obtained = 0.6669
knowing the pitch line velocity with which the gear should =147.115 N/
transmit power.The no. of teeth on the gear wheel was chosen on Since the working stress =147.115 N/ is less than allowable
the assumption that the vehicle should propel at 2.5-3.0 m/s. static stress = 220.6 N/ .
1) GEAR WHEEL: Hence the gear wheel is designed safe.
No. of teeth on the gear wheel = 49.
No. of teeth on the pinion = 22.
It is chosen such that we have speed reduction to 330 RPM from
the speed of the pinion which is calculated as follows

= [4]

Therefore =

= 735RPM

Beam strength of the gear wheel is given by the Lewis equation


as follows:

= N[5]

= Working stress
Figure 5: Gear wheel[3] = Width of the gear face
= = Circular pitch
Gear wheel is designed on the basis that the rear axle should be = Tooth form factor (From design data hand book for a gear of
producing a angular speed of 320 to 330 RPM, which is enough 49 teeth and 20 degree full depth involute) = 0.13
to propel the vehicle at 3.5 to 4 m/s.
The gears are of module (m) = 1.75mm and are full depth =
involute.
For full depth involute ; = 1051.44 N
Addendum = module(m) = 1.75mm(from design data hand Power produced by the crankshaft (P)
book)[5]
P=
Dedendum = (1.25)module = 2.1875mm.
Where F = Force acting on the reciprocating parts such as the
Material of the gear = Cast Steel (0.3%C) piston, crankshaft, connecting rod etc.
V = Maximum velocity of the piston during its stroke.
Addendum circumference = 288mm.
Maximum velocity of the piston = ( )
Therefore addendum diameter = 91.67mm. ( + )[4]

Hence pitch circle diameter = 91.67- (2*1.75)


= 88.17mm. Where n = ; L = Length of the connecting rod = 62mm
Allowable static stress for C30 Steel =220.6 N/ r = Radius of the crank = 25mm
Therefore n = = 2.48
Pitch line velocity (v) is given by v = = Angle of the crank at the maximum velocity of the
Therefore v = piston =
=1.523m/s. = = = 76.96 rad/sec
= (76.96 )( + )
Velocity factor ( ) is chosen on the value of Pitch line velocity,
= 1.924 m/s.
Hence for a velocity of 1.523m/s which is less than 8m/s the
But,
formula for velocity factor = Force (F) = m ; where
= m = mass of the reciprocating parts such as the piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod etc = 1800gms.
= 0.6669

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= Working stress
= Piston acceleration = )( + ) = Width of the gear face
= = Circular pitch
=
= Tooth form factor (From design data hand book for a pinion
= 59.7 m/ of 22 teeth and 20 degree full depth involute) = 0.105
Therefore power, P = m
= 1.8 =
= 206.75 Watts = 387.07 N
Assuming a transmission efficiency of 95% the power produced
at the gear wheel The power produced at the pinion = Power at the crankshaft
P = 80.4 0.95 which is given by
=196.415 Watts. P=m
Torque at the gear wheel is given by, = 1.8
T= = = 2.22 N-m = 206.75Watts
Torque at the gear wheel is given by,
Tangential tooth load = ; where =service factor (From
T= = = 1.044 N-m
design data hand book for medium shocks and for an intermittent
operation) = 1.25 Tangential tooth load = ; where =service factor (From
v = Pitch line velocity of the gear wheel, design data hand book for medium shocks and for an intermittent
= operation) = 1.25
= 62.37 N v = Pitch line velocity of the gear wheel,
=
2) PINION: = 65.38 N
Pinion is designed on the basis that the rear axle should be
producing a angular speed of720 to 740 RPM, which is enough 3.3 Design of the rear axle
to propel the vehicle at 3.5 to 4 m/s. After obtaining the values of torque and power the axle design
The pinion are of module (m) = 1.75mm and are full depth was taken to consideration. It was calculated for its combined
involute. bending and torsional strengths based on max. shear stress
For full depth involute ; theory.
Addendum = module(m) = 1.75mm(from design data hand book The axle is made up of carbon annealed steel and knowing its
and Kurmi /Gupta) material properties its working stress was compared with the
Dedendum = (1.25)module = 2.1875mm. yield strength of the material and on this basis it was pretty
Material of the pinion = Cast Steel (0.3%C) conclusive that the design was safe.
Addendum circumference = 136.47mm. Shaft diameter = 20mm
Therefore addendum diameter = 43.44mm. Shaft material = Carbon-Steel-Annealed
Hence pitch circle diameter = 43.44 - (2*1.75) Yield stress of the material
= 39.94mm. The material is ductile and the specimen is subjected to
Allowable static stress for C30 Steel =220.6 N/ combined bending and twisting load. According to maximum
Pitch line velocity (v) is given by v = shear stress theory, the maximum stress induced should be less
than yield value of the shear stress.
Therefore v =
Twisting moment (T) is given by the torsional equation as
= 1.537 m/s. follows:
Velocity factor ( ) is chosen on the value of Pitch line velocity,
Hence for a velocity of 1.537m/s which is less than 8m/s the
formula for velocity factor = [5] Where T = Torque in N-m,
= J= Polar moment of inertia in Kg
= Torsional shear stress in N/
= 0.664 R = Radius of Curvature in m,
Working stress = G = Rigidity modulus in N/
= 0.664 = Angle of twist in radians,
=146.68 N/ l = Length of the shaft in m.
Since the working stress =146.68 N/ is less than allowable
static stress = 220.6 N/ .
Hence the pinion is designed safe
[4]
Beam strength of the pinion is given by the Lewis equation as
follows: Power produced at the output shaft (rear axle) P = 208 W
= N Torque produced at the output shaft(Rear axle) T = 2.22 N-m

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Bending moment equation is given by, 3.4 Design of circuit for speed control
[4] Speed control circuit will be built using relays, transmitter,
resistors and an IC. An LED is used to indicate the charging of
where M = Bending moment in N-mm, the DC batteries and also to indicate the current flow in the
I = Moment of inertia in Kg- circuit.
= Bending stress in N/ Relays are used mainly to protect the circuit and the toggle
y = distance of the outermost fibre from the neutral axis in mm, switches from any surge in voltage which could result due to the
E = Young’s Modulus of the material in N/ sudden switch of power to the external main batteries whenever
R = The radius of curvature in mm there is a DC motor cut off. The motor is cut off with the help of
M= a switch in the speed control circuit and the power is
automatically directed to the external batteries which has a
The vehicle produces a power of 76 W
capacity about 12V and 25amps. A second Relay is used for
M = where P = Power in W motor cut off.
N = Speed of the axle in rpm.
=
= 37.818 N-m.
Equivalent Twisting moment =
=

= 37.883 N-m
According to Maximum shear stress theory,
Maximum shear stress [5]
Where Bending stress in N/
= Shear stress in N/ Figure 6: Speed control circuit

Use of Relay in the circuit:


The core of the electromagnetic relay, naturally, is an
electromagnet, formed by winding a coil around an iron core.
When the coil is energized by passing current through it, the core
in turn becomes magnetized, attracting a pivoting iron armature.
= As the armature pivots, it operates one or more sets of contacts,
thus affecting the circuit. When the magnetic charge is lost, the
= 24.117 N/ armature and contacts are released. Demagnetization can cause a
leap of voltage across the coil, damaging other components of
Hence, = 24.117 N/ is less than Yield stress of the the device when turned off. Therefore, the electromagnetic relay
material [4] usually makes use of a diode to restrict the flow of the charge,
Hence the shaft design is safe. with the cathode connected at the most positive end of the coil.
Contacts on an electromagnetic relay can take three forms.
3.4 Design of circuit for rectification Normally opened contacts connect the circuit when the device is
It will involve a suitable transformer to step down the current activated and disconnect it when the device is not active, like a
from the AC to charge the batteries. It will also involve a 4 light switch. Normally closed contacts disconnect the circuit
bridge diode for proper rectification from AC to DC. when the relay is magnetized, and a change-over incorporates
A transformer unit is used to step down the voltage required to one of each type of contact. The configuration of the contacts is
charge the DC batteries which powers the DC motors for the dependent upon the intended application of the device.
initial torque The electromagnetic relay is capable of controlling an output of
higher power than the input, and it is often used as a buffer to
isolate circuits of varying energy potentials as a result. When a
low current is applied to the electromagnet, throwing the switch,
the device is capable of allowing a higher current to flow through
it. This is advantageous in some applications, such as tripping
alarms and other safety devices, because a safer low current can
be used to activate an application requiring more energy.[1]
Power utilization:
The electromagnetic coils are supplied by 12VDC, may draw
25amps current.
Figure 5: Transformer circuit
Lead acid battery is used to give power to the DC motor and this
battery can be recharged when connected directly to AC supply.

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IV. FABRICATION & ASSEMBLY Preset which are soldered onto the PCB(Printed Circuit Board).
The parts fabricated are: Relays, LEDs, Toggle switches, etc. are also added along with
4.1 Magnetic coil set: wiring.
4.2 Moving Shaft: 15) Switch actuators: These are a pair of mild steel strips bolted
4.3Crank lever: over the moving shaft at preset positions firmly. When the
4.4Shaft Guides: moving shaft reciprocates, the actuators operate the toggle
4.5Crank shaft: switches thereby alternating the current to the coils.
4.6 Crank wheel:
4.7 Crank pin:
4.8 Crank housing V. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS, TESTING & EXPERIMENTAL
4.9 Crank lever RESULTS
4.10 Base frame The various parameters involved in the performance testing of
4.11 Coil holder the vehicle is listed below:
4.12 Battery box 1) Rotational speed of the Rear axle
4.13 Circuit holder 2) Force exerted by the piston
4.14 Switch activating bushes 3) Power generated
4.15 Drive Gear & Pinion 4) Load on the engine
After the fabrication of the individual components upon design 5) Efficiency:
and their selection, they were then assembled. The order of the a) Coil efficiency
assembly is given below: b) Piston efficiency
1) Chassis: The chassis frame was made of many different mild c) Crank & Transmission efficiency
steel components that were welded together. This forms the d) Overall efficiency.
skeleton of the vehicle.
2) Stand: The stand was then bolted under the chassis to support 5.1 Rotational speed of the rear axle:
the weight of the vehicle. Two stands are provided, one below The speed of the rear axle ‘N’ is measured in rotations per
the rear axle and one below the front axle. minute (RPM) which is measured using a digital tachometer by
3) Front axles with wheels and Bearing: Front axle was welded which the power at the rear axle is measured. As per the readings
onto the chassis frame with the bearings and the wheels. by the tachometer the rear axle rotates at 330 RPM and the
4) Base Plate: The base plate was welded onto the chassis frame. pinion or the crank shaft with a speed of 750 RPM. Varying
This forms a support structure for the crank assembly. speed can be obtained by the speed control circuit which varies
5) Supports frames for Coils, Switches and Shaft: The support the speed by a range of 80 RPM.
frames of various dimensions were welded/bolted on top of the 5.2 Force exerted by the piston:
chassis frame. The piston is subjected to magnetic force which acts tangential
6) Crank Housing: Crank housing is welded onto the base plate to the surface of the piston and the piston in turn exerts a force on
which supports the crank assembly. the crank assembly and the other reciprocating parts. The force
7) Crankshaft: Crankshaft was installed on the crank housing exerted by the piston is measured using the formula,
along with the bearings. F = Mass * Acceleration
8) Piston with coils: Shaft is passed through the shaft guides and Where the mass of the reciprocating parts is expressed in terms
through the coils and with the help of a L-nut, the piston is fixed of Kg
onto the shaft. Acceleration in terms of m/s2 and is given by the formula
9) Crank Assembly: The Crank assembly consists of the = Piston acceleration = )( + )
connecting rod and the cam plate. This assembly was taken from
Force in terms of Newtons (N).
a two-wheeler and installed.
5.3 Power Output:
10) Pinion: The pinion was boltedonto the crankshaftwhich
The power generated at the rear axle was found out taking into
overhangs from the cam plate and the Crank housing.
account the transmission and the crank efficiency. The input
11) Rear axle assembly: The Rear axle assembly consists of Gear
power generated by the piston before the cranking and the
wheel, Sprocket, Rear wheels and bearings.
transmission is given by
12) DC motor with Sprocket and Chain: The DC motor was
mounted onto the Crank housing and then the Sprocket was P=m
bolted to the output shaft of the motor. The sprockets were then
connected using the chain. where =( )( + )[4]
13) Battery with Transformer Circuits: DC batteries that run the 5.4 Load on the engine:
DC motor are fixed onto the Battery Box which are welded onto Various performance tests were conducted on the vehicle in
the chassis frame. The rectifier circuits are built and soldered to varying conditions such as constant load- varying speed, constant
the DC batteries. The batteries are connected to a transformer is speed-varying load. The load applied were in an interval of 2kg
bolted onto the chassis frame. Connections from the transformer and parameters like speed, efficiency, power input were
is given through the wires for external charging. measured. The vehicle was tested with a minimum load of 5kgs
14) Electronic Circuitry: The circuit components required for and a maximum of 11kg.
speed control are IC, Transistor, Resistor, Capacitor, Regulator, 5.5 Efficiency:

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a) Coil efficiency:
Coil efficiency is defined as the amount of DC power transmitted
by the coils to the power input by the batteries. This parameter
was almost negligible since the losses associated with the
dissipation of the power was very low and this was calculated
knowing the resistance exerted by the supply wires and the wires
in the coil.
b) Piston efficiency:
Piston efficiency is defined as the amount of power generated by
the piston to the power input by the coils. This was calculated by
knowing the power exerted by the piston on the crank assembly
and the power input by the coils taking into account the
dissipation factors due to the resistance exerted by the coil.
c) Crank & Transmission efficiency :
Transmission efficiency is defined as the power generated by the Figure 8: Overall efficiency vs. RPM
gear wheel to the power input by the pinion. For a standard
pinion and gear assembly, the transmission efficiency is assumed 2. This test was conducted to know the overall
to 95 %. efficiency at varying speed .The overall efficiency
Crank efficiency is defined as the power generated by the was found to be maximum at a speed of 290RPM
crankshaft to the power input by the piston. For a standard crank due to the increase in power input and the reason
assembly, the efficiency is assumed to be 96%. for this is same as graph showing the overall
d) Overall efficiency: efficiency Vs power input. Further test was not
Overall efficiency is defined as the power generated at the output conducted since I had to risk overheating of coils.
shaft to the power input by the DC batteries. This efficiency is
the product of the all the efficiencies i.e., Coil efficiency, Piston
efficiency, Crank and Transmission efficiency.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS:

Figure 9: Overall efficiency vs. Load

3. This test was conducted to know the variation of


overall efficiency with increasing load at a constant
speed of 260RPM. It was found that the input
Figure 7: Overall Efficiency vs. Power input power required to keep the vehicle running at
1. This test was conducted to know the overall 260RPM drastically increased, thus decreasing the
efficiency of the vehicle at varying power input. It overall efficiency. The load was increased by 2Kg
can be concluded from the graph that the overall for the 3 trials conducted.
efficiency of the vehicle is low at a lesser power
input due to the resistance offered by the
reciprocating mass(inertia force) and this force
decreases with the increasing power input. Hence
the efficiency increases at a range of 285 to 290 W,
with a peak efficiency of 70 to 72% percent. The
decrease in efficiency after 290W was due to the
increase in frictional losses & heating of coils.

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6. This test was conducted to know the variation of


speed with increase in load. The speed recorded in
this case is the speed of the pinion which varied due
to the increase in resistance offered by the rear axle
due to the increase in load. The load was increased
with an increment of 2kg for every trial.

ATTAINMENT OF OBJECTIVES:
 The prototype was aimed at obtaining an alternative
method for propulsion technique in automobiles. With
the help of this prototype model, it could be shown that
it is possible to use magnetic power efficiently for
transportation in automobiles. The prototype could
produce an overall efficiency of 72% which could be
Figure 10: Power input vs. Load improved with further research on this concept.
 The project was also aimed at using electrical energy to
4. This test was conducted to know the power input
propel the vehicle which obviously results in zero
with the increasing load at a constant speed of
emission. With the increase in Carbon emission from
260RPM. As load was increased it was observed
automobiles and due to the fast depletion of fossil fuels,
that the power input required increased drastically
this technology will find its place soon in the market.
to keep the vehicle running at 260RPM thus
 This technology is very efficient because it involves few
decreasing the efficiency.
number of moving parts and there is no mechanical
contact and friction taking place between the piston and
the coils unlike IC engines wherein the piston slide
inside the cylinder. Hence there is not much of
lubrication involved.

VI. SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
Scope for Improvement:
 The efficiency could be increased significantly by using
bigger and more efficient design of coils, installation of
flywheels, cooling systems for the coils, etc.,.
Figure 11:Power input vs. Speed  Efficiency of the prototype could be increased further by
efficient design of coils so that the magnetic flux induced by
the solenoid coils could be utilized to the fullest
5. This test was conducted to know the variation of  By reversing polarity using polarity timer & using
power input with increasing speed at constant load permanent magnets as the piston material, by inducing
of 5Kg. The power input required increased with repulsion simultaneously in the other coil the efficiency
increase in speed. could be further enhanced.
 By using a piston enhancer (an electromagnetic coil at the
dead center) the reciprocation could be improved
 An AC generator in the crankshaft can be used to
appropriately rectify & charge the batteries thus improving
the efficiency.
 2n no. of pistons & solenoid pairs can be used with n of
pistons and solenoids at each end to see if better efficiency is
achieved.
 Parallel connecting rods could be introduced with the similar
set up thus to power a common crankshaft & try to achieve a
better efficiency.

Figure 12: Speed vs. Load

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Actual Model: E mail address: [email protected]


Telephone number: +91-8806198176

CONCLUSION:
 Switching Magnetic Energy can be the
technology for the future.At this forefront of
new inventions and discoveries man is always
in a quest for moving faster and more efficient
ways of energy utilization.
 This technology is very efficient because it
involves few no. of moving parts and there is
no mechanical contact and friction taking place
between the piston and the coils unlike IC
engines wherein the piston has a sliding contact
with the cylinder. Hence there is not much of
lubrication involved in the prototype.
 This principle can revolutionize our modes of
transport. Due to an increase in carbon
emission orgreenhouse gases people in the
future will be resorted in using electricity as a
primary fuel for automobiles which will be the
obvious result of the disadvantages faced by us
due to dependency on fossil fuels.
 If this technology is implemented it will cut off
the carbon emission and thereby facilitate a
greener, cleaner environment which can
ultimately give a cure for global warming.

REFERENCES
[1] Robotics Technology and Flexible Automation by S.R. DEB.[1]
[2] Industrial Robotics by Mikell P. Groover[2]
[3] Computer Aided Manufacturing by P.N. Rao, N K Tewari[3]
[4] Text Book of Machine Design, by R.S.Khurmi& J.K. Gupta[4]
[5] Design data hand book by Mahadevan and Reddy.[5]

AUTHORS
Correspondence Author – Gopi Krishna N, John Deere India,
Regd unit: John Deere Technology Centre India, 1W- 195,
Manufacturing services, Tower No. 14, Cyber city, Magarpatta
city, Hadapsar, Pune- 411013, Maharashtra, India.

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How to Detect Failure Node in a Selected Network?


Manisha Wadhwa*, Dr.Kanak Saxena**
*
Research Scholar ,Barkatullah University ,Bhopal
**
Department of Computer Applications,SATI vidisha

Abstract- We focus only how to recognize a failure node in For Autonomous system
selected network. In autonomous system a queue is playing
important role for node to node communication with the
Queue
knowledge of node to its neighbour node. Either
A B C D E ABCDE
Index Terms- Queue, Autonomous system, router protocol 0----time-----t

Fig-2 Packet transmission, either depart or not to destination


I. INTRODUCTION
In fig-2,the autonomous system having five nodes
I n an autonomous system, communicate to each other by using
router protocol the parameter like time, queue length are major
role play to detect the failure node in an selected network
A,B,C,D,E communicate to each other and these belongs to
selected network. Suppose that packets A B C D E are coming
into queue in FIFO order. timing for A is 1 m/s ,for B 2m/s ,for C
3 m/s,for D and E 4m/s and 5 m/s respectively, A came and
depart at proper time but B having delay to departing from queue
,then delay occur in communication, But question is that how to
Queu detect failure node in selected network?
Sourc p1,p2,p3,…pn e p1,p2,p3,…pn Destin
e ation

Fig-1 showing communication path established using queue R1


A C
In this figure from source to destination a queue is for
stored packet and depart the packet to particular destination. here R2 B R3 R4
queue play a role like a router. Having information about arriving R5 D
node and departing node before stored packet means that stored
the status about the packets
A-R1-C, A -R2- B, B-R3-C, B-R5-D, C-R4-D
Timing factor- when queue established the time is main (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 are routers between nodes)
factor to communicate to each other.
Fig-3 Selected path but change the route because of failure
Queue length-Queue length having no of packets to arrived node
for processing and ready for departing from queue but there is
time limits for all departing and arriving packets like m/s per Router R1 having information about A and its neighbour C,
packets. R2 having information about A and its neighbour B, R3 having
information about B and C, R4 having information about C and
Reason- D, R5 having information about B and D. all this network router
If the error rates occur in transmit a packet, retransmit the having information about all nodes, whose established
packets and allotted time is finished, then retransmit take double communication path.
time to transmit packets or delay time, means that one node is If node B failed then router R2 having knowledge about fail
failure and not participating in communicate path from source to then router R2 inform to node A. node A change the path from A
destination to C and then C to D through router R4.
Note-router having some distance from node to node and
choose shortest path using shortest path algorithm from source to
destination for successfully path.

II. BROADCASTING FOR FURTHER


COMMUNICATION

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Broadcasting using multipath is alternate approach for


communication from source to destination node .if intermediate
node failed then announced to all other node to inform about the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
failure. It is also helpful process for communication. I would like to thanks my guide “Dr.kanak saxena” for her
For point to point communication there is node to node support and encouragement to prepare this paper.
sequence from source to destination for communication, it is also
helpful for established path.
REFERENCES
Nod [1] Mumin Imamoglu, Mehmet Keskinoz , ‘Node Failure Handling for Serial
e3 Distributed Detection in Wireless Sensor Networks’, 21st Annual IEEE
International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio
Nod Nod Communications.
e1 e2 [2] S. Liu, K.-H. Cheng, and X. Liu, “Network reliability with node failures,”
Networks, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 109–117, Mar. 2000.
Nod [3] M. K. Aguilera, W. Chen, and S. Toueg. Heartbeat: A timeout-free failure
detector for quiescent reliable communication.In WDAG ’97, pages 126–
e4
140, London, UK, 1997.
[4] M. K. Aguilera, W. Chen, and S. Toueg. Using the heartbeat failure detector
Fig-4 Refer to count to infinity problem. for quiescent reliable communication and consensus in partitionable
networks. Theor. Comput. Sci., 220(1):3–30, 1999.
In this figure node 1 communicate to node 2 and node 2 [5] C. Almeida and P. Ver´ıssimo. Timing failure detection and real-time group
again communicate to node 3 and node 4,if node node is failed communication in real-time systems. In 8th Euromicro Wksp. on Real-Time
Systems, June 1996.
then there are communication gap arise.
[6] R. Boichat, P. Dutta, and R. Guerraoui. Asynchronous leasing.In 7th IEEE
Intl. Wksp. on Object-Oriented Real-Time Dependable Systems (WORDS
’02), pages 180–187, 2002.
III. NETWORK FAILURE DETECTION THROUGH [7] T. D. Chandra and S. Toueg. Unreliable failure detectors for reliable
GRAPH THEORY distributed systems. J. ACM, 43(2):225–267, 1996.
[8] W. Chen, S. Toueg, and M. K. Aguilera. On the quality of service of failure
As we know that the complete network build by the nodes detectors. IEEE ToC, 51(1):13–32, 2002.
and intermediate nodes and here we represent by the graph [9] M. Choy and A. K. Singh. Efficient fault tolerant algorithms for resource
theory, in graph theory the edges represent the communication allocation in distributed systems. In ACM Symposium on Theory of
path/link between nodes and the nodes are connected by the link, Computing, pages 593–602, 1992.

Nod
Nod AUTHORS
e1 e2
First Author – Manisha Wadhwa, Research Scholar,
Nod
Barkatullah University, Bhopal
e5 Second Author – Dr.Kanak Saxena, Department of Computer
Applications,SATI vidisha
Nod
e3
Nod
e4

Fig-5 communication network

In this fig, selected network node 1 communicate with node


2, node 3 and node 4 and our source is node 1 and destination is
node 5, if node 1 failure then broadcast the message to node 3
node 2 and node 4, but here time delay is possible .suppose node
1 communicate to node 2 in 20 m/s but after failure node 2 have
no message from node 1 then delay is possible.

IV. RELATED WORK


In future we use sensor with each node to detect node is
failure or not. This sensor intimate to next node with less delay
and inform about failure node, this is helpful to successful
communication with time factor from source to destination.

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Particle Swarm Optimization Based Automatic


Generation Control of Two Area Interconnected Power
System
Kapil Garg*, Jaspreet Kaur**
*
Department of Electrical Engineering,YIET, Gadholi, Yamunanagar, Haryana, India
**
Department of Electrical Engineering,BBSBEC, Fatehgarh sahib, Punjab, India

Abstract- Due to the continuous change in load, the frequency II. PROBLEM FORMULATION
and tie-line power of control areas get disturbed from their We have taking the concept of area control error which is
scheduled value which is undesirable. Automatic Generation produced by comparing the feedback and reference signal and
Control (AGC) is an essential mechanism in electric power provide to particular controller which we used in the model of
systems which balance generated power and demand in each interconnected power system. So the problem formulate in
control area in order to maintain the system frequency at nominal automatic generation control is that we have first calculate the
value and tie-line power at its scheduled value. This necessitates area control error by integral square error or by integral time
an accurate and fast acting controller to maintain constant absolute error techniques and then taking the gain of particular
nominal frequency. The limitations of conventional controllers controller at which the system error reduced and frequency is
i.e. Integral (I), Proportional Integral (PI) are slow and lack of balanced according to load.
efficiency in handling system errors. This paper proposes Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique for AGC of two-area III. PLANT MODEL DESCRIPTION
interconnected power system. Firstly, the conventional (A) LINEARIZED MODEL
controllers i.e. Integral (I), Proportional Integral (PI) are used for Study of automatic generation control (AGC) problem of a large
AGC of two-area interconnected power system. Then PSO based interconnected power system is necessitated by the importance of
controllers are used and various responses due to various maintenance of frequency and tie line flows at their scheduled
controllers have been compared. The responses of the proposed values. A large widespread electric power system can be divided
methods are demonstrated by MATLAB simulations. into a large number of control areas interconnected by means of
several tie lines.
Index Terms- automatic generation control (AGC), conventional
integral (CI) and proportional integral (PI) controller, particle The control objective is to regulate the frequency of each area
swarm optimization (PSO) and tie line power contracts simultaneously. As in the case of
frequency regulation, proportional plus integral controller will be
installed so as to give zero steady error in tie line power flow.It is
I. INTRODUCTION conveniently assumed that each control area can be represented

T hemain requirement in operation of interconnected power


systems is the control of the frequency and the tie-line power
flow. This can be achieved by the use of automatic generation
by an equivalent turbine, generator and governor system. In an
isolated control area case the incremental power ∆PG-∆PD was
accounted for by the rate of increase of stored kinetic energy and
control (AGC). The aim of the proposed controller is to restore increase in area load caused by increase in frequency. Since a tie
the change in error to its nominal value in the smallest possible
line transports power in or out of area, this fact must be
timewhenever there is any change in the loaddemand etc.This
accounted for the incremental power balance equation of each
work presents the automatic generation control (AGC) of an
interconnected two area system with the use of particle swarm area.
optimization (PSO)technique. Here AGC for the two areas
system is done by the use of conventional controllers andparticle
swarm optimization (PSO)techniqueand change in overall error
of the system is examined by using MATLAB SIMULINK.

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MODEL OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM


Let the step changes in loads ∆PD1(s) and ∆PD2(s) be
simultaneously applied in control areas 1 and 2, respectively.
ΔPD1 Incremental load change in area 1 When steady conditions are reached, the output signals of all
ΔPD2 Incremental load change in area 2 integrating blocks will become constant and in order for this
Ri Governor speed regulation parameter to be so, their input signals must become zero.
Tsg Governor Speed time constant
(B) CONVENTIONAL AGC SYSTEM
Tt Turbine time constant
B1 Frequency bias constant for area 1 Automatic control system of close loop system means
minimizing the area control error (ACE) to maintain system
B2 Frequency bias constant for area 2
frequency and tie-line deviation are set at nominal value.
Tp 2H/ fD Block diagram of two area system is shown in fig above. The
Kp 1/D ACE of each area is linear combination of biased frequency
D Load damping constant and tie-line error.
ACEi = Δptie,ijnj=1+ βi Δfi (1)
Ki Integral gain Where, 𝐴𝐶𝐸𝑖is the area control error of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ area
Δf1 Change in frequency for area 1 Δ𝑓𝑖 = frequency error of 𝑖𝑡ℎ area
Δf2 Change in frequency for area 2 Δ𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑒, = tie- line power flow error between 𝑖𝑡ℎ and 𝑗𝑡ℎ area
𝐵𝑖= frequency bias coefficient of 𝑖𝑡ℎ area.

IV. OPTIMIZATION OF CANTROLLER V. OVERVIEW OF PARICLE SWARM


PARAMETERS, FRQUANCY BIAS FACTOR& OPTIMIZATION
SPEED REGULATION CONSTANT
PSO is a population based optimization technique based on
In this study we have considered all pi controller gains ie
intelligent scheme developed by Kennedy and Eberhart (1995)
Ki1=Ki2=Ki,Kp1=Kp2=Kp,and frequency bias factors
(Kennedy et al., 2007). PSO has emerged as one of the most
B1=B2=B and speed regulation constants R1=R2=R.we need
assuring optimizing schemes for effectively dealing near to
to optimizeKi,Kp,B,R in order to obtain good dynamic
global optimization tests. The inspiration of the mechanism is
response of the agc system. In this study Ki,Kp,B,R values are
established by the social and cooperative nature represented
optimized using the particle swarm optimization technique by
by flying birds. The algorithm simulates a simplified social
minimizing the quadratic performance index (PI) for 0.01 p.u.
milieu in capable solutions of a swarm which means that a
step load change in area-1 .where w1and w2 are the weight
single particle bases its search on its own experience and
factor .
information given by its neighbors in the specified region.
Particles are flown in the solution region with their

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randomized assigned velocity. Among these particles, each Vik+1= (W*V1k + C1rand x (pbesti – Sik) + C2rand x (gbesti -
particle keeps track of its coordinates in the solution region Sik)) (4)
which are associated with the best fitness it has achieved so
far. This value is known as „pbest‟. Another „best‟ value that Typical values for the inertia parameter are in the range [0, 2].
is tracked by the particle is the best value, obtained so far by On the other side several different approaches using a
any particle in the group of the particles. This best value is construction factor s, which increase the algorithm’s capability
also known as a global best„gbest‟ and the pattern is forwards to converge to a better solution and the equation used to
to successful solutions. PSO technique using equation (5) is modify the particle’s velocity
known as the gbest structure. PSO is a population based EA
that has many primitive benefits over other optimization Vik+1= s*(Vik+ C1rand x (pbesti – Sik) + C2rand x (gbesti -
techniques. A most attractive quality of the PSO approach is Sik))(5)
itssimplicity as it involves only two main reference equations.
Each particle coordinates represent a possiblesolution assisted VI. PSO BASED CONTROLLER DESIGN
with two real
vectors. Step1.The minimum and maximum gain limits of PI
controllers are specified from the conventional PI controller.
The initial Particle matrix of(N X 8)is generated by selecting a
value with a uniform probability over the search space
(Kmin=0, Kmax=2).
Step2.Set the population size and the initial Particle velocities
are set to zero.

Step3.Assume the initial value of K and enter the maximum


no. Of iterations/generations required.

Step4.Evaluate the initial population by simulating the Load


Each particle coordinates represent a possible solution assisted frequency Control block model with each particle row value as
with two real vectors .And vi =[vi1, vi2, vi3...viN] are the two the PI controller gain value and calculate Performance index
vectors assisted with each particle „i‟ in N-dimensional search (ISE/ITAE) for each particle.
space .Number of particles or possible solutions of a swarm
can go forward through the feasible solution place to explore Step5.Initialize local minimum (Pbest) for each particle.
optimal solutions. Each particle modifies its position based on
Step6.Find the best particle (Gbest) in initial particle matrix
its own best exploration, and overall experience of best based on the minimum performance index.
particles (Beielstein et al., 2003). This particle also considers
its previous velocity vector according to the following Step7. Start the iteration iter=1
reference equations,
Step8. Update the velocity of the particle using the equation
shown below,
Velocity modifications
Each particle velocity can be modified by the following VelocityVik+1=C* (W*V1k + C1rand x (pbesti – Sik) + C2rand x
equation: (gbest - Sik))

Vik+1=C* (W*V1k + C1rand x (pbesti – Sik) + C2rand x (gbesti - Where Constriction factor C=1
Sik)) (2) Cognitive parameter c1 =2
Social parameter c2 = 4-c1
Inertia weight
Position modifications
Positions of the particles are modified at each interval of the
flying time. The position of the particle may bechange or not
change, depending on the solution value.
wmax - wmin
__________________ *
Sik+1 = Sik + Vik+1(3) w= wmax - iter
Where, vi is velocity of particle „i‟ at iteration k. itermax

rand1, rand2 are the random numbers between 0 and 1

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Step9. Create new particle from the updated velocity. Area-1 B1 Ki1 Kp1 R1 F1 P tie-
Settling settling
time time
Step10. If any of the new Particles violate the search space
limit then choose the particle and generate new values Within
the particle search space. Pso 0 1.4204 1.1210 0.6747 11.3 12.3
Integral 0.0001 0.09 0 0.3333 23.8 21.2
Step11. Evaluate the performance index value for each new Controller
particle by simulating the LFC block model.
Prop. 0.0001 0.09 0.8 0.3333 18.1 15.6

Step12.Update the best local position (P best) for each particle Integral
based on the minimum value comparison between new controller
Particle performance index and old P best performance index.
TABLE-1
Step13. Update Gbest Global minimum particle and its
performance index.
Area-2 B2 Ki2 Kp2 R2 F2 P tie-
step14.gen=gen+1 Settling settling
time time
step15.If gen>maxgen go to step 7, otherwise go to next step.
Pso 0.2911 1.4609 1.3687 1.4023 11.7 12.3
step16.Print the global best PID controller gain values and its
performance index value. Integral 0.0001 0.09 0 0.3333 22.2 21.2
Controller
V11SIMULATION RESULT AND DISCUSSION Prop. 0.0001 0.09 0.8 0.3333 18.7 15.6
Integral
In this chapter different control strategies for supplementary controller
control are implemented through MATLAB simulink model.
Integral (I) controller, Proportional Integral (PI) controllers, TABLE-2
and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) based controllers are
implemented and the results are compared.
Case 1
First we apply the integral control gains Ki1&Ki2 in pid
controller in simulink model of two area interconnected power
system and result waveform is shown in scope and study the
variation of setlling time and overshoot time of load frequency
control of area-1 & area-2 resp.as shown in fig 1&2 as well as
tie line power is also studied and also show the variation in
fig3.
Case 2
Secondly we apply the proportional integral control gains
Kp1,Kp2 & Ki1,Ki2 in PID controller in simulink model of
two area interconnected power system and same factor of load
frequency control is studied and shown in fig.4&5 which
shows that the settling time and overshoot time is reduced as
compared to previous case of area-1 & area-2.also tie line
power is compared as shown in fig.6
Case 3
Thirdly we apply the particle swarm optimization technique to
automatically select and optimized the controller parameters
through the number of populations of particle best and group
best. And compared the result of both previous controller with
this technique as shown in fig 7.also tie line power is observe
and shown in fig . 8
Fig1 Frequency deviation in area-1 of thermal reheats power
And the reading of all considering parameter is tabulate in system with integral controller
table 1&2 respectively.

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Fig2 Frequency deviations in area-2 of thermal reheat power Fig 3 Tie line power deviation in two area interconnected thermal
system with integral controller reheat power system with integral controller.

Fig 4 Frequency deviations in area-1 of thermal reheat power Fig 5 Frequency deviations in area-2 of thermal reheat power
system with proportional integral controller system with proportional integral controller

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Fig 6 Tie line power deviation in two area interconnected


Fig7 frequency deviation in area-1&2 of interconnected
thermal reheat power system with proportional integral
thermal reheat power system with PI controller with particle
controller
swarm optimization

VIIICONCLUSION

In the present work, a control scheme for AGC of two area


interconnected power system by using Particle Swarm
Optimization technique is implemented. It is clear from the
results that the performance of PI controller is better than I . In
case of PI with PSO controller settling time of frequency and
tie line power is smaller as compared to I and PI controller.
For a two-area power system various parameters are
calculated by PSO technique. The results show that the
performance of PSO based controllers is better than the
performance of conventional controllers. The peak overshoot
andsettling time is reduced in case of PSO based controllers.

Fig 8Tie line power deviation in two area interconnected


thermal reheat power system with particle swarm optimization

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AUTHORS
*
Kapil Garg, M.Tech Scholar, Deptt. Of Electrical Engg. , BBSBEC,FATHEGARH SAHIB,PUNJAB, India
*
Kapil Garg Asstt. Professor,Deptt. Of Electrical Engg. , YIET, Gadholi, Yamunanagar, Haryana, India
**
Jaspreet Kaur Asstt. Professor, Deptt. Of Electrical Engg., BBSBEC,FATHEGARH SAHIB,PUNJAB, India

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Heart attack detection and Medical attention using


Motion Sensing Device-Kinect
Shivam Patel *, Yogesh Chauhan**
*
Electrical and Communication Engineering, LDRP institute of technology
**
Computer Engineering, LDRP institute of technology

Abstract- The main aim of this research paper is to illustrate the use of heart beat, live video recording of the patient and sending it
a device which can perform the dual function of detecting a heart attack directly to the doctor, and if any person is present around the
without the intervention of any specialist for potential victim and also victim, he can have video conferencing with doctor by built-in
notify the emergency services. Stroke can be tackled if It is detected and Skype feature and can take relevant action as directed by doctor
appropriate measures are taken instantly. The research paper illustrates till the emergency services reach.
how a device called 'Kinect' can used to detect a heart attack and the
symptoms experienced along with it. A step by step guide to its working 2.2 Significance of the method
in an event of heart attack and the how the use of GSM system and
Skype feature can be used for sending an alert sms to relatives and
1) This method will measure the heart rate of a person
emergency services. As well as, provides video conferencing option continuously without any need of interaction with any
with doctor. Which is explained in the paper .In all the best chance for other device.
survival of a patient who experiences a heart attack and quickest medical 2) The heart attack detection will be confirmed by
attention can be ensured.
following methods
Index Terms- Kinect, Xbox one, Heart attack, Myocardial 1. By sudden drop down in heartbeat.
infarction, Heart attack detection. 2. Tracking the position of hand and matched with
predefined skeleton position of chest pain or arm pain
3. At the end the sudden fall of patient on the ground
I. INTRODUCTION will track by Kinect by tracking position of legs and
eart attack is a serious threat in today’s world. Myocardial head.
H infarction (from Latin: Infarctus myocardii, MI) or acute
myocardial infarction (AMI) is the medical term for an event
3) When heart attack occurs, by monitoring the data and
the watching the situation of patient, doctor can guide
commonly known as a heart attack. A heart attack is the victim or person around the patient for appropriate
a serious medical emergency in which the blood supply to the action (like aspirin tablet), till the ambulance is reached
heart is suddenly blocked, usually by a blood clot.
to the patient.
Heart disease is the number one cause of death for both men
and women in the United States. About 600,000 people die of
4) In addition this system will alert the friends/relatives by
heart disease in the United States every year–that’s 1 in every 4
sending sms by using sms trigger circuit which will be
deaths. Every year about 715,000 Americans have a heart attack.
connected to the Kinect device through controller.
Of these, 525,000 are a first heart attack and 190,000 happen in
people who have already had a heart attack.
Therefore this research is based on finding the method which
can track heart attack in case it occurs at home. . As well as, the
research gives a rough idea of the method for detecting heart
III. Previous study of device
attack and automatically informing the emergency services about
the critical situation. [3] A. Kinect System:
Xbox box one is a gaming console developed by Microsoft. The
Console includes a newly upgraded Kinect 2.0 motion sensing
II. Objective of the device peripheral. Kinect is a motion sensing device which can interact
2.1 Review Stage with users by tracking there gesture and spoken commands.
This research aims at illustrating the advantages of device Kinect 2.0 has a new additional feature of detecting heart rate of
Kinect, which is a gaming device. By utilizing few features of a person, individual joints in form of skeleton and moment of
this gaming device we can implement this system to life saver such joints precisely. [5]Figure gives a brief view about the
equipment in the situation of heart attack. This device can be working of Kinect.
installed in indoor areas like office and workplace, at living
places or any indoor places where any heart patients would be
present. And if the heart stoke occurs, then system will get
alerted and will send sms to the relatives and will call the
ambulance. Another aspect of this device is to collect data like

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Kinect tracks human body and joints in the form of skeleton.


There are 25 individual joints used in tracking. The precision is
taken very deeply by tracking even joints of thumbs. Figure
Figure 3
shows skeleton tracking of individual joints in Kinect. [5]

C. Some of the common symptoms of heart attack can also be


tracked with the help of Kinect:

The most common symptom is chest pain. It is likely to occur to


89.7% of the stroke victim during the attack. [1] It could be made
possible for Kinect to detect this symptom by the help of motion
sensing feature through individual joints. The position of the
skeleton for the chest pain can be predefined in the system. The
posture of body during chest pain would be as shown in fig. 4 i.e.
the hand would be on the left side of chest. The position of the
skeleton will be as such the joint of hands/hand would me
approximately below the joint of the left shoulder (Fig. 5). As
Kinect can track motion of the joints, if such a posture is tracked
in addition to heart rate drop. It can be concluded as a heart

Figure 2

B. These features can be further extended for detecting heart


attack:
Kinect 2.0 has an extraordinary feature of measuring heart beat
of a person. Microsoft's Kinect sensor uses changes in skin color
to monitor heart rate. The new Kinect camera can recognize
slight changes in skin color as blood passes through a person's
body. By knowing the speed of the blood, the camera can then
determine how many beats per minute the heart needs to make in
order to reach that speed.[4] This feature of measuring heartbeat
can be used in detecting heart attack. Kinect will keep on attack.
monitoring the heart rate of victim continuously. If a sudden fall
in heartbeat is measured then it can be thought that it is a sign of
heart attack. After detecting this sudden change in heart rate,
Kinect will further search for common symptom which are more
likely to occur during heart attack. The rough idea can be taken Figure 4
from the figure 3.

Figure 5

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Figure 5
Figure 5

Another symptomis, the pain in the upper part of the left arm.
Around 67.3% people face this symptom. [1] The detection is C. Significance of GSM system in research:
similar as that of chest pain and it can be used for arm pain
symptom also. The normal position of the person facing arm pain The significance of GSM is that when Kinect detects a heart
is likely to be the same as shown in fig. 6. The device can be attack, an alert will be sent to relatives/friends and to ambulance
programmed as such that when a gesture is made like the joint of by using external attachment to the Kinect called SMS triggering
hand/hands is between the left shoulder and elbow, can help in circuit. This circuit will send alert notes to relatives and the
concluding a heart attack along with the heart rate drop. address of the location of the patient to the ambulance service.

In special cases where the heart is on the right side or at the


D. Significance of built-in Skype system in research
middle, the positions are fed accordingly to program.
Instant action taken by the person around the victim in case of
heart attack can many times be a life saver act to a patient till the
ambulance is reached. In most of the situation because of instant
shock and fear a person around patient can’t take decision
perfectly and instantly. For solving this problem an approach of
live video conference with doctor or health care centre can be
done to guide the person near to victim for taking immediate
action till emergency service arrives.

Kinect has capability to distinguish between a patient and other


person present at the spot as shown in figure 8. Another special
feature of the system is live video conference by using Skype,
which is built in feature of Kinect. The video conferencing can
be established by using Skype and it can be done as it is
connected via. Wi-Fi or Ethernet. By this doctor or health care
Figure 6 expert can communicate and can give instructions for immediate
action or advice some protective measures to the person around
the victim by seeing the situation of victim till the ambulance has
The immediate falling down of the person after pulse rate drops reached.
and not getting up to the standing position in a certain time
period is an indication of medical emergency. (Similar to
position shown in fig. 7) Kinect can track that the body is not
getting up and lying on the floor by detecting two parts of the
skeleton- ‘skull and foot’ of the victim. At this point also the
message will be triggered to the relatives/friends and emergency
services.

All afore mentioned symptoms are the most commonly occurring


symptoms at the time of heart attack. So in addition to the
immediate drop in heart rate, such symptoms can be helpful in
concluding a heart attack.

Figure 8
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IV. METHODOLOGY Research Center Webster, discussed in a recent interview how


the Kinect's ability to detect the movements of 3D objects in a
We learned about the device and features of device which we are room can be used to detect the rise and fall of a patient's chest,
using for this concept. Now we are going to discuss how the calculate lung capacity, and tell whether a patient's respiratory
device will work? Simple steps are given below which will give status is improving or worsening. According to an article
knowledge about working of device. in Venture Beat, the affordable Kinect could also be programmed
to act as an early warning system for breathing-shortening in
1) The device will detect heartbeat of person continuously heart attack. [2]
in given premises. If any sudden fluctuation in heartbeat
below some level is detected then the system will start
working REFERENCES
2) After system detects low heart rate it will check the
symptoms like chest pain, falling down and arm pain. [1] David C. Goff, Jr, MD, PhD; Deborah E. Sellers, PhD; Paul G. McGovern,
PhD; Hendrika Meischke, PhD; Robert J. Goldberg, PhD; Vera Bittner,
These symptoms are detected by methods discussed MD, MSPH; Jerris R. Hedges, MD, MS; P. Scott Allender, MD; Milton Z.
above. Nichaman, MD, S. for the R.S.G. & Background:, 1998. Knowledge of
3) The following checks will be performed in step 3: Heart Attack Symptoms in a Population Survey in the United States. ARCH
a) If the symptoms are detected then step 4 will be INTERN MED, 158, pp.2329–2338.
[2] Dean Takahashi, 2013. Researcher uses Xbox 360′s Kinect game sensor to
followed.
measure your breathing. Available at:
b) If the symptoms are not detected then the system will http://venturebeat.com/2013/03/07/researcher-uses-Kinect-game-sensor-to-
monitor heart beat for next few minutes. After measure-your-breathing/.
monitoring the heart beats, following two possibilities [3] Go, A.S. et al., 2013. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2013 update: a
report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 127(1), pp.e6–
may occur:
e245. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23239837
i).Heart rate becomes normal-in this case the [Accessed December 11, 2013].
system stops. [4] WOOLLASTON, V., 2013. The sensor that reads your heartbeat from four
ii).Heart rate persists to be low- in this case step 4 feet away WITHOUT touching you. Available at:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2408748/The-sensor-reads-
will be followed. heartbeat-feet-away-WITHOUT-touching-you.html.
4) The system will activate the sms trigger circuit by using [5] Kinect and Xbox One Privacy FAQ General information about Kinect and
controller, which is connected with Kinect. And the Xbox One is available at:
address location of the device or patient is send to the http://ww.Xbox.com/enUS/Kinect/privacyandonlinesafety
ambulance service. At the same time the friends and
relatives of the patient are also notified about this. AUTHORS
5) After sending alerts, Kinect will try to detect other First Author – Yogesh Chauhan, Bachelors of
person in the given premises. If anyone is detected then Engineering(pursuing), Department of Computer Engineering,
the system will call the doctor or healthcare expert LDRP institute of Technology,Gujarat Technological
automatically through Skype. By using the inbuilt skype University,[email protected]
feature of Kinect, the video conferencing can also be
done. Second Author – Shivam Patel, Bachelors of
Engineering(pursuing),Department of Electrical and
Communication Engineering, LDRP institute of Technology,
V. CONCLUSION Gujarat Technological University,
[email protected]
It is likely that next hour after heart stroke is very crucial for the
victim. He can be saved if attention and medical help is given
within an hour and in order to accomplish this requirement the
described method and system can be installed which can detect
heart attack instantly and after following the algorithm and the
necessary treatment can be given in the intermediate time. In this
way a gaming device can also be used as a life saver equipment.
This idea can be of a great help, if implemented in real life.

VI. FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

The stroke can be identified more precisely if few more tests are
added in detecting. Shortness in breathing is noted to be about
50.8%. [1] Lalit Mestha a principal scientist at the Xerox

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Demographic Profile of Selected Irular Tribes of


Coimbatore District – Tamil Nadu
Bharathi Dhevi. V.R* and Dr. Bhooma Mani**
*
Ph.D scholar, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and higher Education for Women, Coimbatore
– 641043.
**
Professor, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and higher Education for Women, Coimbatore
– 641043.

Abstract- India is a country which is best known for its culture


and tradition. Tribal groups are homogeneous, culturally firm and Methods and materials
they wish to survive in their own style. Irular tribes of Tamil Irular tribes are the ancient tribal group living in the lower
Nadu occupy the second largest groups of tribes after the Badgas. slopes of Western ghat mountain. The present study was
They are situated at the base of the western ghat. The road which conducted in the four irular tribal blocks of Western ghat
takes us to the village is undeveloped and rocky. The huts are mountain situated in Coimbatore district. The four tribal blocks
little developed into houses with cement sheet. Unlike the earlier selected were, namely Karamadai , Madhukkarai , Perianayakan
tribal people, 21st century tribes have normal dress code like palayam and Thondamuthur. The demographic profile of these
other people. The major occupation of these tribal people is field tribal blocks were assessed through an interview cum personal
work as farmers. Neither hospital nor any other medical facility observation by the investigator. The infra structures available for
is available with in 15 Kms. There is a government school the tribals like network of roads, water and electricity, drainage
situated about three to four kilometers away from the village facilities , hospital and school facilities were observed and
premises. When the girls attain their puberty, there will be seven recorded by the investigator during her visits to these tribal areas.
days celebration at their houses. The marriage is not considered Apart from the observation, she created a rapport with the local
as an important custom of the villagers. Death is considered as an tribal heads and women and gathered information through
important ritual in this community. The irular tribes are mostly personal interview regarding their customs and traditions
non vegetarians. It can be concluded that the tribal people of followed during various occasions in their life cycle.
India need still more improvement in all walks of their lives.
Results and discussions
Index Terms- Irular tribes, tribes, occupation, custom. Village condition
The Western Ghat mountain ranges cover a part of
Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu, South India, which is situated
I. INTRODUCTION on WesternGhat’s eastern slopes. Mullankkad, Madakkad,
Anaikatti, Sadivayal, Thanikandi and Mutathuvayal are some of
I ndia is the home to a large number of indigenous people
(tribal), who are still unaware of the lifestyle of the modern
world. With more than 84.4 million tribes in the world, India has
the villages in these forest slopes. In these villages ancient tribal
people are living in small groups. They belong to Irular tribal
the largest population of the tribal people in the world. The tribal community which is listed under “Scheduled Tribe (ST)” by the
people constitute 8 percent of the total population of India. The Government of India.
term “tribe” means, a group of people who live at a particular The road connected to the village was undeveloped and
place from time immemorial. Anthropologically the tribe is a rocky. It was very difficult for two wheelers and four wheelers to
system of social organization which includes several local move on this road. The tribes used to walk within the villages to
groups- villages, districts on lineage and normally includes a carry out their day to day activities and they have to come to the
common territory, a common language and a common culture, a outskirts of the villages to board the buses which connects to
common name, political system, simple economy, religion and nearest town. The buses were flying for every one hour. The
belief, primitive law and own education system (India tribal belt, following photograph shows the road from bus stop to the
en.Wikipedia.org). village.
Irulars are one of the tribal groups of India. The second
largest tribal group of Tamil Nadu is irulars. They are mainly
situated in the lower slopes of Western ghat mountains which
cover the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala present in South India.
Their main occupations were snake and rat catching. They also
work as labourers or coolies in the fields of the landlords during
the sowing and harvesting seasons or in the rice mills. Irular is a
Dravidian language spoken by irular tribes.

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walls of the houses were made of palm groove and in the present
phenomena, among the surveyed samples 51.6 percent had tiled
houses, 24.3 percent had huts, 12.4 percent possessed cement
sheets and 11.7 percent had reinforced cement houses. As
indicated above 11.7 percent possessed reinforced cement
houses, allotted by the Government of Tamil Nadu. These houses
had a proper ceiling, but inside the houses were not planned
properly and had only one partition wall to separate the kitchen
from the main front portion. The following table and
photograph depicts the types of houses of irular tribes.

Table 1: Types of houses

Types of houses Number Percentage


Figure 1:Road from bus stop to the village Tiled house 270 51.6
Cement sheets 65 12.4
Huts 127 24.3
II. HOUSING PATTERN Reinforced cement 61 11.7
In the olden days, these tribes possessed thatched house with Total 523 100
a roof made of straw or reeds with narrow entrance. The side

Figure 2 : Old thatched house of tribes and present view of the developed streets and houses

There was no provision for keeping the cooking gas, areas for their toilet routines. These tribes used stagnant rain
accommodate the cooking vessels and provisions in the kitchen. waters or forest river waters for cleaning after their toilet
Similarly, there was no provision for washrooms and toilets routines. Similarly, there was no provision for washing clothes
inside the houses. Among the surveyed families 11.7 percent except a small enclosed area outside the houses.
were using the common toilets provided by the Government and
the remaining 88.3 percent of families were using open forest

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Figure 3: Overview of the houses and kitchen

Figure 4:View of the place used for washing clothes and open gutter used as toilets
The major occupation of surveyed tribes were farming. They
cultivate maize, corn, ragi and ground nuts. There were one or
III. SOURCE OF INCOME two petty shops through which they earned a small income.
The ancestors of the tribal families survived as a professional Apart from these petty shops, one Government ration shop was
snake and rat catchers. But over these years of existence these available for the tribes to buy their grocery items at the
tribes were unable to find sustainable occupation for themselves subsidized rates. The cattle and poultry rearing were common
because they are unskilled in doing any kind of job. They earn among irular tribes. Among the surveyed samples, 70 percent of
their living by doing “coolie work”, as agricultural labourers in the tribal family were rearing cows, goats and hen in their houses
the field of the land lords. and earning extra income through selling milk, milk products,
eggs and meat.

Figure 5 :Agricultural Fields

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Figure 6: Glimpse of petty shop and ration store in the irular tribal villages

tap water for drinking. Water from other forest rivers was used
IV. WATER AND ELECTRICITY FACILITIES for bathing and washing clothes. During monsoon seasons forest
There were normally four to five drinking water taps rivers will normally be flooded and the survey revealed that 3.6
available for the whole village consisting of 170 – 200 families. percent of irular tribes use forest river water for drinking and 36
These families had to collect their water for drinking and cooking percent of people collect rain water in vessels for various
from these taps only. The drinking water from these taps was purposes. Table explains the usage of rain water by the irular
available for three to four hours once in three days. Majority ( tribal families.
94.3 percent ) of irular tribal families were using this above said

Figure 7 :Drinking water tap and Forest river

Table 2 : Mode of usage of rain water by the irular tribal families

Usage Number Percentage


Drinking 11 2.4
Cooking 12 2.6
Bathing 19 4.2
Washing vessels 176 38.9
Washing clothes 92 20.3
Watering plants 143 31.6
Total 453 100

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Among the 523 irular tribal families surveyed, only 453 treating their illness and diseases. They also had certain
families were collecting rain water. In that, 38.9 percent of the traditional methods of curing their illness based on certain
families were using rain water for washing vessels followed by superstitious beliefs. There was no private hospitals, health care
31.6 percent were using rain water for plants and 20.3 percent for centers in the irular tribal villages. The tribal families had to
washing clothes. A few families were using rain water for travel 10 – 15 Kms to reach the Primary Health Care centers run
drinking, cooking, and bathing purposes. by the government. The private trusts and foundations were used
As for as the supply of electricity to these irular tribal to conduct medical camps occasionally in these irular tribal areas
villages were concerned, there was no proper provision for as a part of their community welfare activities.
electricity in these tribes’ houses. The main electrical posts were
normally installed at the fringes of villages to safe guard their
agricultural fields and house holds from the entry of elephants VI. EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES
from forest areas. Literacy is universally identified as a powerful instrument of
social change. The level of literacy is one of the most important
indicators of social change. Among the surveyed irular tribal
families irrespective of the sex, elderly were illiterates, and
adults had their education up to primary school level. But
younger age groups (both boys and girls) were sent to tribal
residential schools (plate ) located at a distance of three to five
kilometers from the tribal hamlets. The tribal schools had from
1st to 10th standards and mid-day meal programme. Apart from
mid-day meals, the tribal children were provided with break fast
and dinner. The tribal children were provided with uniforms,
books, notebooks, scales, pens and pencils. They were also
provided with toiletries like soap, paste, toothpaste, tooth brush,
slippers and sanitary napkins for adolescent girls. All these were
provided by the tribal welfare department of Tamil Nadu
government, to motivate tribal boys and girls to complete their
school education till 10th standard. The tribal children have to
join government schools in the neighboring city normally 7
Figure 8 :Electrical posts installed at the fringes of villages kilometers away from their hamlets, if they are interested to
complete 11th and 12th standard education.

V. HOSPITAL AND OTHER HEALTH CARE FACILITIES


As far as the irulars were concerned, they believe in natural
medical herbs and they consume fresh specific herbs or herbal
medicines prepared at home using combination of herbs for

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Figure 9 : View of the tribal school

Figure 10 : Investigator along with the tribal girls wearing


VII. CUSTOM AND CULTURE saree tied in their customary way
As a part of the demographic profile of the tribes, it was
thought of interest to collect information on the custom and b. Puberty function
culture of the irular tribes. The women in any community reflects the custom and
a. Dress code culture of that community. It is applicable to tribes like irulars.
The tribal men wear cotton dhoti and shirts, women wear When a girl in the family attains her puberty, the family plans
sarees but tied in their customary way with palloos tucked at the seven days celebrations. For the first 5 days, the girl was made to
pleats, tucked in the front. Adolescent girls residing in the tribal sit inside a small hut with a roof which was temporarily built by
schools wear salwars and half sarees. her maternal uncle. On the top of the roof there was a picture of
clown to protect the girl from other evil eyes On the 6 th day
midnight, the roof would be burnt and the girl would be made to
jump outside. In this event, the burning of the roof signifies - the
burning of evil and the jumping out signifies that the girl should
jump out of all her evils and become as pure as the Goddess
“Mother Sita”.

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Figure 11 : View of the hut, clown and girl inside the hut

c. Marriage function time of data collection the irular women expressed that till today,
Marriage is considered as a sacred and an important event in deliveries are happening as per their belief.
the life of any individual. Among the irular tribes, men or women
were allowed to marry according to their wish and marrying
more than one man or woman was not considered as a crime.
Irular married women used to wear mangal sutra ( two black
beeds) in yellow thread. The married women were not allowed to
participate in any of their community function if they were not
wearing mangal sutras and along with the family members these
women will be thrown out of their community and village.
Dowry system (money given to the bride groom during the time
of marriage by the bride’s parents) was common among the irular
tribes from the ancient times. During the earlier days, the dowry
amount used to be Rs. 1.50 / -. But at the present time, the
amount had increased to Rs. 1500 - 2000 /-.

d. Delivery pattern
Normally, delivery is considered to be the second birth for
any woman. But as far as irular tribes were considered, deliveries
were conducted at home with the help of a local old lady who
had attended a number of deliveries in their tribal villages. The
expectant mothers were allowed to under go labour pain and
deliver their babies with heavy blood loss. The local lady, Figure 12 : The old lady who attends the delivery
delivery attendant, would be called when the labor pain develops.
She would pour little amount of castor oil in her left palm and e. Death ceremony
touch it with the right hand fingers, at the same time uttering Iular tribes were the people who celebrate death as one of
some words of prayers. The old lady delivery attendant would their religious festivals. In spite of their age and sex, every one in
drop the castor oil and they have a superstitious belief that if the the village would consume alcohol and they dance in front of the
oil drops continuously, the delivery would be very easy for the dead body. After that, they sing songs and would do the final
expectant mother. On the other side, if the oil drops down in rights with full happiness. As per their traditional belief, they
separate drops, the delivery would be very difficult. During the were not supposed to cry in front of the dead body and the irular
tribes strongly believe that there is life after death.

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Figure 13 : Tribal instruments used during different occasions.

VIII. CONCLUSIONS
The demographic profile of the irular tribes resulted that , the
irulars are virtually cut off from the main stream of society. They
are totally ignorant about the happenings in the external world.
This state of affair has to chane further.

REFERENCES
[1] Gibney J., Margeth M. and Kearney M., Public health nutrition, Blackwell
publishing company, Oxford.
[2] Naganna A. and Uma Mohan C.H., Tribal development programmes and
social transformation, Discovery publishing house Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
[3] Nanjundayya H.V., Bhadur L.K. and Iyer L.K., The Mysore tribes and
castes Vol. III, Mysore University press, Mysore.
[4] Ogburn F. and Nimkoff F., A hand book of sociology, Eurasia publishing
home Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

AUTHORS
First Author – Bharathi Dhevi V. R., Ph.D Scholar, Department
of Food Science and Nutrition, Avinashilingam Institute for
Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore.
[email protected].
Second Author – Dr. Bhooma Mani, Proffessor, Department of
Food Science and Nutrition, Avinashilingam Institute for Home
Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore.

Correspondence Author – Bharathi Dhevi V. R., Ph.D Scholar,


Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Avinashilingam
Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women,
Coimbatore. [email protected]

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Employing Information Security Awareness to


Minimize Over-Exposure of Average Internet User on
Social Networks
WorawitBinden*, MaheedeenJormae**, ZakariaZain***, Jamaludin Ibrahim****
[email protected]*, [email protected]**, [email protected]***, [email protected]****

Department of Information Systems, Kulliyyah of Information and Communication Technology,


International Islamic University Malaysia

ABSTRACT-Use of Online Social Networking Sites customers, products, and trends, to public health organizations
(OSNs) has become ubiquitous nowadays. In the era of a keeping. Therefore, information systems are crucial assets as
million user social networking sites throughout the world, it they improve the efficiency of operations in order to achieve
becomes increasingly difficult for people to control what they higher profitability and competitive advantages to the same
are exposing to whom. In this paper we analyze the influence industry competitors. They also aid in the creation of new
of social media interactivity features on the exposure of products and services as well as improvement of the decision
personal data of average Internet user and present techniques to making process. Information systems are additionally
implement information security awareness to minimize over- considered an integral part of today's business [13]. All the vast
exposure on OSNs. data that is communicated on electronic devices is stored into
these systems. Multinational organizations are globally
Index Terms-Online Social Networking, Information distributed. They require a reliable infrastructure, which can
Security Awareness, Social Network Interactivity Features handle processing requirements.
In the era of high Internet penetration, social networking
sites, while not an entirely novel phenomenon, have become
I. INTRODUCTION increasingly more popular in recent years. Networking sites

I nformation is vital to communication and a critical resource


for performing work in organizations. It is also important to
individuals, and therefore the need to proper manage it well,
such as Facebook, Twitter and Google+ have become a
significant part for most of people around the globe. Facebook
alone is accessed by over 23 million users [18]. There is a
is growing rapidly. Protecting data is as important as protecting tension between the lucrative business side of social
cash as it is asset – and requires just as much care and networking sites, where huge monetary gains can be made
planning. Now more than ever, people need to understand the through online advertising, and the companies’ resolve to
critical role information plays in so many aspects of business ensure a basic level of privacy for its users. From this tension
and life. It drives our communication, our decision-making, users receive privacy setting recommendations from social
and our reactions to the entire environment. networking sites whose default settings are rarely altered or
Information has been valuable since the dawn of mankind. even questioned. The privacy problems that ensue stem from
As access to computer stored data has increased, Information the fact that individuals are unaware of the amount of
Security has become correspondingly important. In the past, personally identifiable information they have provided to an
most corporate assets were “hard” or physical: factories, indeterminate number of people.
buildings, land, raw materials, etc. Today far more assets are As the world of social networking become more popular,
computer-stored information such as customer lists, proprietary Facebook increased the availability of its product, opening
formulas, marketing and sales information, and financial data. doors to new networks and members. What began with
Some financial assets only exist as bits stored in various restricted access to students with valid university-issued e-mail
computers. Many businesses are solely based on information – addresses, spread to allow high school and corporate networks
the data IS the business. as well as users without verified e-mail addresses. These users
Information Security (IS) is designed to protect the can create profiles, and gain access to information on other
confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer system members of the site (Social networking on the Internet began
data from those with malicious intentions. Confidentiality, with a desire for people to quickly and conveniently share
integrity and availability are sometimes referred to as the CIA information with their friends and family. This form of
Triad of information security. This triad has evolved communication blossomed rapidly and started competing in
confidentiality, possession (or control), integrity, authenticity, popularity with e-mail and text messaging. Entrepreneurs
availability and utility [17]. Sensitive information must be kept harnessed this technology and created various Internet sites,
- it cannot be changed, altered or transferred without including Facebook and MySpace, designed to allow users to
permission. For example, a message could be modified during create a profile containing information about themselves that
transmission by someone intercepting it before it reaches the others can view. These sites also allow users to build social
intended recipient. Good cryptography tools can help mitigate networks with hundreds or even thousands of people.
this security threat. Previously, the use of these websites posed little known threat
Information Systems (IS) have a variety of important to personal privacy and users’ comfort levels changed.
functions, ranging from allowing businesses to keep track of

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The purpose of information security awareness is to continuum can be described as “information privacy protection
enhance security by improving awareness to protect behaviors such as information withholding and incomplete and
information. inaccurate disclosure on one side, and complete and accurate
In this online era, information security awareness provides information disclosure behaviors on the other.” On OSNs this
the understanding of security policies to the Internet users to means that users can still participate all whilst attempting to
guide them in protecting their information assets. protect their personal information by only partly disclosing
The researchers in information security argued that most of personal information [4].
the Internet users are unaware that their habits in using
computer can adversely impact the security and privacy of B.Information Security and Online Social Networks
their own personal data [15]. According to Johansson and Since information can be leaked through OSN, face-to-face
Riley (2005) [16], “Helping people to understand their own conversation and printing facilities, email, cloud computing,
security vulnerabilities and how to, well, ‘patch’ them is the domain name systems and portable data devices. This is
most effective way we know of to help educate people about because information disclosed through OSNs creates an
computer vulnerabilities and to protect personal information”. opportunity for cybercriminals to do surveillance and gather
In short, the Internet users have to be aware of their intelligence, sabotage organizations’ networks using malware
vulnerabilities in order to protect their assets. and utilize resources to launch attacks through the applications
on these sites [2]. They also describe the typical functionalities
of OSN sites, which are being implemented in many social
II. LITERATURE REVIEW media websites such as Facebook, Google+, and Twitter in
A.Information Leakage onOnline Social Networks order to make potential avenues of information disclosure. The
In the era of Internet technology, online social networks table below represents OSN’s capabilities as attack vectors
(OSNs) becomes a wide-ranging used over the world, more through its available functionalities.
and more third-party enterprises take this opportunity to
exploit data from OSN websites, which have been collected Table I: OSN Function and Potential Problems to Organization [2]
from social media users [16]. The information that is available
in the users’ profile can be searched based upon different
criteria and thus can also be accessed by the strangers. Most of
the people tend to expose real identity information; so that it
raises privacy and security issues [11]. Nonetheless, there are a
large number of OSN’s users who are not aware of the
personal data revelation, as their information tends to bring to
public. Consequently, Feizy (2007) founds that social media
users reveal their information widely on their pages. Although
a large number of them expose that appears to be real identity
information. He also demonstrates the overall network of
participants’ identity exposure as we can see from the figure 1 Furthermore, throughout the users’ information revelation,
below. As the quality and quantity of information illustrated by someone else can easily disclose the personal data because the
different size and patterns whereby a large set of identity users’ friends can post or publish their information to other
combination was collected to find some relation in peoples’ friends. Likewise, the users’ information can be commonly
behavior [10]. shared or sold to marketing company for advertising practice
and selling product. Recently, it has been found that there are
various of social media users have been attacked by spams,
phishing, and malware through OSN applications by clicking
on the advertising application as some of advertisements may
contain a malicious tracking to steal personal data or attack
users’ devices.
Additionally, security awareness on OSNs has to be very
concerned among Internet users in order to avoid from
malicious cyber activity. There are some of key points that
recommended in any awareness program concerning social
media sites[14].
1) Privacy & Social Media: Privacy does not exist on OSNs.
Although, many social medias like Facebook, Google+, and
Twitter provide privacy options and controls, but too much
Figure 9: An Overview of Personal Information Disclosure [10] can go wrong and our sensitive information can end up
According to Koehorst (2013), people have to reveal being exposed such as our account being hacked, our
personal information such as name, date of birth and contacts friends’ account being hacked. This means that being
in their OSN-profiles in order to be effective, and adolescents careful and watching what our friends post about us,
just have to do this to sound out their maturing identities”. In including pictures. If nothing else, remember that
fact, communication on the Internet can lead to more employers now include sites like Facebook, Google+, and
disclosure compared to face-to-face communication and the Twitter as part of any standard background check [14].
other ways. Despite that the personal information-related 2) Scams & Social Media:OSNs are a breeding ground for
behavior of people can be conceptualized as a continuum. This scams. If one of our friend's posts seems odd or suspicious,

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it may be an attack. For example, our friend posts that they posted comment about my daily activities is over 260.43
have been mugged while on vacation in London and need million of users [7]. Recently, following a group or like a page
us to wire them money. Or perhaps they are posting links created by a brand activity is not yet found in Google+.
about great ways to get rich, or some shocking incident we Last but not least, there are about 323.22 million of Twitter
must see. Many of these scams or malicious links are the users uploaded and shared photos on Twitter website, over 280
very same attacks that we have been receiving in e-mail for million of users posted comment about my daily activities.
years, but now bad guys are replicating them in social Twitter users followed a group or like a page created by a
media. If we see a friend posting very odd things, call or brand, which has about 191 million of users [7]. On the other
text them to verify that they really posted the information hand, clicking ‘like’ activity in Twitter was not found, as
[14]. Twitter does not provide this feature.
3) Work & Social Media: Working information is not
recommended to be revealed on OSNs, therefore, it is D.Privacy Concerns with OSNs Service
better not to post anything sensitive about work such as Privacy is a multifaceted concept, and this results in a
company name, company address, or colleges’ profile. multitude of definitions and concepts. A widely accepted view
Also, be sure that we understand about organization’s of privacy is “the individual’s right to be left alone.” There has
policies as what we can and cannot post about job not been a consensus about the definition of privacy, stating
information [14]. that “perspective on privacy are thus varied, occasionally
conflicting, and generally difficult to evaluate in a coherent
fashion” [4]. In other word, privacy implications associated
C.Recent Online Social Networks Activities Statistics with online social networking depend on the level of
Today, the number of online social networks users like identifiability of the information provided, its possible
Facebook, Google+, and Twitter is growing rapidly, there are recipients, and its possible uses [5].
still many people who are not concerned on privacy settings as Social media companies like Facebook,Google, and Twitter
they do not realize that the information that are being publicly generally have their own privacy policies that govern their use
shared will be exploited by anonymous person. of consumer data and third-party conduct on the social media
platform with respect to personal data [23]. In order to utilize
third-party social media outlets, Steinman & Hawkins (2010)
suggest that marketers need to ensure on their marketing
campaigns, which will not persuade consumers or any other
parties to engage practices that would violate the social media
company’s privacy policy, and marketers also need to ensure
that they are abiding by the policies. Additionally, the
description below represents the comparison of privacy setting
in online social networks e.g., Facebook, Google+, and Twitter
[23].

Figure 2: Recent Statistics of Social Medias Activities in Q2, 2013 [7] Figure 3: Privacy Settings in Facebook
Regarding the recent statistic of online social media Facebook: Its privacy options are generally very flexible
networks usage, which has been found in the second quarter of because users can select from when they post something to
2013 described that. their profile: “Public” and “Friends.” As its name suggests, the
Firstly, more than 800 million of active users in Facebook “Public” option means that items they publish to their profile
uploaded and shared photos, which is dominated among are visible to anyone who visits Facebook. Similarly, selecting
Google+ and Twitter in nowadays, about 580 million clicked “Friends” allows only their Facebook friends to see what they
Facebook ‘like’ button, and almost 287 million of the users post. Furthermore, Facebook also offers a “Custom” setting as
posted comment about my daily activities. Approximate 469 users can choose who gets to see that they post by either
million of users followed a group or like a page created by a restricting it to any networks they are part of or so that only
brand [7]. In contrast, there is only 25 percent of Facebook people only selected “lists” (a way to organize their friends
users do not pay much attention on privacy settings [8]. into groups). In addition, users can also prevent specific people
Secondly, Google+ has about 370.48 million of active users from seeing items they post [6].
uploaded and share photos. Performing an activity on Google+
‘+1’ button clicked, which is nearly 233 million of users and

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Figure 6: Example of Request for Permission in Facebook Apps


In order to be aware of using third-party applications, users
must be ensured that those applications that are requesting for
permission is mostly well known among people in online
social networks. This is one of the basic practices in data
Figure 4: Privacy Settings in Google+
protection to avoid of personal information leakage to stranger.
Google+: Its privacy is built around the concept of
“Circles”, which is similar to lists on Facebook, Circles let
III. THE INFLUENCE OF OSNS’ INTERACTIVITY
users organize people they follow on Google+ into groups
FEATURES
based on how they know them. For instance, users may have
Based on the static from December 2012 to May 2013 [12],
one Circle for friends, one for family members, one for close
Facebook is the most significant online social network that
confidants, and one for coworkers. When users post something
people often visit monthly while Twitter and Google+ have
to Google+, they can specify which of their Circles they want
less amount of usage respectively. In this paper, we are going
to share that particular post with. Alternatively, they can make
to compare the most interactivity features of OSNs that can
something public so that anyone can see it, pick and choose
lead to over-exposure of personal data of average Internet user
which individual Google+ other users can see their posts, or
choose to share it with [6]. Table II: OSNs’ Interactivity Features Comparison

Figure 5: Privacy Setting in Twitter


Twitter: Its privacy settings are quite basic, but then again,
the social network is conceptually much simpler than both
Facebook and Google+. Twitter profiles can be either private
or public, and users can swap back and forth between the two
as they please. Selecting “Protect my Tweets.” to change
account into private account. When users’ account is private,
only those they approve can see their tweets, and their tweets
cannot be retweeted. Users’ bio, name, and Twitter handle are
always visible, though [6].
In addition, there are many of the popular OSNs, which
have released web APIs to allow third-party developers and
websites to implement their own services that can utilize and
aggregate user information and activities in OSNs [9]. As
Facebook, Google+, and Twitter provide these particular social To sum up, the above table shows that Facebook offers
network platforms to integrate with third-party applications in more interactivity features, which lead to over-exposure than
order to access cross the users’ profile. In spite of that users others. So Facebook users expose their personal data every
have to be careful on permission granted before allow them second to public.
getting into their personal information so that their information
will be disclosed by anonymous third-party applications.
IV. PROPOSED FRAMEWORK
In order to minimize the over-exposure of Internet user on
OSNs, this proposed framework could be suggested as one of
the existing frameworks to avoid users revealingtheir personal
information in public.From the framework below we can see
thatOSNs offer many interactivity features to convince their
users to reveal their personal information voluntarily. So we
believe that by employing IS awareness among the OSNs users
can minimize the over-exposure of their personal information.

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users are lessin paying attention on essential for setting the


default privacy preference in OSNs [22]. Therefore, it is
necessary to change the default privacy setting as secure as
possible in order to avoid personal information leaked
while using OSN sites [11].
4) Building self-awareness about the information
disclosure:Hasib (2008) also emphasized that social media
users have to be more concerned about their information,
which are represented through personal profiles in OSNs.
Also, those particular personal profile contents have to be
precisely maintained to secure proper revelation of
Figure 7The Proposed Framework to Minimize Over-Exposure
information in OSNs [11].
Unfortunately, there is no any beneficial information
security tool that can effectively reduce over-exposure of social
media users in nowadays. It is only awareness of using OSNs, V. CONCLUSION
which can be best suggested. Since, OSNs generally provide In the nutshells, information security awareness is very
users with a profile section, facilitate for uploading and sharing important to be applied in everybody's life in order to minimize
contents such as photos, music, etc., and messaging in various
the over-exposure of their personal information in online social
forms on the wall, and also enabling to put comment on networking, especially Facebook, Twitter and Google+. OSNs
friends’ posts. All in all, OSN is quite new platform of user should be fully aware about their personal details and their
interacting online where users in a virtual network are able to information are not easy to give and expose to the public. We
share information and communication with one another. believe that employing IS awareness among OSNs will
In regard with the finding that has been found in two minimize over exposure, even though OSNs provide variety of
separated studies mentioned that 79 percent of social media
interactivity features to convince user to voluntarily expose
users do not much concern on changing of the default settings their personal information.
as can be obviously seen in Twitter, whereby about 99 percent
of users preferred default its settings, this study was conducted
by Mannan. Yet, only 1.2 percent indicated that the percentage
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AUTHORS
First Author – WorawitBinden, Master of Information Technology, Department of Information Systems, Kulliyyah of Information
and Communication Technology, International Islamic University Malaysia and [email protected].
Second Author – MaheedeenJormae, Master of Information Technology, Department of Information Systems, Kulliyyah of
Information and Communication Technology, International Islamic University Malaysia [email protected].
Third Author – ZakariaZain, Master of Information Technology, Department of Information Systems, Kulliyyah of Information and
Communication Technology, International Islamic University Malaysia and [email protected].
Fourth Author – Jamaludin Ibrahim, Adjunct Lecturer, Department of Information Systems, Kulliyyah of Information and
Communication Technology, International Islamic University Malaysia and [email protected].

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Decision Support System for Rapid Prototyping Process


Selection
Vikram Shende*, Dr. Prafulla Kulkarni**

* Department of Production Engineering, K. K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education, Pune Nasik, India
**
Principal, Gokhale Education Society’s College of Engineering, Nasik, India

Abstract- This paper presents a methodology for decision support system for rapid prototyping process selection. Experimentation
recommends the methodology for RP process selection which is divided into three stages. First stage is to identify part requirements in
terms of quality, cost and time. Second stage is generating feasible alternative processes and attributes data collection based on
benchmarking. Attributes considered for evaluation are the most significant those will affect the selection of RP process. Third stage is
to evaluate the data by decision making Method such as Graph Theory and Matrix Approach and TOPSIS method.

Index Terms- RP Process Selection, Graph Theory and Matrix Approach, AHP, TOPSIS, Decision Methods

I. INTRODUCTION

T he competition in world market is rising tremendously day-by-day. Now, it is crucial for products to reach market as early as
possible before competitors. New technology is required - compress time to market the products. Rapid Prototyping is a promising
time compression technique. Rapid Prototyping technologies are energy efficient, less material wastage and can process complex
shapes without tooling.
Rapid prototyping is widely used in the automotive, aerospace, medical, and consumer products industries. Rapid prototyping and
manufacturing prototypes are increasingly used in the development of new products, spanning conceptual design, functional prototypes,
and tooling.
There are a large number of R.P. Technologies available in the market and continuously new advancement in technologies as well as
their materials are making selection problem more complex. However, it is really difficult for users with RP experience to select a
suitable process because there are so many RP systems worldwide, and the best selection depends on many attributes. Furthermore,
each system has its own strengths, defects, applications, utilities and limitations. It is a complex problem that cannot be solved readily
using conventional statistical techniques alone. Selection of an appropriate process requires a sound understanding of the interactions
between the part quality, part properties, part cost, build envelope, build time (speed) and other concerns. [3]
Since the selection of the appropriate technology addresses different process and cost attributes, it is a decision problem with many
objectives implying many quantitative and qualitative factors that can be studied. So main problem with technology selection are:
i. Multiple alternatives are available.
ii. Wide application areas of RP parts.
iii. Various quantitative and qualitative attributes data.
iv. Expert judgment.

II. METHODOLOGY
II. 1 Previous Work Study
Marcello Bragalia, Alberto Petroni [1], proposes a methodology that is based on Analytic Hierarchy Process. Data have been drawn
from a survey of twenty-one end-users (consisting of both firms and service bureaus) of twenty different types of RP Machines. The
methodology has proved to be an effective tactical tool for selecting the technology that best fits the end-user’s needs.
P.C. Smith, A. E. W. Rennie [2], studied all the processes, machine specifications, materials available in particular region and
database for selector tool was developed. Relationship database was constructed detailing the types of machines available from
various producers, the different types of technologies each machine used, available materials for each machine and based on this
database selector tool was developed.
Rao and Padmanabhan [3], by using Diagraph method and Matrix approach, ‘rapid prototyping process selection index’ is proposed to
evaluate and rank the RP processes for producing a given part. It defines desirable attributes of a rapid prototyping system as process

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selection criteria. The interrelations between the selection criteria in terms of their relative importance are modeled in diagraph and
matrix style and evaluated with permanent function.
Nagahanumaiah, K. Subburaj, B. Ravi [4], presents a computer aided rapid tooling process selection and manufacturability evaluation
methodology. Analyze customer tooling requirement and pair wise comparison of attributes by AHP. Then selection of Rapid tooling
process based on process capability mapping in quality function deployment (QFD) against a set of tooling requirements. Then the
effect of each process variable of the selected RP process is mapped and prioritized to identify critical process parameters.
D.T.Pham, R.S.Gault [5], presented an overview of the RP technologies and further process strengths and weaknesses are detailed.
Flowcharting logical technique is used for selection of RP process based on requirement of part.
Market needs a decision support system which is simple but able to manage complexity and technique should be scientific. To
increase use of RP process and for proper process selection, a decision support system needs to be developed keeping in view the end
use of part.
2.2 Methodology:
Step 1: Part requirements are divided into basic three categories:
a) Quality attributes – Accuracy, Surface Finish, Strength, Heat Resistance and Percentage Elongation.
b) Cost – RP Part Cost
c) Time requirement – Build Time
Step 2: Data collection of RP processes for attributes relevant to part requirements data –
a) Benchmark part fabrication through selected RP processes – SLA, SLS, 3DP and FDM.
b) Measurements of part against parameter - quality, cost and build time.
Step 3: Apply decision making methods - Graph Theory and Matrix Approach, TOPSIS, for analyzing the data and for selection of RP
process.

III. RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESS SELECTION


1. Prototype part requirements identification
Proto part for design verification purpose, requirements were identified from three users. One is Prototype part service bureau which
produces parts based on order received (A), Actual User of the part (B), and third one is RP process Machine manufacturer (C). Based
on part requirement user rating obtained on scale of 1 to 10 and data is tabulated in table 1.
TABLE I
RP DESIGN VERIFICATION PROTO PART REQUIREMENTS
Part Build Time (T) Heat Deflection
Surface Finish Tensile Cost (C)
User Accuracy (A)
(R) Strength (S)
Elongation (E) Temperature
(HR)
A 7 7 6 6 5 5 4
B 7 7 7 6 5 5 3
C 8 7 6 6 6 5 4
2. RP Process attributes data collection
The fabrication of the geometric benchmark part done on four widely used RP processes, which are the liquid-based Steriolithography
(SLA), Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and powder-based Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and 3 Dimensional Printing Machine.
The RP process was set to achieve required geometric accuracy as part to be used for design verification.
Fabricated part from each process measured on CMM for geometrical accuracy and for surface roughness by Roughness Tester Taylor
Hobson Talysurf Model 120. Other mechanical properties such as tensile strength, Percentage Elongation, heat resistance are taken
from standard Material data sheet available from material manufacturer. Build Time measured during part production and part cost are
taken as per estimation. Results are tabulated in Table 2.

TABLE 2
RP PROCESS BENCHMARK PART ATTRIBUTE VALUES

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Machine Accuracy Surface Tensile Elongation Heat Deflection Part Build Time
RP Process Material Cost (C) (T)
details (A) Finish (R) Strength (S) (E) Temperature (HR)
Unit of
Measurement
mm µm MPa (%) °C Rs. min
ACCURA
SLA VIPER SI2 0.129 4 62 5 56 5500 240
110
Sinterstation
SLS Duraform 0.205 12 43 8 177 5800 240
HiQ
3DP Z510 Zp150 0.319 28 14 0.2 70 2000 180

FDM FDM 900mc ABS P400 0.289 18 22 10 90 3200 300

3. Decision Making methods


Decision makers frequently face the problem of assessing a wide range of alternative options and selecting one based on a set of
conflicting criteria. In decision making environment, need is for simple, systematic, logical and scientific method to guide decision
makers in considering a number of selection criteria and their interrelations.
Graph Theory and Matrix Approach
Graph Theory and Matrix Approach, Multiple Attribute Decision Making (MADM) method require both intra- and inter-attribute
comparisons and involve explicit tradeoffs that are appropriate for the problem considered.
Table 2 data values normalized for non-beneficiary attribute Value = / where in - Lowest Value of Measure, – Measured
value of ith alternative and for beneficiary attribute = / where in - Measured value of ith alternative, – Highest value of
jth alternative.

TABLE 3
RP PROCESS BENCHMARK PART ATTRIBUTE VALUES
RP Process (A) (R) (S) (E) (C) (T) (HR)
SLA 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.500 0.273 0.510 0.316
SLS 0.627 0.333 0.694 0.800 0.259 0.510 1.000
3DP 0.403 0.143 0.226 0.020 1.000 1.000 0.395
FDM 0.444 0.222 0.355 1.000 0.500 0.432 0.508

Secondly attributes are compared pair wise for their importance and relative importance decision matrix prepared.

Attributes (A) (R) (S) (E) (C) (T) (HR)


(A) 0.500 0.600 0.600 0.700 0.700 0.800
(R) 0.500 0.600 0.600 0.700 0.700 0.800
D = (S) 0.400 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.600 0.700
(E) 0.400 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.600 0.700
(R) 0.300 0.300 0.400 0.400 0.500 0.600
(T) 0.300 0.300 0.400 0.400 0.500 0.600
(HR) 0.200 0.200 0.300 0.300 0.400 0.400

RP Process selection attribute function which is Permanent of attribute matrix evaluated with MATLAB and RPSI for each process
obtained and arranged in descending order of RP process selection index. The RP process having the highest value of RP process
selection index is the best suitable process.
TABLE 4
RPSI FOR DESIGN VERIFICATION PROTO PART (CAR TAIL LAMP HOUSING)

RP Process RPSI
SLA 42.3577
SLS 38.5798
3DP 24.6768
TOPSIS Method FDM 29.8983

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This method is based on the concept that the chosen alternative should have the shortest Euclidean distance from the ideal solution,
and the farthest from the negative ideal solution.
Step1: In this method Table 2 values are normalized by and the normalized decision matrix obtained as mentioned in Table 5.

TABLE 5
NORMALISED RP PROCESS ATTRIBUTES

RP Process (A) (R) (S) (E) (C) (T) (HR)


SLA 0.260 0.112 0.777 0.364 0.634 0.523 0.257
SLS 0.415 0.337 0.539 0.582 0.669 0.523 0.812
3DP 0.646 0.786 0.175 0.015 0.173 0.267 0.321
FDM 0.586 0.505 0.276 0.727 0.346 0.617 0.413

Step 2: decide the relative importance (i.e. weights) of different attributes with respect to the objective. A set of weights (for j=1,
2… M) such that = 1. These weights are obtained by Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method and are as mentioned below.
TABLE 6
Weights by AHP Method

RP Process (A) (R) (S) (E) (C) (T) (HR)


0.2570 0.1990 0.1701 0.1395 0.1099 0.0586 0.0658

Step 3: Obtain the weighted normalized matrix . This is done by the multiplication of each element of the column of the matrix
with its associated weight . Hence, the elements of the weighted normalized matrix are expressed as:

Step 4: Obtain the ideal (best) and negative ideal (worst) solutions in this step. The ideal (best) and negative ideal (worst) solutions
can be expressed as:

= ...

= ...

Where J = (j = 1,2,…,M) / j is associated with beneficial attributes, and

J’ = (j = 1,2,…,M) / j is associated with non-beneficial attributes.

indicates the ideal (best) value of the considered attribute among the values of the attributes for different alternatives. In case of
beneficial attributes it indicates the higher value of the attribute. In case of non-beneficial attributes it indicates the lower value of the
attribute and vice versa for .
TABLE 6
MATRIX

RP Process (A) (R) (S) (E) (C) (T) (HR)


SLA 0.0669 0.0224 0.1321 0.0507 0.0697 0.0307 0.0169
SLS 0.1066 0.0671 0.0916 0.0812 0.0735 0.0307 0.0535
3DP 0.1660 0.1565 0.0298 0.0020 0.0190 0.0156 0.0212
FDM 0.1506 0.1006 0.0469 0.1015 0.0380 0.0362 0.0272
Step5: The separation of each alternative0.0224
0.0669 from the ideal one is given
0.1321 by the Euclidean
0.1015 0.0190 distance in the following
0.0156 0.0535 equations.
0.1660 0.1565 0.0298 0.0020 0.0735 0.0362 0.0169

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, , i=1,2,….,N

Step6: The relative closeness of a particular alternative to the ideal solution, Pi, can be expressed as below-

A set of alternatives are arranged in descending order , according to the value of Pi indicating the most preferred and least preferred
feasible solutions. Pi may also be called the overall or composite performance score of alternative Ai.
TABLE 7
CPSI FOR DESIGN VERIFICATION PROTO PART (CAR TAIL LAMP HOUSING)

RP Process

SLA 0.0819 0.2017 0.7112

SLS 0.0939 0.1516 0.6173


3DP 0.2218 0.0584 0.2084
FDM 0.1479 0.1221 0.4523

3.3 Comparison of Results:


As mentioned in below table RP Process Selection Index by Graph Theory and Matrix Approach and Composite Performance
Selection Index by TOPSIS method, process ranking achieved is same. Same Calculations repeated for other applications like
functional proto, Direct End use proto part and results are tabulated as below.
TABLE 8
RESULTS COMPARISION
Design Verification Proto Part ( Car Tail Lamp Housing)
RPSI CPSI
RP Process
(GTMA) (TOPSIS)
SLA 42.3577 0.7112
SLS 38.5798 0.6173
3DP 24.6768 0.2084
FDM 29.8983 0.4523

Functional Proto Part ( Car Front Grill)

SLA 24.5713 0.5289

SLS 25.9885 0.7198

3DP 17.0396 0.1544

FDM 18.7041 0.3791

Direct End Use Proto Part (Car Fuel Cap Assembly Gauge)
SLA 40.0232 0.6721
SLS 36.0913 0.6709
3DP 23.5863 0.1336
FDM 28.4627 0.4889

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IV. CONCLUSION
i. Decision making methods helps in systematic and analytical manner to address every element of selection - complexity due to
interrelation of attributes, wide range of RP alternatives available, variety of RP prototype application areas, expertise
requirement in process selection.
ii. Qualitative and subjective judgments by different peoples can be included in the priority setting.
iii. Proposed approach forms a basis for database creation for network RP processes, database creation based on variety of
alternatives and evaluating part requirements for best suitable RP process.
iv. This study demonstrates potential benefits of using structured approach to the selection of alternative rapid prototyping
processes. The methodology described in this study can provide guidance not only for RP process selection but also for other
areas of Decision making in manufacturing areas.

APPENDIX
Nil

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to my beloved project guide Dr. Prafulla Kulkarni.
He encouraged me throughout my academic program and was supporting me in all challenging situations.

REFERENCES
[1] Dr. Marcello Bragalia, Dr. Alberto Petroni, A Management Support Technique for the selection of RapidPrototyping Technologies, Journal of Industrial
Technologies; Vol.15, No. 14, pp.2-6,1999
[2] P.C. Smith, A. E. W. Rennie Development of an additive layer manufacturing (ALM) selection Tool for direct manufacture of product, Lancaster Product
Development Unit, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YR, UK, Sep 2008 , pp.507-518.
[3] R.Venkata Rao, K.K. Padmanabhan, Rapid Prototyping Process selection using graph theory and matrix approach, ELSEVIER Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 194 (2007) 81-88
[4] Nagahanumaiah, K. Subburaj, B.Ravi, Computer aided rapid tooling process selection and manufacturability evaluation for injection mold development, Journal
Science Direct, 2008 , pp.262-276.
[5] D.T.Pham, R.S.Gault, A Comparison of rapid prototyping technologies, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 38 (1998), pp.1257-1287

AUTHORS
First Author – Vikram Shende, M.E (Industrial Engineering), and [email protected]
Second Author – Dr. Prashant Kulkarni, PhD (Industrial Engineering), and [email protected]

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A Study of Awareness towards Environmental Education


among the Students at Secondary Level in Gurgaon
District
Poonam Sindhu* and Suman Singh**
*
Asstt prof. Drona college of Education, Gurgaon.
**
Asstt prof. Drona college of Education, Gurgaon

Abstract- Environmental crisis is real. Now the time has come Our great need of today is knowledgeable citizens who are
when we should be careful. If human society has to endure not conscious of their surrounding and willing to take necessary,
just for another centaury but thousands and thousands of years, social, economic and political steps to assure a better
we need to imbecile a way of life that can be sustained. The environment for the fulfillment of need and wants of every
growth of human beings and plants life can only develop fully in citizen on the earth.
friendly environment that is conclusive to growth. Since, the
present problems result largely from ignorance and different Types of Environment
trend of continued misuse of the environment can, however, be  Physical Environment( A biotic Environment)
altered by creating awareness among people of how man’s  Biological Environment(Biotic Environment)
activities effect the environment for good or ill. We cannot  Socio-Cultural Environment
expect improvement unless attitudes of people change and unless 1. Physical Environment:
a better generations. Our great need of today is knowledgeable A physical environment or abiotic environment means non
citizens who are conscious of their surrounding and willing to living environment. The abiotic environment means physical
take necessary, social, economic and political steps to assure a environment is again divided into three categories :
better environment for the fulfillment of need and wants of every (a) Lithosphere(Solid Earth)
citizen on the earth. Keeping in view the importance of The hard crust of the earth on which we live is called
environment the present study was undertaken to study the lithosphere. Soil is outer part of earth’s crust on which we live,
awareness among students towards environmental education. work and grows food crops. The soil represents solid component
of our abiotic environment.
Index Terms- Environment, Environmental education (b) Atmosphere:
The earth’s cover of gases is called atmosphere or air. The
composition of atmosphere on aid is Nitrogen 78%,Oxygen
I. INTRODUCTION 21%,Argon 0.9%,Carbon Dioxide 0.03%.The remaining
he dictionary meaning of the word ‘Environment’ a percentage of 0.07% is of all other gases in the air.
T surrounding external conditions influencing development or
growth of people, animals or plants, living or working conditions
(c) Hydrosphere(Water Component):
Water represents the liquid of our abiotic environment. It is
etc. Our environment is today on the sick bed and entire world is the liquid cover, which surround the earth. It accounts for 71% of
worried about it. We have reached this state because we have the earth surface.
been trained to look upon nature as a resource. Therefore, in the
mindless competition for industrialization and progress we have 2. Biological Environment:
exploited the environment to the full without any thought of Biotic Environment means living part of the environment.
consequences. The attitude of our modern civilization is reflected This consists of:
in the criteria of development which include such parameters as (a) Producers
the consumption oriented life style. If the trend continues the (b) Consumers
world will soon become in hospitable place for mankind. (c) Decomposers
Environmental crisis is real. Now the time has come when we (d) Micro-Organisms
should be careful. If human society has to endure not just for
another centaury but thousands and thousands of years, we need 3. Socio-Cultural Environment:
to imbecile a way of life that can be sustained. The growth of We live in a society and have a culture of our own. The
human beings and plants life can only develop fully in friendly Socio-Cultural environment means the environment made by
environment that is conclusive to growth. Since, the present man through his various social and cultural activities.
problems result largely from ignorance and different trend of In only 100 years, we have done more damage to the
continued misuse of the environment can, however, be altered by environment that in all preceding centuries. The craze of progress
creating awareness among people of how man’s activities effect in agriculture, industry, transportation and technology is taken as
the environment for good or ill. We cannot expect improvement the general criterion of development of any nation. Such
unless attitudes of people change and unless a better generations. activities of man have created adverse effects on all living

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organisms in the biosphere. Rapid industrialization has left the 5. There exists no significant difference in awareness
exhausted natural recourses. Today, environment has become towards Environmental Education between urban and
foul, contaminated, undesirable and therefore harmful for health rural students at secondary level.
of living organisms including man. But in unlimited rapacious
exploitation of nature by man has disturbed the delegate DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
ecological balance existing between living and non living The present study is limited to few schools of Gurgaon
components. “Environment Education is the bond between the district.
environmental crisis and the educational crisis.”Environmental 1. The study is confined to a sample of 100 students only,
Education is the study of man to see that how he shapes his total 50 urban and 50 rural students.
natural and cultural surrounding for good or ill. 2. Only two factors viz. sex and secondary level in respected
The root cause of environment pollution has been the man’s area are considered as variables for this study.
misbehavior with the nature under the false ego and that he is the
master of nature. In other words, the human exploitation of RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
natural resources at a back input into the natural eco-system is The first task of investigation is to select appropriate
responsible for environment crisis.Today India is progressing in methodology of research. There are several methods of research.
every field i.e. chemical power, nuclear energy etc. A rapid Research is determined by the nature of the problem. The present
progress in atomic and nuclear energy has added radio-active study attempts to study the awareness towards environment
substances which emit toxic gases. Thus environment is among the students. To achieve this objectives survey method
deteriorated to such an extent that it has crossed the critical limits was to be adopted.
and has become harmful to all organisms. Thus the present study
was undertaken to study the awareness towards environment SAMPLE
education among students. Sample is both necessary and advantageous because by
sampling we study the problem at reduced cost, at greater speed,
with greater scope and with greater accuracy.
II. OBJECTIVES To serve a useful purpose, sampling should be adequate and
The present study was undertaken with following objectives: unbiased or representative. In present study the investigator
1. To study the difference in awareness towards selected samples from different schools of rural and urban area of
Environmental Education between Rural boys and rural Gurgaon district 100 students.
girls at secondary level.
2. To study the difference in awareness towards METHOD USED
Environmental Education between urban boys and The investigator used normative survey method to collect data
urban girls at secondary level. for the present study.
3. To study the difference in awareness towards
Environmental Education between Rural boys and urban TOOLS USED
girls at secondary level. Tools are means for collection of data, for interpretation and
4. To study the difference in awareness towards to explore new fields. A questionnaire is used as a tool for
Environmental Education between Rural girls and urban gathering the required data. The questionnaire is prepared by the
girls at secondary level. investigator himself. The items were of multiple choices.
5. To study the difference in awareness towards
Environmental Education between Rural and urban STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
students at secondary level. In order to analyze and interpret the questionnaire scores the
investigator adopts the following statistical techniques.
(i) Mean
(ii) Standard deviation
III. HYPOTHESES
(iii) Standard error
1. There exists no significant difference in awareness (iv) ‘t’ test
towards Environmental Education between Rural boys
and rural girls at secondary level.
2. There exists no significant difference in awareness IV. MAIN FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
towards Environmental Education between urban boys
and urban girls at secondary level. On the basis of analysis and interpretation of the data, the
3. There exists no significant difference in awareness following findings were drawn:
towards Environmental Education between Rural boys 1. While making the comparison between rural boys and
and urban boys at secondary level. girls of secondary level regarding awareness towards
4. There exists no significant difference in awareness environmental education, it was found that there exists
towards Environmental Education between Rural girls no significant difference between girls and boys student
and urban girls at secondary level. of secondary level.

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Table I
Comparison of mean, S. D. and C. R. between boys and girls of Rural Secondary Schools

Group N Mean S.D. S.D t-test Significant Level

Boys 25 29.26 3.86 Not significant at 0.05


1.27 .90 level
Girls 25 30.52 4.33

2. While making the comparison between urban boys and Table IV


girls of secondary level regarding awareness towards Comparison of mean, S. D. and C. R. between Rural girls and
environmental education, it was found that there exists no Urban girls Secondary Students
significant difference between boys and girls student of
secondary level regarding awareness towards environmental Group N Mean S.D. S.D t- Significant
education. test Level
Table II Rural 25 30.52 4.33 Significant
Comparison of mean, S. D. and C. R. between Urban boys girls 0.98 2.12 at 0.05
and girls of Secondary School. Urban 25 32.60 2.30 level
girls
Group N Mean S.D. S.D t- Significant
test Level 5.While making comparison between urban and rural students
Boys 25 31.52 3.15 Significant of secondary schools regarding awareness towards environment
Girls 25 32.60 2.30 .51 2.12 at 0.05 education. It was found that there exists significant difference
level between urban and rural students of secondary schools regarding
awareness towards environmental education.
3. While making the comparison between rural boys and
urban boys of secondary schools regarding awareness towards TableV
environmental education, it was found that there exists no Comparison of mean, S. D. and C. R. between Rural and
significant difference between rural boys and urban boy’s student Urban Secondary Students
regarding awareness towards environmental education.
Group N Mean S.D. S.Ed t- Significant
Table III test Level
Comparison of mean, S. D. and C. R. between Rural boys
and urban boys Secondary School. Rural 25 29.96 3.75 Significant
.71 3.25 at 0.05
Group N Mean S.D. S.D t- Significant level
Urban 25 32.28 2.45
test Level
Rural 25 30.44 3.65 Not
Boys .68 1.64 significant
Urban 25 31.56 30.59 at 0.05
boys level V. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION
The present study emphasis the need of developing awareness
4.While making the comparison between rural girls and urban towards environmental education among students of secondary
girls of secondary schools regarding awareness towards level to solve the problems of environment. This study has its
environmental education, it was found that there exists no educational implications for the teachers, Educational planners,
significant difference between rural girls and urban girls parent’s educators and educational administrators. Special
regarding awareness towards environmental education. awareness programmes in the form of seminars symposium,
camps and community visits should be arranged among the
environment teachers, students, parents and also masses.
Environmental awareness should be provided to the youths and
young children through the formal system of education.
Environmental consciousness should be developed among

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teachers by introducing the course of environmental education in


teacher education programmes and their teaching subjects.
The discussion confirms that environmental education can
play a significant role in reducing and preventing the present and
future environmental imbalances. Through formal education,
environmental education can be imparted in the four stages like
 Primary education stage
 Lower secondary education stage
 High secondary education stage
 College education stage

Apart from these, environmental education should be included


in the curriculum of teacher training institutions, industrial
training institutions, polytechnics, engineering colleges,
extension training centres. So that after receiving the training
when they engage in government and non-government services,
the students will be able to expand the environmental education
in society.
Mass media such as radio, T.V, newspapers, periodicals, feature
films, etc. can be used effectively in the expansion of the
environmental education.

REFERENCES
[1] Aggarwal,Y.P., “The science of Environmental Research”, Nirmal Book
Agency, Kurukshetra,1998.
[2] Ambasht,R.S.and Ambasht,P.K.,”Environment and Pollution- An
Ecological Approach”,Friends Co.,Lanka Varanasi,1994.
[3] Buch, M.B.,”Third Survey of Research in Education (1978-83)”, NCERT,
New Delhi,1987.
[4] Buch, M.B.,”Fourth Survey of Research in Education (1983-88)”, NCERT,
New Delhi,1995.
[5] Buch, M.B.,”Fifth Survey of Research in Education (1988-92)”,NCERT,
New Delhi,1995.
[6] Indira Gandhi National Open University, School of Health & Sciences:
[7] Fundamentals of Environment,Vol.1, 2003
[8] Adverse Effects of Environment-1
[9] Adverse Effects of Environment-ll
[10] Adverse Effects of Environment-lll
[11] Sharma, R.A.,”Fundamental of Educational Research”, R.Lall Book Depot,
Meerut,2002.
[12] Sharma, R.A.,”Environmental Educational Research”, R.Lall Book Depot,
Meerut,2004.
[13] Sharma, P.O.,”Ecology and Environmental Education”, Rastogi
Publication, Meerut,1998.

AUTHORS
First Author – Poonam Sindhu, Asstt prof. Drona college of
Education.Gurgaon.
Second Author – Suman Singh, Asstt prof. Drona college of
Education ,Gurgaon.

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Diphenyl Sulphide as Corrosion Inhibitor for Zinc Metal


in Acid Solutions
A.Pasupathy1*, S.Nirmala1, P.Sakthivel2, G.Abirami1 and M.Raja1
1
P.G and Research Department of Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
P.G and Research Department of Physics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli,, Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract- This work deals with the evaluation of diphenyl of Switzerland. The corrosion medium was 0.5N HCl and 0.5N
sulphide as a corrosion inhibitor for zinc in 0.5N HCl and 0.5N H2SO4 prepared from A.R grade HCl and H2SO4 and deionised
H2SO4 by conventional weight loss and gasometric methods. water.
Results indicate that diphenyl sulphide exhibited high inhibition
efficiencies in both the acids but performed better in 0.5N H2SO4
than in 0.5N HCl. The inhibition efficiency was found to increase III. WEIGHT LOSS AND GASOMETRY STUDIES
with increase in the inhibitor concentration. The adsorption of the Weight loss and gasometry studies were conducted as
inhibitor molecules on the zinc metal surface obeyed Temkin reported earlier14,15.From the weight loss experiments the %
adsorption isotherm. inhibition efficiency (I.E) and the degree of surface coverage (θ)
were calculated by using the following equations.
Index Terms- Diphenyl sulphide, acidic solutions, zinc
corrosion, weight loss, gasometry.

I. INTRODUCTION

A cid pickling, acid cleaning and acid descaling are some of


the industrial process in which metals are exposed to
different acids of various concentrations. In order to reduce the
metal loss and acid consumption corrosion inhibitors are added Where Wo and Wi are the weight loss of the metal in the
to the acid solutions1-8. Organic compounds containing nitrogen, absence and presence of the inhibitor respectively.
oxygen and sulphur in their molecular structures have been The corrosion rate (C.R) of the metal was calculated by
reported to function as effective inhibitors for various metals in using the following equation.
different corrosive media. The efficiency of these compounds as
corrosion inhibitors is attributed to the number of mobile electron
pairs present9, the π-orbital character of the electrons10 and the
electron density around the hetero atoms11. The efficiency of the
corrosion inhibitors are also reported to be influenced by their
molecular structure, molecular size and the nature of the Where W is the weight loss of the zinc metal (mg), A is the
substituent groups12, 13. These compounds minimize the corrosion surface area of the metal specimen(cm2), t is the exposure time
rate of the metals by getting adsorbed on the metal surface (h) and D is the density of the metal (g/cm3).
thereby blocking the active sites on the metals. From the gasometry experiments the inhibition efficiency is
In the present work, we have evaluated diphenyl sulphide as calculated by using the following equation.
an inhibitor for zinc corrosion in 0.5N HCl and 0.5N H 2SO4
using the conventional weight loss and gasometry methods. The
efficiency of the inhibitor was evaluated at four different
concentrations.

Where Vo and Vi are the volume of hydrogen gas evolved in


II. EXPERIMENTAL the absence and presence of the inhibitor respectively.
The zinc metal specimens of composition: lead 1.03%,
cadmium 0.04%, iron 0.001% and the remainder being zinc and
size of 4cm*2cm* 0.08cm with a small hole of approximately IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3mm near the end of the specimen were used for weight loss and Values of inhibition efficiency obtained from the weight loss
gasometry studies. Zinc metal specimens were polished with a and gasometry experiments for the inhibitor for the corrosion of
series of emery papers of various grades from 400-1200, zinc in 0.5N HCl and 0.5N H2SO4 in the presence of different
degreased with absolute ethanol and air dried. The inhibitor concentrations of dipheny sulphide are presented in the tables
compound, diphenyl sulphide was imported from the Fluka AG 1and 2 respectively.

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Table 1 Values of inhibition efficiency obtained


from the weight loss experiments.

Values of I.E(%) for different


concentrations (mM) of diphenyl
Corrosive sulphide
medium 5 10 30 50 100
0.5N HCl 31.2 41.9 60.3 67.8 75.1
0.5N H2SO4 38.1 48.8 66.1 72.3 79.2

Table 2 Values of inhibition efficiency obtained


from the gasometry experiments. Figure- 1 Variation of inhibition efficiency with
concentration of the diphenyl sulphide inhibitor for
Values of I.E(%) for different zinc in 0.5N HCl
concentrations (mM) of diphenyl
Corrosive sulphide Values of corrosion rates(mm/year) obtained from the
medium 5 10 30 50 100 weight loss experiments for the inhibition of the corrosion of
0.5N HCl 31.8 42.1 61.0 67.2 75.6 zinc in 0.5N HCl and 0.5N H2SO4 in the presence of different
0.5N H2SO4 38.7 48.2 66.9 71.8 78.6 concentrations of diphenyl sulphide is presented in the table 3.

Table 3 Values of corrosion rates(mm/year) from the


The results presented in the tables1 and 2 shows that the weight loss measurements
inhibition efficiencies increase with increase in the inhibitor
concentration. It can also be seen from these tables that diphenyl Values of corrosion rates(mm/year)
sulphide performed better in 0.5N H2SO4 than in 0.5N HCl. A Corrosive for different concentrations (mM)
similar observation has already been made by several authors 16- medium of diphenyl sulphide
21
. 5 10 30 50 100
The inhibitor used in this study contains two phenyl rings in 0.5N HCl 96.3 81.3 55.6 45.1 34.9
its molecular structure which are rich sources of electrons apart 0.5N H2SO4 63.8 52.7 34.9 28.5 21.4
from the sulphur atom which contains two lone pairs of
electrons. The adsorption of this inhibitor molecule on the From the table 3 it can be observed that the corrosion rates
surface of zinc metal surface can occur in the following ways. for the corrosion of zinc in 0.5N HCl and 0.5N H 2SO4 decreases
(i).The sulphur atom with its two lone pair of electrons can act as with increasing concentration of the inhibitor. The effect of
an efficient adsorption centre and get adsorbed on the positively inhibitor concentration on the corrosion rates is shown in figure
charged metal surface leading to the formation of a protective 2.
layer on the metal surface. This protective layer acts as a barrier
between the zinc metal and the corrosive media thus bringing
down the corrosion rate of the metal. (ii.)The two phenyl groups
with their π-electrons can also get adsorbed on the metal surface
leading to the protection of the metal. (iii).The two phenyl groups
being bulky in nature, on adsorption on the metal surface offers
good surface coverage to the metal surface against attack by the
corrosive media. (iv).The sulphur atom in the molecule in acid
medium can be protonated to some extent to form the cationic
form of the inhibitor.The chloride and sulphate ions in the
corrosive medium with less degree of hydration gets specifically
adsorbed on the positively charged metal surface leading to the
creation of excess negative charges on the metal surface. This
situation highly favours the adsorption of the inhibitor molecules Figure- 2 Variation of corrosion rates with concentration of
on the metal surface resulting in reduced corrosion rate. Infrared the diphenyl sulphide inhibitor for zinc in 0.5N HCl.
spectrum confirm that a metal sulphur bond may exist between
the sulphur atom and the metal22. The dependence of inhibition
efficiency of the inhibitor on its concentration is shown in Adsorption isotherms
figure 1. Adsorption isotherms play an important role in the
understanding of the mechanism of inhibition of corrosion of
metals. From the weight loss values the degree of surface

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coverage (θ) for various concentration of diphenyl sulphide [18] W.Machw, Proc III Eur.Symp. Corr. Inh., University of Ferrara, Ferrara,
Italy (1971) P. 107.
inhibitor were determined and plotted against log C for different
[19] S.Muralidharan, M.A. Quraishi and S.Venkatakrishna Iyer, Portugalial
concentrations of the inhibitor. A straight line was obtained Electrochem. Acta, 11, (1913) 255.
indicating that the adsorption of the inhibitor on the zinc metal [20] S.Muralidharan, M.A.Quraishi and S.V.K. Iyer, Corros. Sci, 37, (1995)
surface follows Temkin adsorption isotherm. Figure 3 shows the 1739.
Temkin adsorption isotherm. [21] K.Madhavan, S.Muralidharan and S.Venkatakrishna Iyer, Anti Corros.
Methods and Maters, 45, (1998) 227.
[22] T.J.Lane and A.Yemayuchi, J.Am. Chem Soc, 81, (1959) 3824

AUTHORS
First Author – A.Pasupathy, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India., Tel.: +919003427375, E-mail address:
[email protected](A.Pasupathy)
Second Author – S.Nirmala, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India.
Third Author – P.Sakthivel, P.G and Research Department of
Figure-3 Temkin adsorption isotherm plot for corrosion
Physics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
of zinc in 0.5N HCl containing different
Nadu, India.
concentrations of inhibitor.
Fourth Author – G.Abirami, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India.
V. CONCLUSIONS Fifth Author – M.Raja, P.G and Research Department of
The inhibitor diphenyl sulphide used in this work exhibited Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
good inhibition efficiency.Inhibition efficiency increases with Nadu, India.
increase in inhibitor concentration.The inhibitor performed better
in 0.5N H2SO4 than in 0.5N HCl.The adsorption of the inhibitor
molecules on the metal surface obeys Temkin’s adsorption
isotherm.

REFERENCES
[1] H.B.Rudresh, S.M.Mayanna, Corrosion, 31(1980) 286
[2] M.r.arshadi, M.Lasgari, Gb-A.Parasafar, Mater.Chem.Phys., 86(2004) 314.
[3] M.Abdalla, Corros.Sci.,45(2003) 2705.
[4] .L.Wang, X.Pu, H.C.Luo, Corros.Sci., 48(2003) 677.
[5] E.E.Foad El-Sherbini, S.M.Abdel whab,M.Deyab, Meter.Chem .Phys.,
89(2005)183.
[6] R.D.Amstrong, L.Prggs,Corros.Sci., 36(1994) 749.
[7] Y.K.agrawal, J.D.Talati, M.D.Shaw, M.N.Desai, N.K.Shaw,Corros.Sci.,
46(2004)633
[8] J.D.Talati, M.N.Desai, N.K.Shaw., Mater.Chem.Phys.,93(2002)54
[9] K.Aramaki, T.Oya, S.Fuji, Boshoku Gijutsu., 31(1961) 519
[10] N.Hackerman , R.M.Hurd, Proc.1st Intl cong on Metallic Corrosion,
London,U.K. April 1960, Butterworths, London, p.166.
[11] O.L.Riggs, R.L.Evey,Corrosion, 18(1962) 262.
[12] S.Muralidharan, M.A.Quraishi, S.Venkatakrishna Iyer, Corros.Sci.,
37(1995) 1794
[13] R.Hariharaputran, A.Subramanian, A.A.Antony, P.M.Shankar, A.Gopalan,
T.Vasudevan,S.Venkatakrishna Iyer, Br.Corros.J., 33(1998) 214.
[14] S.Muralidharan, M.A.Quraishi and Venkatakrishna Iyer, Corros.
Sci.,37(1995) 1739.
[15] S.Rengamani, S.Muralidharan and Venkatakrishna Iyer, Ind.Jour.
Chem.Tech, 1 (1995) 168
[16] N.Subramanyan, S.K.Rangarajan,K.Balakrishnan, S. Venkatakrishna Iyer,
S. Venkatesan and B.Sathianathan 3rd Eur symp Corr.Inh., University of
Ferrara Ferrara, Italy, N.S. Saz. 4, (1970) 592.
[17] G.Schmitt. Br. Corros. J, 19, (1984) 165.

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Reactive Blue Dye as a Novel Corrosion Inhibitor for


Zinc Metal in Acidic Solutions
A.Pasupathy1*, S.Nirmala1, P.Sakthivel2, G.Abirami1 and M.Raja1
1
P.G and Research Department of Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
P.G and Research Department of Physics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli,, Tamil Nadu, India.

O NH2
Abstract- Reactive blue dye was evaluated as a corrosion
inhibitor for zinc in 0.5N HCl by weight loss, gasometric and SO3H

thermometric methods. The inhibition efficiency was found to Cl


N
increase with increase in the inhibitor concentration. The Cl
adsorption of the inhibitor molecules on the zinc metal surface N
obeyed Temkin adsorption isotherm. O HN
N

NH
Index Terms- Reactive blue, acidic solutions, zinc corrosion,
weight loss, gasometry, thermometry.
SO3H

I. INTRODUCTION
Weight loss, gasometry and thermometric studies
T he attention on zinc metal corrosion has increased because of
its wide applications such as electrode material in batteries,
sacrificial anodes and metallic coatings. Therefore zinc metal has
Weight loss, gasometry and thermometric studies were
carried out as reported earlier22-26. From the weight loss
to be protected against corrosion from aggressive environments. experiments, the % inhibition efficiency (I.E) and the degree of
In industries hydrochloric and sulphuric acids are widely used for surface coverage (θ) were calculated by using the following
the cleaning of metals and alloys. During this process metal loss equations.
occurs due to the dissolution of the metals in acids. In order to
avoid metal loss and for reducing acid consumption many
organic compounds are used as corrosion inhibitors. A review of
the literature clearly brings out the fact that many organic
compounds were used as corrosion inhibitors for zinc metal in
various environments1-21. The presence of hetero atoms such as
sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen, multiple bonds, aromatic rings and
large surface area are some of the requirements to be satisfied by
organic compounds to be employed as corrosion inhibitors. Where Wo and Wi are the weight loss of the metal in the
Many synthetic dyes are found to satisfy these requirements. absence and presence of the inhibitor respectively.
Therefore we have selected and evaluated reactive blue dye as a The corrosion rate (C.R) of the metal was calculated by
corrosion inhibitor for zinc metal in 0.5N HCl acid solution by using the following equation.
weight loss, gasometry and thermometric methods.

II. EXPERIMENTAL
Where W is the weight loss of the zinc metal (mg), A is the
The zinc metal specimens of composition: lead 1.03%,
surface area of the metal specimen(cm2), t is the exposure time
cadmium 0.04%, iron 0.001% and the remainder being zinc and
(h) and D is the density of the metal (g/cm3).
size of 4cm*2cm* 0.08cm were used for weight loss gasometry
and thermometry studies.. Zinc metal specimens were polished
From the gasometry experiments the inhibition
with a series of emery papers of various grades from 400-1200,
efficiency is calculated by using the following equation.
degreased with absolute ethanol and air dried. The inhibitor
compound, reactive blue dye was obtained from the Alfa-Aesar
chemicals of United kingdom.. The corrosion medium was 0.5N
HCl prepared from A.R grade HCl and deionised water. The
structure of the inhibitor molecule is given below.
Where Vo and Vi are the volume of hydrogen gas evolved in the
absence and presence of the inhibitor respectively.

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From the thermometric studies the reaction number was first


calculated by using the equation
Tm  Ti
RN 
t

Where Tm is the maximum temperature , T i is the initial


temperature and t is the time taken to attain the maximum
temperature.
The inhibition efficiency is calculated by using the following Figure 1 Variation of inhibition efficiency with concentration
equation of the inhibitor.
RNo  RNi
I .E  The first step in the reduction of corrosion by inhibitors is
RNo
the adsorption of the inhibitor molecules onto the metal surface.
Where RNo is the reaction number in the absence of the After the adsorption is completed, the inhibitor retards the
inhibitor and RNi is the reaction number in the presence of cathodic and/ or anodic reaction at the metal surface. The
various concentrations of the inhibitor. inhibitor reactive blue molecule contains three hetero atoms
namely sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen in its molecular structure.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All these hetero atoms possess lone pair of electrons. Through
Weight loss, gasometry and thermometric studies were these lone pair of electrons they get adsorbed on the metal
carried out at seven different concentrations of the inhibitor and surface leading to the formation of a layer on the metal surface.
the inhibition efficiency(IE) values were calculated. Values of This layer acts as a barrier between the metal and the corrosive
inhibition efficiency obtained from these experiments for the media giving protection to the metal. The inhibitor also contains
inhibitor for the corrosion of zinc in 0.5N HCl in the presence of many aromatic rings with lot of π electrons through which also
different concentrations of the inhibitor are presented in the adsorption of the inhibitor molecules on the metal surface can
table-1 take place leading to enhanced protection. In addition to these,
the inhibitor molecule contains primary and secondary amine
Table 1 Values of inhibition efficiency(I.E(%)) obtained groups in the molecular structure. These amine groups can be
from the weight loss, gasometry and thermometric easily protonated in acid medium to form the cationic form of the
experiments for the corrosion of zinc in 0.5N HCl in the inhibitor. The chloride ions present in the acid medium gets
presence of different concentrations of the inhibitor. adsorbed specifically on the positively charged metal surface
due to its lesser degree of hydration leading to the creation of
excess negative charges on the metal surface which favours the
Method Values of I.E(%) for different concentrations adsorption of these cationic form of the inhibitor molecules on
employed (mM) of reactive blue inhibitor the metal surface leading to the protection of the metal. Another
1 5 10 20 30 40 50 important factor responsible for the higher inhibition efficiency
Weight loss 24.2 52.4 63.1 75.6 83.5 88.7 91.2 of the inhibitor is the large surface area of the inhibitor molecules
Gasometry 23.8 51.9 63.9 74.8 83.1 88.2 90.8 which provides higher surface coverage to the metal after getting
Thermometry 24.8 53.1 64.6 76.2 84.6 89.4 92.5 adsorbed on the metal surface.

Values of corrosion rates obtained from the weight loss


It can be observed from the table 1 that there is very experiments for the inhibitor for the corrosion of zinc in 0.5N
good agreement between the values of inhibition efficiency HCl in the presence of different concentrations of the inhibitor
obtained from these three methods. The results also show that the are presented in the table-2
inhibition efficiency increases with increase in the inhibitor
concentration. The dependence of inhibition efficiency of the Table 2 Values of corrosion rates obtained from the weight loss
inhibitor on the concentration is shown in figure-1. experiments.
Values of corrosion rates for different
concentrations (mM) of reactive blue inhibitor
1 5 10 20 30 40 50
106.1 66.6 51.7 34.2 23.1 15.8 12.3
From the table-2 it can be seen that the corrosion rates
for the corrosion of zinc in 0.5N HCl decreases with increasing
concentration of the inhibitor. The effect of inhibitor
concentration on the corrosion rates is shown in figure-2.

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REFERENCES
[1] Jain, B.L., and Gaur, J.N., J.Electrochem.Soc of India, 37, (1978)165.
[2] Balakrishnan, K., Ramakrishnaiah, K., Raghavan M., Sathianadhan, B., and
Palaniswamy, N., Proc.8th Intl.Cong. Met. corros., Germany, (19811193).
[3] Ramakrishnaiah, K., Bull. Electrochem, 3, (1987) 97.
[4] Kawai,S., Kato,H., Hatoushika, Y., and Yasumasa,M., Denki Kagaku, 43,
(1975) 127.
[5] Cavallaro, L., Felloni, L., and Trabanelli, G., 1st Euro.Symp.Corro.
Inhibition, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy, (1960) p 129.
[6] Antropov, L.I., Zasch. Metal. 6, (1970) 440.
Figure 2 Variation of corrosion rates with concentration of [7] Biallazo, S., Elektrokhimiya, 1, (19651137).
the inhibitor. [8] Aziz, K., and Shams El din A.M., Corros.Sci, 5, (1965)489.
[9] Ramamani, R., and Shanmuganadhan, S.P., Current Science, 37, (1968)39.
[10] Machu, W., and Gouda, V.K., Werkst.Korro. 13, (1962)745.
IV. ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS [11] Antropov, L.I., Zasch. Metal. 6, (1970)440.
[12] Leroy, R.L., Corrosion, 34, (1978)98.
Basic information regarding the interaction between the
[13] Elkhar Abo, B., Mostafa, K.M., Kamal,I.A., and Abdel Hamid, K.,
metal surface and the inhibitor molecules can be obtained from Ind.J.Chem, 15A, 0 (1977)1010.
the adsorption isotherms. Adsorption of inhibitor molecules on [14] Abdel Aal, M.S., Abdel Wahab, A.A., and El Saeed, A., Corrosion, 37,
the metal surface is characterized by various adsorption (1981)557.
isotherms such as Langmuir, Temkin, Freundlisch etc., From the [15] Stupnisek – Lisac, E., Podbrscek, S., and Soric, T., J. Appl. Electrochem,
weight loss measurements, the degree of surface coverage (θ) for 24, (1994)779.
various concentrations of the inhibitor were evaluated. [16] Stupnisek – Lisac, E., Kasumic, D., and Varkapic – Furae, Corrosion, 51,
Langmuir’s isotherm was tested by plotting C/ θ vs C and no (1997)767.
straight line was obtained which indicated that the adsorption of [17] Fouda, A.S., Madkour, L.H., Elshafei, A.A., and Elmaksoud, S.A.A., Bull.
Korean. chem.soc., 16, (1995)454.
the inhibitor on the surface of the zinc from 0.5N HCl does not
[18] Mourad, M.Y., Saliman, S.A., and Elmetaal, Bull . Soc. Chim, France, 6,
obey Langmuir’s adsorption isotherm. Temkin’s adsorption (1991)832.
isotherm was tested by plotting logC vs θ which resulted in a [19] Mani, N., Venkatakrishna Iyer, S., and Lal Bahadur, Bull.Electrochem, 19,
straight line thereby showing that the adsorption of the inhibitor (2003)53.
on the surface of zinc from 0.5N HCl obeys Temkin’s adsorption [20] Mani, N., Venkatakrishna Iyer, S., and Lal Bahadur, Trans. SAEST, 38,
isotherm. Figure -3 shows the Temkin adsorption isotherm plot (2003)67.
for zinc in 0.5N HCl containing different concentrations of the [21] Agarwal, Y.K., Talati, J.D., Shah, M.D., Desai, M.N., and Shah, N.K.,
Corros.Soc, 46, (2003)633.
inhibitor.
[22] S.Muralidharan, M.A.Quraishi and Venkatakrishna Iyer,
Corros.Sci.,37(1995) 1739.
[23] S.Rengamani, S.Muralidharan and Venkatakrishna Iyer,
Ind.Jour.Chem.Tech, 1 (1995) 168
[24] 15. B.N.Oza and R.S.Sinha, Trans.SAEST, 17(1982) 281.
[25] 16.R.K.Upadhyay and S.P.Mathur, E.J.Chem 4(2007)408.
[26] 17. A.Y.El-Etre, Corros.Sci.43(2001)1031

AUTHORS
First Author – A.Pasupathy, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India., Tel.: +919003427375, E-mail address:
[email protected](A.Pasupathy)
Second Author – S.Nirmala, P.G and Research Department of
Figure 3 Temkin adsorption isotherm plot for zinc in 0.5N Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
HCl containing different concentrations of the inhibitor Nadu, India.
Third Author – P.Sakthivel, P.G and Research Department of
Physics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
V. CONCLUSIONS Nadu, India.
The reactive blue dye used as a corrosion inhibitor for zinc Fourth Author – G.Abirami, P.G and Research Department of
in 0.5N HCl performed well and gave high percentage of Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
inhibition efficiency. It exhibited a maximum inhibition Nadu, India.
efficiency of 92.5 % at 50mM concentration. The inhibition Fifth Author – M.Raja, P.G and Research Department of
efficiency of the inhibitor increases with the increase in the Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
concentration of the inhibitor. The adsorption of the inhibitor on Nadu, India.
zinc surface obeyed Temkin adsorption isotherm.

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Inhibitive Action of Solanum Nigrum Extract on the


Corrosion of Zinc in 0.5N HCl Medium
A.Pasupathy1*, S.Nirmala1, P.Sakthivel2, G.Abirami1 and M.Raja1
1
P.G and Research Department of Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
P.G and Research Department of Physics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli,, Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract- In this work, the extract of the leaves and berries of leaves and berries of the plant were then dried in an oven for 2
solanum nigrum was examined as a green corrosion inhibitor hours at 1000C and ground to get the powder form of the
for zinc in 0.5N HCl by using weight loss, gasometric and material. 250 ml of alcohol was then added to 10 gram of this
thermometric methods. Results obtained showed that the extract powder and left standing for three days with occasional shaking.
of solanum nigrum offered good protection against corrosion of The solution was then filtered and the alcohol was evaporated to
zinc metal and exhibited high inhibition efficiencies. The get a brown sticky mass. 1 gram of this sticky mass was then
inhibition efficiency was found to increase with increase in the dissolved in 1L of 0.5N HCl to get the stock solution. From this
extract concentration. The adsorption of the inhibitor molecules stock solution, concentrations of 200, 400, 600, 800 mg/L were
on the zinc metal surface obeyed Temkin adsorption isotherm. prepared by dilution.

Index Terms- Solanum nigrum, acidic solutions, zinc corrosion, 2.2 Weight loss, gasometry and thermometric studies
weight loss, gasometry, thermometry. Weight loss, gasometry and thermometric studies were
carried out as reported earlier28-32. In order to get accurate
results, the experiments were conducted in triplicate and the
I. INTRODUCTION average of the three values is obtained. From the weight loss
experiments the % inhibition efficiency (I.E) and the degree of
C orrosion is defined as the deterioration of a metal due to its
interaction with the environment. Due to corrosion many
useful properties of a metal such as malleability, ductility and
surface coverage (θ) were calculated by using the following
equations.
electrical conductivity are lost. Synthetic organic compounds are
widely used as corrosion inhibitors for the prevention of
corrosion of many metals and alloys in various aggressive
environments. Because of their hazardous nature, researchers
focus their attention on developing cheap, non-toxic,
biodegradable and environment friendly natural products of plant
origin as corrosion inhibitors1-27.
Solanum nigrum is a plant with medicinal value, found
throughout Tamil Nadu, India and belongs to the family Where Wo and Wi are the weight loss of the metal in the
solanaceae. The leaves and berries of solanum nigrum are widely absence and presence of the inhibitor respectively.
used to cure mouth ulcer. In the present work we have evaluated The corrosion rate (C.R) of the metal was calculated by
the extract of the leaves and berries of solanum nigrum as a green using the following equation.
corrosion inhibitor for zinc metal in 0.5N HCl using weight loss,
gasometry and thermometry methods.

Where W is the weight loss of the zinc metal (mg), A is the


II. EXPERIMENTAL
surface area of the metal specimen(cm2), t is the exposure time
The zinc metal specimens of composition: lead 1.03%, (h) and D is the density of the metal (g/cm3).
cadmium 0.04%, iron 0.001% and the remainder being zinc and From the gasometry experiments the inhibition efficiency is
size of 3cm*1.5cm* 0.08cm were used for weight loss calculated by using the following equation.
gasometry and thermometric studies. Zinc metal specimens were
abraded with a series of emery papers of various grades from
200- 1200, washed with distilled water ,degreased with absolute
ethanol and air dried. The corrosion medium employed was 0.5N
HCl prepared from A.R grade HCl and deionised water.
Where Vo and Vi represent the volume of hydrogen gas evolved
2.1.Preparation of the extract in the absence and presence of the inhibitor respectively.
The solanum nigrum plant was obtained from the local From the thermometric studies the reaction number was first
market. It is cleaned with tap water to remove mud particles. The calculated by using the equation

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Where RNo is the reaction number in the absence of the


Tm  Ti inhibitor and RNi is the reaction number in the presence of
RN  various concentrations of the inhibitor.
t

Where Tm is the maximum temperature , T i is the initial III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
temperature and t is the time taken to attain the maximum Weight loss, gasometry and thermometric experiments
temperature. were carried out at five different concentrations of the extract
The inhibition efficiency is calculated by using the following and the inhibition efficiency(IE) values were calculated. Values
equation of inhibition efficiency obtained from these experiments are
RNo  RNi presented in the table-1
I .E 
RNo

Table 1 Values of inhibition efficiency(I.E(%)) obtained from the weight loss, gasometry and thermometric experiments for
the corrosion of zinc in 0.5N HCl in the presence of different concentrations of the extract.

Method employed Values of I.E(%) for different concentrations (mg/L)


of the extract
200 400 600 800 1000
Weight loss 18.9 43.1 55.4 65.2 71.8
Gasometry 18.1 43.9 54.7 64.6 71.1
Thermometry 19.2 42.7 54.2 65.8 70.6

Table 2 Values of corrosion rates obtained from the weight


loss experiments.
From the table it can be seen that there is very good agreement Values of corrosion rates (mm/y) for different
between the values of inhibition efficiency obtained from these concentrations (mg/L) of the extract
three methods. The results also indicate that the inhibition
efficiency of the solanum nigrum extract increases with increase 200 400 600 800 1000
in the concentration. The dependence of inhibition efficiency of 113.5 79.7 62.4 48.7 39.5
the extract on the concentration is shown in figure-1
From the table-2 it can be seen that the corrosion rates for the
corrosion of zinc in 0.5N HCl decreases with increasing
concentration of the plant extract. The effect of extract
concentration on the corrosion rates is shown in figure-2.

Figure 1 Variation of inhibition efficiency with concentration


of the plant extract.
Figure 2 Variation of corrosion rates with concentration of
Values of corrosion rates obtained from the weight loss the inhibitor.
experiments for the extract for the corrosion of zinc in 0.5N HCl
The inhibitive action of solanum nigrum extract can be
in the presence of different concentrations of the extract are
attributed to the presence of various high molecular weight
presented in the table-2
organic compounds . These include steroidal alkaloid glycosides,
alpha and beta solamargine, alpha and beta solanigrine and
solasonine. It also contains steroidal sapogenins: diosgenin and
tigogenin; solasodine and solasodiene. The leaves contain
riboflavin, nicotinic acid and vitamin-C. The molecular structure
of some of these compounds are shown below.

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Solasonine solamargine Riboflavin

Diosgenin Vitamin-C Nicotinic acid

The molecular structure of these compounds shows the


presence of many hetero atoms , double bonds and aromatic rings
which are potential adsorption centres for adsorption on to the
metal surface. Organic compounds containing π-electrons, hetero
atoms and multiple bonds have been reported to function as
effective inhibitors for the corrosion of many metals in various
media33-37. Since the solanum nigrum extract contains many
organic compounds, it is very difficult to mention a particular
compound for the inhibition activity. The inhibitive activity of
the extract is attributed to the combined action of all the
compounds present in the extract. Figure 3 Temkin adsorption isotherm plot for zinc in 0.5N
HCl containing differentconcentrations of the extract.

IV. ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS


Inhibitors reduce the corrosion of metals by getting adsorbed V. CONCLUSIONS
on the metal surface forming a thin film which acts as a barrier The extract of leaves and berries of solanum nigrum used
between the metal and the aggressive media leading to corrosion in this work exhibited good inhibition efficiency. The inhibition
inhibition. To study the mechanism of corrosion inhibition, efficiency increases with increase in the concentration of the
attempts were made to fit the data available to the various extract. The adsorption of the components of the extract on to the
adsorption isotherms such as Langmuir, Temkin, Freundlich, metal surface in 0.5N HCl follows the Temkin adsorption
Bockris-Swinkels and Flory-Huggins. From the weight loss isotherm.
values the degree of surface coverage (θ) for various
concentration of extract were determined and plotted against log
C of the extract which results in a straight line. This indicates REFERENCES
that the adsorption of the inhibitor on the zinc metal surface [1] B.Muller, Corros.Sci. 44 (2002) 1583.
follows Temkin adsorption isotherm. Figure 3 shows the Temkin [2] A.El-Hosary, R.M.Saleh,A.M.Sharns El Din, Corros.Sci. 12(1972)897.
adsorption isotherm. [3] A.Y. El-Etre, Corros. Sci. 45 (2003) 2485.
[4] A.Y. El-Etre, Corros. Sci. 40 (1998) 1845.
[5] A. Chetouani, B. Hammouti, Bull. Electrochem. 19 (2003) 23.
[6] A. Loto, Nigerian Corros. J. 1 (1998) 19.
[7] M. Abdallah, Port. Electrochimica. Acta. 22 (2004) 161.

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[8] S. Verma, G.N. Mehta, Trans. SAEST 32 (1997) 4.


[9] S. Martinez, I. Stern, J. Appl. Electrochem. 31 (2001) 973. [51]
[10] B. Bouyanzer, Hammouti, Bull. Electrochem. 20 (2004) 63.
[11] K.O. Orubite, N.C. Oforka, Mater. Lett. 58 (2004) 1768.
[12] S. Verma, G.N. Mehta, Bull. Electrochem. 15 (1999) 67.
[13] A.Y. El-Etre, M. Abdallah, Corros. Sci. 42 (2000) 731. [28]
[14] B. Hammouti, S. Kertit, M. Mellhaoui, Bull. Electrochem.13(1997) 97.
[15] S. Kertit, B. Hammouti, M. Mellhaoui, Moroccan Patent, 23910, 1995.
[16] K. Srivatsava, P. Srivatsava, Br. Corros. J. 16 (1981) 221.
[17] G. Gunasekaran,L.R. Chauhan, Electrochimica.Acta. 49 (2004) 4387.
[18] A. Bouyanzer, B. Hammouti, L. Majidi, Mater. Lett. 60 (2006) 2840.
[19] A.Y. El-Etre, Appl. Surf. Sci. 25 (2005) 8521.
[20] A.Y. El-Etre, Corros. Sci. 43 (2001) 1031.
[21] A. Bouyanzer, B. Hammouti, Pigm. Res. Technol. 33 (2004) 287.
[22] E.E.Oguzie, Pigm.res.Technol.34(2005)321.
[23] F. Zucchi, I.H. Omar, Surf. Tech. 24 (1985) 391.
[24] K.S. Parikh, K.J. Joshi, Trans. SAEST 39 (2004) 29.
[25] M.G. Sethuraman, P. Bothi Raja, Pigm. Res. Technol. 34 (2005) 327.
[26] P. Kar, A. Hussein, G. Varkey, G. Singh, Trans. SAEST 28 (1997) 2801.
[27] R. Ananda Louise Sathiyanathan, S.Maruthamuthu, M. Selvanayagam,
S.Mohanan, N. Palaniswamy, Ind. J. Chem. Tech. 12 (2005) 356.
[28] S.Muralidharan, M.A.Quraishi and Venkatakrishna Iyer,
Corros.Sci.,37(1995) 1739.
[29] S.Rengamani, S.Muralidharan and Venkatakrishna Iyer,
Ind.Jour.Chem.Tech. 1
(1995) 168
[30] B.N.Oza and R.S.Sinha, Trans.SAEST, 17(1982) 281.
[31] R.K.Upadhyay and S.P.Mathur, E.J.Chem 4(2007)408.
[32] A.Y.El-Etre, Corros.Sci.43(2001)1031.
[33] E.H.El Ashry, A.El.Nemr, S.A.Essawy,S.Ragub, Prog.in. Org.Coat
.61(2008)11.
[34] K.Abiola, Corros. and Mater.10(2007)10
[35] K.C.Emregul,M.Heyvali, Mater.Chem.Phys. 83(2004)209.
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AUTHORS
First Author – A.Pasupathy, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India., Tel.: +919003427375, E-mail address:
[email protected](A.Pasupathy)
Second Author – S.Nirmala, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India.
Third Author – P.Sakthivel, P.G and Research Department of
Physics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India.
Fourth Author – G.Abirami, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India.
Fifth Author – M.Raja, P.G and Research Department of
Chemistry, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India.

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ISSN 2250-3153

Cerebroprotein Hyodrolysate in Extra-Pontine


Myelinosis – A Case Report
Sagar Karia1, Radhika Majlikar1, Avinash De Sousa2, Nilesh Shah3
1
Resident Doctor, 2Research Associate, 3Professor and Head, Department of Psychiatry, Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College, Mumbai

Abstract- Extrapontine myelinosis (EPM) is a common co- dependence. He was alright till 3 weeks prior to presentation
occurrence with central pontine myelinosis in head injury and when under the influence of alcohol he met with an accident and
alcohol withdrawal where hyponatremia may be the precipitating suffered a head injury, details of which were not known to
cause. There are not many treatment options available in these relatives and the patient had no memory of the same. He was
cases except a supportive management. We describe here a case admitted in the surgery ward for 7 days and was in semi-
of head injury under the influence of alcohol that also displayed conscious state for 2-3 days. CT Scan of the brain showed
EPM without hyponatremia after alcohol withdrawal in a chronic ‘Linear mildly displaced fracture of left frontal bone involving
alcoholic that responded very well to cerebroprotein therapy. both tables of frontal sinus, comminuted displaced fracture of
lamina, papyracea, ethmoid trabculae, inferior lateral wall of left
Index Terms- Extra pontine myelinosis, cerebroprotein, head orbit and greater wing of left sphenoid bone. The fracture
injury, hyponatremia. fragments impinging on left medial and lateral rectus and
involving inferior orbital fissure. There was another linear and
undisplaced fracture of right petrous temporal bone involving
I. INTRODUCTION walls of the sphenoid sinus and right foramen ovale with hemo-
mastoid. Extadural hemorrhage were seen in left frontal and left
C entral pontine myelinolysis (CPM) is a disease affecting
alcoholics and the malnourished with hyponatremia being a
common cause.1. In approximately 10% patients, CPM is
temporal region’.
On recovery the patient was discharged and went home and
associated with extrapontine myelinolysis (EPM), and this may at home started with altered behavior in form of irrelevant talking
generate parkinsons symptoms and psychotic features. 2 Although that someone was coming to harm him, could see things invisible
the cause and pathogenesis of CPM and EPM remain unclear, to others, was hearing voices inaudible to others, was not able to
many studies have implicated the rapid correction of identify relatives, had decreased sleep at night and would try to
hyponatremia as the major factor associated with CPM, due to run away from home. So was brought to our hospital
exposing the pontine glia and extrapontine glia to osmotic stress. 3 immediately and admitted in medicine ward for his delirium state
Cerebroprotein hydrolysate is an unique neurotrophic 2-3 days after admission he got better and stopped irrelevant
peptidergic mixture produced by standardized enzymatic talking and running away behavior. But he stopped talking, also
breakdown of lipid-free porcine brain proteins.4 It has unique started developing rigidity of limbs and tremors of body. He was
neurotrophic activity that enhances neurogenesis, neuronal incontinent too. He was not able to walk or get up from lying
survival, provides neuromodulatory action, increases neuronal down position. He became bed ridden. He could not do any of his
plasticity and neuronal repair and has neuroimmunotrophic personal chores and had to be assisted in everything. An MRI
actions.5 It has been found in animal studies that early Brain showed ‘Bilateral caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus,
intervention with cerebrolysin reduces blood-brain and blood- insular cortex, splenium of corpus callosum which were T2 and
cerebrospinal fluid barriers permeability changes, attenuates FLAIR hyperintense that meant subtle restriction of diffusion
brain pathology and brain edema, and mitigates functional most likely secondary to hypoxic ischemic changes and
deficits caused by traumatic brain injury.6 It improved brain extrapontine myelinosis. The patient was diagnosed as hypoxic
bioelectrical activity i.e. reduced EEG ratio by increasing fast ischemic encephalopathy and extrapontine myelinosis in a case
frequencies and reducing slow activities and also enhanced of head injury with subdural hematoma and subarachnoid
cognitive performance in tasks evaluating attention and memory hemorrhage. Extradural collection in left frontal and left
functions in postacute traumatic brain injury patients. 7 We temporal region showing restriction of diffusion with
describe here a case of head injury under the influence of alcohol corresponding low ADC values and thin peripheral rim which
that also displayed EPM without hyponatremia after alcohol blooms on gradient sequences suggestive of extradural
withdrawal in a chronic alcoholic that responded very well to hematoma (subacute). Thin rim of concavo-convex extra-axial,
cerebroprotein therapy. subdural collection noted in right fronto-parietal region of
maximum thickness of 4.8mm which is T2 hyperintense and
FLAIR and T1 hypointense and does not show restriction of
diffusion suggestive of subdural haemotama. Sub arachnoid
II. CASE REPORT
haemorrage in right high parietal region. T2, FLAIR and T1
A 35 year old 8th standard educated, married male furniture hyperintense signal is noted in left anterior ethmoid air cells,
repairer work was referred to us from the internal medicine right sphenoid sinus and right mastoid air cells suggestive of
department in view of further management of alcohol hemosinus and hemomastoideum’.

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His condition did not improve so was referred to psychiatric REFERENCES


department to us after about 2 weeks. We evaluated him and [1] Adams RA, Victor M, Mancall EL. Central pontine myelinolysis: a hitherto
diagnosed him as major neurocognitive deficit disorder due to undescribed disease occurring in alcoholics and malnourished patients.
traumatic brain injury in a case of delirium. We decided to start Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1959; 81 :154–72.
him on cerebroprotein therapy. His Addenbrooke’s Cognitive [2] AshrafianH, Davey P. A reviewof the causes of central pontine myelinosis:
yet another apoptotic illness? Eur J Neurol 2001; 8:103–9.
Examination- (ACE-R) score was 0/100 as he was not able to
[3] Korn-Lubetzki I, Virozub Y, Orbach H. Central pontine myelinolysis after
speak. Also his score on Barthel’s activities of daily living alcohol withdrawal. Isr Med Assoc J 2002; 4: 656-8.
(ADL) was 2. He received 20 injections of cerebroprotein 60mg [4] Hartbauer M, Hutter-Paier B, Skofitsch G, Windisch M. Antiapoptotic
i.v. in 100cc normal saline over 1-2 hour infusion. His condition effects of the peptidergic drug cerebrolysin on primary cultures of
started gradually improving. He started feeding by self after the embryonic chick cortical neurons. J Neural Transm 2001; 108(4): 59-73.
9th injection. He stared walking with support. His rigidity and [5] Sharma HS, Zimmermann-Meinzingen S, Johanson CE. Cerebrolysin
tremors gradually started disappearing. After the 20 th injection reduces blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier permeability change, brain
pathology, and functional deficits following traumatic brain injury in the
his ACE-R was 60/100 and Barthel’s ADL score was 12. On rat. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1199: 125-37.
discharge he was able to feed by self, dress by self, go to the [6] Wong GK, Zhu XL, Poon WS. Beneficial effect of cerebrolysin on
toilet by self. moderate and severe head injury patients: result of a cohort study. Acta
Neurochir Suppl 2005; 95: 59-60.
[7] Alvarez XA, Sampedro C, Pérez P, Laredo M, Couceiro V, Hernández A.
Positive effects of cerebrolysin on electroencephalogram slowing, cognition
III. DISCUSSION and clinical outcome in patients with postacute traumatic brain injury: an
Traumatic brain injury causes functional disability in the exploratory study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 18(5): 271-8.
patient and there are very few medications that may reduce it. [8] Selianina NV, Karakulova IV. The effect of neurotrophic treatment on the
activation of reparative processes in patients with acute traumatic brain
The complex study of cognitive and emotional status, levels of injury. [Article in Russian] Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2012;
serum serotonin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) 112(5): 46-9.
performed in 72 patients with acute traumatic brain injury, with a [9] Chen CC, Wei ST, Tsaia SC, Chen XX, Cho DY. Cerebrolysin enhances
special focus on middle brain injuries (MBI), treated cognitive recovery of mild traumatic brain injury patients: double-blind,
with Cerebrolysin found that cerebrolysin promotes activation of placebo-controlled, randomized study. Br J Neurosurg 2013 [Epub ahead of
print].
neurotrophic processes and improves outcomes of closed
craniocerebral injury.8 A double-blind, placebo-controlled,
randomized study showed that Cerebrolysin improves the
cognitive function of patients with mild traumatic brain AUTHORS
injury (MTBI) at 3rd month after injury, especially for long-term First Author – Sagar Karia, Resident Doctor, Department of
memory and drawing function tested on Mini-Mental Status Psychiatry, Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College,
Examination (MMSE) and Cognitive Abilities Screening Mumbai
Instrument (CASI) scores.9 Cerebroprotein hydrolysate is a Second Author – Radhika Majlikar, Resident Doctor,
medication that acts at a brain level and provides us with an Department of Psychiatry, Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical
effective tool for improving levels of activities of daily living in College, Mumbai
patients of head injury and decreasing their dependence on Third Author – Avinash De Sousa, Research Associate,
caregivers though further trials in large populations and clinical Department of Psychiatry, Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical
trials is warranted. To the best of our knowledge this is the first College, Mumbai
case report of cerebroprotein therapy with a successful outcome Fourth Author – Nilesh Shah, Professor and Head, Department
in a case of head injury with extra pontine myelinosis. of Psychiatry, Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College,
Mumbai

Correspondence Author – Dr Avinash De Sousa, Carmel, 18 St


Francis Road, Off SV Road, Santacruz West, Mumbai – 400054.
Tel – 91-22-26460002. E-mail – [email protected]

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Influence of Promotional Mix and Price on Customer


Buying Decision toward Fast Food sector: A survey on
University Students in Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor,
Depok, Tangerang, Bekasi)Indonesia
Christina Sagala*, Mila Destriani*, Ulffa Karina Putri*, Suresh Kumar*

* Department of Business Administration, President University

Abstract-This research investigates the influence of promotional mix and price on consumer buying decision towards fast food. A
survey of university student in Jabodetabek. Descriptive researched was used to 300 correspondents as the consumer of fast food
products. Data were collected through online questionnaire. The result of questioner then will be analyzed by SPSS statistics, which
are factor analysis, reliability test, and regression analysis. It is found that the promotional mix and price has significant influence
towards consumer buying decision in fast food industry.
Index term-Promotional mix, price, consumer buying decision, fast food sector
1. Introduction

In today’s era, competitive environment is everywhere to stay in competitive market, communication is one of the ways to reach
customers. Communication is also one of the tools to achieve company objective (Fill & Jamieson, 2011). To having customer buy
retailer’s product, retailer should be able to influence customer-buying decision. Consumer buying decision process is consisting of
five stages. There are problem recognition, information search, and evaluation of alternatives, purchase, and post-purchase evaluation.
Furthermore, the process of buying decision may not take all the five stages (Pride & Ferrell, 2012). Unconsciously, the decision to
purchase a product is mainly influenced by promotions and price. Advertising combine with sales promotion and others marketing
tools can have sustainable effect. Promotional mix is one of retailer tools to wooing the customer to buy their products and one of the
major tools in promotion is advertising. As many managers believe, promotion has play important role in creating brand awareness of
the product (Blythe, 2005).

The economic growth of Indonesia in that has grown stable for the past few years. It has grown for more than 6%. Based on a Nielsen
survey in 12 cities in Indonesia, the number of middle and high income people has increased from 42% in 2008 to 62% in 2010. With
these current situations, many retailers start to see Indonesia as a promising market and try to enter Indonesian market. Among the
retailers who want to enter Indonesian market, there are food retailers. One of them is Fast Food retailer.

Due to the globalization, fast food has widely spread across the world, including in Indonesia. As Indonesian is becoming richer, they
tend to qualifying food as a want not a need and as a result they tend to eat more fast food. Furthermore, in 1998 when the economic
crisis strike, the number of fast food restaurant in Indonesia increasing up to 74, 2%(Ramdhani, 2005).Furthermore in 2012, there are
3 brands that dominates market share of fast food industry, there are McDonalds, KFC, and Es Teller 77. McDonalds and KFC are
very known foreign brands that more focus on television advertisement and rapid outlet expansion. Meanwhile, Es Teller 77 more
focuses on below-the-line advertising, familiar menus, and renewal of its outlets (euromonitor.com).

Currently, the existence of fast food is well known and well enthused by people around the world. Therefore, this kind of condition
leads the fierce competition in attracting customers for buying their product then indirectly becomes the favorite food for some people.
Although, many resources that have mentioned about the controversy of consuming this fast food, that not only could cause of
triggering obesity, but also can reduce the bone density (Firdaus, 2012).

To further our understanding, we explore how the promotional mix can influence customer buying decision. More specifically, the
research questions driving this study as follows:

 Does the product price influence customer buying decision?


 To what extent fast food promotions significantly influence customer buying decision?

Later, in this journal the writers will talk about: the literature review of promotional mix and customer buying decision. Then followed
by, the research design and the methodology used in the study. Finally, the writers will discuss about the future implication and the
conclusion.
II. Literature Review

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2.1 Promotional Mix


According to Swastha and Irawan (2008), promotional mix is information flows or one way persuasion which directing someone,
people, or organization to make a demand. Promotional mix is used to expand and penetrate the market, build the company’s image,
provide information, increase and stabilize sales, add value to product and differentiate the products (Williamson, 2012).
Tanner and Raymond (2012) declare that there are several factors that might influence selection of promotional mix such as budget,
product life cycle, product and type of purchase decision, target market characteristics and consumer’s readiness to purchase, what
way consumer wants to be reached, the regulations, competitors and environmental factors and the last is the availability of media. In
order to be able to market the product, budget that available in the firm should be considered. Budget that is available could influence
number of people who got influence by the promotion and how often the promotion influences the people. Furthermore, each product
that usually has different life cycle, thus it will result in different promotion. Products that have high quality or require technical
procedure should be promoted by personal selling, thus customer will be more understand on how to operate and maintain the
products. At last, a company could use all kind of media for one product at the same time.
According to Tanner and Raymond (2012), promotional mix consists of 6 variables, there are; firstly, advertising is an activity that
involves identification spreading of a brand using different medium at the same time during the promotion period. Secondly, personal
selling is an activity that involves interaction between buyers and seller. Thirdly, sales promotion which has to be done in order to get
quick response, huge number of sales and repeating purchases. Fourthly, Publicity is a way to promote and improve image of a
company by putting positive perception by public relations. The last, is direct marketing which involves the delivering of personal
promotion material directly to individual customer through mail, catalogs, internet, e-mail, telephone, or direct response advertising
Internet Marketing.
2.2 Price
Price indicates some amount of money that needs to be paid to achieve something (Friedrich, 2004). Some products or services are
purchased based on customer’s perception of price instead of the actual money price (E. S. Asamoah, 2011).
2.3 Consumer Buying Decision
Customer buying decision is a series of choices made by consumer before making a purchase after they have the willing to buy. Pride
and Ferrell (2012) stated that to understand consumer buying decision, the marketer should understand the consumption process and
the utility of products in consumers’ perceptions. They also declared that when purchasing products unconsciously, consumer gets
through several steps in the making of purchase decision, purchase, and post-purchase evaluation. The first step decision is problem
recognition where the consumers are able to differentiate between their needs and wants. Marketers usually use advertising, sales
person, and packaging to stimulate recognition of the needs or wants. The second step is information search where the consumer seeks
the information from their memory about the products, seeking the information from outside sources, such as from friends, relatives,
government reports, publication, sales person, website, packaging label, and display, or by repetition. The third is evaluation of
alternatives where the consumer will establish criteria which consist of characteristic that are important for them. Consumer buying
process can be influenced by circumstances, time, and location. Furthermore, situational factor that can influence on consumer buying
process consists of five categories; the first one is physical surrounding like location, store ambience, or weather. Second is social
surrounding like characteristics and interactions with others. Third is the time dimension. Time playing an important role as the buyer
considers the durability of the product or the frequency of product use. Forth is the reason why consumer buy certain products. The
last is consumer’s condition or feeling might affected to consumer buying decision process.
2.4 Hypothesis
H1: There is aninfluence of Advertising towards purchase decision of fast food consumer
H2: There is an influence of Personal Selling towards purchase decision of fast food consumer
H3: There is aninfluence of Sales Promotion towards purchase decision of fast food consumer
H4: There is aninfluence of Publicity towards purchase decision of fast food consumer
H5: There is an influence of Price towards purchase decision of fast food consumer

III. Methodology
3.1 Sampling

Sample is a part of the population. Sample consists of a number of selected members of the population. By using sample,
general conclusion towards certain population can be established. When doing a research, it would be practically
impossible to collect data from every subject in the population. Even if it were possible, it would create barrier towards
cost, human resource, and time. Sampling is the process of selecting the exact number of samples should be taken for the
research. The exact number must be taken to make sure that the sample is fairly close to the population parameter
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).
In this research, we are going to use Statistical rule of thumb to calculate our sample size. Hereby, the formula;
N>50+8m where, N = Sample size
m= number of questions available in our questionnaire

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In statistical rule of thumb the exact sample size is better be greater than the calculation result (50+8m). So,
since there are 27 questions available in the questionnaire N>50+8 x 27, then N> 266. This means that this
research better be taking more than 266 respondents. Finally, the authors decide to round up the number and
take 300 respondents for the survey (VanVoorhis & Morgan, n.d)
3.2 Data Collection
The data for this research is mainly taken in October to November 2013 via online survey, by Google drive and
email, and probability sampling design. Furthermore, according to Environmental Protection Agency (2002)
probability-based sampling design is involve sampling theory and random selection of correspondents.
Furthermore, Correspondent of online survey will be taken from the people surrounding the researcher who are
willing and has qualification to become potential correspondents.
3.3 Measures

3.3.1 Validity
Validity reflects the compatibility of the research concept with what is implied in the questionnaire. A research
can be classified as valid when there is a precise amount of correspondents answer the questionnaire provided in
order to support the fact written in the research. There are four types of validity that can be identified to
accomplish the research, namely content validity, predictive validity, concurrent validity, and construct validity.
Construct validity will be implemented in this research. Construct validity will be determined by using
exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis to examine factors of empirical data. By operating
empirical data analysis, results can be achieved through the exploratory factor analysis; factor loading, the
rotated simple structure, the plot of Scree test. While, confirmatory analysis will implement priori factor pattern
and indices for goodness of model fit. Finally, the determination of research validity will be obtained from the
factor analysis procedures provided (ChengHsiung Lu , 2008)

3.3.2 Reliability
From the 300 questionnaires as the pre-test, the reliability is analyzed. The reliability test can also be found in
Item-Total Statistic table by seeing the Cronbach’s Alpha for each item. The Cronbach’s Alpha should be
greater than 0.6. The Cronbach’s Alpha of Sales promotion is 0.925 which is greater than 0.6. This means that
the sales promotion is reliable. This will also work for the other variable such as the Cronbach’s Alpha for
Personal selling is 0.873, Advertising is 0.848, Publicity is 0.756, and for Price is 0.678.

3.3.3 Classical Assumption Test


In order to use the multiple regression models, classical assumption test is needed to implement such as
normality test, multicollinearity and heteroscedascity test.
3.3.3.1 Normality
Normality is used to determine whether the data population is normally distributed or not. In order to fulfill the
criteria of using multiple regression analysis, the residual value should be normal distributed. In this study, the
author used the normal distribution by using Probability P Plot.

3.3.3.2 Multicollinearity
Multicollinearity is used to determine whether there is the similarity of independent variable with the other
independent variables in the regression model or not. The similarity among the independent variable will cause
a high correlation among an independent variable with other independent variables. Furthermore, the test of
multicolinearity in a data can be seen through its Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) value that cannot be more than
5 and tolerance value is not less than 0.1 and not more than 1. VIF value is used to determine whether there is
multicollinearity or not. If the value of VIF is greater than 5, then the independent variable has linear relation
towards other independent variables in multicollinearity model. However, if the value is lower than 5, it means
there is no relationship among the independent variables. The independent variables only influence dependent
variable (Y) and it is not influencing each other.

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3.3.3.3 Heteroscedasticity
Heteroscedasticity is used to determine whether there is a variance similarity from the residual value in the
regression model or not. A good regression model should not heteroscedasity. Moreover, the scatter plot of
heteroscedasticity should not create certain pattern.

3.3.4 Multiple Regressions


Multiple regression analysis is a method of analyzing the collective and relationship of two or more independent
variables on a dependent variable (Kanom, 2011).This analysis is aim to know how big the influence of
independent variable, Advertising (X1), Personal Selling (X2), Sales Promotion (X3), Publicity (X4), and Price
(X5) towards customer buying decision (Y) as the dependent variable. The formula of multiple regression of
this study can be written as:
Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + b4X4 + b5X5

IV. Implication and Discussion


4. 1 Data Analysis
Before running the statistic data analysis and multiple regression, KMO and communalities test should be conducted before. Here are
the result for both independent and dependent variables.

4.1.1 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Test


KMO test tells whether the sample size used for the reseach is enough or not to covered the questions in the variable. If the KMO is
greater 0.5, it means the sample size usedfor this research is enough for factor analysis and reability. The significant of Barlett’s test
should be less than 0.05 in order to prove null hypothesis as stated are correct. In this result the KMO value is 0.771 and barlett’s
value is 0.00 which means that the factor model is appropriate for further analysis process. KMO Test result for Four Independent
Variables and Dependent Variablecould be seen in the table 1.2.

4.1.2 Communalities
Communalities test is used to test whether the questions for the variable is sufficient to explain the variable itself. Value of
communalities of each questions must be greater than 0.5, and from the table above shows that the value of communalities is all
greater than 0.5. Therefore, the variable is highly represented by the questions.

4.1.3 Total Variance Explained


The Variance is to explain the eigenvalue of the factors. That eigenvalue itself having a relation with the number of variables. SPSS
extract only total value more than 1.0, because if the total value less than 1.0 it means the contribution of the variance is not sufficient
or it causing redudancy. From the figure 1.3, the variables is explained with strong relationship as 64.7% and can be extracted because
the total value is greater than 1.0.
4.2 Factor Loading and Cronbach Alpha
To see the close relationship between the questions in the same group variable, Cronbach Alpha is used as the standard measurement.
As high the result, it means the relationship is measuring real parts to form something as a whole. The value of Chronbach Alfa and
Loading factors in rotated component matrix is all above 0.6, showing close relationship between the questions in variables.
4.3 Multiple Regression
As stated before in chapter 3, Multiple regression is used to measure the value created from independent to dependent variable.
However, before Multiple regression executed, the data should passed three Classical Assumptions.

4.3.1 Normality
To ensure that the inferences of F-test and T-test are valid, the distribution of residuals should follow a normal distribution. Second
measurement is called as normal probability plot.Without the exact calculation, the assumption of normal probability plot must
supported the normal distribution of residuals by the plot point close to the straight line from which is drawn from the lower left to the
upper right of the graph.

4.3.2 Heterocedacsticity
The residuals scatterplots are spread randomly above and under zero line which means the data have no heterocedasticity problem.
Heterocedasticity can make the statistical test of significant become invalid. Since there is no heterocedasticity, the next process need
to be done is the multiple regression.

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4.3.3 Multicolinearity
Multicolinearity is a correlation between all independent variables. It makes difficulty in the process of making inferences and
multiple regression. There is a strong relationship between independent and dependent variables if the value of tolerance close to 1
and the VIF should be around 1.
The values of all VIFs are around 1 which means the independent and dependent variable have strong relationship. The significant
interval on the table shows the significant possobility of the independent variable in influencing the dependent variable. Looking at the
numbers constanta of the variables, those numbers are all positive, means that thosee four variables giving positive impact toward the
dependent variables.
From the variables that shows in the coefficient table 1.4, started from design, color and innovation, information specified and
material used, all have the significance below >.005 which means that all of these variables has a really strong affect to the consumer
preference.

4.3.4 F-test and T-Test


F-test or simultaneous test which used to check whether all the independent variable simultaneously influence the dependent variable.
The requirement is P-value or the significant of the variables must be less than 0.05. With this result of significant, the hypothesis
stated before is accepted. The F-test result could be seen in table 1.5.T-test is used to test whether particially of each independent
variables are influenced the dependent variable. The requirement is that the significance in Coefficient Table 1.4 is less than
0.05means each independent variable strongly influenced dependent variable.

4.3.6 AdjustedR-square Table


Table 1.6 shows the relationship between all the independent variables’s portion contributed for dependent variable. In Multiple
regression, the precentage shown by Adjusted R-square. The value is 0.415 which means all the independent variables (design, color
and innovation, information specified, material used) contributed 41,5% to dependent variable (consumer preferences).

V. Conclusion and Recommendation


5.1Conclusion
This research is focusing on the factors that can influence the customer buying decision on fast food industry. The hypothesis H1, H2,
H3, H4, and H5 represent the factors that influence customer buying decision towards fast-food. The factors are advertising, publicity,
sales promotion, personal selling, and price. In order to prove that these factors are actually support the hypothesis, the T-test values as
mentioned before should be less than 0.05. As shown in the existing data, all T-test values of all 5 factors are proven to be less than
0.05. Broadly, this means that promotional mix and pricing arranged by fast food companies affect the customer buying decision.
Additionally, in order to know how strong these factors affect the customer buying decision on fast food, R-square table shows that
37.2% of customer buying decision influenced by the company’s promotional mix and price set while, the rest 62.8% is influenced by
other factors. Overall, this percentage proves that promotional mix and price set decently influence customer buying decision on fast
food.
5.2 Recommendation
The result of this research is proving that promotional mix and price only takes 37.2% in consumer buying decision towards fast food
sector. The rest of percentage proves that there are other factors that influence the consumer buying decision towards fast food like
location, product, etc. If the fast food’s retailer wants to have focus on promotional mix and price, the retailer should more focus on
the personal selling. From the other variables of promotional mix and price, personal selling has the most significant relationship
toward consumer buying decision on fast food. Furthermore, by seeing this result, the writers suggest the fast food retailer to
strengthen the personal selling, thus the consumer can get influenced more.

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Rundh, B. (2009). Packaging Design Creating Competitive Advantage with Product Packaging .
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Notes:

Table 1.1

Table 1.2
KMO Dependet Variable Sig .771
KMO Independent Variable Sig .683

Table 1.3Total Variance Explained

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Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings (Total) Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings (Cumulative %)
1.131 64.778

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a. Dependent Variable: AVERAGE CONSUMER PREFERENCE


b.Predictors: (Constant), AVERAGE MATERIAL USED, AVERAGE INFORMATION SPECIFIED, AVERAGE DESIGN,
AVERAGE COLOR AND INNOVATION

Table 1.6
Std. Error of Change Statistics
Adjusted R
Model R R Square the
Square R Square Df Df Sig. F
Estimated F Change
Change 1 2 Change
1 .650a .423 .415 .52094 .423 54.226 4 296 .000

a. Predictors: (Constant), AVERAGE MATERIAL USED, AVERAGE INFORMATION SPECIFIED, AVERAGE


DESIGN, AVERAGE COLOR AND INNOVATION
b. Dependent Variable: AVERAGE CONSUMER PREFERENCE

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A Prominent Analysis on Head Phantom Image using


Correlation Coefficient
Omveer*, Vinith Chauhan**
*
Information Technology Research Academy, Department of Electronics and Information Technology, Govt. of India
**
Electronics and Communication Department, St. Margaret Engineering College, Neemrana, Rajasthan, India

Abstract- 2D projections of the real 3D space are the only Currently the only available information are projections of
available information in the imaging technics like in X- Ray and the spectrum from different angles. Using that 2D information,
MRI. In this paper we study projections of images as generated we try to reconstruct the correct 3D image [8]. This image
by Radon transformation. We implemented an image reconstruction approach, using different projections and angles of
reconstruction algorithm which receives different projections of views, is very popular in many fields such as x-ray scanning,
the original image as input. We performed this experiment using tomography and determination of protein structure. If only two
artificially created image in order to test and verify the algorithm. projections are used some resonances might be cut off by others.
The quality of images reconstructed by an algorithm is most Thus, more projections may be required depending on the
prominent to check. So in this paper, we performed analysis on problem under study.
head phantom MRI image by calculating correlation coefficient,
Cutoff rotation angle for an image and linearity of correlation
coefficient.

Index Terms- Image processing, Radon Transform, Image


Reconstruction, correlation Coefficient

I. INTRODUCTION

T he determination of the 3D structure of macromolecules is


an important field of interest for biology. Nowadays, two
methods dominate this determination: X-ray crystallography and
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) spectroscopy. They have
the ability to produce a detailed picture of the 3D structure of
biological macromolecules at atomic resolution [1,2]. We focus
Figure 1: Example of a typical parallel projection
on the MRI approach.
MRI is a spectroscopic technique that reveals information
In this paper we present an image reconstruction algorithm
about the environment of magnetically active nuclei. An external
introduced by E. Kupce and R. Freeman [18]. Inputs of the
magnetic field is used to align them and this alignment is
algorithm are 1D projection. They are acquired using the Radon
perturbed by an electromagnetic field.
transformation. The algorithm was implemented and verified on
Up to 2003, the number of 3D structures of macromolecules
artificial image shown in figure 2. The correlation coefficient
that has been deposited in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) [4] was
was chosen as a measurement for the resemblance between the
greater than 3150. MRI is also very useful in Structural
reconstructed image and the original one.
genomics. Many efforts are being made in this filed to
supplement the knowledge on the sequence of proteins by
structural information on a genome-wide scale, determined either
experimentally or by theoretical homology modelling [2].
For many years, MRI has been dominated virtually
exclusively by the Fourier Transformation (FT) [3,6]. FT gives a
simple graphical picture of correlations among different
molecular sites within a molecule. But as the spectra is getting
more complex due to more intense magnetic fields, extension to
three or even four dimensions is needed to resolve ambiguities.
This result to an increase to the amount of data acquired and the
required processing time [7]. Figure 2: Head phantom artificial image
Fig.1 illustrates a typical 2D parallel projection. We need to
determine the position and quantity of white matter in brain The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section II
sample image. If we were able to look at the spectrum from presents a mathematical background of Radon transformation
different angles we could get this information. and the reconstruction algorithm. In section III, the acquired

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results are illustrated. Finally, we discuss about future work and g ( s, ) function which is the projection of the 2D function
conclude our paper in section IV.
f ( x, y) on the axis s of  direction. When s is zero, the g

II. METHODS function has the value g (0, ) which is obtained by the
A. The Radon Transformation integration along the line passing the origin of ( x, y) -
The 2D Radon transformation is the projection of the image coordinate. The points on the line whose normal vector is in 
intensity along a radial line oriented at a specific angle as shown
in fig. 1. Radon expresses the fact that reconstructing an image, direction and passes the origin of ( x, y) -coordinate satisfy the
using projections obtained by rotational scanning is feasible. His equation:
theorem is the following: The value of a 2-D function at an
arbitrary point is uniquely obtained by the integrals along the y   cos 
lines of all directions passing the point. The Radon  tan(  ) 
transformation shows the relationship between the 2-D object x 2 sin  ..(i)
and its projections [8].
The Radon Transformation is a fundamental tool which is  x cos   y sin   0 ..(ii)
used in various applications such as radar imaging, geophysical
imaging, nondestructive testing and medical imaging [9]. Many
publication exploit the Radon Transformation. Meneses-Fabian
et al. [10] describe a novel technique for obtaining border-
enhanced tomographic images of a slice belonging to a phase
object. Vítezslav [11] examines fast implementations of the
inverse Radon transform for filtered backprojection on computer
graphic cards. Sandberg et al. [12] describe a novel algorithm for
tomographic reconstruction of 3-D biological data obtained by a
transmission electron microscope. Milanfar [13] exploits the shift
property of Radon transformation to image processing. Barva et
al. [14] present a method for automatic electrode localization in
soft tissue from radio-frequency signal, by exploiting a property
of the Radon Transform. Challenor et al. [15] generalize the two
dimensional Radon transform to three dimensions and use it to
study atmospheric and ocean dynamics phenomena.
Figure 3 illustrates several 1D projections from different
angles at an image consisting of white spots in the 2D domain. In Figure 4: The Radon Transform computation.
some of the projections, only partial spot is shown. This reveals
the importance of the selection of the “correct” projections for
The integration along the line whose normal vector is in 
image reconstruction.
direction and that passes the origin of ( x, y) -coordinate means
the integration of
f ( x, y) only at the points satisfying the
previous equation. With the help of the Dirac “function”  ,
which is zero for every argument except to 0 and its integral is
one,
g (0, ) is expressed as:

g (0, )   f ( x, y)   ( x cos   y sin  ) dxdy


..(iii)

Similarly, the line with normal vector in  direction and


distance s from the origin is satisfying the following equation:

( x  s  cos  )  cos   ( y  s  sin  )  sin   0 


x cos   y sin   s  0 ..(iv)
Figure 3: Different projections on a head image example.
So the general equation of the Radon transformation is
Suppose a 2-D function
f ( x, y) (Fig. 4). Integrating along acquired: [8, 9, 13, 14, 16]
 g (s, )   f ( x, y)   ( x cos   y sin   s) dxdy
the line, whose normal vector is in direction, results in the ..(v)

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The inverse of Radon transform is calculated by the


following equation [12] :

2
f ( x, y )     R sx, y  d

2 ..(vi)

where
R is the Radon transformation,  is a filter and

sx, y   x cos   y sin  ..(vii)


Figure 6: Peaks using three projections.
B. Image Reconstruction Algorithm
Kupce and Freeman [17] presented an image reconstruction The algorithm we implemented is based on the previous
algorithm from a limited set of projections. They suggest a described algorithm of Kupce and Freeman and its steps are:
method of implementing the inverse Radon transformation.
Firstly, they get the projections from different perspectives. Then Step 1: Acquisition of three different projections.
they expand every 1D projection at right angles, so as to create a Step 2: Expansion of the 1D projection in 2D projection maps.
2D map that consists of parallel ridges. The superposition and the Step 3: Padding (with black) of the 2D projections maps in order
comparison of the created 2D projection maps result in the final not to loose information due to the next step.
reconstructed image. Step 4: Rotation of the maps to the correct angle.
Their technique can be explained by the following example: Step 5: Reconstruction of the original image by multiplying the
Suppose the existence of two perpendicular projections of four maps pixel by pixel.
absorption peaks in each one (Fig. 5). From these two
projections, the potential peaks are 16, but not all of them are
true cross peaks. If we take into account another projection at a III. RESULTS
different angle and reapply the lower-value algorithm, we We studied the Radon transformation using Matlab and the
eliminate some potential as being false peaks and we get the Image Processing Toolbox in particular. Initially we created a
image shown in Figure 5. artificial image and applied the Radon transformation in order to
Another projection would refine the solution even further. construct the corresponding projections. Fig. 2 presents an
Usually three projections are enough to have an accurate example of this image which is used in reconstruction for six
definition of the peaks, but if the original spectrum is complex different angles: 0, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 degrees. Even though the
more projections may be required. Because of the discrete nature image consists of also white spot, in some projections, there
of the MRI resonances, the problem converges very rapidly. seem to be partial spots. This proves the need of several
projections in order to verify the correct number of existing spots
and their positions.
We implemented the reconstruction algorithm described in
section II to reconstruct artificially created image. Six projections
were used to reconstruct the original images. The quality of the
reconstruction is measured by calculating the absolute value of
the 2D correlation coefficient between the original image and the
reconstructed one. This gives a value between 0 and 1. As the
value increases, so does the resemblance that exists between the
original image and the reconstructed one.
Figure 8: illustrates six different images that were
Figure 5: Peaks using two projections. reconstructed . Table 1 presents the correlation coefficient for the
different values of the variable projection angle.

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Image : Reconstructed by projection at 20 Image : Reconstructed by projection at 2


degree rotation degree rotation

Image : Reconstructed by projection at 15 Image : Reconstructed by projection at 1


degree rotation degree rotation

Figure 8: Image Reconstruction using 6 different projections

Table 1: Rotation Angle and corresponding Correlation


Coefficient.

Rotation anlge Correlation Coefficient


1 1
2 0.992
5 0.8721
10 0.676
Image : Reconstructed by projection at 10
15 0.5585
degree rotation
20 0.4946

We also noticed that correlation coefficient becomes more


linear as it reaches to 1 or we can say that more rotations in
projection gives better reconstruction of the images. Which is
shown in Figure 9.

Image : Reconstructed by projection at 5


degree rotation

Fig. 9 linearity of correlation coefficient of head phantum


image

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In this paper we tried to define a new term’cutoff rotation [4] David S. Goodsell “The Protein Data Bank: Exploring Biomolecular
Structure” Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research
angle’ which may be defined as the rotation angle at which Institute © 2010 Nature Education
almost 70% of reconstructed image resambles to original image. [5] K. Howard, “Improving NMR/MRI”, Princeton Weekly Bulletin, Feb,
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result. [6] W.P. Aue, E. Bartholdi, and R.R. Ernst, J.Chem. Phys. Vol 64, 2229 (1976).
[7] E. Kupce, R. Freeman, “Fast Multidimensional NMR Spectroscopy by the
Projection – Reconstruction Technique”, Spectroscopy Vol. 19, pp. 16-20,
2004.
[8] A. Asano, “Radon transformation and projection theorem”, Topic 5, Lecture
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[9] A. Averbuch, R.R. Coifman, D.L. Donoho, M. Israeli, J. Wald΄en, Fast
Slant Stack: A notion of Radon Transform for Data in a Cartesian Grid
which is Rapidly Computible, Algebraically Exact, Geometrically Faithful
and Invertible., to appear in SIAM J. Scientific. Computing, 2001
[10] C. Meneses-Fabian, G. Rodr´ýguez-Zurita, and J.F. V´azquez-Castillo
“Optical tomography of phase objects with parallel projection differences
and ESPI”, Investigacion revista mexicana de fisica 49 (3) 251–257 Junio
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[11] V.V. Vlcek, “Computation of Inverse Radon Transform on Graphics
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[12] K. Sandberg, D. N. Mastronarde, G. Beylkina, “A fast reconstruction
algorithm for electron microscope tomography”, Journal of Structural
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[13] P. Milanfar, “A Model of the Effect of Image Motion in the Radon
Transform Domain”, IEEE Transactions on Image processing, vol. 8, no. 9,
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[14] M. Barva and J. Kybic with J. Mari and C. Cachard, “Radial Radon
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1836-1839. ISBN 0-7803-8412-1.
To summarize, in this paper we tried to reconstruct an image
using projections from different perspectives, which we obtained [15] P.G. Challenor , P. Cipollini and D. Cromwell, “Use of the 3D Radon
Transform to Examine the Properties of Oceanic Rossby Waves”, Journal of
with the use of the Radon transform. In order to achieve this, we Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, Volume 28, 2012.
implemented an algorithm, based on the one proposed by Kupce [16] E. Kupce, R. Freeman, “The Radon Transform: A New Scheme for Fast
and Freeman [16]. In the presented examples we used six Multidimensional MRI”, Concepts in Magnetic Resonance, Wiley
projections of the input image, reaching a correlation coefficient Periodicals, Vol. 28, pp. 4-11, 2011
of 1. Future perspectives of the proposed work include the
application of the implemented algorithm to real MRI data, the
application of more projections for the image reconstruction and AUTHORS
the development of heuristics for the determination of optimal First Author – Omveer received the B.Tech degree with honors
projection angles. in Electronics and Communication engineering in 2011 from
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, India. I was with the
Raffles University, Neemrana Since 2011 to Jan, 2013.Now, I
ACKONWLEDGMENT am Working with Information Technology Research Academy,
I would like to thank all those magnanimous persons who DIT (GOI) as Junior Technical Officer.
stood behind me as an inspiration and rendered their full service My research interests are in computer vision, robotics, image
throughout my research. processing, image synthesis, sensors, and parallel algorithms, and
the use of information technology in societal development. My
research emphasizes integrated use of multiple image sources of
REFERENCES scene information to construct three-dimensional descriptions of
[1] S. Venturas, I. Flaounas “ Study of Radon Transformation and scenes.
Application of its Inverse to NMR”, Algorithms in Molecular Biology, 4 Email: [email protected]
July 2005. Second Author – Sh. Vinith Chauhan received the M.Tech from
[2] P. Guntert, “Automated NMR protein structure calculation”, RIKEN R.T.U., Kota .Presently he is Asst. Professor and HOD in the
Genomic Sciences Center, 1-7-22 Suehiro, Tsurumi, Yokohama 230-0045,
Japan, Accepted 23 June 2003.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
[3] Thomas Sangild Srensen*, Tobias Schaeffter, Karsten Østergaard Noe, and
Institute of St. Margaret Engineering College, Neemrana, Raj.
Michael Schacht Hansen India. His current research interests are Computer Architecture,
“Accelerating the Nonequispaced Fast Fourier Transform on Commodity Neural Networks, VLSI, FPGA, etc. He has various research
Graphics Hardware” IEEE Transactions On Medical Imaging, Vol. publications and convened number of sponsored research
27, No. 4, April 2008 projects. He is member of IEEE, Institution of Engineers,

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Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering,


Delhi, and Computer Society of India.
Email: [email protected]

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REVIEW OF CHALLENGES AND STANDARD RESEARCH


CONTRIBUTION IN OPTICAL NETWORKS
KAVITHA G.R
Dept. of Telecommunication Engg.
Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology
Bangalore, India
E-Mail: [email protected]

DR. INDUMATHI T.S


Prof.: Dept. of Telecommunication Engg.
Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology
Bangalore, India
E-Mail: [email protected]

Abstract- The need of more capacity of the network due to exponential usage of internet by users is the concern of majority of the
researchers currently. In line of exploring better solution, it can be said that currently fiber optics has become the core of
telecommunication and data networking infrastructures giving birth to optical networking system. These factors have driven the
deployment of high capacity optical network and their remarkable rapid transmission from the research laboratories into commercial
deployment. However, with the progress of technology taking pace, trade-off is surfaced by the unpredictable traffic situation over the
dynamic users situated world wide that is quite challenging to standardize the performance of the existing optical networks. Hence,
this paper reviews some of the standard and frequently used techniques for mitigating the traffic issues in Optical networking system.
Keywords- component; Optical Communication, Wavelength Routing, WDM, network

Introduction
Optical communication systems [1] and networks will continue to play a significant role in the development
and deployment of emerging network infrastructures. These networks are expected to support the diverse
requirements of a broad range of existing and future applications. To accommodate this wide spectrum of
applications, network infrastructures are evolving rapidly in terms of technology and architecture towards a
more flexible and intelligent optical layer based on Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing [2] (DWDM) that
utilizes new optical switching architectures and technologies as well as advanced control and management
protocols. Optical component technology is rapidly maturing, offering cost-effective solutions to a point where
optical networks are currently being deployed in core backbone networks, and are gaining increased interest for
deployment in metro and access environments. The widespread deployment of optical communication systems
and networks introduces many challenges and opportunities, which this special issue aims to address. At
present, WDM is preferred over other multiplexing technologies [3] since all of the end-user equipment need to
operate only at the peak electronic processing speed where as in TDM and CDM, some part of an end user's
network bandwidth can be divided into multiple non-overlapping frequency or wavelength channels. Each
WDM channel may be operated at any speed, e.g., peak electronic speed of a few gigabits per second (Gbps).
Currently, commercially available optical fibers can support over a hundred wavelength channels, each of
which can have a transmission speed of over a gigabit per second (e.g., OC-48, OC-192, and OC-768 [4] in the
near future). Optical TDM and CDM are somewhat futuristic technologies today. Under (optical) TDM, each
end-user should be able to synchronize to within one time slot. The optical TDM bit rate is the aggregate rate
over all TDM channels in the system, while the optical CDM chip rate may be much higher than each user’s
data rate. As a result, both the TDM bit rate and the CDM chip rate may be much higher than electronic
processing speed, i.e., some part of an end user’s network interface must operate at a rate higher than electronic
speed. Thus, TDM and CDM are relatively less attractive than WDM [5], since WDM - unlike TDM or CDM-
has no such requirement. Specifically, WDM is the recent favorite multiplexing technology for long - haul
communications in optical communication networks since all of the end-user equipment needs to operate only

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at the bit rate of a WDM channel, which can be chosen arbitrarily, e.g., peak electronic processing speed.
Hence, the major carriers today all devote significant effort to developing and applying WDM technologies in
their businesses. Research is ongoing to introduce more intelligence in the control plane of the optical transport
systems, which will make them more survivable, flexible, controllable and open for traffic engineering. Some of
the essential desirable attributes of optical transport networks include real-time provisioning of lightpaths,
enhanced network survivability, interoperability functionality between vendor-specific optical sub-networks,
and enabling operational protection and restoration capabilities. The research efforts now are focusing on the
efficient internetworking of higher layers, primarily IP with WDM layer. The current paper discusses various
traits of issues and their existing countermeasures in Optical networking. The paper is expected to brief the most
related techniques considered in the studies of Optical network. In section 2, the illustration of issues in Optical
network is discussed followed by discussion in Wavelength Division Multiplexing in Section 3. Switching
mechanism in Optical networks is discussed in Section 4 accompanied by Section 5 elaborating Optical packet
Switching. Section 6 Discusses about various multiplexing techniques followed by discussion on prior
established research work in Section 7. Finally, some concluding remarks are made in Section 8.

Approaches in Traffic management


The development of a broadband and ubiquitous Internet is mainly based on optical network technologies for
building high capacity transport and access networks, and on wireless network technologies for providing
ubiquitous Internet accesses. The various approaches in Optical Network in traffic managements are
discussed as follows:

 Traffic Management: Minimum-Fiber and Minimum-Conversion optical network wavelength assignment


problems [6], dealing with assigning wavelengths to network user demands in a fashion that minimizes the
total number of deployed fibers or conversions, respectively. The solution [7] techniques for such issues
perform nearly optimally on all assignment problems for which the optimal solution is known. However,
today it is widely recognized that the traffic expected to be carried by the public transport networks will be
progressively dominated by data, which is growing at explosive rate due to the migration of many
applications and services over IP [8]. Measurement methods using direct per link interface monitoring were
found to perform worse than methods that aggregate per flow bandwidth information extracted from
IP/MPLS ingress nodes in order to derive logical topology link loads. Failure propagation [9] causes if the
choice of clear-channels is realized without taking into account the interaction between the two levels.
 Traffic Protection: In a wavelength-routed WDM optical network as well as in other networks, the failure
of a network element (e.g., fiber link, cross-connect, etc.) may cause the failure of several optical channels
[10], thereby leading to large data and revenue losses. Protection schemes can be classified by the type of
routing strategy as link-based versus sub-path-based versus path-based, and by the type of backup-resource
sharing as dedicated versus shared. Similarly, restoration schemes can be classified by the routing strategy,
such as link-based versus sub path-based versus path-based. A brief illustration of the routing aspect for the
protection mechanisms is explained by using following example. Consider the topology shown in Figure 4.
0 18

10 14 19
1 5

11
8 15
6 20
2

16
12 21
3
9 22

4 7 13 17
23

Primary Path
Path-Protection Backup Path
Sub-Path-Protection Backup Path
Link-Protection Backup Path
Figure 1 Path Vs Subpath vs link protection

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The lightpath from node 2 to node 20 has primary path <2, 6, 8, 11, 15, and 20>. Under path protection, the
lightpath can have backup path <2, 1, 5, 10, 18, 19, and 20>. If a link along the primary path (e.g., link <8,
11>) fails, an end node of the failed link (node 8) notifies the source node of the lightpath (node 2) about
this failure, and the source node switches traffic path protection, the lightpath can have backup path <2, 1, 5,
10, 18, 19, 20>. If a link along the primary path (e.g., link <8, 11>) fails, an end node of the failed link
(node 8) notifies the source node of the lightpath (node 2) about this failure, and the source node switches
traffic to the backup path (this is called 1:1 path protection).

 Traffic Grooming: Traffic grooming is a term used to describe how different and low-speed traffic streams
are packed into higher-speed streams [7]. In a WDM optical network, each wavelength can carry several
lower-rate traffic streams in TDM fashion. Regular traffic pattern [11] are considered, as a generalization of
the all-to-all traffic pattern and focused on the Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring (UPSR) networks. The
concept in [7] proved that the traffic grooming problem is NP-hard for the regular traffic pattern in UPSR
networks, and in this paper it was shown that the problem does not admit a Fully Polynomial Time
Approximation Scheme (FPTAS). Grooming of the non-uniform traffic on unidirectional and bidirectional
rings [12], unidirectional rings were mapped onto a linear topology, and then a two-step approach had been
developed to solve the grooming problem, while minimizing the number of the wavelengths and the ADMs,
for the mapped topologies. For the first step, an algorithm MIN-STRINGS has been developed that
produces the optimal (minimum) number of strings on a linear topology, while compacting each string with
traffic streams. For the second step, an effective heuristic has been designed to groups strings for each
wavelength such that the numbers of the ADMs used per wavelength are minimized.
 Traffic Coloring: Since lightpath are the basic building block of optical network architecture, their
effective establishment is crucial. The wavelengths assigned must be such that no two lightpaths that share a
physical link use the same wavelength on that link [13]. Once a path has been chosen for each connection,
the number of lightpaths traversing any physical fiber link defines the congestion on that particular link.
Wavelengths must be assigned to each lightpath such that any two lightpaths that are sharing the same
physical link are assigned different wavelengths. The wavelength assignment problem (also known as the
path coloring problem) for a set of lightpaths and their routes, involves assigning a wavelength to each
lightpath such that no two lightpaths share the same wavelength (colour) on a given fiber link. One approach
to solving this problem is to formulate it as a graph-coloring problem. Once a path has been chosen for each
connection, the number of lightpaths traversing any physical fiber link defines the congestion on that
particular link [14]. Wavelengths must be assigned to each lightpath such that any two lightpaths that are
sharing the same physical link are assigned different wavelengths. Assigning wavelengths to different
lightpaths in a manner that minimizes the number of wavelengths used under the wavelength continuity
constraint reduces to the graph-coloring problem.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)


There are basically two ways to increase the fiber capacity in transmissions as discussed in viewpoints of
multiplexing techniques as shown in Figure 2 [20].
B b/s
1

NB b/s
2

(a)

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B b/s
1 λ
1

B b/s λ
1 2 2
λ
1

N λ3
2 λ
2

N λ
3

(b)
Figure 2 Different multiplexing techniques for increasing the transmission capacity on an optical fiber. (a) Electronic or optical time division multiplexing and (b)
wavelength division multiplexing. Both multiplexing techniques take in N data streams, each with B b/s, and multiplex them into a single fiber with a total aggregate
rate of NB b/s.

 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): TDM is a method for transmitting multiple digitized data, voice, and
video signals at the same time over a single communication medium by interleaving pulses that represent
bits from different channels or time slots. Many lower-speed data streams are multiplexed into a higher-
speed stream at the transmission bit rate by means of electronic TDM. The multiplexer combines the lower-
speed streams to achieve the higher-speed stream.
 WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing): WDM is basically the same as frequency division
multiplexing (FDM), which has been used in radio systems for more than a century. The term FDM is used
widely in radio communication, but WDM is used in the context of optical communication, perhaps because
FDM was studied first by communications engineers and WDM by physicists. The idea is to transmit data at
the same time at multiple carrier wavelengths (or, equivalently, frequencies or colors) over a fiber. WDM
allows many channels onto a single fiber without the need for high-speed optoelectronic devices for end-
users. Optical networks with WDM arose to endow with added capacity on existing fibers. WDM has
become a widely accepted technology for meeting growing bandwidth demands. The advantages of WDM
are increased usable bandwidth, reduced processing cost, protocol transparency, and efficient fault handling.
WDM systems are beginning to be deployed in both terrestrial and undersea communication links. The
deployment of WDM in communications networks has brought solutions to satisfy the rapidly increasing
demand for bandwidth capacity introduced by the huge explosion in the public internet. Thus, WDM offers
an excellent platform for carrying IP traffic. WDM technology plays a key role in the internet explosion.
This situation led to research interest in WDM based optical networks, which become the right choice for
the next generation internet networks to transport high-speed IP traffic [15].
WDM and TDM both are methods that increase the transmission capacity and are complementary to each other.
Consequently, most networks today use a combination of TDM and WDM. The critical question today is
determining what combination of TDM and WDM should be used in carriers.

Switching Mechanisms
Network users are increasing day by day and they can transmit not only data but also multimedia applications. It
is essential that the bandwidth and speed of the network have to be enhanced as the number of network user’s
increase every minute.. To cope with the enormous pace of development of optical networks, switching
technologies are introduced. Recently many researchers have proposed new switching technologies in optical
domain. They are Wavelength Routed (WR) networks, Optical Burst Switching (OBS) networks, Optical Packet
Switching (OPS) networks [16]. In an OBS network, various types of client data are aggregated at the ingress
(an edge node) and transmitted as data bursts (Figure 3(a)) which later will be disassembled at the egress node
(Figure 3(b)). During burst assembly/disassembly, the client data is buffered at the edge where electronic RAM
is cheap and abundant.

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E/O

IP/ATM/GbE(data)

 Control Packet


To The Same Ingress
Egress Node To OBS Core

SONET (voice) Burst

(a) Burst Assembly

O/E

IP/ATM/GbE(data)


Control Packet

From OBS
Core
 
Egress
Node To Local
Destinations
Burst
SONET (voice)

(b) Burst Assembly

Figure 3: Burst Assembly/Disassembly at the Edge of an OBS Network

Offset=T
Control Offset*=T-2d Offset*=T-2d
Packet
Control Channel

Data
Burst
Data Channel

Figure 4: Separated Transmission of Data and Control Signals

Figure 4 depicts the separation of data and control signals within the core of an OBS network. For each data
burst, a control packet containing the usual “header” information of a packet including the burst length
information is transmitted on a dedicated control channel. Since a control packet is significantly smaller than a
burst, one control channel is sufficient to carry control packets associated with multiple (e.g., hundreds of) data
channels. A control packet goes through O/E/O conversion at each intermediate OBS node and is processed
electronically to configure the underlying switching fabric. There is an offset time between a control packet and
the corresponding data burst to compensate for the processing/configuration delay. If the offset time is large
enough, the data burst will be switched all-optically and in a “cut-through” manner, i.e., without being delayed
at any intermediate node (core). In this way, no optical RAM or fiber delay lines (FDLs) is necessary at any
intermediate node. Nevertheless, the burst-level granularity leads to a statistical multiplexing gain which is
absent in optical circuit switching. Furthermore, it allows a lower control overhead per bit than that in optical
packet switching. Wavelength Routed networks is also referred as Optical Circuit Switching (OCS) networks.
In OCS, a dedicated end-to-end light path is established for each connection. There is no loss in data in this
technique. However, there will be considerable delay during transmission and less wavelength utilization by
using this technique [17]. OBS networks are characterized by a separation of data and control channels. At first,
a control packet is sent to support intermediate nodes configuration and resource reservation; meanwhile the
source node builds the corresponding burst aggregating incoming packets with the same characteristics; when
intermediate node is ready, the burst is sent optically switched across the network. This means that only control
packets are converted to electrical domain at each hop to take reservation decisions, while the bursts always
remain in the optical domain. There are two major deficiencies in OBS. They are the delay offset between a
control message and its corresponding data burst is based on the diameter of a network and OBS adopts one-
way resource reservation scheme. The delay offset affects network efficiency, quality-of-service, and network
scalability. This one-way resource reservation scheme causes frequent burst collision and, thus, burst loss.
On the other hand, in OPS, messages are transmitted as packets. Here, control and data information travels
together in the same channel. At each switching node, the packet header is processed in the electrical domain
for routing purpose and the packet data is kept in the optical domain. Based on the destination, information
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extracted from the packet header and the control module decides to which output the packet is to be switched
and configures the switch accordingly. Fig. 5 shows a switch for packet arrivals to output fiber, where F is the
number of fiber used and N is number of wavelengths used.
Control Module

1
Delay
Input Node 1 1 Output Node 1

N N

Output Node F
Delay
Input Node F 1
N

N
SWITCH

Figure 5 Architecture of the optical packet switching network


The burst in OBS and the packets in OPS can travel at their freewill by using wavelength while in OCS, data
should travel only in the allocated light path. Hence, wavelengths are efficiently utilized by OPS and OBS. OPS
and OBS are the technologies, which use WDM to transfer the data in optical domain. Both OPS and OBS can
be used to transport IP traffic and ATM traffic. OPS and OBS are optically switched network architectures that
aim to serve higher layer packet based communication protocols. Introduction of OPS and OBS became popular
because they have improved their performance by using WDM, reduction in network capital and operational
expenses.

a) OPS node

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b) OBS node
Figure 6: Comparison of Different Switching Node Architectures

Basic switching node architectures used by various switching paradigms are illustrated and compared in Figure
6. At an optical circuit switching (OCS) node shown in Figure 6(a), once a lightpath is setup, all data carried by
one input λ will go to a specific output λ. Since no O/E/O conversion of data at any intermediate node is needed,
multi-hop transparency (in terms of the bit rate, protocol and coding format used) can be achieved. On average,
the connection duration should be on the order of minutes or longer as setting up or releasing a connection takes
at least a few hundreds of milliseconds. Shorter duration connections needed to accommodate sporadic data
transmissions will result in a prohibitively high control overhead. A major difference between OCS and the
other three approaches depicted in Figure 6 is that in OCS, no statistical multiplexing of the client data can be
achieved at any intermediate node. More specifically, in the core, bandwidth is allocated by one λ at a time,
which is a coarse granularity. In practice, however, most of today’s applications only need the sub- λ
connectivity. In addition, high-bit rate computer communications often involve “bursts” that last only a few
seconds or less. To overcome the above deficiency of the OCS approach, O/E/O conversion can be introduced
above an OCS network in the IP and SONET layers for example. The electronic switching node used in such an
O/E/O approach is depicted in Figure 6(b). Here, statistical multiplexing of the client data at the sub- λ
granularity is possible with electronic processing and buffering (not shown in Figure 6(b)). Since every data
unit needs to go through O/E and E/O conversion, this approach is not scalable enough to support hundreds of
wavelengths, each working at 40Gbps or beyond (the need for which is anticipated in the near future). In
addition, electronic switches are known to suffer from problems such as limited capacity and huge power/space
consumption and heat dissipation in addition to requiring expensive O/E/O conversions. Note that, although not
shown, either an optical cross connect or optical add-drop multiplexor may also be used in conjunction with an
electronic switch for wavelength granularity traffic that does not need to go through the electronic switch. A
hybrid, multi-layer network consisting of such nodes, each consisting of both an electronic switch/router and an
optical cross connect, is one way to combine the strength of the optics and electronics, but certainly not the only
way to do so, and in fact may not be the ultimate long-term solution.
Since OPS and OBS are still in preparatory stage and in experimental phase, the full benefits of these
switching technologies are still to be exploited. OPS and OBS are highly aggressive technologies and OPS
technology is undertaken for study with a viekw to explore the avenues of performance improvement. OPS
technology seems to be more feasible when compared to OBS. In recent times, the optical packet switching has
emerged as one of the most promising technologies for future telecommunication networks. OPS networks
operate in either asynchronous or synchronous mode. Synchronous OPS sometimes referred to as slotted OPS
[18]. In slotted OPS network, all the packets have the same length. Header is placed inside the packet with fixed
timeslot and packet is having a longer duration than the header. In slotted OPS networks, packets with the fixed
length are aligned together with equally spaced timeslots before they enter the switch in each node. Packet
alignment requires the design of optical synchronization stages. So, there is a pre-stage for the packet
synchronization before they are switched by the following optical packet switching stage. This synchronization
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stages increase equipment cost. Hence, it requires complex and expensive synchronization hardware at each
node. In addition, packet chopping and combining for a consistent packet length can be another disadvantage.
This type of network generally achieves a good throughput since the behavior of the packets is regulated. In
asynchronous OPS network, optical packets can have variable lengths. The packets are not aligned and they are
switched one by one ‘on the fly’. Here, the node must be able to handle packets of variable length with variable
inter-arrival times and asynchronous arrivals. The advantage of this technique is that a pre-stage for packet
synchronization can be saved and no packet chopping and combination is required due to its flexibility in
optical packet length. Asynchronous OPS networks generally have lower cost, better flexibility, and robustness.
The asynchronous technique can have a much lower switching throughput than synchronous OPS networks due
to higher chance of collisions between unsynchronized packets. The impact of contention is generally less in
slotted OPS compared to asynchronous OPS. This is because the contention window is smaller in slotted OPS
[19].

Prior Studies
Optical networking, like all of the other networks, has many problems. The objective of this section was to
provide an overview of the research and development work in the area of optical networking that has been
conducted in the past. Peng et al. [21] have propose a BP matching method to characterize the overflow traffic
from one layer to another, resulting in an improved model to calculate the blocking probabilities for fixed
routing in WRON with arbitrary topologies and without conversions. As the moment matching method only
considers the mean moment of the overflow traffic, but ignores the second overflow traffic moment—variance
Their approach is more accurate, which is showed by the final results. Xin [22] have demonstrated an analytical
model is developed for dynamic traffic grooming, allowing heterogeneous data rates for sub-wavelength
connections, arbitrary alternate routing in both logical and physical topologies, and arbitrary wavelength
conversion. The accuracy of the model has been verified by numerical results from simulation.

Shen et al. [23] have developed the virtual nodal degree ranked algorithm for opaque node placement and the
novel MILP-based models for sub-wavelength traffic grooming for translucent optical networks. The models
maximize served sub-wavelength traffic demand and minimize required wavelength capacity. Figueiram et al.
[24] have studies the behavior of two algorithms developed for scheduling multiple light paths requested by
advance reservation. To assess the benefit of each algorithm, they compare the blocking probability introduced
by each of them. The blocking probability is obtained by simulating their behavior on different topologies. This
simulation is based on traces of requests generated by FONTS, their Flexible Optical Network Traffic
Simulator, which provides on-demand and advance-reservation requests with different characteristics.

Nakajima et al. [25] have developed a connector for connecting optical fibers in an aerial optical closure. They
achieved an easy procedure by designing support devices and introducing them into the assembly process.
Moreover, they eliminated the need to re-cut the optical fiber during switching work, and the required working
time was greatly reduced. These technologies are needed to support the future age of large scale optical network
construction. Tian et al. [26] have proposed a wavelength-division-multiplexed (WDM) passive optical network
(PON) to provide conventional unicast data and downstream multicast function. At the optical line terminal
(OLT), for each WDM channel, a dual-drive Mach-Zehnder modulator (DDMZM) is used to generate a sub-
carrier double-sideband differential-phase-shift-keying (DPSK) signal. All the central carriers are separated and
subsequently modulated to deliver the multicast data, while the remaining sub-carrier DPSK signals carry the
downstream uncast traffic.

Lee et al. [27] have design a two-step scheduling algorithm to support multiple bandwidth allocation policies
for Upstream channel access in an Ethernet passive optical network. The proposed scheduling algorithm allows
us a simultaneous approach for multiple access control policies: static bandwidth allocation for guaranteed
bandwidth service and dynamic bandwidth allocation for on-demand dynamic traffic services. Zhang et al. [28]
have generalized the basic structure and the construction scheme of Wavelength Routed Optical Network
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(WRON). They also generalized the routing scheme of WRON and proposed solutions for routing problems
based on the two of the three parameters source node address, destination node address, and routing
wavelength. Future work includes study of fault-tolerance variant of the WRON.

Soares et al. [29] have proposed a new wavelength converter placement scheme called First Load Priority -
FLP, useful for designing and planning of optical networks with sparse partial wavelength conversion
architecture. A performance evaluation of FLP working in different scenarios is provided. Comparing to other
wavelength converter placement schemes like MBPF, TOT and XC, FLP achieved better performance results in
all scenarios studied, very close to that achieved from full complete wavelength conversion architecture.
Yupapin et al. [30] have proposed a new system of a continuous variable quantum key distribution via a
wavelength router in the optical networks. A large bandwidth signal is generated by a solution pulse
propagating within the micro ring resonator, which is allowed to form the continuous wavelength with large
tunable channel capacity. Two forms of solution pulses are generated and localized, i.e. temporal and spatial
solutions. The required information can be transmitted via the spatial solution while the continuous variable
quantum key distribution is formed by using the temporal one.

Lee et al. [31] have proposed and experimentally demonstrate a novel network architecture and wavelength
assignment scheme for multi-wavelength passive optical networks with protection capability. Fiber failure can
be protected and the bidirectional traffic can be restored promptly. Lackovic et al. [32] has aimed was to
compare the topologies using two mentioned categories. The modeling procedure for network dimensioning
with demand CLR constraint has been proposed and applied to the topologies. Basic statistics for the topologies
has been made, and the traffic model used for calculating traffic demands was described. Simple switch
architecture with tunable converters and output buffering has been used. Luo et al. [33] have presented a
network architecture to provide cloud computing using Passive Optical Networks (PONs). It promotes a new
application model of PON, especially for the design and development of next generation PONs. The attractive
features include data-plane provisioning in addition to traditional transmission-pipe functionality, a new way to
subsidize access network deployment investment, as well as high-speed fiber optic resource virtualization.

Conclusion
Due to the recent progress and development of WDM technology, increasing traffic demands can be readily
accommodated in the next-generation optical networks. In spite of the huge amount of capacity provided by a
WDM channel, enhanced network services and network performance improvement can only be achieved with
efficient traffic-engineering mechanisms. The fault tolerant function is essential in order to provide seamless
services to users by protecting their traffic against failures in the optical network because many connections can
be carried on a fiber. Because the capacity of a WDM channel is very large, its bandwidth may not be
efficiently utilized by a single connection. Hence, low-rate user connections need to be efficiently aggregated
through the traffic grooming scheme. The prime objective of this paper was to provide an overview of the
research and development work in the area of optical networking. It can be seen that the bandwidth used can be
shared by many resources and also in the passive optical network system real time live broadcasting can be
possible and the same type of service quality can given to many number of users. However, there is no issue of
heavy load and with GPON that can provide data rate of up to Gbps. It was also witnessed that cable is harder
to splice and OLT ONU control messages consumes valuable bandwidth. In application it is used in broadband
video connection, peer to peer connection and local web hosting. Traffic engineering issues regarding network
survivability, traffic grooming, impairment aware routing, virtual-topology engineering, and coordination
among multiple layers of network architecture need to be reviewed for next generation optical networks based
on Wavelength-Division Multiplexing. An intelligent routing algorithm is especially necessary in the optical
network where signal impairments due to device imperfections might degrade the signal quality. In addition, the
virtual network connectivity (topology) should be flexibly maintained such that dynamic changes to the traffic
demands can be easily absorbed, which can be implemented by the virtual topology engineering method in a

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WDM network. Due to the ever-increasing speed of optical access networks, the bandwidth bottleneck will
move from the first/last mile toward
Metropolitan and wide area networks. To provide higher bandwidth efficiency, current optical metro and core
wavelength switching networks based on reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexers (ROADMs) could be
required to resort to more efficient switching techniques at the sub wavelength granularity in the near- to mid-
term.
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and Networking,Vol 7,Issue 10,pp 846-860.
[10] Crochat Olivier, Boudec Jean-Yves Le, and Gerstel Ornan,2000“Protection Interoperability for WDM Optical Networks”, IEEE/ACM transactions on networking,
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[11] Weichenberg Guy, Chan Vincent W. S., and Medard Muriel, 2009, “Design and Analysis of Optical Flow-Switched Networks”, Journal of Optical.
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[12] R.Ul-Mustafa, A.E. Kamal, Grooming of Non-Uniform Traffic on Unidirectional and Bidirectional Rings.
[13] Johannes Hamonangan Siregar, Hideaki Takagi, Yongbing Zhang, Efficient Routing and Wavelength Assignment in Wavelength-Routed Optical Networks,
APNOMS 2003
[14] Fu-Tai An, Yu-Li Hsueh, Kyeong Soo Kim, Ian M. White, and Leonid G. Kazovsky, A New Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation Protocol with Quality of Service in
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[15] Uyless Black. (2002). Optical Networks: third generation transport systems, Pearson Education
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Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, LNICST 2, pp. 231–242, 2009.
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[18] Steinar Bjornstad, Martin Nord , Torodd Olsen, Dag – Roar, Hjelme, And Norvald Stol, Burst, packet and hybrid switching in the optical core network,
Telektronikk, 2005
[19] Tanenbaum, A.S (1996). Computer Networks, Prentice Hall
[20] Gulzar Ahmad Dar, 2Dr. Hardeep Singh Saini, Wavelength Assignment in Wavelength Division Multiplexed Network: A Review, IJECT Vol. 4, Issue Spl - 3,
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[21] YANG Peng, ZHANG Jie, ZHAO Yong-li, GU Wan-yi. (2012). “Improved wavelength decomposition approach for computing blocking probabilities in
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NETWORKING, VOL. 15, NO. 3, JUNE 2007
[23] Gangxiang Shen e.t. al. (2009).” Sparse Traffic Grooming in Translucent Optical Networks”, Sparse Traffic Grooming in Translucent Optical
Networks,JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 27, NO. 20, OCTOBER 15, 2009
[24] Silvia Figueira*, Neena Kaushik*, Sumit Naiksatam*, Stephen A. Chiappari+, and Nirdosh Bhatnagar. (2004).” Advance Reservation of Lightpaths in Optical-
Network Based Grids”, BROADNETS/GRIDNETS,2004
[25] Nakajima, Tatsuya, et al. "Development of optical connector to achieve large-scale optical network construction." Proceeding of the 55th IWCS/Focus (2006):
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[26] Tian, Yue, et al. "A WDM passive optical network enabling multicasting with color-free ONUs." Opt. Express 16.14 (2008): 10434-10439.
[27] Ho-Sook Lee, Tae-Whan Yoo, Ji-Hyun Moon, and Hyeong-Ho Lee.(2004).” Two-Step Scheduling Algorithm to Support Dual Bandwidth Allocation Policies in
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Design of Automated Hotline Maintenance Robot Using


Haptic Technology
P Vishnu Chithamacharyulu, D Phani Sashanka, G Uday Kiran, Ch. Priyanka

SMBS, VIT University, Chennai Campus, Vandalur-Kelambakkam road, Chennai-600048

Abstract- This paper describes design of a semi-automated robot Robots developed mainly focus to inspect the fault in the
that can inspect power transmission lines accompanied by an line. Further repairing work would be the task for a worker. We
operator situated in the control room. This robot mainly focuses have designed a robot that would inspect as well repair some of
on the most frequent problems faced by the power systems, the major problems associated with the transmission lines. The
hotlines. Thus making in ease of operation and avoiding their life flow chart of the system is shown in the fig.1
risk, at least for few cases, where they can use them
satisfactorily.

Index Terms- Design, analysis, material selection, assembly,


programming, AVR controller, simulation, haptic glove, servo
mechanism

I. INTRODUCTION

T he natural resources for electricity production are unevenly


dispersed in India. The Planning Commission of India has
set a target of 80010MW electric power generation for 2011-
2012 [1]. As the technology is developing transmission of power
using HVDC is coming into light with many added advantages
over the HVAC [2]. This leads to increase of transmission lines
and makes it difficult to maintain. Transmission lines can have
power loss due to many reasons. There are mainly four types of
losses that lead to the major power loss. CONDUCTOR LOSS-
occurs mainly due to current passing through the resistance, Fig.1 Flowchart of HOTLINE MAINTANANCE ROBOT
DIELECTRIC LOSS- due to voltage across insulation, SHEATH production
LOSS-occurs because of induced current in the sheath and the
INTERSHEATH LOSS- caused due to formation of circulating
currents between the sheaths in loops of different phases [3]. II. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Maintenance of electrical transmission lines is an essential Here is a proposal for altering the risk of human loss during
activity in power grid sector. There are mainly two types of supervision by replacing a AUTOMATED ROBOT.
testing methods in the hot-line maintenances department, The robot is designed for the following functions:
HOTSTICK and BAREHAND technique [4].  To travel on the charged single conductor without any
Robotics and automation is taking a very rapid growth from throttle or imbalance.
the past few decades [5]. The robotics technology has even
 To check the contact resistance of a contact, using a
reached into power grid field. We have many robots that are
micro-ohm meter.
available with their own working methodology in maintaining
 To tighten/loosen the contact nuts and bolts to reduce
the transmission systems. Expliner-a robot running on high
the contact resistance.
voltage live lines in Japan (Paulo Debenest, et al.,2008). Line-
 To place a COME-ALONG-CLAMP on the charged
Scout Technology, a mobile teleoperated robot working on the
lines, up to 735 kV and 1,000 [8] Obstacle navigation control conductor wire for relieving mechanical stress on the
was introduced for an inspection robot suspended on overhead insulator, for its replacement.
ground wires of power transmission lines (Ren Zhibin and Ruan
Yi,et al., 2008). A double-arm inspection robot was developed
for live line inspection (Xiaohui Xiao, Gongping Wu, and III. MECHANICAL DESIGN
Sanping Li, 2007) [6]. For every system, design is the first and foremost task to be
High electric insulating material has to be selected in order performed. According to the requirement of the robot, shape and
to ensure the safety of the robot. Professional plastic composites size of the body has been designed.
that can work as good insulators at high voltages can suit the best
as per the requirement [7]. A. Link design

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Design of links for the robot has been obtained depending


upon the type and the number of tasks to be performed by the
robot and the number of arms were estimated and designed
accordingly. Links are analyzed using various robotic rotational
and transformational matrices to find the theoretical and practical
movements of the robotic arms.

Fig.4: Design of Pulley to roll over Transmission line

D. Motors Placement Design


Various motors are placed on the robot. As per the
requirement of the robot we have used five D.C. motors and four
servo motors for the robot pulley and arm movements.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2: Design of the LINKS

To test the resistance of the line, the pulley [Fig.2 (b)] arm
is designed such that it could test and send the resistance value
present over the line. Both the pulley arms are equipped with the
clamp-meter for testing before and after performing the task.
Live processing is equipped for the robot in order to view
the working status of the robot. An arm is designed [Fig.2 (c)]
that could show the live video of the transmission line. A
COME-ALONG-CLAMP has to be designed that would be Fig.5: Design of the motors placement
placed on to the transmission line which is used to tighten the
transmission line and maintaining the proper slag angle. E. Assembling of the robot
Assembling of COME-ALONG-CLAMP using the robot arms Assembling the robot arms along with the base of the robot
was designed along with the live streaming arm such that it could and all the other accessories like all the motors, camera model
reduce the linkages. etc. is been performed.
B. Base design
Base of the robot is made according to the movements and
orientation of each and every arm and also as per the task to be
performed by them. In any design, material minimisation has to
be taken care.

Fig.6: Assembling the Robotic parts (Isometric view)


Fig.3: Design of the robot base
F. Material selection
C. Pulley Design The basic parameter that we need to consider in selecting
Pulley is made taking into consideration of the transmission the material is electric insulation. Generally, materials with
line diameter. It is the only part that makes a direct contact with surface resistivity more than 1012 Ω/m2 are considered to be
the high voltage line. Any conduction through this results in total insulating materials.
damage of the robot. However it would be best if it could receive
the power from the line to run.

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We are using RF (Radio Frequency) communication


Fig.7: Resistivity of insulating materials between the robot and the control system. The wireless camera
used for the visualisation of the robotic operations on the high
As per the availability, cost concern and required properties transmission lines is also communicated using the RF.
for the design of the robot, following group of materials are As we are working over the high transmission lines there
chosen to compare and analyse to choose the best material. may be attenuation in the signals that we are sending to the
control system. To avoid these attenuation and noise we have to
use a high-pass filter circuit which eliminates the low
Properties Acrylic Delrin Fiberglass frequencies. The high-pass filter circuit can be as shown below
[14] [15] [12]
Elastic Modulus 10.4 13.7 15.66
(N/mm2)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.35 0.31 0.27
Material density 1.19 1.56 1.89
(kg/m3)
Electrical 1.2×1015 9.3×1014 1.8×1015
resistivity (Ω/m2)
Temperature 99 115 104
resistance (ºC) Fig 2: High-pass filter circuit for avoiding noise.

Table.1: Different material properties that suit the robot The circuit diagram for the robot is done as shown in below
figure 3.
G. Analysis of the robot
The model has undergone stress and strain analysis with
various loads applied at different places. Balancing of the robot
over the transmission line, while travelling is analyzed. The
model is defined with the above three mentioned materials and
the obtained results are compared in order to obtain the best
material.
Mainly analysis has to be done for the pulley that resists the
total body weight over the transmission line.

Fig 3: Schematic diagram of AVR controller

D. Simulation
Fig.8: Pulley analysis under equivalent stress The simulation of the above circuit is done using the
PROTEUS software which is an embedded real-time simulating
software tool. This is a universal software tool used for all types
IV. DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEM of controllers especially ATMEL family.
In the figure, the keypad is used to control the running of
A. Microcontroller the motors. Here we are using four servo motors and two dc
Every automated system has microcontroller as its base. We motors. In the four servo motors, three of them are used for 360
are working on the AVR microcontroller. It is a low power degrees rotation of the arms and one is placed at the joint of one
consumption device and small in size and also cost effective. arm which is used for second movement i.e., the arm has two
degrees of freedom. This arm is used to fix the “come along
B. Motor Driver clamp” on the high transmission lines.
The motor driver IC is used to drive the motors using a 5v
signal source and can also run the motors in both reverse and
forward directions.
This IC can also supply the 12V to the servo motors even
though the controller voltage is of 5V. The speed of the motors in
both forward and reverse direction is controlled using the
microcontroller code.

C. Wireless Transmission

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Algorithm

Fig 4: Simulation of the motors

The two DC motors are used for the forward and backward
movement of the robot. As the dc motor cannot be driven by a
microcontroller alone, we are using a driver IC to drive the Fig 7: Algorithm for the programing
motors as the dc motors require 12V supply to run and the
controller cannot provide that voltage. Hence we use this driver
IC for driving them. The driver IC we are using here is l293d IC. V. DESIGN OF HAPTIC SYSTEM
This IC can drive four motors with single way rotation or two A. Haptic Arm Design
motors with rotation on either way. Here we use only two motors Haptic technology, or haptics, is a tactile
for the movement of the robot, so we are using this IC. This IC feedback technology which takes advantage of the sense of touch
will be having two voltage sources to operate i.e., 12V and 5V. by applying forces, vibrations, or motions of the user. This
The 12V supply is taken by the motors and the 5V supply used mechanical stimulation can be used to assist in the creation of
for the microcontroller. virtual objects in a computer simulation, to control action of such
virtual objects, and to increase the remote control of machines
and devices (telerobotics).The haptic devices incorporate tactile
sensors that measure forces exerted by the user on the interface.
This device is adjusted over the user’s hand like an
exoskeleton has potentiometers on joints like elbow, wrist &
fingers, change in resistance with hand movement.
As we move our hand in order to tightening & loosening of
contacts the haptic glove should move according to our hand
movements which in return should move hand of robot in the
same manner to do work on live transmission line.
Fig 5: Bottom view of the robot showing motors

Fig.3 Tightening & loosening of contacts


Fig 6: Pulley design showing the dc motors The Robotic Arm is designed using the Microcontroller
programming. It works on the principle of Interfacing
The controlling of these motors is done using the keypad. potentiometers and servos. This is done using atmega 16 bit
According to the hardware implementation of the robot the microcontroller. The glove is fitted with potentiometers and the
keypad is replaced with the joystick or using the laptop keys. For servos are attached to the body of the robotic arm. Potentiometer
the purpose of simulation we have used the 4x3 keypad as the converts the mechanical motion into electrical motion. Hence,
input controlling element. The program is burned into the due to the motion of the human arm, the potentiometers produce
controller to so that we can visualize the exact hardware output the electrical pulses, which are the signals for the avr controller.
in the simulation. The board process the signals, which is received from
potentiometers furthermore convert them into requisite digital
E. Programming pulses that are then send to servomotors. This servo will
The programming for the HOTLINE maintenance robot is responds to the pulses and the moment of the robotic arm occurs.
done using the WINAVR software tool.

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The micro controller interfaces all these components specified this we have designed two arms. These both arms will have
above. similar construction but both have mirror images to each other. It
is having a base motor M2 and M3 which are mounted below the
B. Servo Motor base board and above this, a wheel is affixed. Above this wheel a
The servo motors usually have a rotation limit from 90° to servo motor SM2 is mounted on the wheels using ‘L’ clamps.
180° and even some servos also have rotation limit of 360°. These servo motors help to raise or lower the arm on which the
Their rotation is limited to fixed angles. In this system we have fitter mechanism is arranged. They are equipped such that they
used servo motors with a limit of 180º. are controlled using an analog potentiometer. This is connected
to a micro controller which converts the analog signal of the
potentiometer to a pulsated signal, which is understandable by
the servomotor. This setup makes it very ease in replicating the
motions of the operator, and creating a virtual existence of the
operator at the work place.
Whenever there is an activity of tightening of a nut and bolt
mechanism, the robot is moved and positioned on the wire. Then
the controls are used to move and hold the nut and bolt by using
both arms, respectively. Then the holder is made to hold and
opposite arm is made to rotate with sufficient torque, necessary
to tighten the bolts.
Fig.2 Servomotor

C. Potentiometer
The potentiometer’s are used to control the arms at required
position, these potentiometer’s are connected to our hands, As
we move our hand in any position or at any angle, the same
movement is done by the haptic arm, by this we can
tighten/loosen the contact nuts and bolts manually as we can feel
the work is really going on the line on our own hands. Fig.4.2 holder assembly

The last activity of the robot is the placing of the Come-


VI. WORKING AND OPERATION Along-Clamp mechanism. The Come-Along-Clamp is placed on
The task of the robot is to check the contact resistance of the the edge of the arm 1 and it is controlled by using the switch
contact. For this purpose the robot is specially equipped with an controller, then after placing the COME-ALONG-CLAMP on
arm A1, which acts similarly as a human arm. It has a base motor the conductor the arms2 and 3 Holds it while the arm1 detaches
B1 wheel and motor M1 of combination which is compared with the clamp from it. This is a procedure which is difficult to
the shoulder joint. Then there is a joint on the other end of which explain on words, but gives you a great visual experience, of the
a servo motor (SM1) which acts as the elbow joint. To the rotor co-collaborated co-ordination of robots.
shaft a joint is fixed. This fixed arrangement completes the Using the potentiometers by connecting it to haptic glove
construction of the human arm (the comparisons were already we can control the servo movements by moving our hand to
made for better understanding). This is made as a replica of the control the action of robotic arm in the possible way to do the
industrial robotic arm. work.

Fig.4.4 shows complete haptic glove

Fig.4.1 Come-Along-Clamp VII. CONCLUSION


Demand for electricity is going on increasing day by day in
The second task of the robot is to tighten/loosen the contact the world. This leads to construction of more number of power
nuts and bolts. This is accomplished by using a drill type systems and also the transmission systems. This results in
mechanism, which is regularly used to tighten/loosen screws. For difficulty of maintaining all the lines manually being a dangerous

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and tedious task. This paper could suggest an alternative and a bit
easier way to maintain the lines regularly and without any human
loss using a robot.

REFERENCES
[1] Transmission and distribution systems in INDIA, a report by a
joint initiative of WEC- IMC and Power Grid Corporation of India
limited.
[2] J.C. Molburg1, The Design, Construction and Operation of Long-
Distance High-Voltage Electricity Transmission Technologies,
Decision and information division, Argonne National Laboratory,
U.S., Nov-2007.
[3] J. R. Lucas, High Voltage Cables, High Voltage Engineering,
2001.
[4] Live Line Maintenance, Western Area Power Admin., Dept. of energy,
U.S.A.
[5] Live Line Maintenance Manual, Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.
[6] Tomcat Robot developed by Electric Power Research Institute Palo
Alto, California in 1980’s.
[7] R. Aracil, E. Pinto and M. Ferre, Robots for live-power lines,
1995.
[8] Aracil et al., Robotet, 1995.
[9] Expliner-hotline inspection robot, Hibot tech.
[10] Line-Scout Technology, a mobile teleoperated robot, developed at
Hydro‐Québec Research Institute in Canada (Nicolas Pouliot & Serge
Montambault 2008).
[11] Plastic products inc., Bessemer City, NC
[12] List of composite materials- Professional Plastics,
www.professionalplastics.com.
[13] K. S. Sidhu, Electrical transmission line insulation.
[14] Physical properties of Acrylic sheets, AKRYLIK, furniture and
accessories.
[15] Delrin-Acetal resin, Dupoint design guide.

AUTHORS
First Author – P Vishnu Chithamacharyulu, SMBS, VIT
University, Chennai Campus, Vandalur-Kelambakkam road,
Chennai-600048, Email: [email protected] ,
Ph:+918754561061
Second Author – D Phani Sashanka, SMBS, VIT University,
Chennai Campus, Vandalur-Kelambakkam road, Chennai-
600048, Email: [email protected]
Third Author – G Uday Kiran, SMBS, VIT University, Chennai
Campus, Vandalur-Kelambakkam road, Chennai-600048, Email:
[email protected]
Fourth Author – Ch. Priyanka, SMBS, VIT University, Chennai
Campus, Vandalur-Kelambakkam road, Chennai-600048, Email:
[email protected]

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E-Recruitment & E- Human Resource Management


Challenges in the Flat World: A Case Study of Indian
Banking Industry (With Special Reference to ICICI
Bank, Jaipur)
*
Dr. Ankita Jain, **Ankita Goyal
*
Sr. Asstt. Professor & Head, Department of HRM & IB, The IIS University, Jaipur
**
Research Scholar, Department of Management, The IIS University, Jaipur

Abstract- The only imperative vista for an organisation that can


ignite it, and give it a direction to flourish is the workforce of an Index Terms- Traditional Recruitment, E-Recruitment, ICICI, E-
organization. Human resource is the means apparatus for any HRM
organization. Organisation have to recruit people with requites
skills, qualifications and experience, if they have to survive and
flourish in a highly competitive environment. While doing so, I. INTRODUCTION

“T
they have to be sensitive to economic, social, political and legal The Internet Will Help Achieve ‘friction free capitalism’
factors within a country. To be effective they need to tap all by Putting Buyers & Sellers in Direct Contact And
available sources of supply, both internal and external. Internal Providing More Information to Both About Each Other.” – Bill
promotion boost the morale of people and External sources too Gates
need to be explored regularly to bring qualified people with Today the world is based on technology; everything is
innovative ideas. Recruitment of potential staff and bringing getting automated day by day. We heard about trendy attire,
them to the organization is a crucial job for the human resource shoes and brood as well, it is a new creation of inherent
manager in any organization. There are numerous ways they manufacturing. Now the couples can create their own of brood,
companies are adopting for recruiting the talents for their all these are possible now because of technology. Computers are
organisation. It can be done by both the means like internal a very crucial part of human life now; people cannot imagine
sources and the external sources, which includes transfer, there lives without computers. How it is related with HRM and
promotion, press advertisements, educational institutions, recruitment, as we can move in the past and remember how
executive agencies, employment exchanges, labour contractors, complicated it was to send to the resumes to the prospective
employee recommendations, recruitments at factory gates etc. E- employers. But now because of this technology we can send our
recruitment is a concept which have been using by many resumes to numerous employees within a span of clicks, which
concerns now a days, as the world is getting flatter day by day was not feasible in the past. An organization needs to be forward
because of globalization, many new technology and concepts has and aggressive towards the goal they want to achieve, but it all
been derived and huge infrastructural changes has been taking depends upon the fact that what all resources the organisation
place. Likewise human resource management is also undergone a cater from the environment in respect to human resource etc.
huge technological advancement. Internet has a great impact on Today in this race both domestic and international companies are
the overall functioning of human resource department. Human running in this field to pool the best manpower for their
resource functioning whether its recruitment, selection, training, organisation. For getting the best employees for the organisation
induction, database management all are done through internet recruitment considered to be the second main process selection
media. By doing this a concept of E-HRM has came into and staffing are considered to be the main process. In this
existence. E-HRM is a progression in which all the HR plans, recruitment is to get the resume of various candidates in the
policies and practises are undertaking through internet medium. company’s database and in selection the securitization process is
E-Recruitment is an internet media through which job seekers done in which the deserving candidates are selected and in the
can apply for vacancies online. Here the job seekers can attach staffing process the selected candidates are placed in the right
their curriculum vitae and application form and the recruiters can position. E-Recruitment is involving the information technology
get the detail of the candidates. The aim of this research paper is for hiring the employees to reach the masses and to save time. E-
to determine what all E-Recruitment strategies are used by the Recruitment falls under E-HRM. It’s completely on the employer
organisations in India after being globalised. For this purpose a how to take the concept of E-Recruitment further. These articles
study has been made in some of the reputed banks of India. This will tells us about the recruitment, e-recruitment and human
study has been conducted in Jaipur city; the study identifies the resource challenges which are faced by the people in ICICI banks
overall processes and methods of e-recruitments, it also study in Jaipur.
whether it’s challenging for the manager and relevant advantages On-Line recruitment helps the organisation to make a cut on
& limitation of E-Recruitment. cost and time taken to choose candidates. On-Line recruitment

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helps the organisation to manage 20%-30% of whirls. recognize and draw the prospective candidates. It is the method
Monster.com is now one of the leading portal providers for both of promoting position vacancies online, and the information
employer and employee. Here the employees can put their CV’s regarding that profile. Two trends which make it obligatory for
for free of charge but the employers are charged for filtration of petite and intermediate sized concerns are to devote in the
CV’s. Monster India has over 5,100 jobs that have been posted equipment for a triumphant e-recruiting plan are demographic
by more than 600 clients. trends and fiscal dearth. Easy availability of information
generates the higher chance of getting the best manpower for the
required position. It also helps the organisation in lowering their
II. RECRUITMENT & E-RECRUITMENT screening cost by maintaining the employee’s details in a
Organization make planning on the basis of which required database; all the employees will be connected to the line manger
number of human resource are determined, then the next step through a central system.
will be the procurement role is to allocate the sources from where
the required manpower can be available & to attract them
towards the organisation. This is known as ‘recruitment’. III. E-RECRUITMENT MUTINY
Organisation has to recruit people with mandatory skills, Internet proved to be the recruiting mechanism in the end of
qualifications and experience, if they want to undergo & prosper 1990’s, and in the early stages of internet recruitment it provides
in exceptionally ruthless surroundings. While doing this they many benefits to the recruiters. It was predicated as that internet
have to be responsive to fiscal, opinionated and lawful factors is the back bone of recruiting business. And it brings a huge
inside a country. In true sense, it is always not easy to find and development in the field of recruiting and makes the world a
select a suitable candidate for a job opening. The recruiter’s single place to work in. The latest trend in recruitment is the ‘E-
choice of a communication medium (e.g. advertising in a trade Recruitment’ or ‘Online Recruitment’. It made the business
journal read by the prospective candidate) may not be much easier for the employer, the employer can select or call his
appropriate; some of the vivid candidates may commence to candidate from anywhere around the world. It also gives huge
view the opening as not in queue with their present prospect (e.g. business opportunities to the organisation. Internet acts as an
tough work, excellent rewards, flexible schedules and so on. One interactive interface between the employers and the job seekers.
of the on the whole non-conventional forms of recruitment
practice is e-recruitment. E-Recruitment is the use of internet to

Figure – 1 Hiring Online Takes off in a Big Way in India

Here 78% candidates are satisfied with online recruitment  Unlimited exposure for both employer and job seeker,
and remaining 54% are satisfied with the traditional written and as the world become the flat world and everyone has an
posted applications. “Temping” or hiring people for a short opportunity to contact one another and grab the chance
length is catching upbeat it provides elasticity, lowers available in the milieu.
predetermined overheads, and cuts down on dreadful hires. But  Advertising cost will be very less as internet will
tempts may lack zeal and vow. This method of recruitment is become a single interface where both the employer and
appropriate for start up enterprises. job seeker come and interact, no middle man is
required.
 Opportunities are unlimited and can immediately grab
IV. E-RECRUITMENT REIMBURSEMENT within a fraction of clicks.
Probable payback of E-Recruitment is –  Employers can maintain their database directly through
portals which are available in various websites.

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 Candidates can apply for as many jobs they want, soon  To make the HR manager to focus on other strategic
after they enter their details into the database. issues like planning & policy formulation.

E-Recruitment is getting more and more popularity
companies are making developing their own websites and form VII. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
corporation with online work boards. Primarily recruitment
E-Recruitment formally implies sourcing of jobs online
market is separated in newspapers, recruitment agencies and
(Ganalaki, 2002). E-Recruitment is also known as online
recruitment portals. Print media is used when they require
recruitment with the help of which the job seekers can send their
middle-to-senior-level-executives. Portals are used when they
CV’s directly to the employer in an electronic form and their on
need entry-level employees (fresher’s), placement agencies only
the other end the employer will receive the CV and can filter is
help to expand the on-line market.
from the other respective candidate’s CV’s (Finn, 2000). By
installing the software like “active recruiting” it is now becoming
much easier for the employer to catch the deserving candidate for
Naukri.com Monster.com + a particular profile, earlier 62 days were required to fill up vacant
JobsAhead.com position but now it just require 42 days to fill up the same
No. Of Clients 17,000 6,000 position it is now much easier (willenbrock, 2005). It has been
No. Of Live 80,000 70,000 argued that online recruitment cannot replace the traditional way
Jobs of recruiting but a well implemented online recruitment can help
Revenues Rs. 45 crore (March N.A. the organisation to make their much more easier (caggiano, 1999
2005) & borck, 2000). At the Nike’s headquarter they don’t miss any of
Q4 Revenues Rs. 11 crore (Jan- N.A. the resume they receive, they treat every CV’s to be a
March 2005) prospective one, and the application like “active recruiter” makes
No. Of Resumes Rs. 36 Lakhs Rs. 53 Lakhs it’s much easier for them (Nike’s, 2005).
No. Of 10,000 8,000
Additional Per
Day VIII. INDUSTRIAL CREDIT AND INVESTMENT
CORPORATION OF INDIA (ICICI)
Table – 1 Source: Business Today, July 31, 2005
ICICI is a financial institution which was founded by
industrial credit and Investment Corporation of India. They
follow an online recruitment channel for hiring their candidates,
V. ELECTRONIC HUMAN RESOURCE
and selection is done on the basis of campus written test. Online
MANAGEMENT (E-HRM)
recruitment replaced the traditional method of recruitment. ICICI
The dealing out and diffusion of digitalized HR information Bank invites all employees from every field for the vacant
is called electronic human resource management (E-HRM). Past position for probationary officers too, and one year mandatory
researchers has suggested E-HRM increases the overall training is also provided to them, experienced and trained both
efficiency and working capabilities of HR activities and services. employees can apply for this program. Bank asks their candidates
E-HRM is different for both small scale enterprise and large to prepare their resume properly, because they have to upload
scale enterprise, they difference lies only in goals, but one thing their resume first while applying online.
they are common with is both want cost reduction and higher
profit generation. In smaller organization only HRM specialist & OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
Line Mangers are involved the E-HRM functions. Because of E-
HRM the work which required hours of paper work and  To identify the techniques used for E-Recruitment at
documentation now summarised into minutes with the help of ICICI Bank.
some clicks, with the help of this, HR manager can focus on  To understand the E-Recruitment policy of ICICI Bank.
more strategic issues and HR issues can be handled by HR  To identify how E-HRM becomes a challenge in the flat
specialist or HR executives. E-HRM has completely changed the world.
way in which traditional HRM work, which provides benefit to
both the organisation and the employee individually. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study will provide us with the information on various
policies, techniques and how E-HRM proved to be the tool to
VI. OBJECTIVES OF E-HRM pact with the challenges present in the environment.
 To provide security & privacy to the stored information.
 To reduce the cost of manual documentation. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 To maintain the balance between human resource  AREA OF STUDY The area of study is confined to
demand & supply. employees of ICICI Bank of Jaipur City.
 To faster the rate of decision making related to  RESEARCH INSTRUMENT Structured Questionnaire.
employees.  SAMPLE 100 respondents.

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES Simple Random Sampling


Method.
 DATA COLLECTION Primary data is collected with IX. FINDING & ANALYSIS
the help of questionnaire and secondary data is collected 1. What are the sources of E-Recruitment at ICICI?
with the help of journals, magazines, book, websites etc.
 ANALYSIS OF DATA Data gathered has been
transferred to the coding sheet and analysed with the
help of tabulation

Job Portals In-Built Website All of The Above


6 2 92

Table – 2

Figure – 2

Interpretation In the above analysis it can be seen that the through job portals and 2 percent say has been with the help of
majority of employees says that both Job Portal and In-Build in-built website of ICICI. Job seekers are comfortable by both
websites are used by for the purpose of hiring candidates at the means.
ICICI, and the rest i.e. 6 percent employees say it is only done

2. What factors will you consider in selecting a Job Portal?

Active Resumes Popularity of Relevance of The User Interface All of Above


Portals Profiles
3 10 12 2 73

Table – 3

Figure – 3

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Interpretation From the above table it can be conclude that popularity of the portals, and the remaining 12 percent are saying
in all 98 percent employees are there who think job portals are they considered the relevance factor, 10 percent says they select
the ideal approach of putting their resumes, and the reason why portal according to their popularity, 3 percent say they select on
candidates prefer job portals are 73 percent of them are saying the basis of active resumes and the remaining 2 percent say it
that it’s a user friendly interface, profiles in the portals got some should be user friendly interface.
relevance, their resumes stays active their and because of the

3. Do you have a clearly stated E-Recruitment Policy?

Yes No To Some Extend


83 4 13
Table – 4

Figure – 4

Interpretation From the above table it has been concluded extent it has and 4 percent are saying no they don’t not have
that 83 percent people says that ICICI has a clearly defined and clearly stated policies.
stated E-Recruitment policy, 13 percent are saying to some

4. What is the quality of E-recruitment system?

Recruiting Quick Efficient Database All of Above None of Above


Quality People Response Management
4 9 11 74 2
Table – 5

Figure – 5

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Interpretation From the above data it has been seen that only depends on efficient database management, 9 percent say it
majority of employees are saying that quality of e-recruitment depends upon quick response time, 4 believe that it depends on
system depends on many factors like quality people, quick recruiting quality people and 2 percent say they don’t do not
response time, database management, whereas 11 percent say it consider these factors.

5. Whether the company is providing an efficient and timely E-Training program?

Yes No To Some Extent


76 14 10
Table – 6

Figure – 6

Interpretation From this analysis 76 percent employees are and the remaining 10 percent are saying to some extent they are
saying that they are getting timely and efficient e-training getting the e-training program.
program, 14 percent of them are saying no they are not getting

6. Do you have an appropriate Daily Activity Report (DAR) submission policy?

Yes No
96 4
Table – 7

Figure – 7

Interpretation From this analysis 96 percent employees are department for evaluation and they remaining 4 percent are
saying that they have to submit their ‘daily activity report’ to saying they don’t have to submit their ‘daily activity report’.
their so that they can forward that report to the concerned head of

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7. Does ICICI majorly promote E-Recruitment?

Yes No
84 16
Table – 8

Figure – 8

Interpretation Here the majority of employees are saying


that yes ICICI majorly promotes e-recruitment and the remaining
16 percent are saying no, ICICI do not promote e-recruitment.

8. If No, then how –

Walk-in-Interview Referrals Consultancy Advertisement

4 (25%) 4 (25%) 6 (37.5%) 2 (12.5%)


Table – 9

Figure – 9

Interpretation In the above interpretation it has been seen


that 16 percent employees are saying that the company do not X. LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
promote e-recruitment, from these 16 percent employees 4 are
 Employees are averse to talk on these issues.
saying they generally promote walk-in-interview, other 4 are
 Candidates who are programmed for interview don’t
saying they promote recruitment through referrals, 6 percent are
turn up.
saying they promote recruitment through consultancy and the
remaining 2 percent are saying they promote through  Employees ask a lot of counter questions on the task.
advertisement.  Populace didn’t reveal much about their job.

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XI. SUGGESTION/RECOMMENDATION ([email protected]), Ph: 8890907115 Address: 601,


The above discussion and from the evaluation process there Shyam Dham Apartment, Near Madho Singh Circle, Madho
are some points on which managers can work upon, like the Singh Road, Bani Park, Jaipur, Rajasthan – 302006.
manager must differentiate between the jobs which are to be
recruited through traditional way of recruiting and which are to
be recruited with the help on online recruitment. The HR
manager must always be vigilant so that they do not interview
the wrong applicant and resultant into wasteful expenditure.
Small online written interview can also be conducted along with
the resume, so that manager can get a good amount of
information about the applicant, which the manager cannot give
just by scrutinizing the applicants resume.

XII. CONCLUSION
Electronic Recruitment has made the job much easier for
both the companies and the job seekers and here the credit goes
to the Software, IT Professionals, Internet, Computer and many
other people who are working back-end. E-Recruitment is an
easiest and convincing way to hire people from any part of the
world and promotes opportunity, it benefits the company to be
recognised globally, E-HRM helps in conveying any kind of HR
policies, training program, and pay slip sheets easily. E-HRM is
based on more systematic & technology theorem, which helps
the HR department to scrutinize employee performance carefully
& accurately. It helps in imparting any HR policy; keep a track
on employees daily activity report (DAR), efficiently helps the
employees in promotion & transfers.

REFERENCES
[1] Ruël, H., Bondarouk T., and Looise J. (2004), “E-HRM: innovation or
irritation. An explorative empirical study in five large companies on web-
based HRM”, Management Revue 15(3): 364–381.
[2] Parry Emma (2011), “An examination of E-HRM as a means to increase the
value of the HR functions”, International Journal of Human Resource
Management, V 22, Issue 5, pp 1146-1162.
[3] Suramardhini Mahisha (2012), “E-HRM paper presentation”, ebstudies.
[4] Dileep K M and Ramesh M (2009), “E-Recruitment: Leveraging
Technology towards Business Excellence”, Business Review, Vol. 4, No. 1
& 2, pp. 75-94.
[5] Bemus, C., Henle, C. & Hogler, R. L. (1998). Internet recruiting and
employment discrimination: a legal perspective. Human Resource
Management Review, 8, 2,149-164
[6] Gupta C.B. (2010),”Human Resource Management”, 1st Edition, Sultan
Chand & Sons. New Delhi.
[7] Rao VSP (2005), Human Resource Management Text & Cases, 2nd
Edition, Excel Books, New Delhi.
[8] Dowling, P.J. & Welch, D.E.(2004).International humanresource
management.4th edition. Thomson, Australia.

AUTHORS
First Author – Dr. Ankita Jain, Sr. Asstt. Professor & Head,
Department of HRM & IB, The IIS University, Jaipur,
([email protected]), Ph: 9783307046, Address: Virasat
Paradise IInd, Plot No. - G1, 170, Mangal Vihar, Gopalpura
Bypass, Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Second Author – Ankita Goyal, Research Scholar, Department
of Management, The IIS University, Jaipur,

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IMPACT OF WORK ENVIRONMENT ON JOB


SATISFACTION
*Dr Ruchi Jain
Head Department of Business Studies, The IIS University, Jaipur

**Surinder Kaur
Research Scholar, Department of Management, The IIS University, Jaipur

Abstract- The work environment can implicate the social relation at workplace and also maintain the relationship between
colleague, supervisor and the organisation. It describes the neighboring circumstances in which employees are working together.
A satisfied, happy and hardworking employee is biggest asset of any organisation. Effective results & productivity for any
organisation is depend on the level of satisfaction of employees and work environment is one of the most important factor which
influence the satisfaction & motivation level of employees. Efficient human resource management and maintain good work
environment or culture effects not only the performance of employee & organisation but also affects the growth & development
of entire economy. This research paper makes effort to study the work environment & work culture in the Dominos pizza. This
study is conducted in Jaipur city only.
Index Term- Work environment, work culture, human resource management, motivation & job satisfaction.

1. Introduction
Dominos essentially provides jobs to a large no. of individuals and thus it is necessary to know the work environment and to
measure employee satisfaction level in the working place. The study has conducted in Dominos in Jaipur city.
Domino's is the second-largest pizza chain in the United States (after Pizza Hut) and the largest worldwide, with more than
10,000 corporate and franchised stores in 70 countries. A Domino's store is the spirit center of a time critical food delivery service
where a team of passionate people aim to deliver a hot and fresh pizza on time, every time.

1.1 Work Environment


The productivity of employees is determined by aninordinatelevel, on the environment in which they work. Work environment
involves all the aspects which act and react on the body and mind of an employee. Under organisational psychology, the physical,
mental and social environment where employees are working together and there work to be analyzed for better effectiveness and
increase productivity. The majorpurpose is to generate an environment which ensures the ultimate ease of effort and eliminates all
the causes of frustration, anxiety and worry. If the environment is congenial, fatigue, monotony and boredom are minimized and
work performance can be maximised.
Work has an economic aspect as well as mechanical aspect and it has also psychological aspect. Effective work environment
encourage the happier employee with their job that ultimatelyinfluence the growth of an organisation as well as growth of an
economic.
The concept of work environment is an actual comprehensive one including the physical, psychological and social aspects that
mark up the working condition. Work environment performs to have both positive and negative effects on the psychological and
welfare of employees. The work environment can be described as the environment in which people are working. Such as, it is
very wide category that incorporates the physical scenery (e.g. noise, equipment, heat), fundamentals of the job itself (e.g.

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workload, task, complexity) extensive business features (e.g. culture, history) and even extra business background (e.g. industry
setting, workers relation). However all the aspects of work environmentare correspondinglysignificant or indeed appropriate when
considered job satisfaction and also affects the welfare of employees.
1.2 Elements of work environment:
Work environment may be divided into three broad components
1. Physical Environment:
 Ventilation & Temperature:
 Noise
 Infrastructure & Interior
 Amenities
2. Mental Environment
 Fatigue
 Boredom
 Monotony
 Attitude & Behaviour of Supervisor & colleagues
3. Social Environment: Social environment denotes to the cluster to which an employees tobe appropriate. Within
anenormousceremonial work group employees form casualcluster in their personal. Employees develop anintellect of belonging
to their cluster. The standards and privileged of the clusterimpact significantly the attitude and behaviour of individual employees.
1.3 Impact of Work Environment on Job Satisfaction
The main aim of this study is to identify the impact of work environment on job satisfaction. However the physical work
environment creates the physical condition that can affect the health of employees. Yet, the way in which the mental environment
creates venomous condition (e.g. fatigue boredom, attitude and behaviour of supervisor and colleagues) for employees and social
environment can affect the confidence level or performance of employees. So, ultimately the work environment can influence the
satisfaction level of employees or else these factors can consequence the performance of overall.
1.4 Characteristics of Work Environment
1. Apparent and Open Communication: In essence, it addresses the employees feel that they are appropriate in the
organisation. However it is necessary for staff to deliberate the organisation’s philosophy, mission and values.
2. Stability of Work-Life: There has to some sort of balance between work and personal life. In general having the sense of
balance will improve job satisfaction among employees.
3. Impartiality:Employees need to identify that they are being impartially rewarded established on their performance.
Impartiality means that the consequences of performance are resolute by the quantity and quality of the performance.
4. Consistency: Consistency means predictability. Subordinates want to know how their supervisor will react in a given
situation. According to management studies consistency is a single most effective standard to establish with your own
leadership.
2. Focus of the problem
To understand the employees are actually satisfied with their working environment and working condition. If employees are not
satisfied, what are the reasons for dissatisfaction of employees with the working environment?
Other focus of problem will be on:
 What benefits & facilities provided in the working place?
 What the gap exist and where one should have modify to have satisfied working condition?

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 Is the work environment main factor for growing the attrition rate?
3. Objectives of the study
 To know the working condition of employees.
 To know the overall satisfaction level of employees.
 To study the factors effecting work environment.
 To analyse the impact of work environment on job satisfaction.
 To ascertain the impactof physical & mental environment on employee performance.
4. Significance of the study
The significance of this study is to understand the work environment of employees at Dominos.
Through this study I came to know:
 The working condition of employees.
 What are the internal & external environment factors or reasons which influence the employees force to leave the job?
 The work environment influencing directly or indirectly with job satisfaction.
5. Research Methodology
 Area of study: The area of study to respondents from Jaipur City.
 Research instrument: Structured questionnaire.
 Sample size: 100 samples.
 Sampling Technique: Convenient& Random Sampling Technique
 Data Collection: The Primary Data has been collected through questionnaire and interview and the Secondary Data has
been collected with the help of journals, magazines, books and internet
 Analysis of Data: Once the data has been collected through questionnaire and interview then the simplest and most
revealing devices for summarizing data is the statistical table. A table will be systematic arrangement of data in column and rows.
The purpose of a table will be simplifying the presentation and to facilitate results.
6. Framework of Analysis
Analysis and interpretation through bar chart:
1. General work environment

FIG 1: GENERAL WROK ENVIRONMENT


Interpretation: General work environment is supportive & positive agreed by 43% employees as well as 14% employees are
strongly agree whereas 37% employees are not agree and 6% are those who are neither agree nor disagree.

2. Duties & responsibilities are equally divided in co-workers.

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FIG: 2 DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES


Interpretation: About 61% employees are agree, 12% employees are strongly agree whereas 23% employees are disagree
with the duties and responsibilities are equally divided in co-workers where 4% employees are neither agree nor disagree.
3. Recreation and refreshment facilities.

FIG 3 RECREATION & REFRESHMENT FACILITIES


Interpretation: 61% employees are agree for providing proper recreation & refreshment facilities in the working place
whereas 16% employees are not agree. So, from the above table it has evaluated that Dominos provide a good refreshment
facility for their employees.

4. Grievance handling

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FIG 4 GRIEVANCE HANDLING


Interpretation: 62% employees are satisfied with grievance handling procedure whereas 14% employees are dissatisfied.
From the above data it has evaluated that Dominos handling grievances of their employees in a good manner.
5. Attitude of Supervisor

FIG 5 ATTITUDE OF SUPERVISOR


Interpretation: From the above data 52% employees are satisfied with the attitude of supervisor whereas 37% employees are
dissatisfied. So, it has evaluated that maximum employees are satisfied but the no. of employees who are dissatisfied are not
very low, therefore we cannot say that attitude of supervisor is moral for all employees.
6. Fun at workplace

FIG 6 FUN AT WORK


Interpretation: 71% employees are satisfied with fun at working place and feel enjoy in working hours whereas only 15%
employees are dissatisfied.Therefore, from the above table it has evaluated that employees working in Dominos are feeling
good and having fun in their working place.
7. Work involves fatigue and boredom

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FIG 7 WORK INVOLVES FATIGUE & BOREDOM


Interpretation: 71% employees said that their work involves fatigue & boredom, whereas 29% employees feel work does not
involvefatigue and boredom. So, from the above data it has evaluated that in Dominos employees feel fatigue and boredom in
the working place.

8. Health & safety facilities

FIG 8 HEALTH& SAFETY FACILITY


Interpretation: 71% employees said that they get proper health & safety facility whereas, 29% employees fell they do not get
proper facilities in the working place. So, from the above thcxat it has evaluated that Donimos has adapt good health & safety
facility for their employees.

9. Problem facing by employees

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FIG 10 PHYSICAL & MENTAL ENVIRONMENT


Interpretation: 69% employees said that they are facing problem of workload and overtime whereas, 27% employees said that
attitude & behaviour of supervisor are not virtuous and only 4% employees are facing problem of noise. So, from the above
data it has evaluated that maximum no. of employees are facing such problem of workload and overtime therefore
oraganisation should adapt some strategies to overcome.
7. Limitation of the study
 Sample may not represent the true population.
 Satisfaction level to environment factor may differ from person to person.
 Study may be absolute because of changing environment and needs.
 Employees were not cooperating.

8. Findings of the study


Subject of the present study has been selected from managerial and non-managerial staff of Dominos from Jaipur city.
 Employees of Dominos are basically well satisfied with theses factors: work environment, duties and
responsibilities, refreshment & recreation facility, grievance handling procedure, fun at workplace, health & safety
facility. Dominos can retain their employees with these aspect.
 However every coin has its two faces head either tail, same as pros and cons are always be there in entirety.
Therefore employees are not satisfied or dissatisfied with these factors: workload & overtime, job includes fatigue &
boredom, attitude of supervisor. These aspects can directly impact on attrition rate or else job satisfaction.
9. Suggestion & Recommendation
 Organisation should adapt virtuous strategies for overcome with the problem related to fatigue and boredom.
Company would be change the job for decay the fatigue and boredom.
 Organisation should divide the work equally for workload or else appoint more employees. As workload stimulus
stress, so company has to take some action.
 Attitude towards the subordinate & colleagues should smooth and positive for effective results.
 Organisation should change the job time to time for avoiding fatigue & boredom.

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10. Conclusion
The result of the study indicates that workload, stress, overtime, fatigue, boredom are some factors to increase job dissatisfaction.
On the other hand good working condition, refreshment & recreation facility, health & safety facility, fun at workplace increase
the degree of job satisfaction. Effectual human resource management and preserving progressive work environmentwould
consequencesthe job satisfaction and performance of organisation as well as entire economy. Hence, for the success of
organisation it is vital to accomplish HRM successfully and find whether the work environment is satisfied for employees or not.
11. References
[1] Paul e specter, job satisfaction, India, Sage, 2001
[2] Dr. C.B. Gupta, human resources management, 2008
[3] Genster DC, Schaubroeck j. work stress and employees health, management 1991
[4] Keller, “satisfaction from job facilities”, Journal of IMS group (bi-annual journal of IMS, Ghaziabad; volume 5 no.1, Jan-June, 2008. ISSN no. 0973-824x)
[5] Wall TD, Parker SK. Job and Work Design. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1998.

Authors
 Dr. Ruchi Jain, Head Department Of Business Studies, The IIS University, Jaipur, [email protected], Add: C/o of Rahul
Godha, Dr. Ruchi Jain, 3-Ka-5, Jawahar Nagar, Jaipur, Raj. Mob:9783307201

 SurinderKaur, Research Scholar, Department of Management, The IIS University, Jaipur, [email protected], Add:
Kiran Nursing Home, Hatwara Road, Shanti Nagar, 4 No. Dispensary, Sodala, Jaipur, Raj. -(302006), Mob:7877316371

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A Survey of routing protocol LEACH for WSN


Bhakti Parmar*, Jayesh Munjani**, Jemish Meisuria***, Ajay Singh****

* Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, UKA TARSADIA University.


**Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, UKA TARSADIA University.
***Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, UKA TARSADIA University.
****Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, UKA TARSADIA University.
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract- Wireless sensor network consists of spatially distributed sensor nodes which sense physical and environmental condition
like sound, pressure, temperature etc and pass the data to the main location through the network. In WSN network life time and node
energy efficiency are two most important terms. One major issue in wireless sensor networks is developing an energy-efficient routing
protocol which has a significant impact on the overall lifetime of the sensor network. Clustering based Energy efficient LEACH (Low-
Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) protocol can effectively increase WSN performance by dynamically changing cluster head.
This paper surveys working of LEACH protocol, its limitations and advancements done in LEACH to improve its performance.

Index terms- wireless Sensor networks, Routing protocols, LEACH, Energy efficiency, Number of Cluster head NCH, network
lifetime.

I. INTRODUCTION
Wireless Sensor networks have emerged as a promising tool for monitoring (and possibly actuating) the physical conditions,
utilizing self-organizing networks of battery-powered wireless sensors that can sense, process and communicate. The requirements
and limitations of sensor networks make their architecture and protocols both challenging and divergent from the needs of traditional
Internet architecture.

A sensor network [1] [4] is a network of many tiny disposable low power devices, called nodes, which are spatially
distributed in order to perform an application-oriented global task. These nodes form a network by communicating with each other
either directly or through other nodes. One or more nodes among them will serve as base station (BS) they communicate with the user
either directly or through the existing wired networks. The primary component of the network is the sensor, essential for monitoring
real world physical conditions such as sound, temperature, humidity, intensity, vibration, pressure, motion etc. at different locations.
Each node typically consists of the four components: sensor unit, central processing unit (CPU), power unit, and
communication unit.

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Figure 1: Structural view of sensor network

The sensor unit consists of sensor and ADC that is Analog to Digital Converter. The sensor unit is responsible for collecting
information as the ADC requests, and returning the analog data it sensed. ADC is a translator that tells the CPU what the sensor unit
has sensed, and also informs the sensor unit what to do. Communication unit is tasked to receive command or query from and transmit
the data from CPU to the outside world. CPU is the most complex unit. It interprets the command or query to ADC, monitors and
controls power if necessary, processes received data, computes the next hop to the sink, etc. Power unit supplies power to sensor unit,
processing unit and communication unit. Each node may also consist of the two optional components namely Location finding system
and Mobilizer. If the user requires the knowledge of location with high accuracy then the node should pusses Location finding system
and Mobilizer may be needed to move sensor nodes when it is required to carry out the assigned tasks.

II. APPLICATION OF SENSOR NETWORK

1) Military: Military situation awareness. Sensing intruders on basis. Battle field surveillances [5].

2) Emergency situation: Disaster management. Fire/water detectors [2]. Hazardous chemical level and fires [4].

3) Physical world: Habitual monitoring. Observation of biological and artificial systems. Environmental monitoring of water
and soil.

4) Medical and health: Sensors for blood flow, respiratory rate, ECG (electrocardiogram), pulse oxymeter, blood pressure and
oxygen measurement. Monitoring people’s location and health condition.

5) Industrial: Factory process control and industrial automation [6]. Monitoring and control of industrial equipment [2].

6) Home network: Home appliances, location awareness (blue tooth [2]). Person locator.

7) Automotive: Tire pressure monitoring [2]. Active mobility. Coordinated vehicle tracking [6].

III. LEACH PROTOCOL

LEACH, which was presented by Heinzelman [9], is a low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy for WSN. The operation of
LEACH can be divided into rounds. Each round begins with a set-up phase when the clusters are organized, followed by a steady state
phase where several frames of data are transferred form the nodes to the cluster head and on to the base station.
Its Main objectives are extension of network life time, reduced energy consumption, use data aggregation to reduce the number of
communication massages.

Figure 2: LEACH network model

LEACH adopts a hierarchical approach to organize the network into a set of clusters. Each cluster is managed by a selected
cluster head. The cluster head assumes the responsibility to carry out multiple tasks.
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The first task consists of periodic collection of data from the cluster members. Upon gathering the data, the cluster head aggregates it
in an effort to remove redundancy among correlated values. The second main task of a cluster head is to transmit the aggregated data
directly to the base station. The transmission of the aggregated data is achieved over a single hop. The third main task of the cluster
head is to create a TDMA-based schedule whereby each node of the cluster is assigned a time slot that it can use for transmission.

The cluster head advertises the schedule to its cluster members through broadcasting. To reduce the likelihood of collisions
among sensors within and outside the cluster, LEACH nodes use a code-division multiple access–(CDMA) based scheme for
communication.

IV. LEACH OPERATION

The basic operations of LEACH are organized in two distinct phases as shown in figure.
(1)Setup phase: cluster-head selection and cluster formation. (2)Steady-state phase: data collection, aggregation, delivery to the base
station.

Figure 3:LEACH phases

The duration of the setup is assumed to be relatively shorter than the steady-state phase to minimize the protocol overhead.

V. LEACH ALGORITHM DETAIL

The operation is divided into rounds, where the each round starts with a set-up phase, when the clusters are organized, followed by the
steady-state phase as shown in algorithm. In order to minimize the load ,the steady-state phase is long compared to set-up phase. The
basic flow chart of the LEACH protocol is shown in the figure.

A. Advertisement phase
Initially, each node decides whether or not to become a cluster-head for the current round. This decision is based in the determined a
priori [8] and the number of times the node has been a cluster-head. This decision is made by selecting the node n choosing a random
number between 0 and 1. If this is less then threshold T(n),the node becomes cluster-head for the current round. The threshold level is
set by:

=0 otherwise

Where the p = desired percentage of cluster heads (in our work p= 0.05),
r = the current round, and
G is the set of the nodes that have not been cluster-heads in the last rounds.
The nodes which are being cluster-head for the current round broadcast advertisement message to rest of the nodes with same
transmit energy. There must be receiver of the non cluster-head on while advertising.
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Figure 4:LEACH algorithm flow chart

After this, each node decide to which it would belongs base on receiving signal
strength of advertising signal. Random cluster-head is chosen in case of the ties.

B. Cluster Set-up Phase


After decided that nodes which it belongs to, it would request to cluster-head to be
part of that cluster. During this phase ,the receiver of all the cluster-head must be
on.

C. Schedule Creation
The cluster-head receives all the messages as request to be part of that cluster. Based on the number of nodes in cluster, it would
creates a TDMA schedule to tell when it can transmits. This schedule is broadcasted back to nodes in that cluster.

D. Data Transmission
As and when TDMA schedule is fixed, data transmission can begin. The data aggregation occurred before transmitting the data to the
base station. Finally the compressed data send to the base station by the cluster-head. This is the steady state operation of sensor
network using LEACH protocol. After certain time these four phase would be repeated.

VI. DISADVANTAGES OF LEACH

1 LEACH does not provide clarity about position of sensor nodes and the number of cluster heads in the network. [9]

2 Each Cluster-Head directly communicates with BS no matter the distance between CH and BS. It will consume lot of its
energy if the distance is far.

3 The CH uses most of its energy for transmitting and collecting data, because, it will die faster than other nodes.

4 The CH is always on and when the CH die, the cluster will become useless because the data gathered by cluster nodes will
never reach the base station.

VII.LEACH IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Many techniques proposed as new modification for LEACH to provide more security & to reduce energy consumption

(1) S-LEACH
Here we introduced a secure hierarchical protocol called S-LEACH, which is the secure version of LEACH. S-LEACH improves the
method of electing cluster heads and forms dynamic stochastic multi-paths cluster heads chains to communicate to the base
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station, In this way it improve the energy-efficiency and hence prolong the lifetime of the network.

(2) R-LEACH
Secure solution for LEACH has been introduced called RLEACH in which cluster are formed dynamically and periodically. In
RLEACH the orphan node problem is raised due to random pair-wise key scheme so they have used improved random pair-wise
key scheme to overcome. RLEACH has been used the one way hash chain, symmetric and asymmetric cryptography to provide
security in the LEACH Hierarchical routing protocol.

(3) LEACH-CC (LEACH-Centralized with Chain)


However, using a central control algorithm to form the clusters may produce better clusters by dispersing the cluster-head
nodes throughout the network. Then a chain routing between cluster-heads is established to reduce the amount of nodes which
communicate with the base station. Further improvement in energy cost for data gathering can be achieved if only one cluster-
head transmits to base station and if each cluster-head transmits only to local neighbor cluster-heads in the data fusion phase.

(4) LEACH-SM
First completely analyze the basic distributed clustering routing protocol LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy),
then proposed a new routing protocol and data aggregation method in which the sensor nodes form the cluster and the cluster-
head elected based on the residual energy of the individual node calculation without re-clustering and the node scheduling
scheme is adopted in each cluster of the WSNs. In the node scheduling scheme (ACTIVE and SLEEP mode) the energy efficiency
is increased near to 50% than LEACH protocol and lifetime of the networks also increased.

VIII. CONCLUSON
In this paper, one of the main challenges in the design of routing protocols for WSNs is energy efficiency due to the scarce energy
resources of sensors. The ultimate objective behind the routing protocol design is to keep the sensors operating for as long as possible,
thus extending the network lifetime. The energy consumption of the sensors is dominated by data transmission and reception.
Therefore, routing protocols designed for WSNs should be as energy efficient as possible to prolong the lifetime of individual sensors,
and hence the network lifetime. Because of this reason LEACH protocol selected. It gives better performance in energy efficiency and
network life time. We can say the advantage of LEACH overcome the problem of WSN and So LEACH modified further for future
work. This modified or improved LEACH gives more better result than normal LEACH.

REFRENCES

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[5] Elaine Shi, Adrian Perrig: Designing Secure Sensor Networks IEEE Wireless Communications, pp. 38-43 (December 2004).
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[7] J N.Al-Karaki, A E.Kamal: Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey,in the proceeding of in IEEE Wireless Communications( Dec. 2004).
[8] Chandrakasan, Amirtharajah, Cho, Goodman, Konduri, Kulik, Rabiner, and Wang. Design Consideration for Distributed Microsensor Systems. In IEEE 1990
Custom Integrated Circuits Conference (CICC), pages 279-286, May 1999.
[9] M. Bani Yassein, A. Al-zou'bi, Y. Khamayseh, W. Mardini “Improvement on LEACH Protocol of Wireless Sensor Network (VLEACH)”, International Journal of
Digital Content Technology and its Applications Volume 3, Number 2, June 2009.
[10]. D. Estrin, R. Govindan, J. Heidemann, and S. Kumar, ―Scalable Coordination in Sensor Networks,‖ Proc.Mobicom ’99, Seattle, WA, Aug. 1999, pp. 263-270
AUTHORS
FIRST AUTHOR: JAYESH MUNJANI, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
UKA TARSADIA University, MALI BA campus, bardoli,
[email protected]
SECOUND AUTHOR:JEMISH MEISURIA, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, UKA
TARSADIA University, MALI BA campus, bardoli, [email protected]
THIRD AUTHOR:AJAY SINGH, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, UKA
TARSADIA University, MALI BA campus, bardoli, [email protected]

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Understanding the Cloud: Towards a Suitable Cloud


Service
Huda S. Alrowaihi

Computer Information Systems, Middle Tennessee State University

Abstract- With the rapid development of databases and data agreement on a definition of cloud computing provided by the
storage technology, the cloud has emerged as a significant aspect National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST):
of nowadays businesses. This embraces the necessity of the
distinction between the cloud services and deployment models in “Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous,
order to obtain a service that fits the user demands. This paper convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool
provides current and potential cloud users with the basic of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks,
knowledge of the cloud services and deployment models. In servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be
addition, this paper highlights the advantages and disadvantages rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
of this technology, while providing the cloud user with methods management effort or service provider interaction. This
to benefit from cloud services in a sufficient manner, and cloud model promotes availability and is composed of
overcome the cloud limitations and risks. five essential characteristics, three service models, and
four deployment models” (Mell & Grance, 2011).
Index Terms- Cloud Computing, Infrastructure as a Service,
Platform as a Service, Software as a Service Kaplan (2008), predicted that cloud computing will be the next
transformation for building virtualization enabled software
(Geelan, 2008). Therefore, considering the cloud potentials in
I. INTRODUCTION changing the future of computing, it is essential to understand the
main characteristics of cloud services and deployment models in
W ith the rapid development of data storage technology,
cloud computing has emerged as a significant technology
trend, and a critical aspect of many businesses (Leavitt, 2009;
order to form accurate selection criteria that would allow users to
choose the services that best fit their business needs.
Zhang, Cheng & Boutaba, 2010). Could computing is considered
a broad term that describes a wide range of services or a stack of The key goal of this research paper is to provide cloud current
services (Keps, 2011). Many scholars and practitioners have and potential users with the basic knowledge about the
attempted to define the Cloud. Klems (2008), defined the cloud similarities and differences of the cloud deployment models and
as an “internet centric software” that differs from the traditional services, and the main benefits and downsides of the cloud. This
single tenant approach of software development, by being research aims to clear the ambiguity in terms of whether or not
scalable, multi-tenant, multi-platform, multi-network, and global the user should adopt this technology, and whether or not the
(Geelan, 2008). While Cohen (2008) described the cloud as a required service is suitable for the user. This paper also describes
broad array of web-based services that allows users to obtain a the main characteristics of cloud computing and cloud services,
wide range of capabilities on a pay-per-use basis (Geelan, 2008). while differentiating the services and deployment models of the
Vaquero, Merino, Caceres, and Lindner (2009), suggested a cloud. In addition, this paper highlights the advantages and
definition of the cloud that focuses of the cloud features, by disadvantages of cloud computing in order to provide
describing it as a large pool of usable and accessible virtualized clarifications for potential users before adopting this technology.
resources such as hardware, development platforms, and Moreover, this research emphasizes the positive aspects of cloud
services. On the other hand, Buyya,Yeo, and Venugopal (2008), computing, by providing users with suggestions to overcome the
proposed their definition of the cloud based on their observation limitations and downsides of cloud services in order to achieve
of what the cloud is promising to be: the highest benefits of this technology.

“A cloud is a type of parallel and distributed system II. CLOUD COMPUTING


consisting of a collection of inter connected and
virtualized computers, that are dynamically provisioned 1) Cloud Characteristics
and presented as one or more unified computing
resource(s) based on service-level agreements The cloud has specific characteristics that makes it distinct
established through negotiation between the service from other similar services. While many scholars and
provider and consumers.'' practitioners have attempted to describe the cloud characteristics,
NIST provided a list of the main characteristics that should be
While the cloud definitions differ in which some are business available in a service to be considered a cloud. These
based definitions and some are technical based, there is an characteristics include:

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• On-demand self-service, which means that the a) Public Cloud


provision of cloud resources has to be on demand The public cloud is based on a standardized cloud computing
whenever it is required by the users, and can be model, in which the resources are provisioned by a third party
accessed through an online control panel; provider, and shared by the users. In addition, the public cloud is
• A broad network access, which means that the service hosted on the premises of the cloud service provider (Mell &
has to be available for access from a wide range of Grance, 2011). The users of a public cloud are billed on pay-per-
devices and from different locations, whether from the use basis, which makes the public could more affordable and
internet or the private network; thus, preferable especially for small businesses. Unfortunately,
• Resources are pooled, according to NIST, the provider’s since the public cloud is based on sharing resources and
computing resources have to be pooled so they can infrastructure with multiple organizations, it rises up security and
serve multiple users by using a multi-tenant model compliance concerns for some users (Naghavi, 2012). In
addition, users in public cloud lack control and visibility over the
according to the users demand. In general, the users
computing infrastructure (Naghavi, 2012). Examples of public
have no control or knowledge over the exact location
cloud –also known as external cloud- include Amazon Web
of the provided resources, however, they may be able Services, Google App Engine, and Customer Relationship
to specify location at a higher level of abstraction (Mell Management (CRM) solutions such as Salesforce.com.
& Grance, 2011);
• Rapid elasticity, which means that the service has to
have the elasticity to scale larger or smaller, depending b) Private Cloud
on the users/business needs; Since the public cloud is not suitable for the security concerned
• Measured service, which means that the service has to users, the private cloud is considered an alternative solution.
be measurable based on the user utilization since users Unlike the public cloud, the private cloud provides an
are billed on a pay-per-use basis as if they are using a infrastructure that is dedicated to a single user or an organization,
utility service (Keps, 2011). and can be managed internally, externally, or by a third party.
The high security level in the private cloud is attributed to the
solely operating infrastructure to each user (Armbrust et al.,
2) Virtualization 2009). While this deployment model is more secure, it is more
expensive than the rest of the deployment models, which makes
it less suitable to small and temporary business, and more
Virtualization plays a significant role in enabling the cloud suitable to large and steady business.
technology, by abstracting computer, network, and storage
platforms from the underlying physical hardware (Vozmediano,
Montero, & Llorente, 2012). In addition, virtualized c) Community Cloud
infrastructures support server consolidation and on-demand Similar to the public cloud, the community cloud also provides
provisioning capabilities, which results in high server utilization shared resources and infrastructure. However, in the community
rates and significant cost reduction (Vozmediano et al., 2012). cloud, the resources and infrastructure are shared only with
Virtualization environments are essential to running cloud data organizations that have similar requirements or organization of
services (Matveev, 2010), since this technology allows multiple the same group. For instance, all the government organization
users of the cloud to use the same resources without having to within a specific state can share the same infrastructure of a
duplicate certain aspect of the hardware (Reavis, 2012). cloud in order to manage data related to the residents in that same
state (Prasad, Choi, & Lumb, 2009). The community cloud rises
3) Cloud Deployment Models up some security, policy, and compliance concerns which makes
it less suitable for security concerned users.

Cloud deployment is the way the cloud is designed so it can d) Hybrid Cloud
provide a particular service (Naghavi, 2012). Choosing the
deployment model is determined by the organizational structure The hybrid cloud combines different cloud deployment models.
and the main purpose of obtaining the cloud services. Thus, the For instance, the hybrid cloud can provide a combination
deployment models are considered user specific (Armbrust, Fox, between the private and the public cloud, in which case an
Griffith, Joseph, Katz, Konwinski, Lee, Patterson, Rabkin, organization can host the security critical data on the private
Stoica, & Zaharia, 2009; Naghavi, 2012). In cloud computing, cloud, and the less security critical data on a public cloud. In
four main deployment models are often distinguished; these four addition, the cloud systems are connected in a manner that allows
models are: public cloud, private cloud, community cloud, and data be easily moved or migrated from one deployment model to
hybrid cloud. Each deployment model has its own characteristics another. This makes the hybrid cloud in the lead among all other
that determine its suitability to a specific organization. cloud deployment modes (Armbrust et al., 2009; Naghavi, 2012).
Although there are more than one cloud in the hybrid cloud, each
cloud retains its unique entity (Naghavi, 2012), while remaining
bonded together in a way that enables data and application
portability (Mell & Grance, 2011). In addition, in the hybrid

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cloud, there is a significant need for each cloud to function in a the tools to program using a programming language that is
synchronized manner in order to handle any sudden rise in supported by PaaS (Keps, 201; Louridas, 2010). Similar to SaaS,
computing requirements (Naghavi, 2012). users of PaaS do not have control or access over the underlying
infrastructure that is used to host their applications. In addition,
PaaS provides a multi-tenant deployment infrastructure for
III. CLOUD DATA SERVICES applications, while providing a simple management framework
and shared infrastructure for applications across organizations
(Baksh, 2009). Moreover, PaaS model provides the users with
Cloud computing is a broad term that describes a wide range of the flexibility to build and deploy standard sets of shared
services, however, it is often described as a stack of services or components with a consistent software stack (Wada, Fekete,
layers (Keps, 2011). Each layer of the cloud allows users to Zhao, Lee, & Liu). Furthermore, PaaS allows users to integrate,
respond to business demands in an effective and efficient test, and modify the web services and database applications,
manner. These layers are: Software as a Service (SaaS), Platform along with providing tools to handle billing and subscription
as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). management (caps, 2011).

1) Software as Service (SaaS) Uses: PaaS is suitable mostly for projects that require interaction
with external parties, or where multiple developers need to work
SaaS is a software delivery methodology that provides users on the same project (Keps, 2011), which makes some project
with multi access as a “one-to-many model” (Keps, 2011) to phases good candidates for PaaS such as application designing,
software and their functions over the internet. By delivering development, testing, and deployment (Keps, 2011;Velte et al.,
software and application services as a web-service, SaaS 2009). In addition, PaaS is suitable for projects that require team
eliminates the need to install and run the application on the users’ collaboration, data integration, and storage applications (Velte et
computers, and thus, simplifies maintenance, support, upgrade, al., 2009). On the other hand, PaaS may not be a good option for
and data management. According to many statistics and reports, applications that require high portability in terms of their hosting
SaaS is the most rapidly growing cloud model (Keps, 2011), location (Keps, 2011). Moreover, PaaS is not suitable for
which indicates that SaaS is the most common model of cloud applications where hardware and software customization is
data services. In addition, when compared with other cloud data critical to the application performance (Keps, 2011).
services, SaaS is considered rather developed, as other cloud
services are still in the initial phase (Matveev, 2010). Mell and 3) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
Grance (2011), explained he roles of SaaS as providing access to
application from various locations through a thin client interface
such as web browser, or through a program interface. In SaaS, IaaS delivers an on-demand scalable hosted infrastructure with
the users do not have any control or management over the virtual server and storage resources, without having to buy and
underlying cloud infrastructure including network service, install the required resources and equipment (Keps, 2011). NIST
operating system, storage, and the applicable privileges and defined IaaS as a cloud computing delivery model in which the
capabilities (Mell & Grance, 2011). consumer uses processing power, storage, load balancers,
firewall, cables networking components or middleware (Mell &
Uses: SaaS is suitable for applications that mainly provide a Grance, 2011), without having control over the cloud
communication line between the organization and the outside infrastructure beneath them (Nasr & Ouf, 2012). Naghavi (2012),
world (Keps, 2011), such as email software and video described the IaaS as the provisioning of hardware related
confessing. In addition, suitable SaaS fields include applications services such as storage and virtual servers, on a pay-as-you-go
that depend on mobile access such as CRM, web analytics, and basis. In addition, IaaS services include simplifying and
web content management (Velte, Velte, & Elsenpeter, 2009). optimizing infrastructure operation, since the applications are not
Moreover, SaaS can be implemented to software that are to be tied to a specific physical server, and data are not attached to a
used for a limited period of time, or for temporary projects single storage device in the IaaS model (Vozmediano et al.,
(Keps, 2011). On the other hand, SaaS may not be a suitable 2012). IaaS provides several benefits from the infrastructure
solution to other situations such as: applications that require an management perspective such as server consolidation to reduce
extreme processing of data; applications where regulations do not hardware and the physical infrastructure’s equipment
permit data to be hosted externally; and similar applications that (Vozmediano et al., 2012). By using IaaS, users are provided
already fulfill the users need (Keps, 2011). with a reconfigured and secured infrastructure (Matveev, 2010).

2) Platform as a Service (PaaS) Uses: Since IaaS provides users with their required
infrastructure, IaaS is beneficial for organizations that require
scalability in their infrastructure and where they have unstable
PaaS provides a platform for creating web applications over the demand on the infrastructure, such as new business that have a
internet, without having the complexity of buying, building, and possibility of expanding in the future (Keps, 2011). In addition,
maintaining the software and infrastructure (Choo, 2010; Keps, businesses with limited capital make good candidates for IaaS
2011; Leavitt, 2009). The PaaS allows software developers to (Keps, 2011) since it provides scalability and the service is on a
write and deploy their own applications by providing them with per-as-you-go basis (Velte et al., 2009). Moreover, IaaS is

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suitable for temporary businesses and business that plan on security, availability, and third-party data control. The traditional
moving to a different location (Keps, 2011: Velte et al., 2009). security includes regular computer and network threats and risks,
However, users should take into their consideration the such as attacks on the virtual machine level used by the cloud
regulation of offshore IaaS providers (caps, 2011). Even though vendor; attacks on the cloud platform level, such as SQL-
IaaS provides users with many advantages in terms of injections and cross-site scripting; attacks on the provider and
infrastructure demands, IaaS might not be the best option for user level such as Social Engineering; and attacks on the
organizations that require a high level of performance and a infrastructure level (Choo, 2010; Chow et al., 2009; Naghavi,
dedicated hosted infrastructure with high capacity (Keps, 2011). 2012). Since cloud resources are virtualized, different users end
up sharing the same infrastructure, which rises up concerns
IV. ADVANTAGES VS. DISADVANTAGES related to architecture, resource isolation, and data segregation
(Lee, 2012).
A) Cloud Data Services Advantages
The second category is availability concerns, which involves
There are many advantages and benefits of cloud data services. the data being available all the time (Chow et al., 2009; Lee,
However, in order to attain these benefits, it is critical that each 2012). Cloud risks that fall in the availability category include
aspect of the cloud platform supports the key design principles server outage, data integrity, and natural disasters (Choo, 2010).
and characteristics of cloud computing (Hogan, 2008). One of In addition, the cloud requires constant internet connection in
the key design principles is scalability (Mell & Grance, 2011), order to obtain access to the data stored in the cloud, which could
which is a critical aspect of nowadays databases and business be a concern since networks are subjected to many issues that
(Harrison, 2010). The cloud provides elastic scalability for could impact the connectivity (Jamil, & Zaki, 2011). Moreover,
businesses (Leavitt, 2009; Wada, Fekete, Zhao, Lee, & Liu, the cloud does not respond with low-speed internet connection
2011) which allows them to scale rapidly whether they are (Jamil, & Zaki, 2011).
scaling larger or smaller without the associated cost and
complexity (Harrison, 2010; Keps, 2011; Leavitt, 2009; Mell & The last category is third-party concerns, which include legal
Grance, 2011). In addition, the business can add more users and and privacy implications, since cloud users lack transparency
capabilities, without the traditional method of adding more control over their data (Chow et al., 2009). In addition, the lack
servers to expand the capacity of usage. This creates an of clear definition of the responsibilities of users and providers
economic friendly pattern, especially for large databases, by may evoke conflict related to third-party concerns in the cloud
minimizing the cost (Choo, 2010; Harrison, 2010) since the (Lee, 2012). There are also issues related to software licenses
cloud model provides its services without the expense of which are based on the number of installations or users.
installing, maintaining and upgrading an on-site infrastructure Therefore, the cloud providers need to acquire more licenses than
and servers. Moreover, all the resources including networking really needed at a given time (Lee, 2012).
requirement and servers are shared in the cloud, which also result
in minimizing costs (Hogan, 2008; Leavitt, 2009). More
importantly, the cloud provides a wide range of services without V. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS
the complexity of buying the hardware and software (Keps,
2011; Leavitt, 2009). The cloud offers a verity of services and deployment models.
Although cloud services are determined by the user’s needs, it is
critical to compare the user’s needs with the suitability of the
B) Cloud Data Services Disadvantages cloud service and deployment model. Therefore, it is essential
that users understand the characteristics of the cloud and the
desired service before adopting this technology. In addition, the
Although the cloud provides many services that can be cloud deployment models should be determined based on the
significantly beneficial to many organizations, there are some criticality of the data that will be stored in the cloud, and the
downsides of this technology. The most common concern in organization’s structure. This means that users’ who prefer
cloud computing is security (Chow, Golle, Jakobsson, Masuoka, spending lower budget on the cloud service, and have less
Molina, 2009; Naghavi, 2012; Reavis, 2012), which actually sensitive data and low security concerns, are considered good
varies in cloud computing based on the deployment models and candidates for the public cloud. In addition, the candidate users
the cloud service (Kandukuri, Paturi, & Rakshit, 2009; Ken, of the public cloud who prefer sharing the resources with similar
2009). Many security issues in the cloud are attributed to the fact organizations or business in the same field are considered good
that all the users or the organization’s information are hosted off candidates for the community cloud. This distinguishes the use of
premises and by a third-party, which means that users lack public and community cloud in terms of candidacy. On the other
control over the infrastructure (Naghavi, 2012). There are also hand, users with more sensitive data and more security concerns,
some privacy concerns with the cloud (Matveev, 2010), and have no restrictions over their budget in terms of the services
especially since the data stored in the cloud is considered a target they get, are good candidates for the private cloud. Users who
for individuals with malicious intent (Huth & Cebula, 2011). seek a combination of the deployment models, for instance, the
security of the private cloud and the low cost of the public cloud,
Chow et al. (2009), categorized the security concerns in the make good candidates for the hybrid cloud since users can use
cloud into three categories; these categories are: traditional more than one deployment model. In addition, the hybrid cloud is

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suitable for business with high and low sensitivity of data, since
they can host the sensitive data in the private could while hosting The cloud has many potentials, and relatively many advantages
the less sensitive data in the public cloud. asides from the ones mentioned in this paper. Therefore, it is
significant that users compare the deployment models, services,
Choosing the right cloud data service depends on the user’s advantages, and disadvantages of this technology in order to have
need, and more importantly, how suitable the service is to the an accurate decision model for whether to adopt this service,
user’s need or business. This means that users who are in quest which service is appropriate, and which deployment model is
for any of the cloud services and characteristics have to consider sufficient for the business needs.
the suitability of the service. For instance, SaaS would not be a
good option for applications that require extreme data processing I. CONCLUSION
(Keps, 2011). In fact, some users consider SaaS while their The cloud is a rapidly developing technology that provides an
current applications fulfill their needs. Therefore, it is critical to alternative to the traditional databases, without the scalability
layout all aspects of all data services and compare the objective limitations associated with the traditional databases. Although
of adopting cloud technology with current available service. In many scholars and practitioners have different definitions of the
addition, considering the cloud limitations is considered with cloud, there is an agreement on the definition provided by NIST.
significant. For instance, users who are seeking the PaaS service In addition, NIST specified the standardized characteristics that
have to consider the programming languages supported by PaaS. define cloud services. Many of the cloud characteristics are
In addition, users who are seeking IaaS should take into their attributed to the virtualization technology that allows multiple
consideration that this service could have some limitations for users of the cloud to use the same resources without hardware
business who need a dedicated infrastructure. and software duplications.
There are many advantages of cloud computing, and many The cloud has four main deployment models that allow the
benefits that make this technology desirable to many users. In cloud to provide its services; these models include public,
addition, the cloud technology has managed to overcome the private, community, and hybrid cloud. The cloud deployment
limitations of the traditional database, and provides scalable and models vary in terms of cost and security level. For instance, the
flexible alternative without the cost, time, and effort of the public and community cloud carry some security concerns due to
traditional database. Although, the cloud technology offers a the shared infrastructure. Thus, they are more suitable for users
wide range of advantages, there are some downsides of this with less sensitive data. In addition, the shared infrastructure
technology. The main concern for cloud computing –mainly the means that users are sharing the resources, and thus, have lower
public cloud- is security that is mostly attributed to the lack of cost. On the other hand, the private cloud is more secured due to
physical control over the data and infrastructure, and other the dedicated infrastructure to each user. Thus, it is more suitable
aspects. Therefore, it is essential that potential cloud users for users with sensitive data or users with high security concerns.
consider both the negative and the positive sides of the cloud Although the private cloud seems more preferable due to the high
before adopting this technology. In addition, it is critical that security as apposed the community and public cloud, the
users seek clarification about the Service Level Agreement dedicated infrastructure makes it more expensive than other
(SLA), which is the document that defines the relationship deployment models. The variety of security and cost, particularly
between the user and the provider. Since the SLA provides among the public and the private cloud, makes the hybrid cloud
clarification in terms of the user’s requirement, complex issues, more desirable since it provides a combination of two or more
and many services related areas, it is critical that the users fully cloud services. This allows users to host the sensitive data in the
understand each aspect of the SLA. In addition, users are advised private cloud and the remaining data in the public cloud. Thus,
to consider reliable cloud providers, since outsourcing the data in result in achieving the required security level and cots saving
the cloud means involving a third-party, which could result in since the cloud users are billed on a per-per-use basis.
many of the risks mentioned in the paper. Moreover, it is advised
that current and future cloud users consider reliable security The cloud provides a wide range of services that include SaaS,
measure. PaaS, and IaaS. Cloud services vary in terms of uses and
suitability. It is critical that users understand the characteristics of
Security is a controversial subject in all data storage the desired cloud service, and its suitable uses in order to decide
technologies, however, the security risks in the cloud can be whether to adopt the service. More importantly, it is critical that
mitigated and avoided by having a sufficient risk management users understand the advantages and disadvantages of the cloud
plan and a business continuity plan to ensure that the critical services in order to achieve the height benefits, yet mitigate or
functions of the business continue in case of disasters. Potential avoid the possible risks. This includes choosing the appropriate
cloud users should not be overwhelmed by the security issues, cloud service and deployment model in order to benefit the
since the cloud offers a verity of innovative business solutions. In business, while choosing a reliable cloud service provider and
addition, the security issues apply to all similar technologies, and considering security measures and a risk management plan, since
not limited to cloud computing. The only aspect however, that security is the most common concern in the cloud. In addition, it
makes the cloud subject to more concerns, is the ownership of is critical to review the SLA while choosing the cloud provider,
data. Therefore, potential users of the cloud are advanced to to avoid any ambiguity in terms of the issues and users'
clarify this ambiguity with the cloud provider before seeking this requirements.
technology.

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Physiological Analysis of Groundnut (Arachis hypogae


L.) Genotypes
Miss.V. M. Dharanguttikar, Miss.V.H.Borkar

Department of Botany, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722, Dist.: Ahmednagar (M.S.), India

Abstract- The present investigation entitled, “Physiological rich in unsaturated fatty acid (80 %), oleic acid and linoleic acid
analysis of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) genotypes” during accounting for 38 to 58 per cent and 16 to 38 per cent,
summer season of the year 2011 at AICRP on Groundnut, Cotton respectively. Among the saturated fatty acids, palmitic acid is the
Improvement Project, M.P.K.V., Rahuri (M.S.). The experiment major one with the proportion of about 10 to 16 per cent, higher
was conducted in a randomized block design (RBD) with twenty iodine value (82 to 106) and refractive index values (1.4697 to
two genotypes replicated two times in single rows with the 1.4719 ND20) indicating its susceptibility to oxidation. Raw
spacing of 30 x 10 cm. The observations on different plant groundnut oil has very good stability (Nagraj, 1995). Yield is a
characters such as Growth studies, phenological traits, dry matter complex trait, governed by many traits and there are ample
studies, various growth parameters, physiological parameters, evidences to show that selections directly for grain yield in plants
protein and oil content, correlation studies and path analysis were are not easy. Thus, any morphological character that is associated
recorded. Various morphological and yield contributing with higher seed yield or which makes a significant contribution
characters determine the productivity of the groundnut to yielding ability would be useful in the improvement of grain
genotypes. The discussion reveals such characteristic which are yield. The basic studies on the basis of morpho-physiological
important in respect of productivity of groundnut. The total dry traits are needed to overcome the yield barriers within the
matter accumulation in vegetative parts get declined and genotypes. There are two physiological approaches to achieve
increased in reproductive parts. The harvest index is the best the target of yield potential. One is Physio-genetic, which
indicator of photosynthetic translocation efficiency of the consists the genotypic differences in physiological traits and
genotype. The genotype TAG-24 maintained highest harvest another one is the Physio-agronomic relates with the
index indicating the better translocation efficiency. The harvest management practices. It is ultimately the morpho-physiological
index is considered as one of the criteria for selection of high variations, which is important for realizing higher productivity as
yielding genotypes. The pod yield of the genotype ICG-8029 and evident from very high and positive association within traits
ICG-8428 was mainly due to favorable yield contributing (Mathur, 1995). Therefore the present study was undertaken with
character like number of pods per plant, number of kernels and the objectives to evaluate groundnut genotypes for physiological
harvest index. AGR was higher at 60-80 DAS than 40-60 DAS traits.
which was declined towards maturity. RGR, NAR decreased
progressively with the advancing age of the crop. The LAI
increased progressively with the advancing age of the crop and it II. OBJECTIVES
becomes rapid upto 100 DAS which was again slowed towards 1.To study the efficiency of physiological parameters of
maturity. Therefore,The knowledge of crop physiology through summer groundnut genotypes.
various analysis technique, which involves tracing the history of 2.To study the dry matter accumulation and its partitioning
growth and identifying growth and yield factors contributing for in summer groundnut genotypes.
yield variation is a vital tool in understanding the crop behaviour. 3.To correlate of physiological parameters with yield.
This would be vital to the breeder as well as agronomist in
tailoring suitable genotype or management technology for
boosting up the growth and yield factors of the crop.
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Index Terms- Morpho-physiological traits, physiological Twenty two groundnut genotypes were evaluated in RBD
parameters, Bio-chemical characteristics, yield and yield with two replications during summer, 2011 at AICRP on
contributing characters. Groundnut, MPKV, Rahuri. Dist. Ahmednagar (M.S.) in single
row of 5 m length with the spacing of 30 x 10 cm under irrigated
condition. FYM @ 10 cartloads hectare-1 was uniformly spread
I. INTRODUCTION in the field and mixed well by harrowing. The basal dose of N: P:
K @ of 25:50:0 kgha-1 was given at the time of sowing. One
G roundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is the fore most important
oil seed crop of India. In terms of area and production, it
occupies an important position among the oil seed crops in the
weeding and one hoeing were carried out as and when required
and field was kept free from weeds. Randomly five plants were
selected for recording the observations on morpho-physiological
world. It has been aptly described as natures masters piece of traits. The observations on morphological traits, dry matter
food values containing 36 to 54 per cent oil with 21.36 per cent production and it’s distribution and physiological parameters
protein and have an energy value of 2,363 KJ/100 g. The oil is were recorded. The photosynthetic rate (Pn), transpiration rate

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(E; mmol m-2 s-1) and stomatal conductance (gs; µmol H2O m-2 s- ICG-8434 (10.2) and ICG-8457 (9.8) had profuse branching
1
) were measured using Infra-red Gas Analyser (IRGA; Model genotypes. The number of leaves and leaf area are important in
Portable Photosynthesis System LI 6400, LI-COR® Inc, Lincoln, determining the size of photosynthetic system (Lopez et al,
Nebraska, USA). The E and Gs were measured continuously 1994). In the present study, ICG-8005 (420.9), ICG-8542 (407.4)
monitoring H2O of the air entering and existing in the IRGA and ICG-8455 (390.6) recorded higher number of leaves plant -1.
headspace chamber. Measurements were made at mid day, The genotype, TPG 41 (24.69 dm2) maintained higher leaf area
between 11:30 and 12:00 eastern day time (1400–1800 mmolm-2 followed by ICG-8401 (22.19 dm2) and ICG-8444 (22.98 dm2).
s -1 PPFD), on top fully expanded third leaf blades. The flow rate The results were in accordance with Rajmane (2001).
of air in the sample line was adjusted to 500 μmol s-1. The water The pattern of the dry matter production and its distribution
use efficiency (WUE) was calculated as the ratio of Pn to E. The into component plant parts has been of phenomenal interest to
protein and fat content from seed samples were estimated on NIR the research workers engaged in yield analysis. This method has
spectrometer (ZEUTEC, Germany Make), is a dual-beam near been accepted as one of the standard method of yield analysis.
infrared spectrometer. In the NIR spectrometer, the sample is All the physiological processes results into a net balance and
exposed near infrared light of specific wavelengths, selected accumulation of dry matter and hence, the biological productivity
from up to 19 high precision interference filters. The light of plant is judged from their actual ability to produce and
penetrated the sample, interacted with sample molecules and is accumulate dry matter. Rate of growth and growth duration are
partly absorbed and partly diffusely reflected. The reflected light integrated into conceptual variables largely correlated with yield
is measured by a lead sulfide (PbS) detector mounted in a gold or total biomass accumulation (Yin et al., 2004; Andrade et al.,
coated integrating sphere located above the sample. The mean 2005; Hammer et al., 2005).
data analyzed for analysis of variance by Panse and Sukhatme The genotype ICG-8434, TAG-24 and ICG-8496 (1.18 g)
(1985). recorded minimum and genotype TPG-41 (1.84 g) recorded
maximum dry matter of roots plant-1 (Table 3). Ghosh et al.
(1997) stated that, there was negligible amount of dry matter
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION partitioning into the roots. In spite of roots, the rate of dry matter
The knowledge of crop physiology through growth analysis production in stem was higher. The genotypes ICG-8354 (10.29
technique, which involves tracing the history of growth and g), ICG-8428 (10.12 g) and ICG 8519 (9.97 g) exhibited higher
identifying the growth and yield factors contributing for yield dry matter partitioning plant-1 in stem.TPG-1 (11.63 g plant-1),
variation, is a vital tool in understanding the crop behavior. This TAG-24 (1154 g plant-1), ICG-8437 (11.28 g plant-1) and ICG-
would be vital to the breeder as well as agronomist in tailoring 8519 (11.24 g plant-1) recorded maximum dry matter
suitable genotype or management technology for boosting up the accumulation in leaves. The above findings were in agreement
growth and yield factors of the crop. Therefore, for a complete with the results of Kumar and Kumar (1999). After the flowering
analysis of biological yield, it is necessary to investigate crop dry matter was shared in reproductive parts. The total dry matter
growth through computation of growth indices such as vegetative accumulation in vegetative parts get declined and increased in
growth and source, dry matter production and growth analysis. In reproductive parts. The total dry matter accumulation increased
the present investigation, Plant height, Number of branches plant- in the pods with advancement of crop growth stage. These
1
and dry matter production and it’s distribution in component findings are in conformation with findings of Murthy et al.
parts of plant increased progressively with the advancing age of (2002). The genotypes ICG-8029 (19.24 g), ICG-8468 (17.83 g)
the crop. The rate becomes rapid upto 80 DAS and rather slow and ICG-8444 (17.59 g) recorded highest dry matter of pods
after 80 to 100 DAS and 100 DAS to harvest. However, the plant-1 at harvest. ICG-8029 (0.327 g/day), ICG-8542 (0.314
number of leaves plant-1, leaf area plant-1 and leaf area index was g/day) and TAG-24 (0.311 g/day) had higher daily rate dry
declined after 100 DAS due to defoliation of leaves and diversion matter efficiency. Amongst these, even though the genotype
of dry matter towards pod development (Table 1). The AGR, ICG-8029 had higher daily rate of dry matter efficiency recorded
RGR and NAR were increased between 40-60 and 60-80 DAS less amount of relative dry matter efficiency (39.9%), whereas,
and declined towards maturity. The results were conformity with ICG-8542 (42.7%) and TAG-24 (42.7%) maintained higher
Sahane et al (1994). percent of relative dry matter efficiency.
The vegetative phase governs the overall phenotypic The photosynthetic rate (Pn), transpiration rate (E; mmol m-2
expression of the plant and prepares the plant for next important s ) and stomatal conductance (gs; µmol H2O m-2 s-1) were
-1

reproductive phase. The root, stem, branches and leaves, all these measured using Infra-red Gas Analyser (IRGA; Model Portable
parts constitute vegetative phase and perform specific functions. Photosynthesis System LI 6400, LI-COR® Inc, Lincoln,
Early vegetative development of crop regulates the reproductive Nebraska, USA). The E and Gs were measured continuously
capacity (Awal and Ikeda, 2003). The data on morphological monitoring H2O of the air entering and existing in the IRGA
parameters influenced by groundnut genotypes are presented in headspace chamber. Measurements were made at mid day,
Table 2 revealed that, the genotype, TAG 24 was found earlier between 11:30 and 12:00 eastern day time (1400–1800 mmolm-2
for days to 50% flowering (40) and maturity (119), whereas, s -1 PPFD), on top fully expanded third leaf blades. The flow rate
ICG-8401 (49) and TPG-41 (130) were late for days to 50% of air in the sample line was adjusted to 500 μmol s-1. Nautiyal
flowering (40) and maturity (119). TPG 41 (21.14 cm), ICG- et al. (2012) concluded that, the knowledge on physiological
8401 (24.59 cm) and ICG-8434 (24.74) were dwarf, while, ICG- understanding in relation to rate of photosynthesis and
8440 (30.91 cm), ICG-8444 (30.61 cm) and ICG-8333 (30.42 productivity and wide genetic variability among various traits, as
cm) were tall genotypes. ICG-8542 (11.8), ICG-8483 (10.5), reported in this study, could be utilized in developing new

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 569
ISSN 2250-3153
1
potential germplasm and designing ideotype for making the ), ICG-8437 (66.05 q ha-1) and ICG-8468 (65.08 q ha-1) were
cultivars more adaptive for different water availability areas in superior for dry pod yield. The performance of different
semi-arid tropics. In the present investigation, the genotypes, genotypes in respect of harvest index was statistically significant.
ICG-8496 (26.580  mol CO2 m-2 s-1), ICG-8483 (26.360  mol It was ranged between 38.99 and 65.32 %. The lowest and the
CO2 m-2 s-1) and ICG-8437 (26.200  mol CO2 m-2 s-1) recorded highest harvest index being in genotypes ICG-8406 and TAG-24,
higher rate of photosynthetic; ICG-8440 (3.334 m mol CO2 m-2 s- respectively. The shelling percentage was ranged between 67.5
1
), ICG-8333 (3.213 m mol CO2 m-2 s-1) and ICG-8535 (3.013 m and 73.00 %. The genotypes, ICG-8455 (73.00%), ICG-8483
mol CO2 m-2 s-1) recorded higher transpiration rate; ICG-8519 (72.50%) and ICG-8468 (72.50%) recorded higher shelling
(0.514  mol CO2 m-2 s-1), ICG-8333 (0.473  mol CO2 m-2 s-1) percentage (Table 6). Jadhav and Sengupta (1991) reported that
and ICG-8455 (0.457  mol CO2 m-2 s-1) recorded higher pod yield was significantly correlated with peg number per plant,
stomatal conductance and ICG-8434 (19.53), TAG-24 (14.83) total pod number per plant, filled pod number per plant, 100 seed
and ICG-8005 (14.81) recorded higher water use efficiency weight and total reproductive biomass.
(Table 4). The adaxial stomatal frequency was higher in ICG- From the results obtained in the present investigation, it was
8455 (18.61), ICG-8437 (18.20) and ICG-8333 (18.10), whereas, concluded that, the morhpo-physiological characters viz., plant
abaxial frequency was higher for ICG-8428 (12.70), ICG-8455 height, number of branches and leaf area are mainly responsible
(12.40) and ICG-8050 (12.20). for growth in groundnut. The physiological processes like
The chemical compounds most important in the conversion photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate etc. were
of light energy to chemical energy are the pigments that exist found at highest rate in some genotypes which resulted in highest
within the chloroplast (B. Glass, 1961). The, chl ‘a’ and ‘b’ yielding. The genotype ICG-8029 shows highest dry pod weight
covers majority of the portion of chloroplast. These two pigments at harvest. The genotypes ICG-8496 and ICG-8444 recorded
are responsible to absorb light energy in the form of quantum highest protein and oil content.
which is responsible for exchange of electron from their ground The genotypes ICG-8029 and ICG-8428 recorded the highest
state to the exited state. The genotype ICG-8437 (2.417 mg g-1), dry pod yield may be due to photosynthetic rate, dry matter
ICG-8333 (2.308 mg g-1), ICG-8029 (2.234 mg g-1) and ICG- accumulation, and chlorophyll content. The genotypes ICG-8444
8455 (2.166 mg g-1) recorded significantly highest chlorophyll-a and ICG-8496 were rich in oil and protein content and also on
content over all the genotypes (Table 5). The highest account of pheonological traits, dry matter accumulation,
chlorophyll-b content was recorded by the genotypes ICG-8457 photosynthetic rate, stomatal frequency. The genotype ICG-8029
(0.589 mg g-1), ICG-8333 (0.515 mg g-1), ICG-809 (0.486 mg g- with highest pod dry matter partitioning at harvest is high
1
) and ICG-8496 (0.484 mg g-1). The total chlorophyll content yielding. Therefore, the genotypes ICG-8029 and ICG-8428 may
was highest in the genotypes, ICG-8333 (3.201 mg g-1), ICG- be utilized for the yield heterosis in further breeding programme,
8029 (3.168 mg g-1) and ICG-8437 (3.058 mg g-1). Groundnut whereas the genotypes ICG-8496 and ICG-8444 for improving
contains 46-52% oil, 17-25% protein and 15-20% carbohydrate protein and oil content in further breeding programme.
and rich in vitamin B and E (Prathiba and Reddy, 1994). In the
present investigation, protein content amongst the genotypes
ranged between 23.51 to 25.90%, while oil content was ranged V. CONCLUSION
between 45.61 to 50.59%. The genotypes, ICG-8496 (25.90 %), The genotypes ICG-8029 and ICG-8428 recorded the highest
ICG-8440 (25.25%), ICG-8050 (25.23 %), ICG-8457 (25.17 %), dry pod yield may be due to photosynthetic rate, dry matter
ICG-8455 (25.13 %), ICG-8406 (25.08 %) and TAG-24 (25.05 accumulation, chlorophyll content.
%) were found superior in respect of protein content, whereas, The genotypes ICG-8444 and ICG-8496 were rich in oil and
ICG-8444 (50.59 %) and ICG-8455 (49.55%) were superior for protein content and also on account of pheonological traits, dry
oil content. matter accumulation, photosynthetic rate, stomatal frequency.
The generative growth constitutes the development and The genotype ICG-8029 with highest pod dry matter
growth of reproductive parts. From yield point of view, this partitioning at harvest is high yielding.
phase assumes significance as the sink lies in the reproductive Therefore, the genotypes ICG-8029 and ICG-8428 may be
parts. Hence, the detailed observations were made on various utilized for the yield heterosis in further breeding programme,
aspects of generative growth at the stage of maturity. The whereas the genotypes ICG-8496 and ICG-8444 for improving
number of flowers, pegs, and pods are the most important yield protein and oil content in further breeding programme.
components that affect the yield potential of groundnut (Awal
and Ikeda, 2003). Bell et al. (1991) reported that groundnut
cultivars showed a wide range in the number of reproductive REFERENCES
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of pods plant-1 followed by ICG-8496 (31), ICG-8455 (29) and Their application to crop management, modeling and breeding. J. Crop
ICG-8519 (29). The genotype ICG-8029 (61.9 g/100 kernels), Impr. 14:51–101 (2005).
ICG-8542 (54.6 g/100 kernels), ICG-8444 (53.8 g/100 kernels) [2] Awal, M.A. and Ikeda, T.. Controlling canopy formation, flowering, and
yield in field-grown stands of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) with ambient
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highest dry pod yield (g) per plant was recorded by the genotypes [3] Ghosh, P.K., Mathur, R. K., Ravindra, V. and Gor, H. K.. Dry matter
ICG-8542 (21.6 g), ICG-8050 (21.1 g) and ICG-8005 (21.0 g). accumulation, nitrogen uptake and their partitioning pattern in Virginia
The genotypes, ICG-8O29 (75.53 q ha-1), ICG-8428 (68.77 q ha-

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groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Indian J. Pl. Physiol. 2(3): 234-236


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[5] Hammer, G.L., Chapman, S., Oostero, E. van and Podlich, D.W. Trait
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[6] Jadhav, B.B. and Sengupta, V.K.. Effect of light stress on peanut
productivity. Ann. Pl. Physiol. 5(2): 194-201 (1991).
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[9] Mathur, R.. Genetic variability and correlation studies in segregating
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[10] Nagraj, G.. Paper presented on soil and oil quality of Indian groundnut in
ICRISAT Seminar, Hyderabad. pp. 1-2 (1995).
[11] Nautiyal, P.C., Ravindra, V., Rathnakumar, A.L., Ajay, B.C. and Zala, P.V..
Genetic variations in photosynthetic rate, pod yield and yield components in
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[12] Panse, V. G. and Sukhatme, P. V.. Statistical Methods for Agricultural
Workers. ICAR Rev. Ed. By Sukhatme, P. V. and Amble, V. N., pp. 145-
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[13] Prathiba, K.M. and Reddy, M.U.. Nutrient composition of groundnut
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(2001)
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(2004).

AUTHORS
First Author – Miss.V. M. Dharanguttikar, Department of
Botany, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722,
Dist.: Ahmednagar (M.S.), India
Second Author – Miss.V.H.Borkar, Department of Botany,
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722, Dist.:
Ahmednagar (M.S.), India

Correspondence Author - Miss. Dharanguttikar Vibhavari


Manohar, Mobile no. 9822739306, e-mail id :
[email protected], Permanent adress : Room no. 3.
First flour, New PGI Girls Hostel MPKV Rahuri, At post –
Rahuri, Dist- Ahmednagar, Pin no.- 413722, State –
Maharashtra, INDIA .

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 2014 571
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Table 1 Average performance of groundnut genotypes for morpho-physiological traits at various stages of growth

Name of the character 40 60 80 100 At


DAS DAS DAS DAS Harvest
Vegetative growth and source
Plant height (cm) 10.06 18.78 27.69 28.74 27.74
Number of branches plant-1 4.00 5.20 7.40 8.40 8.40
Number of leaves plant-1 53.8 133.7 214.4 323.4 310.9
Leaf area plant-1 (dm²) 7.86 12.44 14.13 21.32 20.41
Dry matter accumulation (g plant-1)
Roots 0.17 0.32 1.27 1.45 1.30
Stem 1.62 3.47 7.98 9.78 9.36
Leaves 2.61 5.49 10.04 12.40 10.26
Pods -- -- 5.82 10.35 15.62
Total 4.40 9.28 25.11 33.98 36.54
Daily rate of dry matter production 0.110 0.155 0.314 0.339 0.296
Growth parameters
Absolute growth rate (g day-1) -- 0.245 0.792 0.441 0.106
Relative growth rate (g day-1) -- 0.016 0.022 0.007 0.002
Net assimilation rate -- 0.012 0.026 0.010 0.007
Leaf area index (LAI) 2.63 4.15 4.72 7.11 6.78

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Table 2. Morphological parameters influenced by groundnut genotypes.

Sr. No. Genotype Days for Days of Plant height Number of Number of Leaf area
50% physiological (cm) branches leaves plant-1 plant-1 (dm2)
flowering maturity plant-1
1. TAG-24 40 119 29.96 8.3 347.6 20.07
2. ICG-8434 43 122 24.74 10.2 338.5 20.27
3. ICG-8483 45 124 28.40 10.5 319.0 20.69
4. ICG-8455 47 120 25.35 7.0 390.6 21.29
5. ICG-8005 45 124 29.85 8.0 420.9 20.55
6. ICG-8542 45 123 29.01 11.8 407.4 21.93
7. ICG-8440 48 121 30.91 8.4 344.5 19.56
8. ICG-8519 45 120 28.14 7.7 374.6 20.58
9. ICG-8428 43 124 28.07 9.8 342.7 21.76
10. ICG-8401 49 122 24.59 8.0 341.1 22.19
11. ICG-8029 43 123 29.20 7.3 331.7 21.09
12. ICG-8496 45 120 25.87 7.0 321.1 20.50
13. ICG-8468 43 123 25.67 9.6 295.2 20.80
14. ICG-8333 45 121 30.42 6.1 267.0 20.70
15. ICG-8437 43 125 28.19 9.0 266.2 21.61
16. ICG-8444 45 127 30.61 9.4 284.0 21.98
17. ICG-8457 43 123 29.89 9.8 265.4 21.86
18. ICG-8535 44 120 28.64 7.4 254.6 21.28
19. ICG-8406 45 128 29.49 6.8 263.6 21.73
20. ICG-8354 43 127 27.31 7.3 291.8 21.91
21. ICG-8050 44 123 25.78 7.4 281.7 21.92
22. TPG-41 45 130 21.14 8.8 367.2 24.69
Mean 44.5 124 27.74 8.4 323.4 21.32
S.E. + 1.201 0.736 1.774 0.943 25.867 0.319
C.D. at 5 % 3.603 2.208 5.322 2.892 77.601 0.957
CV % 3.81 1.00 9.04 15.87 11.30 2.12

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Table 3. Dry matter production and it’s distribution in component parts of plant in groundnut genotypes.

Sr. Genotype Dry matter accumulation per plant-1 (g) Daily rate of Relative dry
No. Roots Stem Leaves Pods Total dry matter matter efficiency
production (%)
1. TAG-24 1.18 9.28 11.54 14.92 36.92 0.311 54.8
2. ICG-8434 1.18 9.08 10.12 15.53 35.91 0.294 36.0
3. ICG-8483 1.30 9.89 9.13 14.64 34.96 0.282 34.2
4. ICG-8455 1.28 8.78 10.36 13.49 33.91 0.283 34.8
5. ICG-8005 1.36 9.23 10.54 13.31 34.44 0.284 36.9
6. ICG-8542 1.25 9.92 10.19 17.35 38.71 0.314 42.7
7. ICG-8440 1.26 8.24 10.18 14.25 33.93 0.280 37.1
8. ICG-8519 1.23 9.97 11.24 13.66 36.10 0.301 33.9
9. ICG-8428 1.26 10.12 9.98 16.62 37.98 0.306 35.2
10. ICG-8401 1.25 9.03 9.18 17.39 36.85 0.302 36.9
11. ICG-8029 1.21 9.73 10.14 19.24 40.32 0.327 39.9
12. ICG-8496 1.18 8.34 8.95 16.10 34.57 0.287 34.0
13. ICG-8468 1.25 8.66 9.98 17.83 37.72 0.306 37.6
14. ICG-8333 1.29 9.23 9.24 16.62 36.38 0.300 36.4
15. ICG-8437 1.31 9.65 11.28 16.83 39.07 0.312 32.9
16. ICG-8444 1.37 9.11 9.56 17.59 37.63 0.296 31.9
17. ICG-8457 1.28 9.18 9.38 15.08 34.92 0.284 33.7
18. ICG-8535 1.41 8.42 10.74 13.94 34.51 0.287 31.6
19. ICG-8406 1.27 9.32 10.45 15.21 36.25 0.283 30.5
20. ICG-8354 1.26 10.29 10.07 17.09 38.71 0.303 37.6
21. ICG-8050 1.30 9.14 9.64 17.10 37.18 0.302 36.5
22. TPG-41 1.86 8.34 11.63 14.56 36.39 0.279 34.0
Mean 1.30 9.32 10.16 15.84 36.62 0.296 36.3
S.E. + 0.068 0.354 0.423 0.923 0.703 0.052 0.031
C.D. at 5 % 0.204 1.062 1.269 2.769 2.109 NS 0.093

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Table 4. Physiological parameters as influenced by groundnut genotypes.

Sr. Genotype Photosynthetic Transpiration Stomatal WUE Stomatal frequency


No. rate rate conductance ( (mm2 /leaf area)
( mol CO2 m-2 s- (m mol CO2 m-2 mol CO2 m-2 s-1) Adaxial Abaxial
1
) s-1)
1. TAG-24 25.980 1.752 0.359 14.83 16.90 10.40
2. ICG-8434 26.390 1.351 0.233 19.53 14.30 11.60
3. ICG-8483 26.360 1.737 0.267 15.18 15.53 11.60
4. ICG-8455 25.860 2.652 0.457 9.75 18.61 12.40
5. ICG-8005 24.600 1.661 0.290 14.81 15.50 11.40
6. ICG-8542 24.230 2.310 0.428 10.49 13.90 10.60
7. ICG-8440 22.180 3.334 0.450 6.65 17.10 11.20
8. ICG-8519 22.690 2.524 0.514 8.99 16.50 11.90
9. ICG-8428 25.790 2.362 0.441 10.92 15.90 12.70
10. ICG-8401 24.390 2.121 0.354 11.50 16.70 11.30
11. ICG-8029 25.570 2.007 0.327 12.74 17.10 11.90
12. ICG-8496 26.580 2.758 0.420 9.64 17.70 11.60
13. ICG-8468 25.310 2.144 0.355 11.81 17.50 11.90
14. ICG-8333 25.250 3.213 0.473 7.86 18.10 11.60
15. ICG-8437 26.200 3.224 0.455 8.13 18.20 11.40
16. ICG-8444 25.080 2.640 0.374 9.50 13.70 11.90
17. ICG-8457 24.900 2.279 0.280 10.93 14.70 9.40
18. ICG-8535 25.770 3.013 0.417 8.55 17.30 12.00
19. ICG-8406 25.240 1.805 0.236 13.98 17.80 11.20
20. ICG-8354 25.790 2.388 0.392 10.80 15.60 11.50
21. ICG-8050 27.820 2.200 0.283 12.65 18.00 12.20
22. TPG-41 25.620 2.089 0.264 12.26 16.00 11.40
Mean 25.345 2.344 0.367 10.81 16.48 11.50
S.E. + 0.301 0.344 0.041 -- 0.241 0.268
C.D. at 5 % 0.903 1.032 0.123 -- 0.723 0.804

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Table 5. Chlorophyll content and protein and oil percentage as influenced by groundnut genotype

Sr. Genotype Chlorophyll content (mg/g) Protein content Oil content (%)
No. Chl-a Chl-b Total (%)
1. TAG-24 0.897 0.234 1.282 25.05 47.73
2. ICG-8434 1.289 0.290 2.110 23.66 46.94
3. ICG-8483 0.972 0.270 1.584 24.64 48.06
4. ICG-8455 2.166 0.062 2.358 25.13 49.55
5. ICG-8005 1.181 0.252 1.807 24.89 46.38
6. ICG-8542 0.853 0.283 1.465 23.62 45.61
7. ICG-8440 0.766 0.175 1.172 25.25 45.73
8. ICG-8519 1.440 0.193 2.626 24.50 47.30
9. ICG-8428 1.494 0.153 2.398 24.40 46.91
10. ICG-8401 1.269 0.293 2.150 24.01 47.38
11. ICG-8029 2.234 0.486 3.168 24.66 48.19
12. ICG-8496 1.548 0.484 2.787 25.90 47.48
13. ICG-8468 0.521 0.371 0.909 23.51 46.88
14. ICG-8333 2.308 0.515 3.201 24.97 46.23
15. ICG-8437 2.417 0.454 3.058 25.09 47.45
16. ICG-8444 0.676 0.370 1.412 24.01 50.59
17. ICG-8457 1.698 0.589 2.275 25.17 46.38
18. ICG-8535 1.208 0.454 1.738 24.97 46.04
19. ICG-8406 0.921 0.425 1.462 25.08 47.32
20. ICG-8354 0.726 0.338 1.285 24.09 47.18
21. ICG-8050 0.646 0.363 1.315 25.23 46.98
22. TPG-41 1.136 0.290 2.308 24.53 48.39
Mean 1.289 0.334 1.994 24.66 47.30
S.E. + 0.087 0.034 0.142 0.321 0.473
C.D. at 5 % 0.261 0.102 0.426 0.963 1.419
CV % 9.56 14.66 10.03 1.85 1.41

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Table 6. Yield and yield contributing characters as influenced by groundnut genotypes

Sr. Genotype Pods plant-1 100 kernel Dry pod yield Dry pod Harvest Shelling
No. weight (g) plant-1 (g) yield (q/ha) index (%) percentage
1. TAG-24 28 43.8 20.4 62.57 65.32 70.20
2. ICG-8434 28 43.7 20.9 54.52 41.66 70.70
3. ICG-8483 24 47.9 19.9 53.46 42.46 72.50
4. ICG-8455 29 61.9 19.1 36.36 41.75 73.00
5. ICG-8005 44 44.2 21.0 54.15 45.87 72.00
6. ICG-8542 22 54.6 21.6 60.82 46.95 71.00
7. ICG-8440 30 43.4 19.9 54.48 45.74 70.50
8. ICG-8519 29 47.4 19.9 39.47 40.69 72.00
9. ICG-8428 22 45.8 20.8 68.77 43.63 71.00
10. ICG-8401 28 40.2 19.4 45.71 45.03 71.40
11. ICG-8029 25 48.9 20.7 75.53 45.98 71.00
12. ICG-8496 31 41.8 20.0 51.81 45.73 71.10
13. ICG-8468 25 44.6 18.7 65.08 44.16 72.50
14. ICG-8333 20 51.8 20.5 58.58 44.11 70.90
15. ICG-8437 25 53.3 20.2 66.05 41.19 71.80
16. ICG-8444 23 53.8 18.9 59.09 40.56 70.30
17. ICG-8457 22 42.4 19.3 54.41 41.41 70.70
18. ICG-8535 26 42.4 20.1 53.81 42.67 71.00
19. ICG-8406 19 42.0 20.4 60.39 38.99 71.40
20. ICG-8354 19 43.0 20.9 60.23 42.58 71.60
21. ICG-8050 24 43.3 21.1 56.59 44.89 71.50
22. TPG-41 28 53.8 20.3 55.93 49.21 67.50
Mean 26.0 47.1 20.2 56.72 44.57 71.65
S.E. + 3.404 0.916 0.501 2.021 1.514 0.534
C.D. at 5 % 10.212 2.748 1.503 6.063 45.42 1.602
CV % 18.51 3.15 3.51 5.04 4.80 1.06

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Evaluation of Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)


Genotypes for Physiological Traits
Miss.V. H. Borkar, Miss.V.M.Dharanguttikar

Department of Agricultural Botany, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722, Dist.: Ahmednagar (M.S.), India.

Abstract- Twenty two groundnut genotypes were evaluated in the target of yield potential. One is Physio-genetic, which
randomized block design (RBD) with two replications at AICRP consists the genotypic differences in physiological traits and
on Groundnut, MPKV, Rahuri, Dist. Ahmednagar (M.S.) during another one is the Physio-agronomic relates with the
summer,2011 to study the physiological analysis of growth and management practices. It is ultimately the morpho-physiological
yield variation in groundnut genotypes. The observations on variations, which is important for realizing higher productivity as
plant height, number of branches, leaves, leaf area, LAI, dry evident from very high and positive association within traits
matter production and it’s distribution in component parts of (Mathur, 1995). Therefore the present study was undertaken with
plant, photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal the objectives to evaluate groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)
conductance, water use efficiency, stomatal frequency, genotypes for physiological traits.
chlorophyll content, protein and oil content and yield and yield
contributing characters were recorded. The genotypes were
significantly differed for seed yield. The highest dry pod yield II. OBJECTIVES
was recorded by the genotypes ICG-8420, ICG-8473 and ICG- 1. To study the physiological efficiency of summer
8506 due to significant favourable yield contributing characters groundnut genotypes.
like number of pods per plant, pod yield (g) and kernel yield (g) 2. To study the dry matter accumulation and its partitioning
per plant, shelling percentage and harvest index. On the basis of in summer groundnut.
morpho-physiological traits and bio-chemical parameters, ICG- 3. To find out correlation of physiological parameters with
8420, ICG-8473, ICG-8506, ICG-0845, ICG-8316 and ICG-8525 pod yield.
were considered as promising genotypes for future breeding
programme for yield improvement and protein and oil content.
III. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Index Terms- Morpho-physiological traits, physiological
parameters, Bio-chemical characteristics, yield and yield Twenty two groundnut genotypes were evaluated in RBD
contributing characters. with two replications during summer, 2011 at AICRP on
Groundnut, MPKV, Rahuri. Dist. Ahmednagar (M.S.) in single
row of 5 m length with the spacing of 30 x 10 cm under irrigated
I. INTRODUCTION condition. FYM @ 10 cartloads hectare-1 was uniformly spread
in the field and mixed well by harrowing. The basal dose of N: P:
G roundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is the fore most important
oil seed crop of India. In terms of area and production, it
occupies an important position among the oil seed crops in the
K @ of 25:50:0 kgha-1 was given at the time of sowing. One
weeding and one hoeing were carried out as and when required
and field was kept free from weeds. Randomly five plants were
world. It has been aptly described as natures masters piece of selected for recording the observations on morpho-physiological
food values containing 36 to 54 per cent oil with 21.36 per cent traits. The observations on morphological traits, dry matter
protein and have an energy value of 2,363 KJ/100 g. The oil is production and it’s distribution and physiological parameters
rich in unsaturated fatty acid (80 %), oleic acid and linoleic acid were recorded. The photosynthetic rate (Pn), transpiration rate
accounting for 38 to 58 per cent and 16 to 38 per cent, (E; mmol m-2 s-1) and stomatal conductance (gs; µmol H2O m-2 s-
respectively. Among the saturated fatty acids, palmitic acid is the 1
) were measured using Infra-red Gas Analyser (IRGA; Model
major one with the proportion of about 10 to 16 per cent, higher Portable Photosynthesis System LI 6400, LI-COR® Inc, Lincoln,
iodine value (82 to 106) and refractive index values (1.4697 to Nebraska, USA). The E and Gs were measured continuously
1.4719 ND20) indicating its susceptibility to oxidation. Raw monitoring H2O of the air entering and existing in the IRGA
groundnut oil has very good stability (Nagraj, 1995). Yield is a headspace chamber. Measurements were made at mid day,
complex trait, governed by many traits and there are ample between 11:30 and 12:00 eastern day time (1400–1800 mmolm-2
evidences to show that selections directly for grain yield in plants s -1 PPFD), on top fully expanded third leaf blades. The flow rate
are not easy. Thus, any morphological character that is associated of air in the sample line was adjusted to 500 μmol s-1. The water
with higher seed yield or which makes a significant contribution use efficiency (WUE) was calculated as the ratio of Pn to E. The
to yielding ability would be useful in the improvement of grain protein and fat content from seed samples were estimated on NIR
yield. The basic studies on the basis of morpho-physiological spectrometer (ZEUTEC, Germany Make), is a dual-beam near
traits are needed to overcome the yield barriers within the infrared spectrometer. In the NIR spectrometer, the sample is
genotypes. There are two physiological approaches to achieve exposed near infrared light of specific wavelengths, selected

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from up to 19 high precision interference filters. The light photosynthesis, while, ICG-8525 (4.76 mmol m-2 s-1), ICG-8518
penetrated the sample, interacted with sample molecules and is (4.36 mmol m-2 s-1) and ICG-0845 (4.02 mmol m-2 s-1) had higher
partly absorbed and partly diffusely reflected. The reflected light rate of transpiration. The genotypes, ICG-8439 (0.36), ICG-8417
is measured by a lead sulfide (PbS) detector mounted in a gold (0.35 mol m-2 s-1), ICG-8525 (0.34 mol m-2 s-1) and ICG-8473
coated integrating sphere located above the sample. The mean (0.21 mol m-2 s-1) showed maximum stomatal conductance. The
data analyzed for analysis of variance by Panse and Sukhatme results are conformity with the results of Kalpana et al. (2003).
(1985). As a result of higher rate of photosynthesis as compared with
least amount of transpiration rate, the genotypes ICG-8316
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (15.23), ICG-8328(11.86) and TAG-24 (11.54) had higher water
The vegetative phase governs the overall phenotypic use efficiency. The stomatal frequency is an important parameter
expression of the plant and prepares the plant for next important which correlates with the water uptake, it’s losses and use
reproductive phase. The root, stem, branches and leaves, all these efficiencies. In the present investigation, the genotypes, ICG-
parts constitute vegetative phase and perform specific 8539 (22.40 mm2), ICG-8506 (21.40 mm2) and ICG-8521 (20.60
functions.In the present investigation, the genotypes, ICG-8417 mm2) for recorded maximum adaxial, whereas, ICG-8473 (10.50
(27.800) and ICG-8521 (28.900) required minimum number of mm2), ICG-8518 (10.50 mm2) and ICG-8316 (10.40 mm2)
days for initiation of first flower, whereas, the genotype ICG- maximum abaxial stomatal frequency, respectively.
8525 (31.300) required highest number of days for appearance of As Bently Glass (1961) has to aptly stated, “Life is a
flowering. The genotype ICG-8474 (124.70), ICG-8417 (124.80) photochemical phenomenon.” The chemical compounds most
and SB-XI (124.90) required minimum number of days for important in this conversion of light energy to chemical energy
physiological maturity. The genotypes, ICG-8525 (130.00), ICG- are the pigments that exist within the chloroplast/
8420 (129.30) and ICG-8518 (129.20) required maximum days chromatophores of plants. The chlorophylls, the green pigment of
to attend physiological maturity (Table 1). ICG-0845 (40.88 cm) the chloroplast, are the most important photosynthetic plant
and ICG-8075 (40.55 cm) were found to be taller, whereas ICG- pigment, and today at least seven types may be distinguished.
8473 (27.40 cm) and ICG-8417 (27.43 cm) were dwarf Amongst these, chl ‘a’ and ‘b’ covers majority of the portion of
genotypes. Mensah and Okpere (2000) showed the significant chloroplast. In the present investigation, the genotype, ICG-0845
differences for plant height throughout the growth period. The recorded higher chlorophyll ‘a’ (0.73 mg/g), chlorophyll ‘b’
genotypes, ICG-8473 (16.25), ICG-8417 (14.10), ICG-8472 (0.55 mg/g) and total chlorophyll (1.43 mg/g). In addition to this,
(13.75), ICG-8328 (13.70) and ICG-8326 (13.45) had profuse ICG-8316 also found rich in chlorophyll ‘a’ (0.65 mg/g),
branching, whereas TAG-24 (7.30) had less number of branches chlorophyll ‘b’ (0.49 mg/g) and total chlorophyll (1.27 mg/g).
per plant. Deshmukh and Dev (1993) recorded the significant Groundnut kernel considered as a rich source of oil and
positive correlation between number of branches per plant with proteins. It has been aptly described as natures master piece of
pod yield. ICG-8417 (925.60), ICG-8426 (7936.20) and ICG- food values containing 36 to 54 per cent oil with 21-26 per cent
8539 (755.40) recorded maximum number of leaves per plant. protein and have a energy value of 2,363 KJ/100 g (Adsule et al.,
The genotype, ICG-8525 maintained higher leaf area (24.83 dm2) 1980). In the present investigation, the genotype ICG-0845
and LAI (8.28) followed by ICG-8462 (23.78 & 7.93 dm2) and maintained higher protein (25.73%) and oil content (52.46%) in
ICG-8048 (23.44 & 7.81 dm2). addition to higher chlorophyll content. The genotypes, SB-XI
The pattern of dry matter production and it’s distribution into (50.00%) and ICG-8326 (49.64%) also found rich for oil content
component plant parts has been of phenomenal interest to the (Table 4). It may be concluded that the genotypes having higher
research workers engaged in yield analysis. In view of this, in the chlorophyll content might be a higher concentration of carbon
present investigation, it envisaged to know the pattern of dry compounds.
matter accumulation, it’s distribution in component parts of plant The data on yield and yield contributing characters are
(Table 2). In the present investigation, the dry matter presented in Table 5. The genotypes, ICG-8075 (43.90), ICG-
accumulation is less than that of other plant parts (Ghosh et al., 8539 (42.00) and ICG-8506 (41.40) recorded highest number of
1997). The genotype, ICG-8462 (54.07 g) maintained the higher pods per plant. The highest number of kernels per pod was
dry matter production as an account of higher magnitude of dry recorded by ICG-8525 (3.30), ICG-8539 (3.10) and TAG-24
matter in leaves (23.47 g), stem (15.96 g) and roots (1.92 g). In (3.00). The 100 kernels weight (g) was higher in ICG-8328
addition, ICG-8521 (51.37 g), ICG 8075 (50.75 g) and ICG-8048 (58.54 g) followed by ICG-8521 (53.49), ICG-8439 (50.73) and
(50.60 g) were also recorded the higher dry matter production per ICG-8473 (49.60). The genotypes, ICG-8416 (24.35 g), ICG-
plant. The genotypes, ICG-8539 (2.05 g), ICG-8326 (2.04 g) and 8417 (23.83 g) and ICG-8420 (23.55 g) the highest dry pod yield
ICG-8316 (1.98 g) for roots; ICG-8048 (17.83 g), ICG-8539 per plant. The Genotypes, ICG-8420 (69.94 q/ha), ICG-8473
(17.10 g) and ICG-8075 (16.26 g) for stem; ICG-8075 (23.47 g), (68.23 q/ha) and ICG-8506 (68.08 q/ha) were significantly
SB-XI (22.19 g) and ICG-8521 (20.96 g) for leaves; ICG-8416 superior for dry pod yield. The pod yield of the genotype was
(17.00 g), ICG-8417 (15.52 (15.52 g) and ICG-8420 (15.36 g) mainly due to favorable yield contributing character like number
for pod were promising for higher dry matter accumulation in of pods per plant, number of kernels and harvest index. These
component parts of plant. findings are on the similar lines to those reported by Mishra et al.
The physiological parameters influenced by groundnut (1991), Jadhav and Sengupta (1991) and Jayalakshmi et al.
genotypes are presented in Table 3. The genotypes, ICG-0845 (2000). The genotypes, TAG-24 (66.17 %), ICG-8473 (61.03%)
(29.29 mol m-2 s-1), ICG-8472 (28.12 mol m-2 s-1) and ICG- and ICG-8420 (60.57%) maintained higher harvest index. The
8439 (28.05 mol m-2 s-1) recorded the higher rate of

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higher shelling percentage was recorded by the genotypes ICG- REFERENCES


8462 (73.32 %), ICG-8525 (73.20 %) and TAG-24 (72.98 %). [1] Adsule, R.N., Kadam, S.S. and Salunke, D.K.. Peanut in handbook of
From the result obtained in the present investigation, it was world food legumes CRC Press, 1 FL, USA pp. 193-215(1980).
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matter partitioning percentage and lowest total dry matter at productivity and regression analysis in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.).
Ann. Pl. Physiol. 7 (1) : 123-125 (1993).
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and ICG-8506 showed highest dry pod yield per plot and dry pod accumulation, nitrogen uptake and their partitioning pattern in virginia
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with lowest harvest index indicated poor translocation of (1997).
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be utilized in breeding programme for the high biological yield life. Johns Hofkins Press, Baltimore, Md.Gregory, F. G.. The effect of
climatic conditions on the growth of barley. Ann. Bot. 40: 1-26 (1926).
(dry matter) point of view. The physiological processes like
[5] Jadhav, B.B. and Sengupta, V.K.. Effect of light stress on peanut
photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate etc. were productivity. Ann. Pl. Physiol. 5 (2) : 194-201 (1991).
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resulted in highest yielding. The genotype ICG-0845, ICG-8316 association among morpho-physiological attributes in parental genotypes
and ICG-8525 recorded highest protein content, oil content, and groundnut hybrids. Legume Res. 23 (2) : 102-105 (2000).
chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b and total chlorophyll which may be [7] Kalpana, M., Chetti, M.B. and Ratnam, B.P.. Phenological changes in
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(69.94 q/ha), ICG-8473 (68.23 q/ha) and ICG-8506 (68.08 q/ha) [8] Mathur, R.. Genetic variability and correlation studies in segregating
were found superior in terms of morpho-physiological traits, generations of cowpea. Madras Agric. J. 82: 150-152 (1995).
whereas, ICG-0845, ICG-8316 and ICG-8525 were promising [9] Mensah, J.K. and Okpere, V.E.. Screening of four groundnut cultivars from
for maintaining chlorophyll content and protein and oil content. Nigeria for drought resistant. Legume Res. 23 (1): 37-41 (2000).
Therefore, these genotypes can be considered in future breeding [10] Mishra, R.K., Tripathi, A.K., Chaudhary, S.K. and Sharma, R.B..
Evaluation of characters responsible for high yield in groundnut. Indian J.
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156 (1985).
1. From the result obtained in the present investigation, it
was concluded that, the genotype ICG-8416 with highest pod dry
matter partitioning percentage and lowest total dry matter at
AUTHORS
harvest is high yielding.
2. The genotype TAG-24 showed highest harvest index. First Author – Miss.V. H. Borkar, Department of Agricultural
3. The genotypes like ICG-8420, ICG-8473 and ICG-8506 Botany, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722,
showed highest dry pod yield per plot and dry pod yield per ha. Dist.: Ahmednagar (M.S.), India.
4.The genotypes SB-XI, ICG-8326 and ICG-8462 with Second Author – Miss.V.M.Dharanguttikar, Department of
lowest harvest index indicated poor translocation of assimilates Agricultural Botany, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-
from source to sink. Therefore, these genotypes could be utilized 413 722, Dist.: Ahmednagar (M.S.), India.
in breeding programme for the high biological yield (dry matter)
point of view. Correspondence Author – Miss. Borkar Vaishali Harishchandra
5. The physiological processes like photosynthesis, Mobile no. 9404887036, e-mail id : [email protected],
transpiration rate etc. were found at highest rate in some Permanent adress : Room no. 3. First flour, New PGI Girls
genotypes which resulted in highest yielding. Hostel MPKV Rahuri, At post – Rahuri, Dist- Ahmednagar, Pin
6. The genotype ICG-0845, ICG-8316 and ICG-8525 no.- 413722, State – Maharashtra, INDIA.
recorded highest protein content, oil content, chlorophyll-a,
chlorophyll-b and total chlorophyll which may be further useful
for crop improvement.
7. Number of kernels/pod, photosynthetic rate and leaf area
at harvest showed positive correlation association with dry pod
yield per plant. Therefore, these traits could be considered for
further breeding programme from the high dry pod yield per
plant point of views.
8. Number of kernels/pod, photosynthetic rate and total dry
matter at harvest exhibited direct positive effect on dry pod yield
per plant. Suggesting direct selection based on these characters
would be considered for further breeding programme and help in
selecting high yielding genotypes in groundnut.

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Table 1 Phenological and morphological characters influenced by groundnut genotypes

Sr. Genotypes Days for Days of Plant Number of Number of Leaf area LAI
No appearance of physiological height branches leaves plant-1 plant-1
flowering maturity (cm) plant-1 (dm2)
1. TAG-24 29.80 125.10 27.63 7.30 262.50 22.50 7.50
2. ICG-8474 28.70 124.70 36.18 10.20 364.90 23.28 7.76
3. ICG-8326 29.70 125.60 36.49 13.45 395.50 23.28 7.76
4. ICG-8328 29.50 126.90 36.17 13.70 358.00 21.77 7.25
5. ICG-8472 29.20 127.00 28.67 13.75 406.60 22.86 7.62
6. ICG-8462 29.20 127.30 29.59 7.40 364.20 23.78 7.93
7. ICG-8439 29.70 125.70 32.97 10.65 362.00 22.48 7.49
8. ICG-8426 29.70 127.80 32.67 9.80 793.20 22.72 7.57
9. ICG-8518 29.30 129.20 37.05 11.95 443.40 21.57 7.19
10. ICG-8525 31.30 130.00 33.60 8.00 390.50 24.83 8.28
11. ICG-0845 29.50 128.90 40.88 8.60 291.30 22.88 7.63
12. ICG-8416 29.60 128.30 34.52 11.10 425.20 23.40 7.80
13. ICG-8420 29.20 129.30 32.36 11.45 591.10 22.70 7.57
14. ICG-8417 27.80 124.80 27.43 14.10 925.60 22.88 7.63
15. ICG-8473 29.70 127.00 27.40 16.25 611.20 21.65 7.22
16. ICG-8506 29.10 126.40 34.44 12.65 560.80 22.10 7.36
17. ICG-8539 30.10 126.80 38.84 8.70 755.40 22.16 7.39
18. ICG-8075 29.60 127.90 40.50 8.15 365.20 22.83 7.61
19. ICG-8521 28.90 128.00 32.70 8.60 303.70 22.20 7.40
20. ICG-8316 29.50 127.70 34.21 7.40 269.20 23.20 7.73
21. ICG-8048 29.20 128.50 35.96 9.75 360.20 23.44 7.81
22. SB-XI 29.70 124.90 38.14 8.80 482.20 22.52 7.50
Mean 29.46 127.17 34.02 10.53 458.27 22.77 7.59
S.E. + 0.30 0.76 0.63 0.92 1.13 0.51 0.17
C.D. at 5 % 0.88 2.23 1.86 2.70 3.33 1.49 0.50

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Table 2 Dry matter production and it’s distribution in component parts of plant influenced by groundnut genotypes.

Sr. No. Genotypes Dry matter accumulation per plant (g)


Roots Stem Leaves Pods Total
1. TAG-24 1.63 12.18 16.14 12.34 42.29
2. ICG-8474 1.70 13.85 19.04 11.80 46.39
3. ICG-8326 2.04 15.82 17.81 11.40 47.07
4. ICG-8328 1.74 15.14 18.19 12.34 47.41
5. ICG-8472 1.54 12.79 13.71 12.71 40.75
6. ICG-8462 1.92 15.96 23.47 12.72 54.07
7. ICG-8439 1.82 15.65 17.11 11.71 46.29
8. ICG-8426 1.73 12.99 14.61 12.24 41.57
9. ICG-8518 1.54 13.39 16.85 13.81 45.59
10. ICG-8525 1.78 11.65 16.05 14.12 43.60
11. ICG-0845 1.70 13.91 17.37 12.95 45.93
12. ICG-8416 1.73 12.51 13.70 17.00 44.94
13. ICG-8420 1.63 13.78 17.12 15.36 47.89
14. ICG-8417 1.72 11.86 14.80 15.52 43.90
15. ICG-8473 1.74 14.81 16.41 13.41 46.37
16. ICG-8506 1.56 13.57 13.18 13.87 42.18
17. ICG-8539 2.05 17.10 19.12 11.96 50.23
18. ICG-8075 1.94 16.26 20.32 12.23 50.75
19. ICG-8521 1.80 15.98 20.96 12.63 51.37
20. ICG-8316 1.98 14.58 16.08 13.70 46.34
21. ICG-8048 1.65 17.83 18.41 12.71 50.60
22. SB-XI 1.78 14.26 22.19 10.90 49.13
Mean 1.76 14.36 17.39 13.06 46.57
S.E. + 0.08 0.73 0.78 0.87 1.65
C.D. at 5 % 0.24 2.15 2.28 2.56 4.85

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Table 3 Physiological parameters influenced by groundnut genotypes at 50 % flowering.

Sr. Genotypes Photosynthesis Transpiration Stomatal Water use Stomatal frequency (mm2
No. rate rate conductance efficiency leaf area)
( mol m-2 s-1) (mmol m-2 s-1) (mol m-2 s-1) Adaxial Abaxial
1. TAG-24 26.55 2.30 0.27 11.54 15.10 10.10
2. ICG-8474 27.13 2.41 0.26 11.26 20.30 10.20
3. ICG-8326 25.95 2.64 0.26 9.83 18.50 8.40
4. ICG-8328 26.10 2.20 0.21 11.86 17.30 9.40
5. ICG-8472 28.12 3.09 0.31 9.10 15.10 8.80
6. ICG-8462 27.91 2.92 0.28 9.56 18.10 9.30
7. ICG-8439 28.05 3.34 0.36 8.40 17.10 9.00
8. ICG-8426 30.39 2.81 0.30 10.81 16.70 10.00
9. ICG-8518 30.69 4.36 0.33 7.04 17.50 10.40
10. ICG-8525 31.47 4.76 0.34 6.61 19.20 8.50
11. ICG-0845 29.19 4.02 0.30 7.26 18.70 9.30
12. ICG-8416 26.04 3.22 0.24 8.09 20.40 9.50
13. ICG-8420 25.26 2.95 0.30 8.56 17.90 8.70
14. ICG-8417 26.53 3.02 0.35 8.78 19.80 10.30
15. ICG-8473 26.43 3.68 0.21 7.18 20.40 10.50
16. ICG-8506 25.61 2.82 0.26 9.08 21.40 9.80
17. ICG-8539 25.74 3.92 0.24 6.57 22.40 9.50
18. ICG-8075 27.98 3.26 0.26 8.58 20.00 7.30
19. ICG-8521 27.58 3.87 0.25 7.13 20.60 9.20
20. ICG-8316 27.41 1.80 0.25 15.23 18.50 10.40
21. ICG-8048 27.10 2.31 0.27 11.73 17.40 9.60
22. SB-XI 27.25 1.81 0.23 15.06 19.30 8.60
Mean 27.48 3.07 0.28 9.51 18.71 9.40
S.E. + 0.59 0.24 0.02 2.46 0.78 0.39
C.D. at 5 % 1.74 0.71 0.07 2.45 2.29 1.15

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Table 4 Bio-chemical parameters as influenced by groundnut genotype.

Sr. Genotypes Chlorophyll content (mg/g) Protein Oil content


No. Chlorophyll-a Chlorophyll-b Total Chlorophyll content (%) (%)
1. TAG-24 0.37 0.25 0.74 25.01 50.00
2. ICG-8474 0.57 0.41 1.17 25.28 49.40
3. ICG-8326 0.46 0.38 1.06 24.84 49.64
4. ICG-8328 0.37 0.24 0.72 24.44 45.08
5. ICG-8472 0.49 0.36 1.08 24.77 49.50
6. ICG-8462 0.41 0.29 0.83 25.20 47.53
7. ICG-8439 0.53 0.46 1.25 25.36 47.89
8. ICG-8426 0.45 0.34 0.82 24.56 47.53
9. ICG-8518 0.32 0.26 0.64 25.52 48.03
10. ICG-8525 0.56 0.44 1.23 25.60 45.66
11. ICG-0845 0.73 0.55 1.43 25.73 52.46
12. ICG-8416 0.52 0.43 1.05 24.79 45.40
13. ICG-8420 0.45 0.37 0.86 24.61 46.19
14. ICG-8417 0.48 0.35 0.83 24.48 48.42
15. ICG-8473 0.52 0.35 1.03 24.87 48.95
16. ICG-8506 0.47 0.37 0.94 24.42 45.82
17. ICG-8539 0.63 0.43 1.16 24.41 49.31
18. ICG-8075 0.41 0.33 0.84 24.74 44.85
19. ICG-8521 0.49 0.34 0.98 24.85 47.67
20. ICG-8316 0.65 0.49 1.27 24.84 47.49
21. ICG-8048 0.48 0.40 1.06 24.97 47.56
22. SB-XI 0.54 0.44 1.18 24.72 44.35
Mean 0.50 0.37 1.01 24.91 47.67
S.E. + 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.27 0.20
C.D. at 5 % 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.79 0.58

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Table 5. Yield and yield contributing characters as influenced by groundnut genotypes

Sr. Genotypes Number of Number of 100 Dry pod yield Dry pod Harvest Shelling %
No. pods per kernels per kernel (g) per plant yield (q/ha) index (%)
plant pod weight
(g)
1. TAG-24 20.10 3.00 42.92 16.74 58.54 66.17 72.98
2. ICG-8474 21.30 2.90 46.71 14.25 41.57 35.72 72.62
3. ICG-8326 19.50 2.70 40.94 13.42 47.19 33.14 72.09
4. ICG-8328 23.00 2.40 58.54 17.21 50.92 39.62 72.06
5. ICG-8472 20.90 2.60 38.77 19.76 54.90 40.63 72.81
6. ICG-8462 28.10 1.80 37.10 20.12 58.67 34.57 73.33
7. ICG-8439 21.30 2.00 50.73 14.16 34.43 40.27 69.51
8. ICG-8426 32.80 2.20 43.80 16.69 42.89 42.23 70.81
9. ICG-8518 24.30 2.60 46.15 20.75 61.42 40.09 71.24
10. ICG-8525 28.60 3.30 45.30 22.35 51.18 42.90 73.20
11. ICG-0845 20.60 2.90 39.06 20.07 61.90 37.28 70.84
12. ICG-8416 22.80 2.50 48.60 24.35 48.20 42.76 72.30
13. ICG-8420 21.00 2.30 41.52 23.54 69.94 60.57 69.53
14. ICG-8417 24.20 2.80 38.81 23.83 61.12 41.33 70.99
15. ICG-8473 29.90 2.90 49.69 20.08 68.23 61.03 72.56
16. ICG-8506 41.40 2.20 43.79 21.30 68.08 57.66 71.21
17. ICG-8539 42.00 3.10 40.91 16.38 55.61 40.53 71.54
18. ICG-8075 43.90 1.60 38.65 16.68 61.20 35.58 72.92
19. ICG-8521 34.30 2.60 53.49 18.16 40.06 39.57 70.27
20. ICG-8316 36.10 2.10 40.61 20.50 54.34 38.90 71.72
21. ICG-8048 29.70 1.40 35.50 19.57 60.59 35.44 72.09
22. SB-XI 34.40 2.20 45.47 12.98 48.57 32.94 70.84
Mean 28.19 2.46 43.96 18.77 54.52 42.68 71.70
S.E. + 1.29 0.14 3.25 0.68 5.14 1.08 0.74
C.D. at 5 % 3.79 0.42 9.55 1.99 15.12 3.17 2.17

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Resource Constrained Leader Election Scheme for


Intrusion Detection in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks
K.Prabha*, B.Kavi Priya**, Dr.S.Sukumaran***
*
Ph.D Research Scholar. Erode Arts and Science College, Erode-638009., Tamil Nadu, India.
**
M.Phil Scholar, Erode Arts and Science College, Erode-638009., Tamil Nadu, India.
***
Associate Professor of Computer Science, Erode Arts and Science College, Erode-638009., Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract- Mobile Ad-hoc Network is a peer-to-peer wireless Intrusion Detection is one of key techniques behind protecting a
network that transmits data from computer to computer without network against intruders. An Intrusion Detection System is a
the use of a central base station or access point. Intrusion system that tries to detect and alert on attempted intrusions into a
detection techniques are used for the network attack detection system or network, where an intrusion is considered to be any
process. The system is designed to handle leader election scheme unauthorized or unwanted activity on that system or network[15].
for intrusion detection process. In this paper, we use leader Extensive research has been done in this field and efficient IDS
election algorithm to find the globally optimal cost-efficient systems have been designed for wired networks. These systems
leader and it is devised to handle the election process for usually monitor user, system and network-level activities
possibility of cheating and security flaws, such as replay attacks. continuously, and normally have a centralized decision-making
The clustering scheme is optimized with coverage and traffic entity.
level. Cost and resource utilization is controlled under the Unlike traditional networks, the Mobile Ad-hoc Networks
clusters. The system development and analysis are carried out (MANETs) have no fixed chokepoints/bottlenecks where
under the JiST (Java in Simulation Time) simulation Intrusion Detection Systems can be deployed. Hence, a node may
environment. need to run its own IDS and cooperate with others to ensure
security. This is very inefficient in terms of resource
Index Terms- Clustering, Leader Election, Detection Latency. consumption since mobile nodes are energy limited. To
overcome this problem, a common approach is to divide the
MANET into a set of 1-hop clusters where each node belongs to
I. INTRODUCTION at least one cluster. The nodes in each cluster elect a leader node
to serve as the IDS for the entire cluster. The leader election
A mobile ad-hoc network is a collection of wireless nodes that
can dynamically be set up anywhere and anytime without
using any pre-existing network infrastructure[5]. It is an
process can be either random or based on the connectivity. Both
approaches aim to reduce the overall resource consumption. With
autonomous system in which mobile hosts connected by wireless the random model, each node is equally likely to be elected
links are free to move randomly and often act as routers at the regardless of its remaining resources. The connectivity index-
same time. Routing from one node to another node on mobile ad- based approach elects a node with a high degree of connectivity
hoc networks requires an "on-demand routing protocol," such as even though the node may have little resources left.
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) or Adaptive On demand With both election schemes, some nodes will die faster than
Distance Vector (AODV), which generates routing information others, leading to a loss in connectivity and potentially the
only when a station initiates a transmission. The earliest mobile partition of network. Although it is clearly desirable to balance
ad-hoc networks were called "packet radio" networks. In order to the resource consumption of IDSs among nodes, this objective is
make our concept scalable, to avoid expensive long-range traffic, difficult to achieve since the resource level is the private
and to enhance availability by providing service locally, we information of a node. Unless sufficient incentives are provided,
partition an ad-hoc network into a number of clusters. nodes might misbehave by acting selfishly and lying about their
In each cluster, exactly one distinguished node, the Cluster resources level to not consume their resources for serving others
Head (CH) is responsible for establishing and organizing the while receiving others services.
cluster. The CHs are responsible for sending CH beacons in their
clusters, containing administrative information for the cluster
members. Clustering is also used in some routing protocols for II. PROPOSED METHOD
ad hoc networks. Routing is typically divided into two parts: The mobile ad-hoc networks are infrastructure less
Routing within a cluster (intra-cluster) and Routing between networks. The base station, routers and redirection switches are
different clusters (inter-cluster). If a cluster-based routing not used in the mobile ad-hoc network environment. Clustering
protocol is used, the clusters established by the routing protocol techniques can be used to group up the mobile ad-hoc network
can also be used for our security concept, and some additional nodes. The nodes are grouped with reference to the coverage
advantages are to be expected. values. The leader node is selected for the clusters.The energy
level is considered in the leader node selection process.
1.1 Intrusion Detection

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The computational power and storage levels are also  Leader (k): A Boolean variable that sets to TRUE if
considered in the leader election process. The system is designed node k is a leader and FALSE otherwise.
to handle leader election for intrusion detection process. The
clustering scheme is optimized with coverage and traffic level. Initially, each node k starts the election procedure by
Cost and resource utilization is controlled under the clusters. broadcasting a Hello message to all the nodes that are 1 hop from
Node mobility is managed by the system. The overall process is node k and starts a timer T1. This message contains the hash
depicted in the following diagram: value of the node’s cost of analysis and its unique identifier (ID).
This message is needed to avoid cheating where further analysis
is conducted.

Executed by Elected leader node

Step 1: Leader(i) := TRUE;


Step 2: Compute Payment, Pi;
Step 3: updateservice-table(i);
Step 4: updatereputation-table(i);
Step 5: Acknowledge = Pi + all the votes;
Step 6: Send Acknowledge (i);

Executed by every node


Step 1: if (received Hello from all neighbors) then
Step 2: Send Begin-Election (IDk; costk);
Step 3: else if(neighbors(k) =  ) then
Fig 1. System Process Step 4: Launch IDS.

2.1 Leader Election Algorithm Step 5: end if


To run the election mechanism, it is proposed that a leader
election algorithm that helps to elect the most cost-efficient
leaders with less performance overhead compared to the network
flooding model. It devise all the needed the messages to establish
the election mechanism taking into consideration cheating and
presence of malicious nodes. The addition and removal of nodes
to/from the network due to mobility reasons is considered.
Finally, the performance overhead is considered during the
design of the given algorithm where computation,
communication, and storage overhead are derived.
To start a new election, the election algorithm uses four
types of messages. Hello, used by every node to initiate the
election process; Begin-Election, used to announce the cost of a
node; Vote, sent by every node to elect a leader; and
Acknowledge, sent by the leader to broadcast its payment, and
also as a confirmation of its leadership. For describing the
algorithm, the system uses the following notation:
 Service-table (k): The list of all ordinary nodes, those III. RESULTS
voted for the leader node k.
The secure leader election system is tested under the
 Reputation-table (k): The reputation table of node k.
simulation environment. The network transaction request data
Each node keeps the record of reputation of all other
values are collected from University of California, Irwin (UCI)
nodes.
machine learning repository. The network transaction requests
 Neighbors (k): The set of node k’s neighbors.
are initiated using the Defence and Research Project Agency
 Leadernode (k): The ID of node k’s leader. If node k is (DARPA) data values. The benchmark data values are used in
running its own IDS, then the variable contains k. the intrusion detection process. All the intrusion detection

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operations are handled under the detector applications. The estimated with reference to the number of packets transferred
detector is assigned with reference to the cluster and resource within the network environment. The traffic rate is the ratio
information. The system uses two types of detector assignment between the number of packets transferred through the network
methods. They are Cluster based Detector Assignment (CDA) and the number of packets transferred for the clustering
and Cluster Integrated Detector Assignment methods (CIDA). In operations.
the cluster based model the detectors are assigned under the Table 2. Rate analysis between CDA & CIDA
leader nodes of all clusters. In the cluster integrated model the
detectors are assigned for a group up clusters. The detector count Nodes CDA(%) CIDA(%)
is reduced in the cluster integrated model. The energy 20 75.8 57.4
consumption and traffic rate performance metrics are used to
evaluate the system performance. 40 79.2 59.7
The energy consumption analysis is performed with different 60 83.6 62.1
node count levels. The traffic rate analysis is performed to
measure the bandwidth usage level for the mobile ad-hoc 80 85.9 65.8
networks. The detection period for attack detection is measured 100 89.1 68.5
in all detectors. The average detection period is measured as
detection latency for the entire network.

3.1 Energy Consumption


A base station moderates communication among mobile
nodes, scheduling and buffering traffic so that the mobiles can
spend most of their time in the sleep state. In an ad hoc
environment, there are no base stations and nodes cannot predict
when they will receive traffic. Therefore, the default state in an
ad hoc network is the idle state, rather than the sleep state.

Table 1.Energy consumption analysis between CDA& CIDA


Nodes CDA(%) CIDA(%)

20 81.3 69.8
40 84.6 72.1 Fig 3. Rate analysis between CDA & CIDA
60 87.4 75.6
The CIDA model reduces the traffic rate 15% more than the
80 91.3 79.2 CDA model.
100 94.8 81.4 3.3 Detection Latency
The detection latency analysis is used to measure the time
taken for the intrusion detection process. The network request
received time and request identification time difference is
measured as delay period. The detection latency is the average
time to detect the request type. The detection latency is measured
in milli seconds.

Table 3. Detection Latency Analysis between CDA and CIDA

Nodes CDA(%) CIDA(%)


20 11.2 10.1
40 11.5 10.5
60 11.9 10.4
80 12.2 10.8
Fig 2. Energy consumption analysis between CDA & CIDA
100 12.4 10.9
The CIDA model reduces the energy consumption 10%
more than CDA model.

3.2 Traffic Rate


The traffic rate analysis is used to evaluate the mobile ad-
hoc network bandwidth usage levels. The bandwidth usage is

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[10] Kegen Yu and Eryk Dutkiewicz, “Geometry and Motion- Based


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AUTHORS
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Performance evaluation of the CMOS Full adders in


TDK 90 nm Technology
G. Divya*, B. Subbarami Reddy**, P. Bhagyalakshmi***

*Department of Electronics and Communication, CMR Engineering College


**Department of Electronics and Communication,
***Department of Electronics and Communication, CMR Engineering College

Abstract- This paper presents power analysis of the full Transmission function theory was used to build a full
adder cells reported as having a low PDP (Power Delay adder formed by three main logic blocks: a XOR-XNOR gate
Product), by means of speed, power consumption and area. to obtain A B and A B signals (Block 1), and XOR
These full adders were designed upon various logic styles to blocks or multiplexers to obtain the SUM (So) and CARRY
derive the sum and carry outputs. Two new high-speed and (Co) outputs (Blocks 2 and 3), as shown in Figure 1.
low-power full adder cells designed with an alternative This logic structure is based on the full adder's true-table
internal logic structure and pass-transistor logic styles that shown in Table I, and it has been adopted as the standard
lead to have a reduced PDP (Power-delay product). These all internal configuration in most of the enhancements developed
full adder cells designed using a TDK 90 nm CMOS for the 1-bit full adder cell. After a deep comparative study,
technology. the most efficient realization for block I was extracted: the one
implemented with SR-CPL logic style. But another important
Keywords- Adder circuits, pass transistor logic, power conclusion has pointed out over there: the major problem on
delay product, layout design. regards of propagation delay for a full adder built upon the
logic structure shown in Figure 1 is that it is necessary to
I. Introduction obtain the A B and A B intermediate signals, which are
then used to drive other blocks in order to generate the final
In portable electronic devices, it is important to prolong the outputs. Thus, the overall propagation delay and, in most of
battery life as much as possible. Adder is the core component the cases, the power consumption of the full adder, depend on
of an arithmetic unit. The efficiency of the adder determines the delay and voltage swing of the A B and A B signals,
the efficiency of the arithmetic unit. Various structures have generated within the cell.
evolved trying to improve the performance of the adder in Therefore, to increase the operational speed of the full
terms of area, power and speed. Low power design with high adder, it is necessary to look out for a new logic structure that
speed of operation is more essential. avoids the generation of intermediate signals used to control
The fundamental arithmetic operation is Addition and it is the selection or transmission of other signals located on the
used extensively in many VLSI systems such as application- critical path.
specific DSP architectures and microprocessors. in addition to
its main task, which is adding two binary numbers, it is the
nucleus of many other useful operations such as subtraction, Full adder
multiplication, division, address calculation, etc. in most of Ci
these systems the adder is part of the critical path that
BLOCK
determines the overall performance of the system. 2
So
The amount of energy spent during the realization of a B BLOCK
determined task relates to PDP and stands as the more fair 1
performance metric when comparing optimizations of a A
module designed and tested using different technologies,
BLOCK
operating frequencies. The PDP exhibited by the full-adder 3
Co
would affect the system’s overall performance.
The new full adder cell designed using an alternative logic
structure that is based on the multiplexing of the Boolean
functions XOR/XNOR and AND/OR, to obtain the SUM and
CARRY outputs, respectively. These full adders show to be Fig.1. Full-adder cell formed by three main logical blocks.
more efficient on regards of power consumption and PDP
when compared with other ones reported previously as good III. ALTERNATIVE LOGIC STRUCTURE FOR A FULL ADDER
candidates to build low-power arithmetic modules. And all Examining the full-adder’s true-table in Table I, it can be
these full adders designed using TDK 90 nm Technology and seen that the So output is equal to the A ⊕ B value when C=0,
simulated using mentor graphics EDA tool with BSIMv3 and it is equal to A ⊙ B when C=1. Thus, a multiplexer can
(model 49). And the layouts of all these full adders designed be used to obtain the respective value taking the C input as the
in Icstation of Mentor Graphics. selection signal. Following the same criteria, the Co output is
equal to the A B value when C = 0, and it is equal to A + B
II. STANDARD FULL ADDERS DESIGNS
value when C = 1.
TABLE IV

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True-Table For A 1-Bit Full-Adder: A, B, And C Are Inputs; a DPL logic style to build the XOR/XNOR gates, and a pass-
So And Co Are Outputs transistor based multiplexer to obtain the So output. In Fig. 4,
the SR-CPL logic style was used to build these XOR/XNOR
C B A So Co gates. In both cases, the AND/OR gates have been built using
0 0 0 0 0 a powerless and groundless pass-transistor configuration,
0 0 1 1 0 respectively, and a pass-transistor based multiplexer to get the
0 1 0 1 0 Co output.
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Again, C can be used to select the respective value for the
required condition, driving a multiplexer. Hence, an
alternative logic scheme to design a full-adder cell can be
formed by a logic block to obtain the A ⊕ B and A ⊙ B
signals, another block to obtain the A B and A + B signals,
and two multiplexers being driven by the C input to generate
the So and Co outputs, as shown in Fig. 1 .
The features and advantages of this logic structure are as
follows.
• There are not signals generated internally that control the
selection of the output multiplexers. Instead, the C input
signal, exhibiting a full voltage swing and no extra delay, is
used to drive the multiplexers, reducing so the overall
propagation delays.
• The capacitive load for the C input has been reduced, as it is
connected only to some transistor gates and no longer to some
drain or source terminals, where the diffusion capacitance is
becoming very large for sub-micrometer technologies. Thus,
the overall delay for larger modules where the C signal falls
on the critical path can be reduced.
• The propagation delay for the So and Co outputs can be Fig. 3. Full-adder designed with a DPL logic style.
tuned up individually by adjusting the XOR/XNOR and the
AND/OR gates; this feature is advantageous for applications
where the skew between arriving signals is critical for a
proper operation (e.g., wave pipelining), and for having well
balanced propagation delays at the outputs to reduce the
chance of glitches in cascaded applications.
• The inclusion of buffers at the full-adder outputs can be
implemented by interchanging the XOR/XNOR signals, and
the AND/OR gates to NAND/NOR gates at the input of the
multiplexers, improving in this way the performance for load-
sensitive applications.
Full adder
A XOR / S0
Multiplex
XNOR
B er

AND / Multiplex
OR er C
C
o
i
Fig 4. Full-adder designed with the SR-CPL logic style.
Fig. 2. Alternative logic scheme for designing full-adder cells.
Two new full-adders have been designed using the IV. SIMULATION SETUP
logic styles DPL and SR-CPL, and the new logic structure
presented in Fig. 3. Fig. 4 presents a full-adder designed using

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The test bed used to simulate the full adders being layout extracted netlists containing R and C
compared is shown in Figure 5. This simulation environment parasitics. Simulations were carried out using
has been commonly used to compare the performance of the
full adders.
ICSTUDIO in Mentor Graphics Eda Tool. Table 2
The advantage of using this test bed is that the Following shows the simulation results for full-adders
power components are taken into account, besides the performance comparison, regarding power
dynamic one: consumption, propagation delay, PDP and area.
The short-circuit dissipation of the inverters connected at the The ICSTUDIO in Mentor Graphics EDA Tool
full adder inputs.
simulations showed that of 59.56% power savings
and 57.51% for the PDP for the joint optimization
at 5v. And 52.32% power savings and 48.83% for
the PDP for the joint optimization at 1.8v.
TABLE VI
SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE FULL-ADDERS COMPARED

Fig 5. Test bed used for simulating the full-adders under


comparison.

This power consumption varies according to the capacitive


load that the adder module offers at the inputs. Even more, the
energy required to charge and discharge the full adder internal
nodes when the module has no direct power supply
connections (such is the case of pass-transistor logic styles),
comes through these inverters connected at the full adder
inputs.
 The short-circuit consumption of the full adder itself, as it
is receiving signals with finite slopes coming from the
buffers connected at the inputs, instead of ideal ones
coming from voltage sources.
 The short-circuit and static dissipation of the inverters
connected to the outputs of the full adder due to the finite
slopes and degraded voltage swing of the full adder
output signals.
The importance of including the effects and power
consumption of the buffers connected at the inputs and
outputs of the full adder cell come from the fact that the
module is always going to be used in combination with other
modules to build a larger system, and these static inverters are
a good generalization for any other module to be considered.

V. SIMULATION RESULTS
Seven full adders were compared on regards of power
consumption and delay. They were named: new14T[1],
HPSC[2], HYBRID[3], HYBRID CMOS[4], CPL[5], DPL
and SR-CPL[6].
The schematics and layouts were designed using
a TDK 90 nm CMOS technology, and simulated
using the BSIM3v3 model (level 49) and the post-

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VI. CONCLUSIONS
S. Name of No. of Area (µm2)
The design of high-speed low-power full adder cells N the full transist Frequency
o. adder ors L W L*W
based upon an alternative logic approach has been presented.
MENTOR GRAPHICS EDA TOOL simulations have shown 1 NEW14T 14 200 MHZ 5.14 7.75 39.83
a great improvement on regards of power-delay metric for HYBRID
2 24 200 MHZ 4.92 9.07 44.61
the proposed adders, when compared with previously CMOS
published realizations designed with TDK 90 nm 3 HPSC 22 200 MHZ 6.49 7.60 49.31
technology. 4 HYBRID 26 200 MHZ 5.76 9.57 55.11
The full adders designed upon this logic structure and 5 CPL 28 200 MHZ 7.37 8.29 61.10
DPL and SR-CPL logic styles, exhibit a delay around 134.9 6 DPL 28 200 MHZ 4.89 7.95 38.87
ps and power consumption around 4.22 µW at 1.8v and the 7 SRCPL 26 200 MHZ 5.40 7.72 41.69
delay is around 171.7 and power dissipation is 491.1 µW at
at 5v Supply voltage
5v supply voltage, for an overall reduction of 81% respect to
S. Name of Power Propagation delay (ps)
the best featured one of the other adders been compared, but N the full dissipat PDP
in general about 50% respect to the other ones. o. adder ion(uW Sum Carry
Average
(uw*ps)
Some work can be done in the future on the design of 45 ) delay
nm technology of high-speed low-power full adders. 147. 160.5 185668.2
1 HYBRID 1206.5 153.8
1 9 8
146. 152.1 181455.1
2 HPSC 1214.6 149.3
6 9 6
.
HYBRID 205. 171.1 171815.1
3 912.2 188.3
CMOS 4 9 4
152. 146.7 147081.8
4 NEW14T 983.8 149.5
3 0 8
205. 204.7 110931.5
5 CPL 540.3 205.2
7 9 9
189. 176.5
6 DPL 491.3 182.8 89837.66
1 6
139. 181.4
7 SRCPL 490.9 160.6 78893.24
9 9
at 1.8v Supply voltage
S. Name of Power Propagation delay (ps)
N the full dissipat PDP
o. adder ion Average
Sum Carry (uw*ps)
(uW) delay

1 136.
NEW14T 8.85 115.4 125.8 1113.33
1
2 HYBRID 153.
6.13 131.8 142.9 876.65
CMOS 9
3 108.
HYBRID 6.57 133.3 120.8 793.54
Fig. 6. Layout of the DPL full-adder. 3
4 108.
HPSC 6.57 125.0 116.6 765.83
2
5 142.
CPL 4.65 147.1 144.8 673.27
6
6 133.
DPL 4.23 158.8 146.2 617.93
6
7 SRCPL 4.21 98.8 148.7 123.6 521.23

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REFERENCES
[1] D. Radhakrishnan, “Low-voltage low-power CMOS full adder,” IEE
Proc. Circuits Devices Syst., vol. 148, no. 1, pp. 19–24, Feb. 2001.
[2] M. Zhang, J. Gu, and C. H. Chang, “A novel hybrid pass logic with
static CMOS output drive full-adder cell,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp.
Circuits Syst., May 2003, pp. 317–320.
[3] C. Chang, J. Gu, and M. Zhang, “A reviewof 0.18-�mfull adder
performances for tree structured arithmetic circuits,” IEEE Trans. Very
Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst., vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 686–695, Jun. 2005.
[4] S. Goel, A. Kumar, and M. Bayoumi, “Design of robust, energy-
efficient full adders for deep-submicrometer design using hybrid-
CMOS logic style,” IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst.,
vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 1309–1320, Dec. 2006.
[5] S. Agarwal, V. K. Pavankumar, and R. Yokesh, “Energy-efficient high
performance circuits for arithmetic units,” in Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. VLSI
Des., Jan. 2008, pp. 371–376.
[6] M. Aguirre and M. Linares, “CMOS Full-Adders for Energy-Efficient
Arithmetic Applications,” IEEE transactions on very large scale
integration (VLSI) systems, vol. 19, no. 4, April 2011, pp. 718–721.

AUTHORS
First Author – G.Divya, M.Tech, CMR Engineering College
[email protected]
Second Author –B.Subbarami Reddy,M.Tech,
[email protected]
Third Author -- P.Bhagyalakshmi, M.Tech,.
CMR Engineering College,
[email protected]
Correspondence Author –G.Divya, [email protected],
[email protected],+919959306585.

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MATLAB based Image Editing and Color Detection


Raquib Buksh1, Soumyajit Routh2, Parthib Mitra3, Subhajit Banik4, Abhishek Mallik5, Sauvik Das Gupta6

1234
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, West Bengal University of Technology, Kolkata, WB, India
56
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA

corresponding image matrix is 256x256.Gray scale image is also


Abstract– This paper deals with the implementation of various a 2 dimensional matrix with each element value varying from 0
MATLAB functions present in image processing toolbox of MATLAB to 256. Like gray scale image RGB image can be denoted by
and using the same to create a basic image processor having different
matrix with each pixel values varying from 0 to 256.In case of
features like, viewing the red, green and blue components of a color
image separately, color detection and various other features (noise
RGB image, three separate matrices for each red, green and blue
addition and removal, edge detection, cropping, resizing, rotation, components overlap to form a RGB image of 256x256x3
histogram adjust, brightness control, etc.) that is used in a basic image dimension. Since we are now well acquainted with image as a
editor along with object detection and tracking. matrix, now any mathematical operations can be performed on an
image that can be done with a matrix.
Keywords- Image processing toolbox, GUI, MATLAB, Bounding Box

I.INTRODUCTION

In this paper the authors presented a set of MATLAB


applications useful for image processing[1][2] and color
detection, each of which consists of user friendly graphical
interface helpful for those not familiar with MATLAB programs
running behind the image processor.

MATLAB based image processing[3] is a very convenient


platform and very easy to construct an algorithm. An image is a
matrix of pixel values. MATLAB considers every input as a Figure 1: Gray scale image Matrix
matrix. For this reason MATLAB provides an easy tool for
image processing as a user can easily access each and every pixel II.IMAGE EDITOR
value from the image matrices and edit it. Moreover there is an
‘image processing tool box’ [4] built in MATLAB for this The image editor is created using the Graphical User Interface
purpose. (GUI) [5][6] option available in MATLAB . The editor consists
of three axis and the following options:
Mainly users deal with three types of image, hence three  Browse image
different matrices. Black and white or binary image matrix  Image input using camera
consists of only zero and one, one being the brighter portion and  Image addition
zero being the dark part. Generally images are 8bit and  Gray conversion

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Figure 2: MATLAB GUI

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o Noise addition
o Noise removal
o Histogram adjust
 B/W conversion
o B/W to color image
o Edge detection
 Auto brightness
 Image rotate
 Image Resize
 Crop
 Clear

 Reset original
 Sliders (4) to control brightness and R, G and B component.
 Panel to view RGB format and each component separately.

While creating the GUI, push button, slider, radio button, check box, pop-up menu, list box, panel and button group options available
in MATLAB are used, (Figure. 2) Now each component is discussed separately.
A. Axis

Three axes are used in the GUI. The first axis is mainly for an input image. The second axis is mainly for any other effects on the
original image (like after adding noise). The third axis is for the histogram or as in Figure 2 shows the image after removal of the
noise. According to Figure 2,
axis one shows the gray scale image (input image), second axis shows the noise added and the third axis shows the image after noise
removal.
B. Browse Image

The browse image panel helps in selecting an image from hard disk or an image taken directly from camera for further processing.
C. Image Addition
Figure 3: Image addition
Image is a simple matrix. Since, addition can be performed on matrix, so that can also be applied on images. To do this a function
‘imadd’ available in MATLAB is used which performs addition of pixel values of first image to the second image.

D. Gray Conversion

Gray conversion is done mainly to convert a RGB image (three dimensional matrix) to gray scale (two dimensional matrix) having
pixel values ranging from 0 to 255.
Noise Addition and Removal: Various types of noise get added to an image when a snapshot is taken. In order to get rid of these
noises various types of filters are used. To illustrate this authors have added a noise to an image externally and then applied
various filters to get rid of it and evaluated the results. Since noises are two dimensional and RGB images are three dimensional,
dimensional mismatch has to be avoided while adding the noises. For this reason RGB image is converted to gray image and
then noise addition and removal is performed.

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Noises can be of various types such as Poisson, Salt and pepper, Gaussian and Speckle. Median and adaptive filter are mainly in
use. Figure 2 shows that Poisson noise has been added to the image in axis 1, and the noise added image is in axis 2 and after
applying Adaptive filter to the image we get the filtered image as shown in axis 3.

Figure 4: Salt and Pepper noise added image

Figure 5: Gaussian noise added image

Figure 6: Speckle noise added image


E. Black and White Image

Binary image (black and white) image is a two dimensional image with pixel values either 0(black) or 1(white).
1)Edge Detection: Edge detection technique is applicable only to binary images, so in case of an RGB or gray image it has to be
first converted to a binary image and then edge detection technique has to be applied.
RGB image is not directly converted to B/W image. First it is converted to gray image then to B/W. This is done by applying
‘graythresh’ function on gray image and then ‘im2bw’ and ‘bwareaopen’ functions on the previous output consecutively.

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Figure 7: B/W conversion and edge detection( Sobel)


The various types of edge detection techniques are: Sobel, Prewitt, Roberts, LoG, Zerocross and Canny. Figure 7 shows Sobel
technique of edge detection.

Figure 8: Canny edge detection technique used

Figure 9: LoG edge detection technique used


F. Image rotate

Image rotate is used to rotate the image to a specified degree. The command is ‘imrotate’.

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Figure 10: Image rotation


Axis 1 is the actual image, axis 2 is the rotated image and the axis 3 shows the corresponding histogram.
G. Image Crop

Image cropping is used to select any particular portion of the whole image. The syntax is ‘imcrop’.

Figure 11: Image cropping


Axis 1 shows the actual image, axis 2 showing the crop portion and the intensity distribution of the cropped image is being shown on
axis 3.
H. Image Resize

Image resize is being used to resize the actual image to certain multiples. The syntax is ‘imresize’.

Figure 12: Image resize


I. Sliders

Here four sliders are used for each of red, green and blue components individually and another for brightness. Our main aim was to
control each component (red, green & blue) intensity and also brightness of the original image.

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Figure 13: Sliders usage


The axis 1 is the original image, axis 2 shows a particular component change (here green) and the axis 3 is showing the result of it on
the actual image.
J. RGB Format

This RGB panel is used to view the red, green and blue componenst of the image separately. It has already been mentioned that an
RGB image is overlap of three two dimensional matrix.

Figure 14a: Red component

Figure 14b: Green component

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Figure 14c: Blue component


K. Histogram adjust

Generally for certain images the histograms are not equally spaced or rather they are clotted to a particular intensity, hence, making
the image dull or too bright. For this reason various histogram adjustment techniques are being used. Some of the well-known
histogram adjustment functions are ‘histeq’, ‘imadjust’ and ‘adapthisteq’.

L. Bounding Box

The bounding box concept is used in MATLAB to identify either the red, blue or green component of an image taken by the camera. It
is a part of the ‘regionprops’ function[7].
‘REGIONPROPS’ measure different properties of a bounded image region, like area, axis and centroid.

Figure 15: Blue detection


Figure 16: Green detection
Figure 17: Red detection
III. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
Thus here various components of this MATLAB based image editor
have been discussed. The authors have tried their level best to make the
image editor as user friendly as possible. The purpose of the image
editor is to bring the various image editing functions available in
MATLAB tool box under one common platform and to make it easier
for the understanding of any user. Future work can be aimed to expand
the set of applications than what has been used here.

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The authors have implemented the bounding box technique used in the image editor, to control the outputs of an Arduino and an
‘iRobot Create’ using color detection, which shall be illustrated in their next paper.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by ESL (www.eschoollearning.net), Kolkata.

REFERENCES
[1] Rafael C. Gonzalez (University of Tennessee), Richard E. Woods (MedData Interactive) and Steven L. Eddins (The MathWorks, Inc.), in
‘Digital Image Processing Using MATLAB’ Second Edition,2009 by Gatesmark, LLC.

[2] Alasdair McAndrew, in ‘An Introduction to Digital Image Processing with Matlab, Notes for SCM2511 Image Processing 1’, School of
Computer Science and Mathematics ,Victoria University of Technology.

[3] Justyna Inglot, ‘Advanced Image Processing with Matlab’, in Bachelor’s Thesis Information Technology, May 2012, Date of the bachelor's
thesis 07.05.2010 ,Mikkeli University of Applied Sciences.

[4] http://www.mathworks.in/help/images/index.html

[5] http://www.mathworks.in/discovery/matlab-gui.html

[6] http://www.mathworks.in/videos/creating-a-gui-with-guide-68979.html

[7] http://www.mathworks.in/help/images/ref/regionprops.html

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Implementation of MATLAB based object detection


technique on Arduino Board and iROBOT CREATE
Raquib Buksh1, Soumyajit Routh2, Parthib Mitra3, Subhajit Banik4, Abhishek Mallik5, Sauvik Das Gupta6

1234
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, West Bengal University of Technology, Kolkata, WB, India
56
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA

Abstract – This paper illustrates the application of the color detection technique using MATLAB algorithms, to control the state of the output pins of
an Arduino (AT mega 328) and also to control the movements of an iROBOT CREATE [1]. This gives a very small example of implementing
Bounding Box algorithm [2] and use of the simple color detection technique and other ‘REGIONPROPS’ [3][4] parameters we can control the
outputs of an Arduino board [5]and also control an iROBOT CREATE.

Keywords – Color detection, MATLAB, iROBOT CREATE, Arduino AT Mega 328, Bounding box.

I. INTRODUCTION

I n this paper, we are going to take advantage of the Bounding Box technique, present in image processing tool box [6], to detect the
centroid of a particular colored image, and the change of the centroid co-ordinates will be detected, which will be applied to
generate different commands. These commands would be fed to an Arduino to change the states of its output pins, and, to control the
movement of an iROBOT CREATE in a particular direction. Here same logic has been implemented for both Arduino (AT mega 328)
and iROBOT CREATE.

The main algorithm that is implemented is very simple and robust. A camera takes continuous snapshots and a particular colored
region (predefined by user) of the images are bounded by a box. Then an algorithm is written that will sense the movement of the
colored box and generate different commands, each command corresponds to movements in a particular direction of an iROBOT
CREATE(that is fed wirelessly to the robot) or state change of certain output pins of an Arduino.

Arduino is basically an open source platform which is very easy to use, and, interfacing with Arduino is simple. The iROBOT
CREATE that has been used is a programmable robot developed under Roomba platform in 2007, explicitly designed for robotics
development.

II.HARDWARE PLATFORM

A. Imaging device

The web cam is used as image capturing device. Here the device takes snapshots continuously after a predefined very short interval of
time. Due to human’s perception of vision these snapshots taken within a very short period of time and displayed continuously might
look as a continuous image i.e. video. Depending on the processing speed of the computer being used, this interval for taking
snapshots is adjusted.

B. Arduino ATmega328

Arduino Atmega328 is used. The image of an Arduino board is shown in Figure 1(a) and the pin diagram is shown in Figure 1(b)
which will help to know the detailed hardware configurations of the Arduino board used.

Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible, easy-to-use hardware and software. Arduino can
programmed according to users own need. The power supply can be via USB or external power supply. The power source is selected
with a jumper, a small piece of plastic that fits onto two of the three pins between the USB and power jacks. There is sufficient
number of pins for

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(a)

(b)

Figure 1(a): Actual Arduino image, Figure 1(b): Arduino pin settings

ATmega328

Flash Memory 32KB; 0.5KB used by


boot loader

SRAM 2KB

EEPROM 1KB

Clock speed 16MHz

Digital I/O pins 14( of which 6 provides


PWM output)

Analog Input pins 6

Table 1: Specifications for our Arduino

both analog and digital. Before programming is done on Arduino, the board used has to be selected (AT mega 328)
from the ‘tools’ option of Arduino software. Serial port (COM1/COM2/COM3) in use has to be selected also from the ‘tools’ menu.

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The platform is then set for programming. After the desired code is written it has to be uploaded to the microcontroller of the Arduino
and then Arduino is expected to work as desired.

C. iROBOT CREATE

‘iROBOT CREATE’ is a robot manufactured by ‘ iROBOT’ that is based on the Roomba platform and was introduced in the year
2007.The iROBOT CREATE includes a cargo bay which houses a 25 pin port that can be used for digital and analog input and
output. The CREATE also possesses a serial port through which sensor data can be read and motor commands can be generated using
the "iROBOT Roomba Open Interface protocol"(a MATLAB based function dedicated to control iROBOT CREATE).
In order to control the ‘iROBOT CREATE’ using MATLAB a toolbox named ‘iROBOT CREATE toolbox’ has to be used that is not
present in MATLAB. The iROBOT CREATE simulator is a MATLAB toolbox designed to visualize the robot's movement in
different environments. The user can control the robot manually, or by writing a program for autonomous behavior. The simulator is
designed to accept autonomous programs written using the MATLAB Toolbox for the iROBOT CREATE (by Esposito and Barton)
[7], thus allowing for seamless transitions between simulation and physical execution.

Figure 2(a)

Figure 2(b)

Figure 2(c)

Figure 2 (a): iROBOT CREATE (b): Top view of the robot (c): Bottom view of the robot

Figure 2 shows the detailed hardware of the iROBOT that we are going to control using our MATLAB programming.

D. Bluetooth Adaptor Module (BAM)

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Commands can be sent to the iROBOT either via wire or wireless medium (via Bluetooth or Wi-Fi or Serial Wired Communication).
Here it is done wirelessly, by using a Bluetooth device connected to the iROBOT and then interfacing it with the computer’s
Bluetooth. For this purpose a Bluetooth Adaptor Module or BAM is used. The Element Direct BAM (Bluetooth Adapter Module)
enables wireless control of the iROBOT CREATE from any Windows, Mac or Linux computer, or any other Bluetooth enabled
device. The BAM connects to the CREATE's cargo port to CREATE a virtual serial port. The BAM is a wireless serial cable
replacement that uses the Serial Port Profile (SPP) to provide a means to send and receive serial packets to the iROBOT CREATE
mobile robot. The BAM allows the CREATE robot to be driven remotely with a PC hosted web server. It also allows user to run
complicated algorithms on a host computer and communicate with the iROBOT in real time. The various specifications of the BAM is
mentioned in Table 2 and Table 3.

Bluetooth Specifications

Device Name Element Serial

Available Services SPP

RF power Class 1 Bluetooth

Baud rate 57600

Data Bits 8

Stop Bits 1

Table 2: Specifications for our BAM

General Specifications

Operating Frequency 2.4GHz

Voltage 5V

Current 100 mA maximum

Internal Antenna Multilayer 0.5dBi


Chip, Peak gain

Operating range 91 meters

Operating temperature 0 to 50 degree centigrade

Size 55x55x16mm

Table 3: General Specifications for our BAM

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Figure 3: Bluetooth Adaptor Module (BAM)

III. METHODOLOGY

The whole process can be divided into two parts. The first part being detection of the movements of the colored box using MATLAB
image processing and the second being interfacing with the Arduino and the iROBOT CREATE to act accordingly.

A. Movement detection using MATLAB

Image acquisition is a crucial part for movement detection. To get the detail of the hardware device interfaced for imaging
‘imaqhwinfo’ command is used. Here ‘winvideo’ is a dedicated adapter for windows platform. Now it is possible that more than one
imaging device is connected to the computer, to avoid this problem while taking snapshot from an imaging device its serial number is
also mentioned. It is possible to take finite and infinite numbers of snapshot from the imaging device according to the requirement of
the user. Now ‘BoundingBox’ algorithm is applied on the captured images.

The Bounding Box is a part of ‘regionprops’ function. The brief algorithm of ‘BoundingBox’ is explained below:

 Grab an image using Image Acquisition toolbox


 Run this image grabbing function inside a loop( while loop is recommended)
 From the required color index, perform image subtracting function.
 Apply median filter for noise cancelation and convert the image into black and white image as most of the image processing
tool cannot be applied on color image.
 Calculate the ‘regionprops’ of each of the component of the image that is a function of MATLAB by which all details of the
component of the image can be enlisted.

REGIONPROPS: Measure the properties of any particular image region.


STATS = REGIONPROPS (BW, PROPERTIES) measures a set of properties for each connected component (object) in the binary
image BW, which must be a logical array, it can have any dimension.
STATS are an array of structures with length equal to the number of objects in BW, CC.NumObjects, or max (L(:)). The fields of the
structure array denote different properties for each region, as specified by PROPERTIES.
PROPERTIES can be a comma-separated list of strings; a cell array containing strings; the string 'all'; or the string 'basic'.
Shape Measurements:
'Area, 'EulerNumber', 'Orientation', ‘BoundingBox’, 'Extent' 'Perimeter','Centroid', 'Extrema’,'PixelIdxList’,'ConvexArea'
'FilledArea',‘PixelList’,'ConvexHull’,'FilledImage’,'Solidity' 'SubarrayIdx' , ' Eccentricity',' MajorAxisLength',
'EquivDiameter' 'MinorAxisLength'.
In this project mainly three shape measuring function are used, they are bounding box, centroid, and area. Using the bounding box
concept the red, blue or the green portions can be identified and at the same time the centroid of the detected portion can also be
displayed.

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Figure 4: Bounding box showing the centroid.

Now tracking the centroid of the bounded region, the remaining program is executed. The main procedure is as follows:

 The difference or change in centroid of the object between two consecutive snapshots is noted.
 When an individual holds the colored object in front of the camera and as he gradually moves his hand from left to right(so
does the centroid), his hands also move slightly up and down(due to shaking of hand, which is unintentional). So the change
of centroid will be in both the axes (x and y), but movement in one particular direction is considered. For this reason one
particular axis(x or y) where movement is greater is taken under consideration and it is regarded as the intentional
movement of the user.
 Now after recognizing the axis in which the movement is intended, the direction of change is noted, i.e., whether it is
positive or negative movement in that particular axis and a command corresponding to it is generated.
 After these above two steps, the generated command is fed to the input of an Arduino and the iROBOT.

B. Interfacing with Arduino and iROBOT

1) Arduino Interfacing: Arduino windows based software is used to program the microcontroller on the board. Arduino can be
connected through Universal Serial Bus. In the software Interface firstly model name of the Arduino is selected. Embedded C program
is used for programming the microcontroller. Arduino programming has a pre-defined pattern, there are three parts, declaring the
variables, setup part (communicational command) and loop part. As per the name suggests variable declaring part initializes all the
variables which are needed throughout the program. Setup part consists of communication port configuration and in this portion we
have to declare the pin configuration of the Arduino. Loop part has an infinite loop under which the main operational statements are
written.
Then bounding box program is applied to detect the colored box movement, and for a particular movement a particular LED glows (as
a particular pin goes High). For this purpose two programs have to be executed. The first one is in the MATLAB and the second in
Arduino.
In the MATLAB program the bounding box concept is used to detect red, blue or green component. Then for a particular movement in
x and y axis a character (a command) is send to the Arduino board using ‘fprintf’. For example if the movement in x is positive then
character ‘r’ is sent, meaning right. And if it is negative movement character ‘l’ can be sent, meaning left. Similarly for the y axis ‘f’
and ‘b’ for forward and backward movement can be sent respectively, One can send any character for any condition, according to his
own choice
When from MATLAB the Arduino receives particular character via Universal Serial Bus, it is needed to be programmed to act
according to a users need. Here there are four LEDS to four different Arduino pins. For four different box movements(right, left, up
and down) MATLAB send the Arduino four different characters as commands and the programmed Arduino receives those
commands and operates to set one out of four pins to HIGH and all the other three to LOW simultaneously. In this way movements of
the box in a particular direction can be sensed by glowing a particular LED representing a definite direction.

2) iROBOT Interfacing: iROBOT is interfaced with computer wirelessly. For this purpose Bluetooth Adapter Manger (BAM) is
connected to the cargo bay of the iROBOT.
After completing the Bluetooth setup the MATLAB program is executed. The iROBOT is accessed via Bluetooth.
The main idea of movement control of iROBOT is the same as that of glowing a LED tracking the box’s movement using Bounding
Box technique. For forward and backward movement y axis change is considered and for the left and right turning x axis change is
considered.
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IV. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION

The main aim of the project was to detect the colored box’s movement and how that can be applied to control the movement of the
iROBOT CREATEs. Since using MATLAB image processing red, green or blue color can be detected and MATLAB bounding box
algorithm provided access to its centroid, it became easy to detect the hand movement of the person holding any of red, green or blue
colored object in his hand and thereby controlling either an Arduino or iROBOT.

There are certain aspects of the paper that needs to be worked upon and improved. Those aspects include eliminating unwanted
detection of color while execution of Bounding Box algorithm except the target object, multiple color detection other than red, green
and blue .

The iROBOT CREATE can move left, right, front and backwards, but more detailed studies is to be done to rotate it in intermediate
angles using the box movement more accurately.

In summary, this paper implies how hand movements can be implemented to control any robot using color detection technique.
MATLAB provides easy methods for doing that. Moreover the interfacing between MATLAB and other external hardware devices
such as Arduino and iROBOT, makes the work much easier.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by ESL (www.eschoollearning.net), Kolkata.
REFERENCES
[1] Jason T. Isaacs, Daniel J. Klein, Joao P. Hespanha in
‘A Guided Internship For High School Students Using iROBOT CREATE’. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 USA(e-mail:fjtisaacs,djklein,[email protected]).

[2] V. Subburaman and S. Marcel. Fast Bounding Box estimation based face detection in ‘Workshop on Face Detection of the European Conference
on Computer Vision (ECCV)’, 2010.

[3]http://nf.nci.org.au/facilities/software/Matlab/toolbox/images/regionprops.html
[4] http://www.mathworks.in/help/images/ref/regionprops.html
[5]http://arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/HomePage
[6]http://www.mathworks.in/help/images/index.html
[7] http://www.usna.edu/Users/weapsys/esposito/roomba.matlab/

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Influence of Fine Aggregate Particle Size and Fly-ash on


the Compressive Strength of Mortar for SCC
Er. Gupta Ankush, Dr. Chandak Rajeev and Er. Koshta M.K.

Department of Civil Engineering, Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur, M.P., India

Abstract- Self-compacting concrete (SCC) generally has higher  Batching and testing concrete involves significant efforts,
powder content than normally vibrated concrete (NVC) and thus particularly in a research laboratory and with mortar a
it is necessary to replace some of the cement by mineral greater number of combinations of variables can be
admixtures such as fly-ash to achieve an economical and durable investigated in a given time.
concrete. SCC contains a large mortar volume as compared to  The variables can be easily controlled, the test methods are
NVC. This work presents the influence of fine aggregate particle similar to that for concrete and the properties can be easily
size and fly ash on the compressive strength of mortar for SCC. measured.
Mortar mixes consists of five different cement replacement
percentage (CRP) by fly-ash are investigated for four different
particle sizes of fine aggregate. The compressive strength of II. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
mortar cubes at the curing time of 7, 28 days was determined.
 Cement:- Ordinary Portland cement (grade 53) was
Index Terms- Self-Compacting Concrete, mortar, fly ash, used and conforms to IS 12269- 1987. Its physical
compressive strength. properties are as given in table 1.

Table 1 - Physical Properties of Cement


I. INTRODUCTION
Characteristics Values

S elf compacting concrete (SCC), which flows under its own


weight and does not require any external vibration for
compaction, has revolutionized concrete placement. SCC has a
Normal consistency
Setting Time-
28 %

higher powder content than normally vibrated concrete. In SCC, Initial set (min) 99 Min.
increasing the cement content alone to increase the quantity of Final set 184 Min.
powder material leads to a significant rise in material cost and Min. Compressive strength after
often has other negative effects on concrete properties (e.g., 7 days 51.0 MPa
increased thermal stress and shrinkage, etc.). Thus requirement 28days 74.3 MPa
for increased powder content in SCC is usually met by the use of
mineral admixtures along with cement. Industrial by-products or Specific gravity 3.15
waste materials such as limestone powder, fly ash, silica fume
and granulated blast furnace slag are generally used as mineral
admixtures in SCC. Besides the economical benefits, such usage
of by-products or waste materials in concrete reduces
environmental pollution. The compressive strength of mortar is  Fly-ash :- Fly-ash and its chemical analysis report is
an important property as mortar finally becomes a major part of obtained from Sanjay Gandhi thermal power station,
concrete. SCC has a coarse aggregate content substantially less Birsinghpur, dist. Shahdol, M.P., India. The chemical
than that of normal concrete , typically (31-35% by volume). and physical properties of fly-ash are given in the table
Therefore, mortar phase of SCC mix covers about 70% of total 2 and table 3 respectively.
volume of concrete. The strength of mortar fraction of SCC
influences the strength of concrete. In the present study, the
influence of fine aggregate particle size on compressive strength
of mortar at different cement replacement percentage (CRP)
levels by fly ash was evaluated.
Self- Compacting mortars are being tested for the following
reasons:
 It contains all of the materials except coarse aggregate and
the effect of test variables will be similar to those in
concrete. Table 2 - Chemical Properties of fly-ash
 Assessing the properties of mortar is an integral part of
many SCC mix design processes and therefore knowledge of Elemental Oxides Percentage
mortar properties is itself useful.

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Silicon Di-oxide (SiO2) 63.41 % Particle size 2 in between 300 µ to 500 µ , denoted as 300 µ
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 25.88 % < PS-2< 500 µ
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 0.34 % Particle size 3 in between 500 µ to 710 µ , denoted as 500 µ
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1.13 % < PS-3< 710 µ
Manganese oxide none detected Particle size 4 in between 710 µ to 1 mm , denoted as 710 µ
Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 1.19 % < PS-4< 1 mm
Potassium Oxide (K2O) 1.22 %
Iron Oxide 3.14 % Table 5 - The physical properties of sand
Phosphorus Pentoxide 1.65 %
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 0.53 % Physical properties of fine aggregate
Titanium Di-oxide 1.51 % Colour Grayish White
Specific Gravity 2.64
Absorption in 24 0.80%
Table 3 - Physical properties of fly ash hours
Shape of grains Sub angular
Physical Properties Test Result
 Water:- Ordinary potable water available in the laboratory
Colour Grey Blackish was used.
Specific Gravity 2.27
Experimental procedure for SCC Mortar:-
The compressive strength of various mix proportions (mix
design) as given in table was determined by preparing 120 nos.,
 Chemical Admixtures:-Superplasticiser or high range 70.7 mm size cubes. The mortar cubes were demoulded 1 day
water reducing admixtures are an essential components after casting and cured in water at normal room temperature for 7
of SCC. Conplast SP430 confirms to ASTM-C-494 days and 28 days. The cubes were tested in compression testing
Type “F” was used as superplasticiser. It is based on machine as per IS 4031:1988.
Sulphonated Napthalene polymers and supplied as a
brown liquid instantly dispersible in water.
III. MORTAR MIX PROPORTIONS
Table 4 - Properties of Conplast SP430 Table 6 gives the mortars proportion details. The mortar
mixtures contains powder which composed of five weight
Specific gravity 1.220 to 1.225 at 300C proportions of OPC and fly ash, i.e.
Chloride content Nil to IS 456 90:10,80:20,70:30,60:40,50:50. The water to powder ratio (w/p)
Air entrainment Approx 1% additional air is entrained was 0.3 and the superplasticiser dosage was 1.5 percent by
weight of powder. The quantities except particle size of fine
 Fine Aggregate:-The sand confirming to IS 650: 1966 aggregate in the SCC mix is kept constant to avoid any other
was used as fine aggregate. Four fine aggregates, based variation on the compressive strength due to quantities and
on particle sizes was analysed, viz. quality of any ingredient in the mortar mix.

Particle size 1 in between 90 µ to 300 µ , denoted as 90 µ


< PS-1< 300 µ
Table 6 - Mortar mix proportions

Mortar Mix Particle Size of Powder ‘p’ (2 kg) Water admix. fine aggregate (3 kg)
Designation fine aggregate OPC Fly-ash Ratio 0.3 x p (1.5%) PS-1 PS-2 PS-3 PS-4
(kg) (kg) (ltr.) (kg)

PS-1/10 90µ<PS<300µ 1.80 0.20 90:10 0.600 0.030 3 kg


PS-2/10 300µ<PS<500µ 1.80 0.20 90:10 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-3/10 500µ<PS<710µ 1.80 0.20 90:10 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-4/10 710µ<PS<1mm 1.80 0.20 90:10 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-1/20 90µ<PS<300µ 1.60 0.40 80:20 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-2/20 300µ<PS<500µ 1.60 0.40 80:20 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-3/20 500µ<PS<710µ 1.60 0.40 80:20 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-4/20 710µ<PS<1mm 1.60 0.40 80:20 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-1/30 90µ<PS<300µ 1.40 0.60 70:30 0.600 0.030 3 kg

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PS-2/30 300µ<PS<500µ 1.40 0.60 70:30 0.600 0.030 3 kg


PS-3/30 500µ<PS<710µ 1.40 0.60 70:30 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-4/30 710µ<PS<1 mm 1.40 0.60 70:30 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-1/40 90µ<PS<300 µ 1.20 0.80 60:40 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-2/40 300µ<PS<500 µ 1.20 0.80 60:40 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-3/40 500µ<PS<710µ 1.20 0.80 60:40 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-4/40 710µ<PS<1mm 1.20 0.80 60:40 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-1/50 90µ<PS<300µ 1.00 1.00 50:50 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-2/50 300µ<PS<500µ 1.00 1.00 50:50 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-3/50 500µ<PS<710µ 1.00 1.00 50:50 0.600 0.030 3 kg
PS-4/50 710µ<PS<1mm 1.00 1.00 50:50 0.600 0.030 3 kg

Mortar mix with sand PS -1 and 10 % cement replacement percentage (CRP) by fly-ash designated as PS-1/10
Mortar mix with sand PS -2 and 20 % cement replacement percentage (CRP) by fly-ash designated as PS-2/20
Mortar mix with sand PS -3 and 30 % cement replacement percentage (CRP) by fly-ash designated as PS-3/30
Mortar mix with sand PS -4 and 40 % cement replacement percentage (CRP) by fly-ash designated as PS-4/40
Mortar mix with sand PS -1 and 50 % cement replacement percentage (CRP) by fly-ash designated as PS-1/50 and so on….

water was determined by testing cubes of each sample by


IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS compression testing machine in MPa, are given in the table 7.
The compressive strength of SCC mortar cubes of 70.7 mm
size of different mix proportions after 7 and 28 curing time in

Table 7 - Results of compressive strength of SCC mortar

Compressive strength of mortar cubes in MPa after


Mortar mix designation
7 days 28 days
PS-1/10 33.36 53.17

PS-2/10 32.38 54.95

PS-3/10 33.36 52.99

PS-4/10 32.38 53.17

PS-1/20 29.44 49.06

PS-2/20 29.44 51.02

PS-3/20 27.48 51.02

PS-4/20 28.46 50.04

PS-1/30 25.51 47.10

PS-2/30 24.53 45.14

PS-3/30 25.51 45.14

PS-4/30 23.55 44.16

PS-1/40 23.55 42.19

PS-2/40 21.59 43.17

PS-3/40 22.50 42.19

PS-4/40 21.59 42.19

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PS-1/50 18.64 38.27

PS-2/50 19.63 39.25

PS-3/50 17.66 38.27

PS-4/50 17.66 39.25

Graphical representations of compressive strength of mortar samples v/s different particle size of fine aggregate are given in
cubes:- Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
The graphical representations of the relationship between the
compressive strength for 7days and 28 days curing time of the

Particle size 1 in between 90 µ to 300 µ , denoted as 90 µ < PS-1< 300 µ


Particle size 2 in between 300 µ to 500 µ , denoted as 300 µ < PS-2< 500 µ
Particle size 3 in between 500 µ to 710 µ , denoted as 500 µ < PS-3< 710 µ
Particle size 4 in between 710 µ to 1 mm , denoted as 710 µ < PS-4< 1 mm

Fig 1 – Compressive strength of mortar cubes after 7 days curing time

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Fig 2 – Compressive strength of mortar cubes after 28 days curing

[2] Gettu Ravindra, Shareef Shaik Nawaz, Ernest Kingsley JD.; Evaluation of
the robustness of SCC, Indian Concrete Journal, Volume 83, Number 6,
V. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS June 2009, P. 13-19.
The relationship between the compressive strength for [3] Sengupta Anirwan and Santhanam Manu; Influence of aggregate
7days and 28 days curing time of the samples having different characteristics on Uniformity of SCC, Indian Concrete Journal, Volume 83,
Number 6, June 2009, P. 50-60.
particle size of fine aggregate are given in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
[4] Okamura Hajime and Ouchi Masahiro; Self Compacting concrete, Journal
Strength increases with increase in curing time for all mixes. The of Advanced Concrete Technology, Japan Concrete Institute Vol-1, No.1, 5-
strength is more for mix having 10% CRP; whereas the strength 15, April 2003.
is lowest for mix having 50% CRP. In the present investigation [5] Nepemuceno Miguel and Oliveira Luiz; Parameters for self–compacting
increase in the fly ash content replacing cement from 10% to Concrete Mortar Phase.
50% resulting in the decrease of compressive strength of mortar [6] Krishna Murthy.N. Narasimha Rao, A.V. Ramanna Reddy I.V. and Vijaya
cubes from 33.36 MPa to 17.66 MPa for 7 days and from 53.17 Shekhar Reddy. M.; Mix Design Procedure for Self-Compacting Concrete ,
IOSR Journal of Engineering Vol. 2, Issue 9, Sept 2012, P. 33 - 41.
MPa to 39.25 MPa for 28 days of curing time. The mortar’s
[7] Dubey Rahul and Kumar Pradeep; Effect of Fly-ash on Water/ Powder ratio
compressive is almost the same for particle sizes PS-1, PS-2, PS- and Superplasticiser Dosage in Self- Compacting Mortars, International
3, PS-4 with same CRP. The increase in fly ash reduces the Journal of Architecture, Engineering and Construction, Vol. 2, No. 1,
compressive strength at all curing time. March 2013, 55-62.
[8] Domone P.; Proportioning of Self- Compacting concrete – the UCL
method, UCL, Department of Civil, Enviromental and Geomatic
Engineering, November 2009.
VI. CONCLUSION [9] Jayashree C., Santhanam Manu and Gettu Ravindra; Cement-
Thus we conclude from the Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, that the fine Superplasticser Compatibility - Issues and challenges, Indian Concrete
Journal, Volume 85, Number 7, July 2011, P. 48-60.
aggregate particle size does not influence the compressive
[10] _______EFNARC European project group; The European Guidelines for
strength of mortar cubes at any given curing time. The Self-Compacting Concrete Specification, Production and use, May 2005.
compressive strength of mortar cubes is more influenced by its [11] Chowdhury Subrato, Kadam Sandeep and Keskar Sandeep; Impact of fine
powder composition at any particular curing time. aggregate Particle size on rheology and compressive strength of mortar for
SCC, The Indian Concrete Journal , April 2011, P. 51-59.
[12] _______Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cement, IS 4031: 1988,
Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi, India, 1988.
REFERENCES
[13] _______Specification for standard sand for testing of cement IS 650: 1966,
[1] _______Specification and guidelines for Self-Compacting concrete, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi, India, 1966.
EFNARC, U.K.,February 2002.

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AUTHORS
First Author – Er. Gupta Ankush, Department of Civil
Engineering, Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur, M.P.,India
Second Author – Dr. Chandak Rajeev, Department of Civil
Engineering, Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur, M.P.,India
Third Author – Er. Koshta M.K. , Department of Civil
Engineering, Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur, M.P.,India

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Quality Teaching & Higher Education System in India


Nand kishor Soni *, Teerath Prasad Patel**
*
Research Scholar, Department of Economics Barkat Ullah University, Bhopal Madhya Pradesh India
**
Guest Faculty, Govt. Geetanjali Girls P G College Bhopal (MP)

Abstract- The paper studies on Quality Teaching & Higher Due to increased financial demands, there has also been a
education system in India. The system aims to provide a dramatic rise in the cost of attending post-secondary schools.2
theoretical background to the OECD-IMHE policy quality of The Delta Project,3 which focuses on postsecondary costs,
teaching in higher education. It highlights the main debates on productivity, and accountability, points out that while students
the topic to date, hoping to present the different perspectives that are paying more of the total costs associated with higher
exist on the topic of quality in teaching. The review of the education, less of the tuition-generated revenue is actually going
literature is organized in three main parts as to address three into the classroom. In the 1990s, student tuition paid for
major questions: 1) “What is Quality Teaching and why is it approximately 24% of the operating costs at public colleges and
important in higher education?” 2) “How can teaching concretely universities, in 1998 that percentage rose to 37%, and in 2005 it
be enhanced?” 3) “How can one make sure Quality Teaching was nearly 50%.4 Today, institutions rely on increasingly large
initiatives are effective?”2. Quality teaching has become an issue numbers of students to help balance expenditures. As institutions
of importance as the landscape of higher education has been face growing financial constraints due to recent economic events,
facing continuous changes: increased international competition, there is even greater concern that institutions will defer to the
increasing social and geographical diversity of the student body, value of the monetary benefits of increased enrolments,
increasing demands of value for money, introduction of especially in the face of fewer state resources. Given the
information technologies, etc. 3. But quality teaching lacks a importance of enrolment monies, it is not surprising that
clear definition, because quality can be stakeholder relative. The universities have become very savvy in marketing their
impact of research, of the “scholarship of teaching” and of institutions to the student customer.5,6,7 If the focus is directed
learning communities on teaching quality is discussed here.4. at attracting larger numbers of potential students even when it is
Quality teaching initiatives are very diverse both in nature and in necessary to modify admission standards, there is an associated
function. The role of the professors, of the department, of the risk of also negotiating academic standards to create easier
central university and of the state is analyzed, as well as the goals courses and modify academic requirements.1 The reputation of
and the scope of this initiatives.5. Choosing reliable and the institution becomes the most costly casualty of all when
quantifiable indicators to assess the quality of one’s teaching and academic standards that underlie scholarly integrity are
the efficiency of teaching initiatives remains challenging. compromised. Higher education in India suffers from several
Various methods and their efficiency are discussed here. The systemic deficiencies. As a result, it continues to provide
factors that determine whether appropriate use is made of the graduates that are unemployable despite emerging shortages of
feedback provided are also brought into discussion. skilled manpower in an increasing number of sectors. The
standards of academic research are low and declining. Some of
Index Terms- Quality teaching, quality assurance, method of the problems of the Indian higher education, such as – the
quality teaching unwieldy affiliating system, inflexible academic structure,
uneven capacity across various subjects, eroding autonomy of
academic institutions, and the low level of public funding are
I. INTRODUCTION well known. Many other concerns relating to the dysfunctional
regulatory environment, the accreditation system that has low
I ndian Colleges and universities are facing major changes as
they navigate the 21scentury and make decisions that will not
only impact higher education but will also contribute to our
coverage and no consequences, absence of incentives for
performing well, and the unjust public funding policies are not
country’s future competitiveness in the global marketplace. This well recognised. Driven by populism and in the absence of good
article examines various influences on institutions of higher data, there is little informed public debate on higher education in
learning as they move toward a customer-oriented focus. It also India. Higher education in India has expanded rapidly over the
stresses the importance of balancing the needs of various past two decades. This growth has been mainly driven by private
customer groups while continuing to serve as purveyors of sector initiatives. There are genuine concerns about many of
educated human resources in a global economy. This article them being substandard and exploitative. Due to the
identifies and evaluates outcomes from efforts to modify quality government’s ambivalence on the role of private sector in higher
standards in higher education. While change is unavoidable and education, the growth has been chaotic and unplanned. The
higher learning faces difficult choices, we can choose to make regulatory system has failed to maintain standards or check
proactive decisions and become agents of change. The financial exploitation. Instead, it resulted in erecting formidable entry
obligations of running an institution today are a major concern. barriers that generate undesirable rents. Voluntary accreditation
While not a new concept, there is a trend for public institutions to seems to have no takers from amongst private providers and
redefine their identity as service organizations and businesses.1 apparently serves little purpose for any of its stakeholders.
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Despite, its impressive growth, higher education in India could III. QUALITY TEACHING
maintain only a very small base of quality institutions at the top. Quality teaching has become an issue of importance as the
Standards of the majority of the institutions are poor and landscape of higher education has been facing continuous
declining. There are a large number of small and non-viable changes. The student body has considerably expanded and
institutions. Entry to the small number of quality institutions is diversified, both socially and geographically. New students call
very competitive giving rise to high stake entrance tests and a for new teaching methods. Modern technologies have entered the
flourishing private tuition industry. The stakes are so high that classroom, thus modifying the nature of the interactions between
quota-based reservation of seats in such institutions in the name students and professors. The governments, the students and their
of affirmative action has come to occupy centre stage in electoral families, the employers, the funds providers increasingly demand
politics. Despite some merit, it has resulted in fragmentation of value for their money and desire more efficiency through
merit space and further intensified competition for the limited teaching.
capacity in quality institutions. Quality Teaching lacks of clear definitions and to some
extent can’t be disconnected from debates on Quality or Quality
culture in higher education that remain controversial terms. Some
II. HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA scholars regard quality primarily as an outcome, others as a
Education in ancient India was highly advanced as evident property. Some consider teaching as the never ending process of
from the centres of learning that existed in the Buddhist reduction of defects and so Quality Teaching can never be totally
monasteries of the 7th century BC up to the 3 rd century AD grasped and appraised. In fact, conceptions of quality teaching
Nalanda (Perkin, 2006). In these centres, gathering of scholars-- happen to be stakeholder relative: students, teachers or
Gurukula-- used to be engaged in intellectual debates-- parish evaluation agencies do not share the definition of what “good”
ads-- in residential campuses. A few of these centres were large teaching or “good” teachers is.
and had several faculties. Historians speculate that these centres The literature stresses that “good teachers” have empathy
had a remarkable resemblance to the European medieval for students, they are generally experienced teachers and most of
universities that came up much later. The ancient education all they are organized and expressive. “Excellent teachers” are
system in India slowly got extinguished following invasions and those who have passions: passions for learning, for their field, for
disorder in the country. Till the eighteenth century, India had teaching and for their students. But research also demonstrates
three distinct traditions of advanced scholarship in the Hindu that “good teaching” depends on what is being taught and on
Gurukulas, the Buddhist Viharas, and the Quranic madaras as, other situational factors.
before the British set up a network of schools to impart western Research points out that quality teaching is necessarily
education in English medium (Perkin, 2006) The first such student-centred; its aim is most and for all student learning. Thus,
college to impart western education was founded in1818 at attention should be given not simply to the teacher’s pedagogical
Serampore near Calcutta. Over the next forty years, many such skills, but also to the learning environment that must address the
colleges were established in different parts of the country at students’ personal needs: students should know why they are
Agra, Bombay, Madras, Nagpur, Patna, Calcutta, and working, should be able to relate to other students and to receive
Nagapattinam. In 1857, three federal examining universities on help if needed. Adequate support to staff and students (financial
the pattern of London University were set up at Calcutta, support, social and academic support, support to minority
Bombay and Madras. The existing 27 colleges were affiliated to students, counselling services, etc) also improves learning
these three universities. Later, more universities were outcomes. Learning communities – groups of students and/or
established. At the time of independence in 1947, there were 19 teachers who learn collaboratively and build knowledge through
universities and several hundred affiliated colleges (CABE, intellectual interaction – are judged to enhance student learning
2005a). The higher education system in India grew rapidly after by increasing students’ and teachers’ satisfaction.
independence. By 1980, there were 132 universities and 4738
colleges in the country enrolling around five per cent of the
eligible age group in higher education. Today, while in terms of IV. ASSURANCE OF QUALITY TEACHING
enrolment, India is the third largest higher education system in There are in fact, no widely accepted methods for measuring
the world (after China and the USA); with 17973 institutions teaching quality, and assuring the impact of higher education on
(348 universities and 17625 colleges) is the largest higher students is so far an unexplored area as well” moreover argues
education system in the world in terms of number of institutions. that the culture of measurement that has trivialized teaching
The number of institutions more than four times the number of excellence in recent years and the language of business that has
institutions both in the United States and entire Europe. Higher turned it into a product need to be replaced by appropriate forms
education in China having the highest enrolment in the world of judgment and expression.
(nearly 23 million) is organized in only about 2,500 institutions. Class evaluation: - A tool for change and identification of
Whereas, the average enrolment in a higher education institution best practices?
in India is only about 500-600 students, a higher education One of the most used tools today to evaluate teaching
institution in the United States and Europe would have 3000- quality and identify Quality Teaching is undoubtedly peer in-
4000m students and in China this would be about 8000-9000 class evaluations. The literature on Quality Teaching recognizes
students. This makes system of higher education in India as a several advantages to peer evaluations. Pagani (2002) describes
highly fragmented system that is far more difficult to manage peer review as a tool for change, allowing individuals to improve
than any other system of higher education in world.
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their performance, ensuring that standards are being met, and New indicators for better assessment of Quality Teaching
helping to identify best practices. There are various Indicators of quality teaching collecting
Focusing on the process and not merely the outcome: - qualitative and decentralized feedback: Student awards, joint
Erstad (1998) points out that student questionnaires measure the research, and workshop.
outcomes of teaching and not the process, whereas mystery
customers and peer in-class evaluation measure the process Teaching concretely can be enhanced
rather than the outcome. The use of peer evaluation may be Quality teaching initiatives are very diverse both in nature
preferred to that of mystery students, because many professors and in function. Some of these initiatives are undertaken at
view mystery students as threatening. A common conception is teachers’ level, others at departmental, institutional or country
that their use is linked to disciplinary action (Telford & Masson, level. Some quality initiatives aim to improve pedagogical
2005). Peer in-class evaluation may promote conformity, methods while others address the global environment of student
hamper teaching innovation However, the use of peer in-class learning. Some are top-down process, other induce grass-root
evaluation may also not be free of risks. Cox and Ingle by (1997) changes. The most currently used quality initiatives seem to aim
found that peer review through peer observation of teaching can to enhance teamwork between teachers, goal-setting and course
produce conformity of teaching. Indeed the professor being plans. However scholars have developed holistic theoretical
evaluated may not dare to be innovative. Or the professor models of how quality teaching initiatives should unfold.
evaluating his colleague may be influenced by his or her Gathering information and reading the literature – looking
conservative methods of teaching. Moreover, Bingham and outside the classroom – are important tools to improve quality
Ottewill (2001) recognize that the assessment of peers might be teaching, but they are still under-employed. Another important
too self-congratulatory. According to Green (1993) the point to keep in mind is that in order for student learning to be
“traditional peer review based assurance system” is currently enhanced, the focus of quality teaching initiatives should not
breaking down, a breakdown which is “clearly” correlated with always be on the teacher. Rather it should encompass the whole
“the increasingly market orientated culture of higher education”. institution and the learning environment. One of the major
drivers for enhancement of quality teaching concerns teachers’
Evaluation of teachers’ portfolio leadership – most quality teaching initiatives are actually
Another possible method to assess teaching quality and launched by teachers. However the role of the department, of the
identify best practices is the use of teachers’ portfolio. The educational support divisions and that of the central university –
teacher’s portfolio evaluation is a valuable technique because it which can make quality culture part of its mission statement –
is based on multiple sources of evidence and multiple levels of are central. Scholars proved that bottom-top 5
scrutiny (Webb stock, 1999). However, as it was noticed by
Webb stock, who was working on the assessment of teaching Make sure quality teaching is effective
quality at the University of Natal, the problem is that it is It is essential to measure the impact of the quality teaching
difficult to agree on which items should be included in the initiatives in order to be able to improve these initiatives.
portfolio and on how much each of these items should be waited. However assessing the quality of one’s teaching remains
The question remains whether quantitative weighs should be challenging. This difficulty may in part explain why the two
attributed to each item of the portfolio to increase the most famous international rankings rely heavily on research as a
transparency of the process or whether this would transform the yardstick of the universities’ value and leave aside the quality of
portfolio evaluation process into a mechanical task, thus teaching. This may however change in the future, as the concerns
hampering teaching creativity. about quality teaching and student learning are increasing. The
choice of indicators to measure quality teaching is crucial,
The example of the three-legged stool because it has been shown that assessment drives learning: how
The Departmental Teaching and Learning Committee of the the teacher is judged will undoubtedly impact his or her teaching
Hong Kong Polytechnic University used all three methods- methods. Indicators to assess the quality of teaching (the value of
student questionnaires, peer in-class evaluation and evaluation of graduates, satisfaction of teachers, retention rates,etc.) of an
teacher’s portfolio)- to assess the quality of their teachers institution proved of use but carry various meanings and can
(Macalpine, 2001). The department decided to design a Teaching even lead to misunderstandings. Researchers agree that reliable
Evaluation Index which comprised a weighted sum of the three indicators should be chosen, and not just the most practical ones.
indicators. This methodology’s goal was to balance the defects of Moreover, room should always be left for discussion of the
each of three methods of evaluation when they are used figures obtained. Other tools than indicators exist. Using student
separately by creating a “three-legged stool”. The Teaching questionnaires can seem logical, because students are the
Evaluation Index weighted student questionnaires for 50% of the individuals that are the most exposed to and the most affected by
total result, in-class peer evaluation for 30% and the teaching the teacher’s teaching. However, many teachers give little credit
portfolios for 20%. Interestingly, Macalpine notes that there was to the answers of the students that they perceive as biased. The
a reasonable degree of consistency between the three indices, answering students tend to blame teachers for all problems,
particularly for extremes. As an outcome of the evaluation forgetting the role of the administration or the infrastructures.
process, the weaker lecturers were linked with the higher scoring Measurement should clarify its own aims (improvement or
lecturers in a trial scheme. punishment?) before implementation.

Quality Human Performance—the Requirements


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A key component of quality in teaching and learning Second Author – Teerath Prasad Patel (Guest Faculty), Govt.
involves quality human performance by the learner. Substantial Geetanjali Girls P G College Bhopal (MP)
financial outlays by companies and the government for training
are made in attempts to address problems in the quality of human
performance. These efforts have met with minimal success, and
major gaps in the standards to which humans have been trained
and their resulting performance remain.27,28 Swart and
Duncan29 note that the expected performance in a work setting is
generally dictated by a set of valid and appropriate expectations
and is attained through proper education and training. When
performance consistently adheres to the appropriate expectations,
then quality human performance is achieved. If there is a
discrepancy in performance and appropriate expectations, then it
must be investigated, causes identified, and appropriate
corrective action taken. To achieve quality human performance,
we posit that three components must be present:
• A clearly defined set of tasks to perform.
• An individual that has the capacity/ability to perform the
required task.
• A clear set of standards that define successful performance.

V. SUMMARY
If colleges and universities focus on satisfying students as their
primary customers, they may negatively affect another customer
group— employers—because the two customer groups have
significantly different ways of defining and measuring
expectations. There are no easy solutions to addressing the
negotiation of standards that undermine quality human
performance. All customers of higher education deserve the best
we can offer, as higher education, business/industry, and the
economic success of the United States are intricately connected
and are dependent upon one another. As noted in the Delta
Project,3 the United States is quickly losing ground in the global
race for talent. Institutions of higher education, faculty, students,
and businesses can serve as contributing architects in ensuring
education establishes quality standards. They are all consumers,
and they all have a vested interest in maintaining standards.

REFERENCES
[1] Derek Bok, Universities in the Marketplace: The Commercialization of
Higher Education, Princeton University Press, 2004.
[2] Karen L. Webber and Robert G. Boehmer, “The Balancing Act:
Accountability, Affordability, and Access in American Higher Education,”
New Directions for Institutional Research, S2, winter 2008, pp. 79-91.
[3] Jane Wellman, Donna Desrochers, Colleen Lenihan, Rita Kirshstein, Steve
Hurlburt, and Steve Honegger, “Trends in College Spending: Where Does
the Money Come From? Where does it go?” A Report of the Delta Project,
2009, retrieved Feb. 13, 2009, from www.deltacostproject.org.
[4] Eric Kelderman, “Tuition Rises as Spending on Instruction Slows,” The
Chronicle of Higher Education, May 9, 2008, p. A14.

AUTHORS
First Author – Nand kishor Soni (Research Scholar),
Department of Economics Barkat Ullah University, Bhopal,
Madhya Pradesh, India

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ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY AND TECHNIQUES


Nand kishor Soni
(Research Scholar), Department of Economics Barkat Ullah Universaity
Bhopal Madhya Pradesh India

Teerath Prasad Patel


(Guest Faculty), Govt. Geetanjali Girls P G College Bhopal (MP)

Abstract: Present paper studies the Economic Efficiency and Gain technologies. Most of the literature related to the measurement
of economic efficiency has based its analysis either on parametric or on non-parametric Gain methods. This Article thus argues that,
while Technique economy tends to be a powerful force, it is possible for concerns of Economic efficiency. The aim of this paper is to
provide a critical and detailed review of both core Gain methods. In our opinion, no approach is strictly preferable to any other.
Moreover, careful consideration of their main advantages and disadvantages, of the data set utilized, and of the intrinsic characteristics
of the framework under analysis will help us in the correct implementation of these techniques. Recent developments in Gain
techniques and economic efficiency measurement such as Bayesian techniques, bootstrapping, duality theory and the analysis of
sampling asymptotic properties are also considered in this paper.

Index Terms- Economic Efficiency, CRR, MPEP Techniques, Multiple Input & output models
Introduction
The measurement of economic efficiency has been intimately linked to the use of frontier functions. The modern literature
in both fields begins with the same seminal paper, namely Farrell (1957). Michael J. Farrell, greatly influenced by Koopmans (1951)’s
formal definition and Debreu (1951)’s measure of technical efficiency1 introduced a method to decompose the overall efficiency of a
production unit into its technical and allocate components. Farrell characterized the different ways in which a productive unit can be
inefficient either by obtaining less than the maximum output available from a determined group of inputs (technically inefficient) or
by not purchasing the best package of inputs given their prices and marginal productivities. These efficiency measurement techniques
may be classified in different ways. Our criterion has been to distinguish between parametric and non-parametric methods. A vast
literature has treated the measurement of economic efficiency by means of both parametric and non-parametric approaches. In our
opinion, and the above empirical studies seem to confirm it, no approach is strictly preferable to any other. As has been shown
throughout this survey, each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. A careful consideration of them, of the data set
utilized, and of the intrinsic characteristics of the industry under analysis will help us in the correct implementation of these
techniques. The technical efficiency of public education is using both parametric and non parametric methods. They define an
educational production function for 40 school districts in Utah with a single output, a set of school inputs associated with the
instructional and no instructional activities under the control of the school management, and non school inputs including status of the
students and other environmental factors that may influence student productivity. The stochastic specification assumes half and
exponential distributions for the inefficiency error term while the deterministic specification uses a two-stage DEA model in which
efficiency levels from an output-oriented DEA using controllable school inputs only are regressed on the non school inputs using to
bit regression model.

Literature Review
There is a considerable dearth of literature on this topic, with one notable exception, which is discussed starting in the
following paragraph. The other references to the topic are found, in the main, in media reports, campus publications, and Web
publications. A sample of these references is also referenced below. The research in this area, however, tends to emphasize either
direct labor displacement effects without considering the changes in the nature of work (for example Ayres and Miller, 1983). The
modern literature in both fields begins with the same seminal paper, namely Farrell (1957). Michael J. Farrell, greatly influenced by
Koopmans (1951)’s formal definition and Debreu (1951)’s measure of technical efficiency1 introduced a method to decompose the
overall efficiency of a production unit into its technical and allocate components. Farrell characterized the different ways in which a
productive unit can be inefficient either by obtaining less than the maximum output available from a determined group of inputs
(technically inefficient) or by not purchasing the best package of inputs given their prices and marginal productivities.

Models Analysis
Parametric models analysis
The Basic Model 1.1
The method developed in Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (1981) named the method introduced in Charnes, Cooper and
Rhodes (1978) Data Envelopment Analysis. They also described the duality relations and the computational power that Charnes,
Cooper and Rhodes (1978) made available. This technique was initially born in operations research for measuring and comparing the
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relative efficiency of a set of decision-making units (DMUs). Since that seminal paper, numerous theoretical improvements and
empirical applications of this technique have appeared in the productive efficiency literature. The aim of this non-parametric
approach4 to the measurement of productive efficiency is to define a frontier envelopment surface for all sample observations. This
surface is determined by those units that lie on it, that is the efficient DMUs. On the other hand, units that do not lie on that surface
can be considered as inefficient and an individual inefficiency score will be calculated for each one of them. In terms of a cross-
sectional production function, a parametric frontier can be represented as:-

Yi = f (Xi; β). TEi

Where i=l. . .l indexes the producers, Y is the scalar output, X represents a vectors of inputs and f(.) is the production Gain
techniques efficiency which depends on inputs parameter vector β, Finally, TEi indicates the output-oriented technical efficiency of
producer. I defined as the ratio of the observed output to maximum feasible output.
Yi
-------------
TEi = f (Xi, β)

Farrell (1957) assumed what later literature has termed a deterministic frontier function. In terms of this specification, equation 3.1.1
can be rewritten as:-

Yi = f (Xi; β).exp (µi) µi ≥ 0

where ui represents the shortfall of output from the frontier (technical inefficiency) for each producer. The additional restriction
imposed on µi (µi≥ 0) guarantees that TEi_1, which is consistent with equation 3.1.2. Next, assuming that the productive technology
adopts a log-linear Cobb-Douglas form,17 the deterministic frontier production function becomes:-
n
lnYi = βo+∑βn lnXni _ ui
N=1

Once the production structure has been parameterized, both goal programming and econometric techniques can be applied to either
calculate or estimate the parameter vector and also to obtain estimates of ui and so of TEi. Goal programming techniques calculate the
technology parameter vector by solving deterministic optimization problems. The main drawback of these approaches is that the
parameters are not estimated in any statistical sense but calculated using mathematical programming techniques. This complicates
statistical inference concerning the calculated parameters, and precludes any hypothesis testing. It is at this stage when econometric
analysis of frontier functions comes into its
own. In an attempt to accommodate econometric techniques to the underlying economic theory,18 a wide and challenging literature
related to the estimation of frontier functions has proliferated over the last three decades. These attempts can be classified into two
main groups according to the specification of the error term, namely deterministic and stochastic econometric approaches.

Non-parametric Model Analysis


The Basic Model 1.2
The method developed in Farrell (1957) for the measurement of productive efficiency is based on a production possibility set
consisting of the convex hull of input-output vectors. This production possibility set was represented by means of a frontier unit-
isoquant. According to that specification and the fact that
Farrell’s efficiency measures are completely data-based, no specific functional form needed to be predefined. The single-input/output
efficiency measure of Farrell is generalized to the multiple inputs/ output case and reformulated as a mathematical programming
problem by Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (1978). Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (1981) named the method introduced in Charnes,
Cooper and Rhodes (1978) Data Envelopment Analysis. They also described the duality relations and the computational power that
Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (1978) made available. This technique was initially born in operations research for measuring and
comparing the relative efficiency of a set of decision-making units (DMUs). Since that seminal paper, numerous theoretical
improvements and empirical applications of this technique have appeared in the productive efficiency. The aim of this non-parametric
approach4 to the measurement of productive efficiency is to define a frontier envelopment surface for all sample observations. This
surface is determined by those units that lie on it, that is the efficient DMUs. On the other hand, units that do not lie on that surface
can be considered as inefficient and an individual inefficiency score will be calculated for each one of them. Unlike stochastic frontier
techniques, Data Envelopment Analysis has no accommodation for noise, and therefore can be initially considered as a non statistical
technique where the inefficiency scores and the envelopment surface are ‘calculated’ rather than estimated. The model developed in
Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (1978), known as the CCR model, imposes three restrictions on the frontier technology: Constant returns
to scale, convexity of the set of feasible input-output combinations; and strong disposability of inputs and outputs. The CCR model is
next interpreted through a simple example on the basis of Figure 1.1.
X2/ y

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O X1/y
Figure:-1.1 CC R model

Here A, B, C, D, E and G are six DMUs that produce output Y with two inputs; X1 and X2. The line DG in Figure 2.1.1
represents the frontier unit iso-quant derived by DEA techniques from data on the population of five DMUs,5 each one utilizing
different amounts of two inputs to produce various amounts of a single output. The level of inefficiency of each unit is determined by
comparison to a single referent DMU or a convex combination of other referent units lying on the frontier iso-quant line and utilizing
the same proportions of inputs. Therefore, the technical efficiency of A would be represented by the ratio OA*/OA where A* is a
linear combination of referents B and C (‘peer group’) that utilizes the inputs in the same proportions as A, since both A and A* lie on
the same ray. The efficiency of E could be directly measured by comparison with C, which is located on the efficient iso-quant and on
the same ray as C. The ratio OC/OE determines the technical efficiency of E. Finally, although unit G is situated on the efficient
frontier, it cannot be considered as technically efficient in a Pareto sense, since it is using the same amount of input X2 as B, but more
input X1, to produce the same level of output. The main attributes of Data Envelopment Analysis techniques are their flexibility and
adaptability. Indeed, this adaptability has led to the development of a large number of extensions to the initial CCR model and of
applications in recent years. We next briefly review some of the most relevant contributions. The CRS specification given by Charnes
Cooper and Rhodes (1978) yields misleading measures of technical efficiency in the sense that technical efficiency scores reported
under that set of constraints are biased by scale efficiencies. This important shortcoming is corrected by Fare, Gross kop and Lovell
(1983), Byrnes, Fare and Gross kop (1984) and Banker, Charnes and Cooper (1984)10 who extended DEA to the case of Variable
Returns to Scale (VRS). Variable Returns to Scale are modeled by adding the convexity constraint to the model formulated in (1.1).
This final constraint simply guarantees that each DMU is only compared to others of similar size. This mode of operation avoids the
damaging effect of scale efficiency on the technical efficiency scores. That efficiency score can be calculated by means of the
following mathematical programming formulation,

TECRS ¼ min µ Ω 0

S.T.

n o
∑µj Xij ≤ Ω Xi I= l . . . m
J=1

N o
∑ µjyrj ≥ Yr r=1…….s
J=1

The solution of this linear program reports the peer group that for each DMU analyzed, yields at least the same level of
output (second constraint) but consuming just a proportion ( ) of each of the inputs used by the DMU (first constraint). The final
objective is therefore to determine the linear combination of referents that for each DMU minimizes the value of . The technical
efficiency scores will be determined by the formula. The econometric literature of ‘average’ functions has developed several
alternative methods to estimate the structure of the production set coherent with the main insights of duality theory developed by
Nerlove (1963) estimates the parameters of a single cost function by OLS. This technique is attractive from the point of view of its
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simplicity but it ignores the additional information that cost share equations can introduce into the estimation process. Berndt and
Wood (1975) estimate those cost shares as a multivariate regression system. This approach also presents some deficiencies. Finally
Christensen and Greene (1976) introduced the joint estimation of the cost share equations and the cost function. This procedure allows
for the estimation of all relevant parameters that define the production structure. Dual econometric Gain approaches have also evolved
from the estimation of single cost functions38 to multiple equation systems.39 However, as we shall next see, serious specification
and estimation problems arise as one moves far from the traditional, well-behaved, and self-dual Cobb-Douglas functional forms.
With respect to the specification problem, the work of Schmidt and Lovell (1979) can be regarded as the first attempt to analyze the
duality between stochastic production and cost functions. They exploit the self-duality of the Cobb-Douglas functional form to provide
estimates of input-oriented technical inefficiency and input a locative in efficiency.

Summary
We have analyzed a wide range of different techniques dedicated to the measurement of economic efficiency. The main issue
throughout was to determine an efficient frontier function or envelopment surface, in order to compare the performance of different
units with the one that characterizes the efficient geometric site. These efficiency measurement techniques may be classified in
different ways. Our criterion has been to distinguish between parametric and non-parametric methods. A vast literature has treated the
measurement of economic efficiency by means of both parametric and non-parametric approaches. In our opinion, and the above
empirical studies seem to confirm it, no approach is strictly preferable to any other. As has been shown throughout this survey, each of
them has its own advantages and disadvantages. A careful consideration of them, of the data set utilized, and of the intrinsic
characteristics of the industry under analysis will help us in the correct implementation of these techniques. In any case, the present
survey calls for more research. The implementation of comparative analysis between parametric and non parametric frontier
techniques – such as the ones described in previous section – the integration of the two types of approaches through two-step models
like the one used in Sen Gupta (1995), further research on misspecification problems (e.g. Smith, 1997) and on the quality (e.g.
Pedraja, Salinas and Smith, 1999) of Data Envelopment Analysis, and extra investigation on the measurement of economic efficiency
in a dynamic context as the one presented in Sen Gupta (1999 and 2000) might constitute the basis for future theoretical and applied
research. In summary, it would be desirable to introduce more flexibility into the parametric frontier approach, as well as to go more
deeply into the analysis of stochastic non-parametric methods and their statistical properties. In this respect, some new routes are
explored in Kumbhakar and Lovell (2000), Fernandez, Koop and Steel (2002,a 2002b), or Sickles, Good and Getachew (2002)
regarding the former, and in Sen Gupta (2000a), Simar and Wilson (2000a, 2000b) and Huang and Li (2001) concerning the latter.
These studies constitute a set of alternative, complementary and challenging attempts to achieve better and more reliable efficiency
measures. The lunch is served.

Acknowledgments
The author is most grateful to Dr. Sulochana Chhajed and Mahendra Singhai for encouragement and valuable comments as
well as to two anonymous referees whose suggestions and criticisms have greatly contributed to enhancing the quality of this paper.

References
1.Adams, R., Berger, A. and Sickles, R. (1999). Semi parametric Approaches to Stochastic Panel Frontiers with Applications in the Banking Industry. Journal of
Business and Statistics, 17: 349–358.

2. Afriat S.N. (1972). Efficiency Estimation of Production Functions. International Economic Review, 13(3): 568–598.

3.Ahmad, M. and Bravo-Ureta, B.E. (1996). Technical Efficiency Measures for Dairy Farms Using Panel Data: A Comparison of Alternative Model Specifications.
Journal of Productivity Analysis, 7(4): 399–415.

4.Ahn, S.C., Lee, Y.H. and Schmidt, P. (1994). GMM Estimation of a Panel Data Regression Model with Time-Varying Individual Effects. Working Paper, Department
of Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.

5.Aigner, D.J. and Chu, S.F. (1968). On Estimating the Industry Production Function, American Economic Review, 58(4): 826–39.

6.Aigner, D.J., Lovell, C.A.K. and Schmidt, P.J. (1977). Formulation and estimation of stochastic frontier production function models. Journal of Econometrics, 6: 21–
37.

7.Ali, A.I. and Seiford, L.M. (1993). The Mathematical Programming Approach to Efficiency Analysis, in The Measurement of Productive Efficiency: Techniques and
Applications, Harold O. Fried, Lovell, C.A.K. and Schmidt, S.S. (Eds.), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 121–159.

8.Amaza, P. and Olayemi, J.K. (2002). Analysis of Technical Inefficiency in Food Crop Production in Gombe State, Nigeria. Applied Economics Letters, 9(1): 51–54.

9.Atkinson, S.E. and Cornwell, C. (1993). Estimation of Technical Efficiency with Panel Data: A Dual Approach. Journal of Econometrics, 59: 257–262.

10.Atkinson, S.E. and Cornwell, C. (1994a). Estimation of Output and Input Technical Efficiency Using a Flexible Functional Form and Panel Data. International
Economic Review, 35(1): 245–256.

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11.Atkinson, S.E. and Cornwell, C. (1994b). Parametric Estimation of Technical and Allocative Inefficiency with Panel Data. International Economic Review, 35(1):
231–243.

12.Atkinson, S.E., Fa¨ re, R. and Primont, D. (1998) Stochastic Estimation of Firm Inefficiency Using Distance Functions. Working Paper, Department of Economics,
Univeristy of Georgia.

13.Banker, R.D., Charnes, A. and Cooper, W.W. (1984). Some Models for Estimating Technical and Scale Inefficiencies in Data Envelopment Analysis. Management
Science, 30(9): 1078–92.

14.Banker, R.D., Charnes, A., Cooper, W.W. and Maindiratta, A. (1988). A Comparison of DEA and Translog Estimates of Production Frontiers Using Simulated
Observations from a Know Technology. In Applications of modern production theory: Efficiency and Productivity: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 223-320

15.Banker, R.D., Gadh, V.M. and Gorr, W.L. (1990). A Monte Carlo Comparison of two Production Frontier Estimation Methods: Corrected Ordinary Least Squares
and Data Envelopment Analysis. Paper presented at a conference on New Uses of DEA in Management, Austin, Texas.

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QR Based Advanced Authentication for all Hardware


Platforms
Dipika Sonawane*, Madhuri Upadhye**, Priyanka Bhogade**, Prof. Sanchika Bajpai

Abstract- This paper seems quite obvious that nowadays we are able to do transactions, shopping, banking, sharing and storing
confidential data like other online services which aims to highly secured. The design and implementation of QR is easy to use and
read, combined with multifactor (ID/Password which only user knows, Detail information that only the user has, Unique QR code that
shows only the user is), camera based all hardware. The information is in the QR code is transmitted in the encryption form. It is
portable and cost efficient. The system uses QR codes which are small two-dimensional pictures that en-code digital data. This can be
used for all hardware camera equipped platforms that are for tablets, personal computers, laptops, cell phones. QR is readable even if
it is partially damage. It provides high level of security and authentication with untrusted devices. Its versatility has made them quite
popular, where these are today widely used as a way to quickly store by scanning it with a camera-based mobile device.

Index Terms- Secured Authentication, QR code, One Time Password, for all hardware platforms, camera based, Cash Card.

I. INTRODUCTION

O ver an unauthorized public networks client authentication is fundamental process to ensure security for communication as well as
sharing user’s confidential data and resources. For securing the network system, we required simple and efficient authentication
mechanism in distributed systems. To avoid unauthorized access generally ID/password based authentication is provided. The main
purpose of using one time password is to create it much difficult to get unauthorized access to restricted resources. Mostly we are
using the ID/password as a conventional authentication system, many systems implement one time password schemes using smart
card, debit card, ATM card and short messages services to reduce the risk of maintenance cost and tempering. These schemes are
impractical due to infrastructure requirements. To overcome these weaknesses, QR code techniques introduced into one time password
protocol. As most internet users already have smart phones above proposed schemes based on QR code eliminates usage of password
verification as well as cost effective solution. Instead of using demand draft and cheque, it is convenient to use Cash Card. The Cash
Card is similar to demand draft and cheque, having unique QR code for only the transactions details. The Cash card is look as given
below

Fig. 1 Cash Card

II. RELATED WORK


In 2002, Clarke et al. were probably one of the first to suggest the usage of camera-based devices as an alternative, more secured
authentication method for critical transactions, such as banking operations, and most particularly when connecting from untrusted
computers [1]. The amount of camera equipped smart phones around us is increasing so rapidly that mobile based authentication
might become a popular method to authenticate in a short time.
In traditional Barcode data capacity is around the only 16 digit.
QR Code Data Capacity:
Numeric Code = 7,089 characters max.
Alphanumeric code = 4,296 characters max.

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Fig.2 Comparisons of QR and Barcode


QR codes (Quick Response codes) were introduced in 1994 by Denso-Wave [2], a Japanese company subsidiary of Toyota. Initially,
these codes where conceived as a quick way to keep track of vehicle parts, being nowadays extremely popular in Asian countries like
Japan, South Korea, China or Taiwan and becoming more and more popular in western countries by the day.
The enhanced version of one dimensional barcode is the QR code. Roughly QR code (Two dimensional) contains 350 times more
amount of information than the one dimensional barcode. QR code is matrix form or 2D because it contains the rows and columns for
storing the information in two directions. Countries like Japan use the QR code for storing the sensitive information. Nowadays
United States also use the QR code. It is popular over the worldwide that will use for future uses.
As we can see the use of QR code is really just the beginning. At this point, we can implement the authentication using the QR code
for all platforms such as PC, tablet and mobile phones. We get the idea from the paper, related to our project and we use multi factor
authentication. Also by using this project we can replace the demand draft and cheque by Cash Card.

III. GENERATION OF QR CODE


Traditional One dimensional barcode mechanically scanned by narrow beam of light, 2D QR code is detected by the inbuilt auto
focus camera and digitally analyzed by programmed processor. The inbuilt camera focuses three (multiple) distinctive square at the
corner of QR code image. The small dots in QR code image later on converted to binary representation and validation is done with
error correcting code. The data can be stored in QR code depends on version (1…40 indicating number of rows and columns), data
type and error correction level. The maximum storage capacity of QR code for version 40 having 177x177 rows and columns
respectively.[3][4] The QR code version 1 contains 21x21, version 2 contains 25x25, versions 3 contains 29x29, version 4 contains
33x33, version10 contains 57x57 and version 25 contains 117x117 rows and columns respectively.

Fig.3 After the scanning of QR code by smart phone (QR code version 10).

There are four error correction levels and 8 bit code is used to detect error correction level. The less storage capacity, higher the
error correction level. Part of robustness of QR code in the real or broad environment is their ability to resists damage and continues to
function even when part of QR code image is defected is happened due to error correction.

The below structure of QR code red color indicates format information. Density of QR code is detected by using the

format information. Light and dark grey shows the fixed pattern. This pattern always present in all QR code and this cannot change.
The D indicates the data and E error in QR code, X indicates unused. The collection of data indicates different pattern.

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Fig.4 Structure of QR code

IV. SYSTEM FEATURES


Following system features will be facilitated:
A. Sign up

1) User information:
User must enter his naming details, address and valid mobile and valid email. The valid mobile and valid email is mandatory for
user.

2) System Generated information:


After entering the naming details by the user according to the system will generate automatically unique QR code and OTP to the
mobile and email. After the reentering the OTP the registration is successful.

Fig. 5 System Architecture

B. Authentication

In order to provide same level of security as a web application, the system shall provide login screen on the user's hardware device.
The login entered by the user shall be user ID, password and scan his unique QR code. After matching the user ID, password and QR
code OTP will be sent on user's correspondence number and then OTP was reentered by user. The values shall be verified by the
system prior the user having access to the system.

C. Transaction
Transaction can be done in two modes,

1) Transfer:
In this mode we select To Transfer, Amount to be transfer and the comment that will be the reason for what to transfer.
Then QR code will be scanned if it matches then only transfer will do successfully.

2) By Using Cash Card:


Instead of Demand Draft and Cheque we can use the Cash Card. In this mode we select pay to, amount pay to and comment that will
be the reason for what to pay.

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System will generate OTP, Unique QR code for Cash Card ,that QR Code will be scanned ,if it matches then only transfer will done
successfully by using Cash Card.

V. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
A. Advantages
1) Portable:
Portability is one of the most noticeable benefits of QR code. As our system is support to all hardware platform devices. Mobiles are
Handy and Tablets, Laptops, PCs can be carried anywhere easily.

Fig.6 Portable QR code

2) Real Time:
This application System provides real time data about the users interested in QR code.

3) Low Cost:
As QR code can be scanned on any hardware device, it requires low cost and maintenance. All that is maintenance is cell phones
with internet access.
4) Easy to carry:
QR code is easy to carry as it can be scan from anywhere to get our authentication and transaction successful.

5) Great deal Resistance to damage:


If the QR code is partially damage then it can also readable.

Fig.7 partially damage QR code

B. Limitations
The only disadvantage of QR code based authentication is that it can easily copy, but we provide other supportive activity.

C. Applications

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1) Can replace Smart Card:
It requires the separate scanner to scan the smart card. Smart card has less storage as compare to QR code.
2) Can replace Swipe Card:
Swipe card can be cloned, but QR code can’t be cloned. Swipe Card has no memory compared to QR code.

3) Secure way of transaction:


QR code is scanned through camera equipped with hardware device therefore our system provides the more secure transaction.

4) Cash Card:
Transfer can be also done using Cash Card which is replicable to Demand Draft and Cheque. System will generate Cash Card with
QR code providing secure authentication.

VI. CONCLUSION
This paper actually is a survey paper which discusses the system features to be implemented for the working
of the project. The mentioned system features are for obtaining the Secured multi factor authentication. Various
mathematical notations are used to compute the generation of QR code. This paper mainly focuses on the
system features to be implemented.

REFERENCES
[1] Clarke, Dwaine; Gassed, Blaise; Kotwal, Thomas; Burnside, Matt; van Dijk, Marten: ”The Untrusted Computer Problem and Camera-Based Authentication”.
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2002, Volume 2414, Pervasive Computing, Pages 114-124, Jan.2002.
[2] "QR Code features". Denso-Wave. Archived from the original on 2012-09-15. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
[3] "QR Code — About 2D Code". Denso-Wave. Archived from the original on 2012-09-15. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
[4] "Version and Maximum capacity table". Denso-Wave. Archived from the original on 2012-09-15.
[5] "2D Barcode: QR-Code". Archived from the original on 2012-09-15. — TEC-IT
[6] Orli Sharaby (18 October 2010). "Form Meets Function: Extreme Makeover QR Code Edition". Archived from the original on 2012-07-08. Retrieved 29 July
2011.
[7] “QRP: An improved secure authentication method using QR codes”.David Pintor Maestre Universitat Oberta de Catalunya 08018, Barcelona, Spain
[email protected] June 8, 2012
[8] Hamilton Chan (18 April 2011). "HOW TO: Make Your QR Codes More Beautiful". Archived from the original on 2012-07-10. Retrieved 29 July 2011.

AUTHORS
*
First Author – Dipika Sonawane , Computer Dept,
JSPM’s BSIOTR (W), [email protected]

Second Author – Madhuri Upadhye**, Computer Dept, JSPM’s BSIOTR (W), [email protected]

Third Author – Priyanka Bhogade**, Computer Dept,


JSPM’s BSIOTR (W), [email protected]

Correspondence Author – Prof. Sanchika Bajpai Computer Dept, JSPM’s BSIOTR (W),
+917709835513

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Informal Economy as a Source of Livelihood in


Zimbabwean Urban Areas: The Case of Bulawayo
Metropolitan Province
Nkululeko. J Ndiweni1, Shirley Mashonganyika2, NonsikeleloNcube3 and Nosizo Dube4

Department of Geography and Population Studies


Lupane State University

Abstract: One of the major development concerns in recent years, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries, has been the rapid
growth of urban population coupled with low industrial growth. This mismatch has led to high unemployment levels as most
companies have either scaled down or completely shut down. High poverty levels have intensified in urban areas and this has
facilitated the mushrooming of the informal economy such as vending, operating tuck-shops and various micro enterprises as an
adaptation strategy to failing economies. This study took a micro-level approach by exploring the role of the informal economy as a
source livelihood in the city of Bulawayo. The study used qualitative methodology in the gathering and analysis of data. Data
collection was done using the interview method. Purposive sampling was used to select twenty participants both male and female who
are registered with the local authority. Information was also collected using document analysis and review of relevant literature on
current debates on the role of the informal economy as a source of livelihood for the urban poor.The research showed that the informal
economy plays a vital role as a livelihood strategy by employment creation for the unemployed and the retrenched labour force. It is a
source of livelihood as the majority of the participants indicated that they can afford basic food stuffs and services. It is recommended
that the central government and local authorities should provide an enabling environment for the development of the informal
economy as it is shown that currently it is the highest employer of the labour force, particularly in Bulawayo.

INTRODUCTION
Two key studies that examined the evolution of the informal economy during the first decade of independence namely, the
ILO/SATEP study of 1985 and the Gemini study of 1991 reveal that the share of informal economy employment grew from less than
10% of the labour force in 1982 to 20% by 1986/87 and 27% by 1991 (Kanyenze et al, 2003). Economic slump intensified in 1998 and
reached its peak towards the end of 2007 as a result of the adoption of Economic Structural Adjustment Programmes (ESAPs) under
the guidance of the international financial institutions. This resulted in many thousands of formal sector workers, mainly civil servants
and workers in state-owned enterprises, being retrenched and rendered unemployed (International Labour Organization, 2004).The
failure of ESAP to shift the economy onto a superior and sustainable growth path, and especially its underperformance in terms of
employment creation left a legacy of poverty and marginalization (Kanyenze et al, 2003). The other factors that led to economic
meltdown are targeted sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe due to the fast track land reform and successive droughts. The period between
1998 and 2008 has been referred to as the lost decade by some scholars. Poverty levels intensified in urban areas and this facilitated
the mushrooming of the informal economy such as vending, operating tuck-shops and various micro enterprises. What this implies is
that economic downturns are associated with the growth of informal economy and vice versa (Kanyenze et al, 2003).
Economic revival in Zimbabwe, especially in Bulawayo, is taking place at a very slow rate. It is estimated that more than 20 000
people have been pushed out of employment after nearly 100 companies either scaled down or completely shut down in Bulawayo
over the last few years (Masvora, 2013). According to Kasanzu and Chiutsi (2013) at least 22 milling companies in Bulawayo have
temporarily closed as they are being pushed out of business by cheap imports that are flooding the country from neighbouring South

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Africa and Botswana, for example, National Foods is now operating four days per week. This is a result of the influx of mealie-meal
from South Africa and Botswana into the country especially Bulawayo largely due to its proximity to the two neighbouring countries.
According to the Confederation of Zimbabwe Industries (CZI) manufacturing survey released in September 2013, imports increased
by about 18,8 percent from January to July compared to the same period in 2012 and exports fell by 3,4 percent between Januar y and
July 2013 compared to 2012 (Kasanzu and Chiutsi, 2013).

De-industrilisation in the city has forced many people into the informal economy since the informal economy tends to be driven by
unemployment and retrenchment. Almost everyone is trying to get money from setting up some small business to fill the gap that was
created by massive de-industrialisation of the city (Masvora, 2013). However, there is controversy on the actual level of
unemployment in the country. The real level of unemployment is almost impossible to gauge as countless Zimbabweans are making a
living in the informal sector. According to John Robertson (2013), a prominent Zimbabwean economist, Zimbabwe's unemployment
rate remains very high at more than 70 percent with less than 900 000 people formally employed out of a 13 million population. He
further asserts that an estimated 100 000 jobs have been lost from 2004 up to date as government fails to create new jobs and it is the
informal economy that has borne the brunt of absorbing the masses of unemployed people. This assertion has been opposed by other
sections who claim that unemployment rate has been overstated to tarnish Zimbabwe’s international standing. Only 7,7 percent of
economically active Zimbabweans are unemployed (Mukarati, 2013). The Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT) has
pegged the country’s unemployment rate at 10.7 percent - a figure that has been dismissed as grossly misleading by economists and
the country’s largest labour union (Mukarati, 2013). ZIMSTAT defines unemployment as lack of any means of contributing to the
country’s gross domestic product (ibid). This is interesting, when read in comparison to the latest African statistics that peg the rate of
unemployment in Namibia at 51,2 percent, 48 percent for Senegalese, Kenya 40 percent, Nigeria 23,9 percent, South Africa 22,7
percent, Tunisia 18,8 percent, Botswana 17,8 and 10 percent in Algeria (Mukarati, 2013). At provincial level, the highest rate of
unemployment is in Harare and Bulawayo where 24,6 and 24 percent of the economic active population respectively are jobless (ibid).
Unemployment in Bulawayo has been exacerbated by de-industrialisation.

Therefore, organizing the informal economy and recognizing its role as a profitable activity may contribute to the economic
development as asserted by Financial Express (2013) that the informal economy contributes around 19,5% of Zimbabwe’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) and informal non-farm activities contribute $810 million. This can also improve the capacity of informal
workers to meet their basic needs by increasing their incomes and strengthening their legal status.
According to Rogerson (1997), since the late 1970s, the focus of informal sector research has shifted from definitional concerns to
whether the sector constitutes an arena for increasing income and employment, the relationship between the formal and the informal
sectors and, what role, if any, should the government play.Therefore, the objective of this study is to critically analyze the role of the
informal economy in the livelihood of Bulawayo residents. Ellis (2000) points out that livelihood strategies are composed of activities
that generate the means of household survival. The informal economy is a livelihood strategy because it enables people to make a
living (Mugisha, 2000).

METHODOLOGY
The study used qualitative methodology in the gathering and analysis of data. Qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach that
seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings, such as "real world setting (where) the researcher does not attempt to
manipulate the phenomenon of interest" (Patton, 2002). Data collection was done using the interview method. According to Kitchin
and Tate (2000), the interview method allows the researcher to produce a rich, deep and varied data set in an informal setting. It
provides a thorough examination of experiences, feelings or opinions that closed questions could never hope to capture (Ibid).

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Purposive sampling was used to selecttwenty participants both male and female who are registered with the local authority.
Information was also collected using document analysis and review of relevant literature oncurrent debates onthe role of the informal
economy as a source of livelihood for the urban poor.
The research took a micro level approach by focusing on Entumbane bus terminus in Bulawayo Metropolitan. The area has a lot of
economic activities since it is located near the bus terminus, shopping mall and high density suburbs.

RESULTS
Ownership
The ownership demographics show that the informal sector is dominated by females, that is, 55% females and 45% males.The sector
is dominated by people in the age cohort of 31-40 years as they constituted 40% of the total respondents while the age of 51+% are the
least involved in the informal sector constituting a mere 10%. It is also dominated by married people as they constituted 60% of the
respondents with the second being the unmarried constituting a 25% and the widowed and the divorced only accounted for 15% of the
total population as shown by the results.The findings indicate that 80% of the respondents had reached Ordinary level certificate while
Advanced level holders constituted 10%. It was also found that 7% of the participants had primary education and 3% had a tertiary
qualification.
Employment creation
It was found that the informal economy provides employment as 50%of the respondents were employees and the other 50% were the
owners of the businesses. The results also revealed that 60% of the businesses have been in operation for more than two years and
40% for less than two years. The types of goods sold includecloth vending, agricultural produce, electronic goods, cosmetics, kitchen
utensils, spices, fast foods vending and farm implements.
Income generated per month
The monthly incomes generated per month as shown by the findings indicate that45% of the business owners get US$400, 30%
raiseUS$251-$399, 15% generateUS$100-$200 and 10% raise less than $100. This is illustrated by the bar graph below:

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How much does the business make per month

50

40

30
Percent

20

10

less than 100 100-250 251-400 400 and above

How much does the business make per month

Fig 1: Bar graph showing how much is earned from sales in the informal sector on a monthly basis
The cash obtained is used for education, remittances, rentals and buying food and 50% of the respondents revealed that the amount
obtained from sales is insufficient to cater for their basic household needs while the remaining 50% revealed that the mount can
sustain their household needs.
From the study all respondents revealed that they have no alternate source of income apart from selling and also the study shows that
all businesses are registered with the Bulawayo City Council and they pay $14 per month for the right to sell.

DISCUSSION
The results obtained in this study clearly show that women tend to constitute the majority of the urban poor because of constraints
imposed by socio-economic, cultural and political factors. Like their rural counterparts, women in urban areas are further
disadvantaged because most of them often lack the formal education and training and these are bases for accessing formal
employment. Surveys show that Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) addressing women’s issues in towns have tended to focus
on their domestic roles.

The study revealed that women tend to make up the greatest portion of the vendors in the informal sector since the majority lack
formal education and skills because of a patriarchal nature of the society.The pre-ESAP surveys carried-out by Kanyenze et al (2003)
in Zimbabwe indicate that women accounted for 67% of all micro-enterprises in 1991 and constituted 57% of the total informal
economy employment and the average age of participants was 37-38 years. According to Bhana et al (2009) in the African context
girls are often marginalised, the benefits of education including increased economic opportunities are given to the males. A study on
the role of the informal sector in coping with economic crisis which was carried out in Thailand and Zambia by the International
Labour Organisation in 2004 reflect that in Zambia both women and men increased their participation in the informal economy,

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particularly in urban areas, due to massive formal sector retrenchment, a fall in real wages, the rising cost of living, and increased
mortality due to HIV and AIDS. It is further shown that women tended to undertake such culturally defined activities as vending
foodstuffs, running mini-restaurants and tailoring, while men tended to engage in furniture making, welding and metal fabrication and
trading, which yield higher income. These findings are in agreement with this study. Men are very particular in the choice of business
under the informal economy. Men prefer to remain unemployed rather than do work they considered only suitable for women, such as
selling food or engaging in piece-rate activities (ILO, 2004).

The research showed that the sector is dominated by people in the age cohort of 31-40 years as they constituted 40% of the
participants. This is attributed to the 2007/8 near collapse of the Zimbabwean economy that almost saw the total shutdown of the
formal sector. On this context, most of the economically dropped from learning institutions and others were left jobless and resorted to
the informal sector. However, it is difficult to come up with real figures of the people employed in the informal economy because
most studies assume that the informal sector is the preserve of the poor (Rakowski, 1994). These assumptions make it impossible to
capture the increasing number of people in some African cities who operate in the formal and informal sector simultaneously because
many formal sector employees join the informal sector as an income supplementing and/or income-diversification strategy (Kaseke,
1998).

From the research, 80% of the participants did O-level while A-level holders were 10% and tertiary together with primary education
holders were also 10%. This is because Zimbabwe’s education system is currently suffering from a detrimental decline in public
funding in conjunction with political unrest. In 2007 O-level pass rate crashed from 72% to 11%. This was fuelled by teachers having
one on strike and this explains why the formal sector is dominated by the people with low education levels (Raath, 2008).
From the study the informal sector has helped in livelihood strategies i.e. money obtained for various purposes such as education,
remittances, rentals and groceries. According to ILO (2004) the poverty datum line is at $541 for a family of 5, the results of this study
show that the participants make less money (45% make $400) which is below the poverty datum line amount. Therefore the informal
sector is unsustainable. Carr and Chen (2001) observed that the relationship between the informal sector and poverty is uncasual.
There is a negative association between increased informal sector and economic growth because it was observed that there is a higher
proportion of impoverished employees working in the informal sector.
The study revealed that the informal sector in Entumbane is the only viable source of livelihood for those involved as all the
participants have no second sources of income. They are not involved in multiple livelihood strategies as they indicated that their
businesses needed more attention.However, some studies have described the informal sector as a poor creator of employment and thus
not a reliable sector for job creation opportunities as well as the basis for a sound national economy. From a technical point, the
informal sector is a replica of the formal sector in that most of the activities carried out in the informal sector are similar to those
carried out in the formal sector and people engaged in the informal sector are former employees of the formal sector. The only
discernible difference is that informal sector activities are more subsistence oriented hence the reason for unsustainability in the sector
(Carr and Chen, 2001)
Although the informal sector helps in livelihood strategies and increasing the GDP of the country, it faces various challenges. Firstly,
there is shortage of capital to start a business or to expand. Most participants argued that they are operating below capacity because
they have no access to loans from financial institutions since they do not have collateral security. This concurs with the assertion of
the renowned Zimbabwean economist John Robertson who stated that it is difficult for people in the informal sector to secure credit
facilities because they do not have evidence to secure such services since their incomes are erratic and low with little production
involved and they lack things like payslips and bank account statements as an indication to the lender that one can pay or service

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credit facilities, (Robertson, 2013. The results of the two studies carried out in Thailand and Zambia reveal that even where micro-
finance programmes exist or have existed in the past, only a very small percentage of those in the informal economy have had access
to or have benefited from them (ILO, 2004). It is also shown that in Thailand most people take-out loans from friends or relatives
where interest rates are lower and they also havetraditional moneylenders who charge much higher interest rates and do not hesitate to
usestrong-arm tactics to ensure repayment. This is a major challenge in boosting the informal economy to be sustainable as cash
inflows are erratic.

Secondly, there is high competition from unregistered operators. Many people are operating without licenses from the Bulawayo City
Council (BCC). It is argued that it takes a very long time for one to get a licence, for example 4 – 6 months. The researchers observed
that within the Entumbane informal economy only forty out of 51 businesses were registered with the BCC. The unregistered
operators tend to sell their goods at a lower price creating stiff competition amongst other sellers. The prices of the goods of
unregistered operators are very flexible because they do not pay rentals to the responsible authority.The other challenge was the lack
of built in structures for unfavourable weather conditions and government loans of funds to hoard the goods.

According to Timalsina (2007) urban street vending is not only a source of employment but it provides affordable goods and services
to the majority of the urban poor. This implies that the government through the Ministry of Small and Medium enterprises can
mobilise and organise informal economy participants into industrial business associations (Informal Sector Associations – ISAs).
Efforts have been made to come up withthe Zimbabwe Apex of Informal Sector Associations (ZAISA). The idea was to co-ordinate
all stakeholders in the informal economy, ranging from Finance Institutions, Training Providers, and Suppliers of Technology to
organised markets and to link them in a manner that unlocks economies of scale and associations such as the Cross Border Traders,
Tuck shop Operators, and Arts and Craft were facilitated (Kanyenze et al, 2003).A study on street vendors shows that the lower
income groups spend a higher proportion of their income in making purchases from street vendors, mainly because their goods are
cheap and thus affordable (Bhowmik, 2005) Therefore, urban authorities should not take street vending as an illegal and unproductive
sector but as an important livelihood securing sector for the urban poor.

CONCLUSION
The research reflected in this study was an analysis of the role of the informal economy in the livelihood of Bulawayo residents. As
such, the study showed that the informal sector plays an important role as the source of livelihood for the people in Bulawayo.It has
created employment, mainly for vulnerable groups of the population such as women who are disadvantaged in getting formal
employment and it contributes to the GDP of the country. For most people involved in the sector it is the only source of livelihood.The
informal economy faces various challenges such as shortage of capital to expand the sector, competition from unregistered operators.
However the government should continue supporting the sector since it lies within the ruling Party’smanifesto which states that:
“Indigenise, Empower, Employ and Develop” and the informal sector is a strong form of indigenisation.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings the following recommendations are made:

• The government should incorporate the informal activities into the national budget i.e. loan facilities,

• Training and education should be provided for the business entrepreneurs

• Proper structures should be provided by the local authorities

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• Vendors should join hands with stakeholders (EMA, BCC, police), in creating a safe and clean environment for business
activities as the site is an environmental and health time bomb.

• The informal sector are subject to a number of constraints especially that of competition due to unregistered businesses, the
researchers therefore recommend that sellers should inform the local authority of such activities in a curb to reduce
corruption.

References

Bhana, D., Morrel, R and Pattman, R (2009).Gender and Education in Developing Contexts: Postcolonial Reflections on
Africa Springer international handouts on education.
Bhowmik, S. K. (2005), “Street Vendors in Asia: A Review”, Economic and Political Weekly,May 28-June 4 pp.2256-2264, in
www.worldbank.org, accessed on 12-12-06.

Carr, M and Chen, M.A. (2001). “Globalization and the Informal Economy: How Global Trade and Investment Impact on the
Working Poor”. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office.
Castillo G, Frohlich M. and Orsatti A, 2002: “Union education for informal workers in
Chikowore, E (2008). Development Perspectives in Zimbabwe: The Informal Sector as a Potential Reservoir in the National
Transformation Process,Zimbabwe
Ellis, F. (2000), Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries Oxford: Oxford University press.

Gemini (1998)Zimbabwe: A Third Nationwide Survey of Micro and Small


EnterprisesUSAID, PriceWaterhouseCoopers, September.
International LabourOrganisation (ILO), 2004: “Unprotected labour: What role for
unions in the informal economy?” Labour Education 2002/2 Number 127,
ILO, Geneva.
Kanyenze, G., T. Chitiyo., T. Mahere., T. Makwavarara., P. Mbire and E. Moyo (2003) Giving Voice to the Unprotected Workers in
the Informal Economy in Africa: The case of Zimbabwe: Paper Prepared for the ILO/SRO

Kasanzu, E and Chiutsi, N “Imports have negative impact on milling companies” Sunday News 27

Kaseke, Edwin. 1998. Structural adjustment programmes and the problem of urban poverty: an African perspective. International
Social Work41(3):311-320

Kitchin, R. and Tate, J. (2000), Conducting Research into Human Geography: Theory, Methodology and PracticePearson Education
Limited, Edinburgh Gate, England.

Masvora, G “Stop harassing informal traders” Sunday News 27 October-2 November 2013
Mugisha, P. T. (2000), The Role of Informal Sector (Micro Enterprises) in Development, A Case Study of Katwe Small Metal
Industries in Kampala (Uganda)Master Thesis in Development Studies, Specialising in Geography, NTNU, Trondheim Norway.

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Mukarati, T (2013) Sunday News 20 – 26 October 2013

Patton, M.Q. (2002), Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods(3rd ed.), Sage Publication, London.

Raath, J (2008). Zimbabwe chaos wipes out education for 4.5 million pupils.Times Online
2008>(http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4902920.ece). Retrieved 13 October 2013
Rakowski, C.A (1994). Convergence and Divergence in the Informal Sector Debate: A focus on Latin America, 1984-92. World
Development 22(4):501-516.

Robertson John Business Daily 22 April 2013

Rogerson, C.M (1997). Globalization or Informalization? African Urban Economies in the 1990s. In The Urban Challenge in Africa:
Growth and Management of its Large Cities. ed C. Rakodi, 337-370 Tokyo: United Nations University Press

Timalsina, K.P (2007) Rural Urban Migration and Livelihood in the Informal Sector: A Study of Street Vendors of Kathmandu
Metropolitan CityNepalMaster of Philosophy Thesis in Development Studies Submitted to the Department of Geography Norwegian
University of Science and Technology (NTNU) (Unpublished)

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HASBE: A Hierarchical Attribute-Based Solution for


Flexible and Scalable Access Control in Cloud
Computing
Sanchal Ramteke, Purva modi, Apurva Raghojiwar, Vijaya Karad, Prof.P.D. Kale

Computer, Pune University, India

Abstract- In several distributed systems using a certain set of encryption (HASBE) which is an extension to HABE .As our
attributes, a user should only be able to access data. Currently, cloud computing model is service- oriented, we should take care
the only method for enforcing such policies is to employ a of data from outsiders as well as from the cloud service provider
trusted server to store the data. To keep the shared data itself. The scheme provides full support for hierarchical user
confidential against any kind of misuse, a natural way is to store grant, file creation, file deletion, and user revocation in cloud
only the encrypted data in a cloud. The key problems of this computing. The security of proposed scheme is proved using the
approach include establishing access control for the encrypted CP-ABE [1]. We are demonstrating the implementation of this
data. Previous Attribute - Based Encryption systems used paper for a software company. So, the service-oriented model
attributes to describe the encrypted data. While in our system used is Saas (Software as a Service). Hence the type of cloud we
attributes are used to describe a user’s credentials, and encrypting are using is private cloud.
data determines a policy for who can decrypt. However, when
organization users outsource confidential data for sharing on II. LITERATURE REVIEW
cloud servers, the adopted encryption system should not only
support fine-grained access control, but also provide high In the existing system , multiple branches had an easy access to
performance, practicability, and scalability to best serve the data of other branches. Also previously, the system was showing
needs of accessing data anytime and anywhere. This paper, complete data related to the requested query even though the
proposes a scheme to help the organization to efficiently view employee required some of the data. Due to this, the time to fetch
and access confidential data on cloud servers. We achieve this and execute the query was too long. This increased the system
goal by first combining the hierarchical identity-based encryption response time thereby degrading the system performance.
(HIBE) system and the CP-ABE system. The proposed scheme Another drawback was that the data was encrypted but the
not only achieves scalability due to its hierarchical structure, but decryption was not restricted to that specific user as keys were
also inherits flexibility and fine-grained access control in not distributed in an efficient way resulting in retrieval of wrong
supporting compound attributes of ASBE. data or incomplete requested data thus increasing chances of
hacking. Incase if a lower level authority is absent or is on leave,
Index Terms- Cloud computing, Flexibility, Scalability, work is completely stopped and is delayed for the leave duration.
Data Security Previously, CP-ASBE policy was been used so the security of
stored data was at risk and had chances of misuse as well. The
I. INTRODUCTION drawback of this trend is that it is increasingly difficult to
With the emergence of sharing confidential corporate data on guarantee the security of data using traditional methods; when
cloud servers, it is imperative to adopt an efficient encryption data is stored at several locations, the chances that one of them
system with a fine-grained access control to encrypt outsourced has been compromised increases dramatically. Organization
data [7].Cloud is a platform to store, retrieve, utilize multiple users will face serious consequences if its data was disclosed.
user’s data .Benefits of using cloud computing involve reduced For these reasons the requirement is that the sensitive data is
cost, easy and better operational facility, efficient database use stored in an encrypted form so it will remain private and safe.
and immediate response time. Though cloud is having multiple Most existing public key encryption methods allow an
advantages, security in cloud is still a major issue. The organization to encrypt data to a particular user, but are unable to
contribution of paper involves creating a single cloud for efficiently handle more expressive types of encrypted access
multiple branches of the multiple countries providing hierarchy. control. Hence , less security was provided to the confidential
User can easily store their data on the cloud and for providing data stored on cloud in previous system.
security and privacy to this data stored on the cloud we are using
encryption and decryption methods. We are implementing a III. SYSTEM MODEL
system to achieve flexible and fine-grained access control of the
users of the trusted cloud. The previous systems had proposed
hierarchical attribute-based encryption (HABE) to achieve fine-
grained access control in cloud storage services by combining
hierarchical identity-based encryption (HIBE) and CP-ABE. In
our paper, we are proposing hierarchical attribute set based

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SET THEORY:

H is universal set i.e cloud.


H={E,B,U,R}
E=employee set
B=attribute set
U=user set
R=registered

A] Identify the Employees


E= {e1, e2, e3….}
Where ‘E’ is main set of Employees like e1, e2, e3…

B] Identify the Attribute


B= {at1, at2, at3….}
Where ‘B’ is main set of registered Attribute like at1, at2,
at3…

C] Identify the employee requested For Another Attribute


Figure 1: System Model A= {raa1, raa2, raa3}
Where ‘A’ is main set of Request for another Attribute raa1,
As mentioned in the above model Fig.1 we are concerned to raa2, raa3
implement following main responsibilities: Data Owner, Data
Consumer, Domain Authority, Trusted Authority. User stores INITIAL STATE:
data on the cloud which can be retrieved by decrypting the same
through a private key provided. This keeps the private data U={R, UR}
confidential. These users are monitored by the domain authority R=registered user
for their respective acceptance of correct key. In our case, the UR=unregistered user
domain authority being the CEO alone, will handle total cloud
environment. Top level authority can have access to lower level
authorities . A Master-key is thus provided for higher level
authorities to manage lower level authority’s data. This requires
storing of data in a secure manner so that it cannot be accessed
by any outsider by illegal means. This system will allow the
employee to view his personal information as well as carry tasks
like request for leave or record updates if any using private
domain securely.
Firstly, a user has to register with his entire attributes. Once
user fills register form then the CEO approve all the details of INTERMEDIATE STATE:
user, after that CEO provide one key to user. When user gets that
key he can access it like a password at the time of login. User Request for new attribute :
will store all data by encryption public key and user can retrieve A=request for new attribute
decrypted data which uses same public key and private key. B=contain all the attribute
After that, if user wants to see his own data then he uses the R=provide requested attribute
allotted private key and password. When manager wants to
access employee’s attribute then master key is used, which is
generated by choosing the accessible attributes. If any lower
authority is absent then higher authority is responsible for all
work related to lower authority. When user is transferred from
one location to another location, then all his data is updated in
database itself. The manager will assign tasks and guide the
employees working under him. Hence the management of
assignment of tasks to employees should be done in a manner S1=A B
that is known to himself and respective employee with the
permission of CEO in public domain. Also at the time of viewing
of his personal information using private domain should be such HIERARCHY:
that he could access it rather than some unauthorized user.

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H = {H1, H2, H3, H4}


where,
H is cloud
H1 is CEO.
H2 is general manager.
H3 is the list of managers.
H4 is the list of employees.

S3
U’={H3,H4}
H U=present user
U’=absent user

FINAL STATE:

Identify the processes as P.


P= {Set of processes}
P = {P1, P2, P3,P4……}
FLEXIBILITY: Where
P1 ={S1,S2,S3}
H= {C1,C2,C3}
Where,
C1 is the old branch of the company where employee worked P P2
P
before transfer.
C2 is the employee being transferred.
1 2
1!
C3 is the new branch where employee got transferred to. 1P3 1
P4
!1! 1!!
Where :
H
{ S1= get new attribute after request}
{ S2= get new employee information when employee get
transfer.}
{S3= get access of lower authority}.

H={C1,C2,C3} Venn Diagram

where,
s2 is employee data should be accessed to new branch only
not old branch.

S2= (C1-C2) U C3

Scalability :
IV. PROPOSED SYSTEM
H = {H1,H2,H3,H4} In proposed system, instead of showing complete data,
U={H1,H2} fetching of required data is carried out thus achieving fine-
grained access control. This resulted in an efficient system
response time as well as increased performance of the system.
For security purpose, the proposed scheme consists of 3 keys:
Private, Public and Master key. Public key is used in encryption
of data, Private and public key is used to decrypt the data and

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Master key is used for accessing the allowable data. We are also
achieving scalability which manages the workload within Correspondence Author- Sanchal Ramteke, sanchalr002
company by assigning lower level authority task to higher level @gmail.com, [email protected], no-7620996328.
authority in case of lower level authority absence or leave. It
also involves flexible access of data in which when an employee
is transferred to another location/branch, the main database is
updated. It reduces the work of manual data transfer. Another
feature provided is User Revocation [5] that allows expiration of
user’s key to be updated after the duration of key is near to
expiration. This system also maintains a single cloud with a main
database for multiple branches as a virtual partition viewing as
every branch has its own cloud.

V. CONCLUSION

Thus, we efficiently provide a fine grained access control with


flexibility and scalability with a hierarchical structure in our
HASBE system. Our contribution to this paper will be providing
security to the users from outsiders or intruders by implementing
session hijacking and session fixation security in our system.
Also, a performance analysis will be done by the employee’s
updating monthly record performance.

APPENDIX
Sr Term Description
no
1 CP-ABE Ciphertext-Policy Attribute-Based
Encryption.
2 CP-ASBE Ciphertext-Policy Attribute Set
Based Encryption.
REFERENCES
[1] Attribute-Sets: A Practically Motivated Enhancement to Attribute-
Based Encryption, Rakesh Bobba, Himanshu Khurana and Manoj
Prabhakara University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignJuly 27, 2009.
[2] Enabling Data Dynamic and Indirect Mutual Trust for Cloud
Computing Storage Systems Ayad F. Barsoum and M. Anwar Hasan
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada,2012.
[3] Designing a Secure Cloud-Based EHR System using Ciphertext-
Policy Attribute-Based Encryption, Suhair Alshehri, Stanisław
Radziszowski, and Rajendra K. Raj Golisano College of Computing &
Information Sciences ,Rochester Institute of Technology ,Rochester,
New York 14623, USA2011.
[4] Gasbe: A Graded Attribute-Based Solution For Access Control In
Cloud Computing, Chandana.V.R, Radhika Govankop,Rashmi N and
R.Bharathi, International Conference on Advances in Computer and
Electrical Engineering (ICACEE'2012) Nov. 17-18, 2012 Manila
(Philippines) 2011.
[5] Hierarchical attribute-based encryption and scalable user
revocation for sharing data in cloud servers, Guojun Wanga,, Qin Liu
a,b, Jie Wub, Minyi Guo c 2011.
[6] Cloud Computing Security Issues in Infrastructure as a Service,
Pankaj Arora, Rubal Chaudhry Wadhawan Er. Satinder Pal
Ahuja M.Tech CSE, IGCE. Asstt.prof (CSE), IGCE Associate
Professor & HOD (CSE),IGCE Punjab technical Univ., 2012.
[7] Hierarchical Attribute-Based Encryption for Fine- Grained
Access Control in Cloud Storage Services, Guojun Wang, Qin
LiuSchool of Information Science and Engineering Central South
University Changsha, Hunan Province, P. R. China, 410083,Jie Wu
Dept. of Computer and Information Sciences Temple University
Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA,2010.

AUTHOR

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Design of Fuzzy controller and supervisor for Load


Frequency control of Micro Hydro Power Plant
Suhas V. Kamble*, D.P. Kadam**
*
Electrical Engineering, K.K. Wagh I.E.E. & R., Nasik, India
**
Electrical Engineering, K.K. Wagh I.E.E. & R., Nasik, India

Abstract- The job of automatic frequency regulation is achieved time, and might be impossible in case of inclement weather. This
by governing systems of individual turbine generators and requires the control system to be autonomous, robust and capable
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) or Load frequency control of managing all operational situations.
(LFC) system of the hydro power plant. This seminar report Due to alterations of the grid load, deviations are caused
addresses a comprehensive literature survey on load frequency between turbine power output and the load. The frequency output
control in hydro power plant. The report is aimed to present the of MHPP and the voltage may drastically vary from their
various control and structural schemes of LFC present in the nominal value. Thus, MHPP needs control to maintain an
microhydro power plant. The LFC schemes on different aspects uninterrupted power at rated frequency and voltage. It should
like classical control based LFC schemes, LFC schemes based on keep the rotational speed of the turbine generator unit stable
modern control concepts are discussed.The aim of the proposed around its nominal value for any grid load and prevailing
work is to design a fuzzy controller that would manage almost conditions in the water conduit.
the whole operation of the generating unit. The presented fuzzy Turbine governors are systems for the control and
controller has three main tasks. First, it regulates the frequency adjustment of the turbine power output and for evening out
output of the plant in spite of changing user loads. Second, it deviations between the power and the grid load as quickly as
limits the waste of the available water. Finally, it manages the possible. Two main governors are used to automatically control
electricity distribution by dividing the mini network on different the frequency of the generating unit). First, it could remain
departures connected in order of priority. constant by action on the gate opening position to produce just
the necessary power according to the connected\ load. Second,
Index Terms- Automatic generation control, Load frequency electronic load controllers (ELC) govern the frequency by
control, hydro power plant, linear and nonlinear turbine model, adjusting the electrical load connected to the alternator.
adaptive fuzzy controller. Therefore, they maintain a constant electrical load on the
generator in spite of changing users' load. In this case, the turbine
I. INTRODUCTION gate opening is kept in a specific position that guarantees a
nominal mechanical power at the generator shaft. It permits to

C limate change, global warming, population growth and the


use turbine with no flow regulating devices. The former governor
takes a long time to stabilize the output and it becomes
continuous demand for energy and electricity have made insufficient in case of large load variations where the stability of
Renewable Energy the most appropriate and fitting to answer all the system could be completely lost. ELC is used in order to
these changes in our environment. The scientific community is simplify the MHPP control. The stabilizing time is short even for
widely interested in modeling and control of renewable energy large load variations.
plants as the number of published papers do not cease increasing However, ELC waste precious energy that can be used
since the last decade, specifically on hydro and micro-hydro gainfully. Also they do not carry out flow control, implying that
power plant. Micro-hydro power plants (MHPP) are of big the mineral rich water is made to spill away, which could have
interest in their easiest installation and their affordability. They been diverted at high heat for irrigation purposes. We have
are located in mountainous areas where hydropower resources presented a TS fuzzy controller to maintain the MHPP frequency
are available. A typical MHPP includes a mountain reservoir, a constant using an ELC governor and to adjust the water flow to
penstock, a powerhouse and an electrical power substation. The limit the dissipated power on the ballast load.
reservoir stores water and creates the head; the penstock carries In the other hand, there are other effects that cause
water from the reservoir to a turbine inside the powerhouse. The fluctuations of the frequency on a grid load. For example, the
water rotates the turbine, which drive a generator that produces level of water in the reservoir might change significantly
electricity. A hydraulic turbine is a hydropower machine that depending on the season, which would directly affect the MHPP
directly converts the hydraulic power in moving water into output frequency. Even for a certain level of water, the users
mechanical power at the machine shaft. might connect machines that require high levels of power
Further, MHPP are often isolated, inaccessible and are causing a large drop of frequency. Thus, an effective control
not connected to the national grid. So, when a MHPP stop scheme has to take into account those operation cases in order to
working for any reason, it deprives the local population from insure a good level of control.
electricity. An intervention to make it operational takes a long

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The fuzzy logic is an important technology and a The produced electrical power depends on the level of
successful branch of automation and control theory, which water existing in the reservoir. To avoid problems, overloading
provides good results in control of power systems. This paper of the MHPP or insufficient water, the mini- grid network fed by
aims to use fuzzy control to insure good control of isolated the MHPP is divided into a set of sub- networks (departures) that
MHPP. The proposed control scheme is suitable for turbine are powered by order of preference. For example, when very
systems with both guide vane governors and synchronous large overloads are caused, the proposed supervisor disconnects
generators, especially permanent magnet machines which have the less preferential departures to avoid large drop of frequency.
no automatic voltage regulator. The supervisor also manages the distribution of electricity
The rest of this paper is structured as follows: section II between these departures depending on the availability of water
presents both the problem formulation of frequency fluctuation in the mountain reservoir.
by that of random power fluctuation at generation and load sides,
and the proposed control scheme to overcome frequency III. THE MICRO HYDRO POWER PLANT MODEL
fluctuation for any working condition. Dynamic model of the
MHPP is a non-linear, non-stationary multivariable system
MHPP is briefly introduced in Section III. Design methodology
whose characteristics vary significantly with the unpredictable
of the proposed fuzzy control system that consists of a fuzzy
controller and a fuzzy supervisor is described in Section IV. load on it and this presents a difficulty in designing efficient and
Simulation results are provided lastly to valid the new control reliable controllers. However, the majority of the proposed hydro
power models is linear. A linear model representation of the
scheme followed by a conclusion in section VI.
turbine system is valid only for small signal performance study
(load disturbance <±10%). This makes model an oversimplified
and realistic issue not being discussed. Such a linearized model is
II. PROBLEM FORMULATION.
inadequate for large variations in power output (>±25% rated
Since frequency fluctuation is effected mainly by the load).
fluctuation of real power, power quality problems threatening the This model is based on the mathematical equations
frequency stability can be solved or avoided by satisfying the real resuming the whole operation of MHPP. It incorporates
power supply. The problem addressed in this paper is to find a nonlinear equations of the mechanical power; the electrical
fuzzy control law that maintains the MHPP frequency output and consumed power and the relationship between the turbine flow,
voltage stable around their nominal value and optimizes the the turbine head and the frequency of the voltage waveform. The
available water in the reservoir, which will economize and two equations that summarize MHPP operation are:
reduce its waste. To achieve our objective, the fuzzy logic has
been used for its ability to easily incorporate the human
(1)
expertise, and to use the traditional methods of analysis and
stability. A fuzzy supervisor is added to manage the operation of
the MHPP, as shown in Figure 1. (2)
The guide vane governors should be relatively slow to
avoid water hammer effect. Thus, with the presence of a large
and sudden load discharge, the control law, based on the Where: fr is the MHPP frequency; qt is the water flow; ht is he
variation of the gate opening position, would be unable to head; pt is the turbine power; pe is the load; kt and Ta are
constants that characterize the plant.
quickly reduce the produced power. In the proposed control
scheme, the fuzzy controller controls an ELC actuator in order to
compensate the disconnected load by dispelling the excess IV. THE DESIGN OF MHPP FUZZY CONTROLLER AND
produced power on the ballast load (noted "Pd"). In order to SUPERVISOR MODEL
avoid wasting available water in the reservoir, the proposed In this section, the proposed control system is designed
fuzzy controller is able to reduce the power dissipated to a very and simulated to be used as a global control system for MHPP,
low value once the system stabilizes, this, by closing the gate which may replace PID hydraulic turbine governors, and is able
position via a servo motor that governs the water flow. simultaneously to control the MHPP frequency and to manage
the whole operation of the plant under nonlinear process
conditions.
To design a fuzzy controller reliable and smart enough,
the design has to rely not only on an accurate MHPP modeling,
but also on an “expert knowledge base”. The expert knowledge
base comprises technical information on hydraulic turbine
operation and control gathered from expert people who work in
this field, reported and or published articles, field trials,
simulation and predictions. It may also cover some hidden
dynamics not modeled.
However, to take into account the nonlinear behavior of
MHPP towards the load variations, PI controller's parameters
should vary with the load variation and hence the resultant power
Figure 1: The proposed control scheme. supply would have the potential to be of higher quality. Fuzzy

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control is a somewhat intelligent, cost-effective nonlinear nominal value, but also when Pd exceeds the defined limit. This
control. Different types of adaptive fuzzy logic controls such as task can be summarized by the following rules:
self-tuning and self-organizing controllers can be found. The  if e is Positive and Pd < Pd limit then Us is Positive
combination of a PI control and a fuzzy control strategy means  if e is Positive and Pd > Pd limit then Us is Positive
that PI control has nonlinear characteristics and intellectual  if e is Negative and Pd < Pd limit then Us is Negative
faculties, and simultaneously endows fuzzy control with an  if e is Negative and Pd > Pd limit then Us is Negative
established PI- control configuration. The fuzzy self-tuning
 if e is Zero and Pd < Pd limit then Us is Zero
controller readjusts the PI gains in real-time to improve the
process output response, during the system operation.  if e is Zero and Pd > Pd limit then Us is Negative
Where: e is Positive when Fr<50Hz; e is Negative when
A. Fuzzy Controller Fr>50Hz; e is Zero when Fr=50Hz; Us Positive order to open the
Figure 2 shows the proposed fuzzy controller. It has two gate opening; Us Negative order to close the gate opening; Us is
outputs. The first one, "Ug", acts on an ELC in order to maintain Zero: position of the gate opening remain unchanged.
the frequency on its nominal value. The second output, "Us", acts The fuzzy membership functions for the fuzzy controller input
on a servo motor that varies the water flow for two cases: when parameters (e, Δe and Pd) and output parameters (Us, ΔKp and
the frequency of the MCH goes away from its nominal value and ΔKi) are shown in figure 3. The initial values of Kp* and Ki* are
whenever the electrical power "Pd" exceeds a certain limit value, 0.1 and 0.3 respectively. Ke and Kec are 0.04 and 10 respectively
chosen for our simulation studies to be 20% of the nominal in the figure 2.
turbine power. The controller core is the fuzzy control rules which are mainly
obtained from intuitive feeling and experience. The design
Due to the strong nonlinearity of MHPP, a PI or PID controller process of fuzzy control rules involves defining the rules that
would be incapable to ensure good stability of the plant all over relate the input variables to the output model properties. The
its operating range. Thus, the proposed fuzzy controller has been inference method employs the MAX– MIN method. The
designed to adjust on-line the parameters of proportional gain Kp imprecise fuzzy control action generated from the inference must
and integral gain Ki of a PI controller based on the error e and be transformed into a precise control action in the application.
the change of error Δe The center gravity method is used to defuzzify fuzzy variables
into their physical domains.

Figure 2: The proposed fuzzy controller.

(3)

Where Kp* and Ki* are the reference values of the controller.
They will be adjusted online by the fuzzy controller outputs ΔKp
and Δ Ki. Therefore, the PI controller action is updated after each
cycle time. The error e and the change of error Δe are used as
numerical variables from the real system. To convert these
numerical variables into linguistic variables, seven fuzzy sets are
chosen for e: negative big (NB), negative medium (NM),
negative small (NS), zero (Z), positive small (PS), positive
medium (PM), and positive big (PB); and three fuzzy sets are
chosen for Δe: negative (N), zero (Z), positive (P). Figure 3: Fuzzy controller’s membership function
On the other hand, the proposed fuzzy controller is synthesized B. Fuzzy Supervisor
to govern via a servo motor the gate opening of the turbine. It
closes the gate opening, not only when the frequency exceeds its The water level on the reservoir might decrease as it might
increase depending on the availability of water on the river.

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Thus, the generated power would vary considerably. Therefore, Figure 5: Fuzzy supervisor's membership functions.
undesirable situations might be occurred, where the generating
unit would be no longer able to feed th consumer loads Furthermore, the proposed fuzzy supervisor manages the
connected to the mini-grid. To remedy this possible situation, the electrical production between the three departures. The division
proposed fuzzy supervisor, presented at the figure 4, is able of the mini-grid into different departures will be also used by the
either to disconnect or connect the less preferred departures, proposed supervisor to limit the consumed power "Pe", to make
depending on the level of the available water. sure that it never exceeds the turbine power. Whenever very
large overloads are caused by the users, where the load exceeds
the produced power, the fuzzy supervisor disconnects the less
preferential departures (D3) to avoid large drop of frequency. If
the consumed power still exceeds the turbine power, the
supervisor disconnects other less priority departure (D2) and so
on. The fuzzy membership functions for the fuzzy supervisor
input parameters (h, Pe, ImpD1, ImpD2 and ImpD3) and output
parameters (D1, D2 and D3) are shown in figure 5.

Figure 4: The proposed fuzzy supervisor.

The level of water "h" is divided into four sets (H1, H2, H3,
H4) while the departures of the grid are three (D1, D2 and D3).
D1 is the more preferential departure while D3 is the less (a) Experimental results
preferential. This task, assured by the fuzzy supervisor, can be
summarized by the following rules:

 if h is H1 then D1, D2, and D3 are connected.


 if h is H2 then D1 and D2: connected, D3: disconnected.
 if h is H3 then D1 connected, D2 and D3: disconnected.
 if h is H4 then D1, D2, and D3 are disconnected.

(b) Simulation results

V. CONCLUSION
Considering the situation in some countries where many villages
still live without electricity, especially those in the mountains.
Our work aimed to contribute to a cost effective Solution to
improve the exploitation of MHPP. To insure better regulation of
its frequency output and to use the available water more
economically. In this paper, we propose a new control strategy
based on the combination of a fuzzy controller and a fuzzy
supervisor to ensure the best solution in terms of efficiency.

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The proposed fuzzy controller is able to maintain MHPP


frequency in spite of the load variations. In addition, it minimizes
the waste of water by limiting the dissipated power on the ballast
load. The fuzzy supervisor manages to use the available water
based on consumer demand. Even for random and large load
variations, the proposed control system keeps good dynamics as
expected. Simulation results show the feasibility of the proposed
fuzzy control system.

REFERENCES
[1] I. H. G. M.Hanmandlu, Member and I. D.P.Kothari, Senior Member, “An
advanced control scheme for micro hydropower plants,” IEEE Trans. , 2006.
[2] D. Shrestha and A. B. Rajbanshi, “An advanced control scheme for micro
hydropower plants,” Fifth International Conference on Power and Energy
Systems, Kathmandu, Nepal, October 2013.
[3] M. T. G. Ebruzbay, “Self-tuning fuzzy pi controlled system model for small
hydro power plants,” 10th International Conference on Clean Energy ICCE
Famagusta, N. Cyprus, September 2010.
[4] P. K. R. A. Priyabrata Adhikary, SusmitaKundu, “Fuzzy logic based user
friendly Pico-hydro power generation for decentralized rural electrification,”
International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology , 2013.
[5] M. M. Umrao, Sanjeev Kumar and D. K. Chaturvedi, “Load frequency control
methodologies for power system,” 2nd International Conference on Power,
Control and Embedded Systems, 2012.
[6] T. G. Ebru6zbay Muhsin, “Load frequency control for small hydro power
plants using adaptive fuzzy control,” IEEE Trans. , 2010.
[7] K. R. Neethu John, “An overview of load frequency control strategies: A
literature survey,” International Journal of Engineering Research Technology
(IJERT) , 2012.
[8] I. Hassan Bevrani, Senior Member and I. Takashi Hiyama, Senior Member,
“On load-frequency regulation with time delays: Design and real-time
implementation,”IEEE Transactions On Energy Conversion , 2009.
[9] I. Hassan Bevrani, Senior Member and P. R. Daneshmand, Comparison of
Conventional PID Tuning of Sliding Mode Fuzzy Controller for BLDC Motor
Drives. IEEE Trans., 2012.
[10] M. R. Zohra Zidane, Mustapha AitLafkih, “Simulation studies of adaptive
predictive control for small hydro power plant,” Journal of Mechanical
Engineering and Automation , 2012.

AUTHORS
First Author – Suhas V. Kamble, B.E Electrical Pune, P.G
student M.E (Electrical) Control system, K.K. Wagh I.E.E. &
R., Nasik, India, [email protected]
Second Author – Prof. D.P. Kadam, associated prof. at K.K.
Wagh I.E.E. & R., Nasik, India, [email protected]

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Design and Analysis of Level Shifter in High Voltage


Transmitter
S.Vaishnavi, (PG SCHOLAR), [email protected]

S.Ashok, M.E Asst Professor, [email protected]

T.Mohammed Abbas, M.E Asst Professor, [email protected].

Arun Ragesh, M.E Asst Professor,[email protected]

Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala, Veltech Multitech Engineering College, Chennai.

Abstract: A high voltage transmitter integrated circuit for ultrasound medical imaging is implemented using 90nm technology.The
high voltage transmitter consists of level shifter and output drivers to increase the voltage, with reduced delay,that drives the
capacitive micro-machined ultrasound transducer to produce acoustic signal in medical applications .The performance of various level
shifters are compared. The level shifter generates 20V pulses from the input of 10V. The level shifter is designed using 90nm
technology in HSPICE.

Key words: CMUT, Level shifter, CMOS.

I. INTRODUCTION

U ltra sonic imaging is an important modality for medical diagnosis. Compared with other imaging modalities , ultrasound is
relatively low cost and harmless to human health and has decent resolution. Modern ultrasonic imaging systems are becoming
increasingly complex and powerful, yet compact. The trend toward highly integrated ultrasonic imaging solutions to enable portable
or even wearable ultrasound applications in hospital and at home. capacitive micro machined ultrasonic transducers recently emerged
for better system integration cmut technology offers advantages such as improved bandwidth, ease of fabricating large arrays, and
potential for integration with electronics.For the transmitter , high-voltage linear amplifiers are commonly used to drive the PZT loads
to achieve a linearity and acceptable efficiency. In case of CMUT load, linear amplifiers are not optimum and degrades the overall
power efficiency of the power efficiency of the transmitter stage. High voltage pulser can be used instead of amplifiers so that the
power dissipated while charging and discharging capacitance does not contribute to the acoustic output. The transmitter efficiency is
defined as the ratio between the useful acoustic power and the total power dissipated. One of the main issues is the area-hungry HV
transmitter in the interfacing analog front-end IC.The HV transmitter usually utilizes large-size HV double-diffused MOS (DMOS)
transistors to generate HV output pulse signals to drive the CMUT to produce large acoustic pressure while maintaining the reliability
to prevent possible device junction breakdown. In this brief, a highly integrated HV transmitter utilizing standard CMOS transistors
targeted for ultrasound medical imaging in a highly integrated needle device for obstetrics and gynecology applications is
presented[2]. In this alternate implementation highly-integrated, high-voltage pulsers quickly switch the transducer element to the
appropriate programmable high-voltage supplies to generate the transmit waveform. To generate a simple bipolar transmit waveform,
a transmit pulser alternately connects the element to a positive and negative transmit supply voltage controlled by the digital
beamformer. More complex realizations allow connections to multiple supplies and ground in order to generate more complex
multilevel waveforms with better characteristics.The slew rate and symmetry requirements for high-voltage pulsers have increased in
recent years due to the popularity of second-harmonic imaging. Second-harmonic imaging takes advantage of the nonlinear acoustic
properties of the human body. These nonlinearities tend to translate acoustic energy at fo to energy at 2fo. Reception of these second-
harmonic signals has, for a variety of reasons, produced better image quality and is now widely used.A high-voltage (HV) transmitter
integrated circuit for ultrasound medical imaging applications was implemented using 0.18-μm CMOS technology. The HV
transmitter achieves high integration by only employing standard CMOS transistors in a stacked configuration with dynamic gate
biasing circuit while successfully driving the capacitive micro machined ultrasound transducer device immersed in an oil environment
without breakdown reliability issues. The HV transmitter including the output driver and the voltage level shifters generates over 10-
Vp−p pulses at 1.25-MHz frequency.

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Fig1.Block diagram of ultrasound medical system


A fully integrated high-voltage (HV) front-end transducer for ultrasonic sensing applications. This includes a programmable HV dc–
dc converter (HVDC), a drive amplifier, and a tuneable pulse generator. The HVDC is based on a multistage two-phase voltage
doubler and static level up shifters. The drive amplifier is composed of a static level-up stage and a Class-D switching output stage.In
this paper,a static level-up shifter(LUS) is used in each stage as a clock generator, in order to increase the voltage exponentially. By
cascading voltage-doublers,the output voltage obtained.
Each stage consists of a voltage doubler circuit, a charge transfer circuit, a static LUS and a static level-up stage . The voltage doubler
circuit is composed of cross-connected HVnMOS transistors and pumping capacitors. The charge transfer circuit is composed of a
pair of HVpMOS transistors .

II. LITERATURE SURVEY


CMUT fabrication can be done using several processes such as wafer bonding,simple wafer bonding,LOCOS process,thick-buried
oxide process,sacrificial release process and piston CMUT structure and process. These can be integrated with front end electronics to
provide high voltage according to their applications. Transmitter pulsers and receive amplifiers are used. The advantages of
integrating front end electronics with CMUT :Better utilization of large arrays and Improves receive sensitivity.Ultrasound is widely
used as a diagnostic imaging modality in many clinical applications and has recently received increased attention and acceptance as a
therapeutic tool.
A fully integrated high-voltage (HV) front-end transducer for ultrasonic sensing applications. This includes a programmable HV
dc–dc converter (HVDC), a drive amplifier, and a tuneable pulse generator. The HVDC is based on a multistage two-phase voltage
doubler and static level up shifters. The drive amplifier is composed of a static level-up stage and a Class-D switching output stage.In
this paper,a static level-up shifter(LUS) is used in each stage as a clock generator, in order to increase the voltage exponentially. By
cascading voltage-doublers[2],the output voltage obtained. Each stage consists of a voltage doubler circuit, a charge transfer circuit, a
static LUS and a static level-up stage . The voltage doubler circuit is composed of cross-connected HVnMOS transistors and
pumping capacitors. The charge transfer circuit is composed of a pair of HVpMOS transistors.Level shifter circuits are widely used as
the bridges that connect low core voltage to high I/O interface voltage for interfacing logic and functional devices or circuits. A level
shifter using bootstrapping technique has been reported[3]. Level-up shift aims at ultra low core voltage and wide range I/O voltage in
high speed application. A New level-up shifter aimed at ultra low core voltage and wide range I/O voltage is designed using a 90nm
CMOS process. Level shifter uses analog circuit techniques and standard zero-Vt NMOS transistor without adding extra mask or
process step. No static power consumption and stable duty ratio make this level shifter suitable for wide I/O interface voltage
applications in ultra deep sub-micron. These techniques work even 0.6V corevoltage, 1.65~3.6V I/O voltage.
With scaling of Vt sub-threshold leakage power is increasing and expected to become significant part of total power
consumption.In present work three new configurations of level shifters for low power application in 0.35μm technology have been
presented. The proposed circuits utilize the merits of stacking technique with smaller leakage current and reduction in leakage power.
Conventional level shifter has been improved by addition of three NMOS transistors, which shows total power consumption as
compared to with existing circuit. Single supply level shifter has been modified with addition of two NMOS transistors that gives total
power consumption.Contention mitigated level shifter (CMLS) with three additional transistors [3]shows total power consumption of
396.75pW. Three proposed circuit’s shows better performance in terms of power consumption with a little conciliation in
delay.Output level of 3.3V has been obtained with input pulse of 1.6V.Level Shifters are required between core circuits and I/O
circuits interface where low voltage logic signals from chip core are shifted to high voltage level at which pad Ring is working. Since
the level shifter circuit consumes power and has a considerable delay, how to optimize the performance to gain low power and small
delay and how to minimize the number of level shifters are important in the voltage scaling technique.In paper[4], different types of
level shifter are focused.Driven by the need to reduce power consumption and maintain high reliability in leading edge integrated
circuits, the nominal operating supply voltage for these devices is falling steadily.
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A voltage level conversion at the input of a particular voltage domain will require all the supply voltages of signals coming to
this voltage domain from other voltage domains whose voltage level is lower than its own voltage level. This may result in routing
congestion, excessive area utilization and also may pose restrictions on module placement. The routing of additional supply voltages
can be avoided by sending a signal (which is going to a different voltage domain) in both polarities . However, this strategy would
require one additional wire per signal and hence could lead to routing congestion. This problem is further aggravated by the increasing
number of voltage domains in SoCs and multi-core architectures. Additional complexity is encountered if the voltage domains have
variable voltages[5], which requires a domain to receive the supply voltages of every other domain.

III. BASIC LEVEL SHIFTER


3.1 OVERVIEW OF LEVEL SHIFTER
The level shifter is used to convert high voltage levels to low voltage level or vice-versa.Bi-directional level shifters and translator
circuits are used to interface between applications with different supply voltage and input-output voltage levels.Level shifter are the
bridges that transform from low core voltage to high voltage.There are different types of level shifter such as single supply level
shifter and dual supply level shifter.The single supply level shifter allows communication between modules without adding any extra
supply pin,it have advantages over dual supply level shifter in terms of pin count,congestion in routing and overall cost of the system.
3.2 BASIC OPERATION OF LEVEL SHIFTER
The schematic of level shifter is shown below. Conventional level shifter using 10 transistor with low voltage supply VddL and high
voltage supply VddH. The conventional level shifters have disadvantages of delay variation due to different current driving
capabilities of transistors, large power consumption and failure at low supply core voltage VddL

Fig 2.Block diagram of level shifter


3.3 SINGLE SUPPLY LEVEL SHIFTER
The needs for two voltage supply limit the physical placement of such level shifter to the boundary of high and low voltage designs
which restricts the physical design flexibility. To address this, a novel level shifter which requires only one supply VDDH to convert
the low Voltage signal to the higher voltage has been proposed. It makes the placement much more flexible in the entire high voltage
regions. The threshold drop (Vtn) across the NMOS MN1 provides a virtual VDDL to the input inverter (MP2, MN2). The output
stage is a half latch which pulls up the input of the inverter (MP3, MN3) to VDDH in order to avoid leakage. When input signal (IN)
is HIGH, the voltage at node T1 is (VDDH-Vtn) with the purpose of reducing gate to source voltage of MP2 to turn it OFF. When the
input signal (IN) is LOW, the feedback transistor MP4 turns ON so that charges node T1 to VDDH to compensate the threshold drop.
Hence the supply voltage of inverter (MP2-MN2) is dynamically switched between VDDH-Vtn and VDDH depending upon the input
state.

Fig.3 Schematic of single supply level shifter

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3.4 EXISTING LEVEL SHIFTER


A high-voltage (HV) transmitter integrated circuit for ultrasound medical imaging applications was implemented using 180nm CMOS
technology. The HV transmitter achieves high integration by only employing standard CMOS transistors in a stacked configuration
with dynamic gate biasing circuit while successfully driving the capacitive micro machined ultrasound transducer device. The HV
transmitter including the output driver and the voltage level shifters generates over 10-Vp−p pulses

Fig.4 Schematic of Existing level shifter in HV transmitter


3.5 MODIFIED LEVEL SHIFTER

The level shifters can be designed to convert low voltage (5V) to high voltage (20V).We propose a low-power single- input level
shifter as shown in Fig.5. To reduce power consumption, there is no diode-connected TFT in the circuit and the pull-up TFTs and the
pull-down TFTs are never turned on simultaneously. In addition, only a single input signal is required by this circuit,which simplifies
the interface design considerably.This design minimizes the leakage .Reliability is high compared to existing method. Delay can be
reduced by using HSPICE tool(90nm)

Fig.5 Modified Single Supply Level Shifter


4 SIMULATION RESULTS

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Fig.6 Waveform of existing level shifter

Fig.7 Waveform of modified level shifter

5. CONCLUSION
A new level shifter have been designed in this paper. The various design of level shifter and proposed design is simulated with a 90nm
CMOS technology. Further the voltage is increased with reduced delay of the existing circuit. Therefore the proposed design can be
used in ultrasound medical applications.
REFERENCES
[1] B. T. Khuri-Yakub and O. Oralkan, “Capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducers for medical imaging and therapy,” J.
Micromech. Microeng

[2] R. Chebli and M. Sawan, “Fully integrated high-voltage front-end interface for ultrasonic sensing applications”,Jan 2007.

[3] Kyoung-Hoi Koo, Jin-Ho Seo, Myeong-Lyong Ko and Jae-Whui Kim, “A New Level-Up Shifter for High Speed and Wide Range
Interface in Ultra Deep Sub-Micron”,May 2005.

[4] Manoj Kumar, Sandeep K. Arya and Sujata Pandey,” Level Shifter Design For Low Power Applications”, IJCSIT,Nov 2010.

[5] I.Vijaya Kumar Reddy and G. Srinivasalu,“A Low to High Voltage Tolerant Level Shifter for Low Voltage Applications”,
IJERT,Aug 2013.

[6] D. Zhao, M. T. Tan, H.-K. Cha, J. Qu, M. Yan, H. Yu, A. Basu, and M. Je, “High-voltage pulser for ultrasound medical imaging
applications,”in Proc. IEEE ISIC, Dec. 2011

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Effect of Mental Imagery Training &Tratak Kriya on


Stopping of Penalty Strokes in Hockey
Tarun Routhan1, Devender Singh Jaggi2, Gaurav Negi3
1
Research Scholar, Department of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University of Delhi
2
Physical Education Teacher, Ramjas School, New Delhi
3
Physical Education Teacher,Indraprastha School, Dwarka

Abstract- This study was determined to identify the effects of Mental Imagery Training &Tratak Kriya training on stopping the
penalty stroke by goalkeeper in hockey.A total of 150 male hockey players from Delhi, whose average of stopping thepenalty stroke
ranges from 3-5 out of 10 penalty strokes in 2 trials were selected. The subjects were further randomly divided into three groups
namely MIT (Mental Imagery Training Group) N = 50, TK (Tratak Kriya Group) N = 50 and CG (Control Group) N = 50. All the 3
groups did regular hockey training;followed by 20 minutes of mental imagery training (by MIT Group only) and tratak kriya training
(by TK group only) for 3 days in a week and for 8 weeks respectively while Control group received the hockey training session only.
The results of the study showed that all the three groups had significantly improved in the rate of stopping the penalty stroke as the
paired t’ value obtained for MIT, TK & CG were found to be 18.406, 14.984 & 4.598 at p≤ 0.05 respectively. The highest percentage
of improvement was seen in MIT group followed by TK group and CG as the value obtained were 63.59%, 50.00% and 18.27%
respectively. The LSD post hoc analysis confirms that the percentage improvement differs significantly between the groups as the
mean differences obtained for CG- MIT, CG- TK and MIT- TK were 1.720, 1.220 and 0.500 at p≤ 0.05. Therefore it was concluded
that mental imagery training and tratak kriya training were proved to be effective means for the improvement in stopping the penalty
stroke in hockey and hence it may be used as an part of cognitive training for the making an hockey goalkeeper player.

Index Terms- Mental Imagery Training, Tratak Kriya Training, Penalty Stroke, Goal Keeper, hockey.

I. INTRODUCTION

I n recent years the use of cognitive strategies to facilitate optimum performance has gained increased acceptance. Cognitive
strategies teach the athletes psychological skills that they can employ in their mental preparation for the competition. In addition to
focusing on alleviating the harmful effects of anxiety and arousal, these cognitive strategies can also be used to enhance motivation
and self confidence and to improve performance consistency (D. A. Wuest and Charles A. Bucher, 1994).
Mental practice devotes the cognitive rehearsal of an action without overt performance of the physical performance of the physical
movement involved (Oriskell, copper and Moran, 1994). It has also been defined by Richardson (1967) as “The Symbolic Rehearsal
of a Physical Activity in the absence of any Gross Muscular Movements”. The importance of mental factors in sport was also
underlined by Mike Marsh, the American Champion Sprinter, who claimed that the ability to win comes “90% from the mind and
10% from the body” (Chadban, 1995)
Besides practicing mental rehearsal the athletes may also use Tratak Kriya another form of intervention technique to enhance
performance. Tratak or steady gazing is an excellent concentration exercise. It involves alternately gazing at an object or a point
without blinking, then closing eyes and visualising the object in mind’s eye. The practice steadies the wandering mind and
concentrates attention, leading to focus with pin point accuracy, whenever the eyes go, and the mind follows. So that when you fix
your gaze on a single point, the mind too becomes one pointed. Tratak also improves the eye sight and stimulus the brain via the optic
nerve.
In recent years the study of mental imagery has sparked the interest of many scholars in the field of sport psychology. It is now
recognized that, in general, imagery is used daily by most people (Barr & Hall, 1992). In addition, many athletes and coaches have
realized the important role that imagery plays (Salmon, Hall, &Haslam, 1994) and have incorporated its use in into their training
regimens (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999).
Mental imagery can be defined as the process that occurs when we recreate experiences in the mind using information that is stored
in the memory. Dreaming is an unstructured form of imagery, but the type of imagery we’re interested in here is structured imagery,
where the athlete uses his or her imagination in a controlled fashion to recreate specific images. There are a number of different ways
of visualizing images or experiences recreated in the mind (e.g. you can visualize yourself feeling movement internally, or externally
as a spectator) but research shows that the more able an athlete is to control his or her imagined movements, the greater the potential
performance enhancement (Advances in Sport Psychology (2nd ed), Champaign IL: Human Kinetics, 2002:405-439)
These aspects of the mental imagery and tratak kriya process need to be constantly practices in order to elicit results. Even though
individual differences exist in mental imagery ability, generally, better imagery control correlates to better performance in the motor
skill (Annett, 1995). Another approach is to combine the techniques of mental imagery with physical practice of the intended skill

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labelled visual-motor behaviour rehearsal, which in fact till date, had not been used or applied in the field of hockey hence the study
has been undertaken.

II. OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESIS


The study was conducted with the objectives to determine the effect of Mental Imagery Training and Tratak Kriya on stopping the
penalty stroke in hockey. The sub-objective of the study was to determine which way of cognitive training has better results for the
improvement in stopping the penalty stroke in hockey. After thoroughly going through the literature it was hypothesized that there
would be significant effect of both Mental Imagery Training and Tratak Kriya on stopping the penalty stroke conversion in hockey,
while there would no significant difference between the both Mental Imagery Training and Tratak Kriya on stopping the penalty
stroke conversion in hockey.

III. PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY


The study was conducted on 150 male hockey players from Delhi, whose average of stopping thepenalty stroke ranges from 3-5 out of
10 penalty strokes in 2 trials. The selected subjects were further randomly divided into three groups namely MIT (Mental Imagery
Training Group) N = 50, TK (Tratak Kriya Group) N = 50 and CG (Control Group) N = 50. All the 3 groups did regular hockey
training; followed by 20 minutes of mental imagery training (by MIT Group only) and tratak kriya training (by TK group only) for 3
days in a week and for 8 weeks respectively while Control group received the hockey training session only. Throughout the
test,penalty strokes were taken alternately by two penalty strokes specialists (N=2) i.e. 5 strokes by each player. (2×5=10). Standard
penalty stroke procedure was used as the criterion measure. All the three groups did hockey training for 3 days a week and for 8
weeks, while the MIT group and TK group did an extra 20 minutes session of Mental Imagery Training and Tratak Kriya respectively.
To study the effect of MIT and TK on stopping of Penalty Stroke in hockey descriptive statistics (Mean & SD) and paired‘t’ test were
employed. While One Way ANOVA was used to determine the significant difference between the groups. The MIT and TK
guidelines as explained below:
Mental Imagery Training
1. Get yourself into a comfortable position, make sure you will be warm and make sure you won’t be disturbed.
2. Turn off your phone and loosen any tight clothing.
3. Now focus on your breathing.
4. Breathe easily and slowly.
5. As you breathe in allow your stomach to rise and extend. As you breathe out let your whole body relaxes. Breathe in-feel
your stomach rise. Breathe out-relax. Breathe in-feel your stomach rise. Breathe out-relax. (Do 3 times). For the next 10
breaths, each time you breathe in feel your stomach rise-each time you breathe out think to yourself….relax….relax….relax
(pause 10 breaths).
6. Let yourself relax. Feel the relaxation speed through your body. Breathe easily and slowly. Become aware of your feet. Move
your toes slightly. Let them relax. Now think into your lower legs. Let your calf muscles totally relax. Think into your upper
legs. Let them totally relax. Feel your legs sink into a completely relaxed state. Relax your behind (pause).
7. Focus on the muscles in your lower back. Think relaxation into those muscles. Feel that relaxation spread into your upper
back. Feel your whole body sink into a deep state of relaxation. Now focus on your fingers. Feel them tingle slightly. Think
warmth into your fingers. Let them totally relax. Relax your forearms, your upper arms, and your shoulders. Totally relax.
Relax your neck (pause) and your jaw. Feel your head sink into a totally relaxed and comfortable position.
8. Scan your body for possible areas of tightness and relax those areas. Feel your entire body encircled with soothing warmth
and relaxation. Enjoy this wonderful state of complete relaxation. (Pause 1 minute).
9. Feel yourself sink deeper into a calm and wonderful state of complete relaxation.
Tratak Kriya
Purpose:The purpose of the test was to develop the concentration ability of the subjects.
Materials Required:Hockey Ball, Stop Watch and Table (18” to 20” high)
Administration of the test:
1. The subjects were asked to sit firmly in one of the meditation posture with the head, neck and backbone remained, in a
straight vertical line and motionless.
2. The subjects were instructed to breathe slowly and smoothly.
3. A hockey ball was placed on the 18” table level, about three feet away from the subjects.
4. The subjects were asked to look steadily at the centre of the hockey ball (the black spot marked on the ball) and concentrate
on it.
5. The subjects were informed not to stare or gaze vacantly, instead of just looking steadily without straining their eyes.
6. Note: The subjects were made to gaze in a calm, relaxed manner, somewhat as they are looking their faces in the mirror.
7. After about a minute or when eyes become dry and painful, the subjects were asked to close their eyes and keep their inner
gaze steady and visualized at the centre of the hockey ball (balck spot) at aAjna or Anahata chakra or in the subject’s mind
eyes.

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8. When the after image is vanished, the subjects were asked to open their eyes and the same process was administered, if
possible.

IV. RESULTS

Table- 1 Pre-test and Post- Test Scores of Stopping of Penalty Stroke in Hockey

Group N Mean % Improvement t Sig (2- tailed)


Mental Imagery Pre test 50 3.90±0.76
63.59% 18.406 0.001
Training Post test 50 6.38±1.19
Pre test 50 3.92±0.72
Tratak Kriya 50.00% 14.984 0.001
Post test 50 5.88±1.33
Pre test 50 3.94±0.71
Control Group 18.27% 4.598 0.001
Post test 50 4.66±1.02
Note: N= Sample Size

Table-1 clearly reveals all the three groups i.e. mental imagery training group, tratak kriya group and control group had significantly
improved over the period of 8 weeks. While among the three groups the highest improvement was seen in the mental imagery training
group followed by tratak kriya group and control group as the % improvement was found to be 63.59%, 50.00% and 18.27%
respectively.

Fig 1: Effect of Mental Imagery training and Tratak Kriya on Stopping of Penalty Stroke in hockey

Table No. 2 One Way Analysis of the Post Scores of Stopping of Penalty Strokes in hockey

Mean
Sum of
df Squar F Sig.
Squares
e
Between
78.28 2 39.14 27.62 .000
Groups
Within
208.28 147 1.41
Groups
Total 286.56 149

Table- 2 indicates the values of one way analysis of variance, which shows that there was a significant difference in the selected
group’s i. e. Mental Imagery training group, Tratak Kriya Group & Control Group as the f’ value was found to be 27.624 at p≤ 0.05.

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Table- 3 Post Hoc Analysis of the Post Scores of Stopping of Penalty Strokes in hockey

(I) Group (J) Group Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.

MIT Group -1.720* 0.238 0.000


Control Group
TK Group -1.220* 0.238 0.000
TK Group MIT Group -0.500* 0.238 0.037
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table- 3 clearly reveals the LSD post hoc values of the post scores of stopping of penalty strokes in hockey showing that all the all the
three groups were significantly differs after receiving the mental imagery training and tratak kriya.

V. CONCLUSION
The study concludes that cognitive trainings like mental imagery training and tratak kriya are very effective for stopping the penalty
stroke in hockey and hence it can prove to be a use full training aspect for the making of a goal keeper in hockey.

REFERENCES
[1] K. Martin, R. C. Hall, (1995). Using Mental Imagery to Enhance Intrinsic Motivation Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(1), 54-69
[2] Pavio, (1985). Cognitive and Motivational Functions of Imagery in Human Performance, Journal of Applied Sports Science, 10, 22-28.
[3] K. Porter, J. Foster, Visual Athletics, Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Publishers, 1990.
[4] L. D. Feltz, & M. D. Landers, (1983), The Effects of Mental Practice on Motor Skill Learning and Performance: A Meta-analysis. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5,
25-57.
[5] R. Roure, et al. (1998). Autonomic Nervous System Responses Correlate with Mental Rehearsal in Volleyball Training, Journal of Applied Physiology, 78(2), 99-
108.
[6] R. A. Isaac, (1992). Mental Practice- Does it Work in the Field? The Sport Psychologist, 6, 192-198.
[7] R. Suinn, Psychological Techniques for Individual Performance. New York, New York: Macmillan, 1990, p 492-506.
[8] S. Murphy, (1990), Models of Imagery in Sport Psychology: A Review. Journal of Mental Imagery, 14 (3&4), 153-172.
[9] T. Orlick, L. Zitzelsberger, Z. LI-Wei, & M. Qi - wei, (1992), The Effect of Mental-Imagery Training on Performance Enhancement With 7-10-Year-Old
Children, The Sports Psychologist, 6, 230-241.

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Some Modified Unbiased Estimators of Population Mean


*Shashi Bahl, **Bhawna Mehta
*
Professor, Deptt. of Statistics, MDU, Rohtak
**Research Scholar, MDU, Rohtak

ABSTRACT
The use of supplementary information on auxiliary variables in sample surveys was extensively discussed by Cochran and Jessen. In
their work they showed that regression estimator is superior to the other estimators (viz. ratio and mean per unit estimators etc.).This
paper proposes a new kind of estimator based on appropriate weighing of the sample means of the main and the auxiliary variables. It
is shown that the proposed estimator is more efficient when compared with the regression, ratio and the mean per unit estimator under
certain restrictions on the correlation coefficient between main and the auxiliary variables.

I. INTRODUCTION

L et a simple random sample of size n be drawn without replacement from a finite population of N units and the variables observed
are Y and X. The variable Y is the variable of interest so-called main variable and the variable X is called the auxiliary variable.
The population means of the variables Y and X are and respectively, where is assumed to be known. Let and be the unbiased
sample estimators of and . Let ρ be the correlation coefficient between the variables Y and X, given by the relation

(2.1)
where

Variance of X,

Variance of Y,

Covariance of X and Y.

The usual estimators of the simple, ratio, and the regression for estimating the mean of the main variable Y with the help of auxiliary
variable are given by Cochran and Jessen as follows:

Simple: = [(1). +0.( )] (2.2)

Ratio: = [(0). + .( (2.3)

Regression: = [(1). + (b).( ) (2.4)

where 0 and 1 are the weights, and


(2.1.5)

II. GENERALIZED ESTIMATORS


An estimator denoted by is proposed:
= + ( ratio) (3.1)

= + ( )

are constants such that

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(3.2)

+ ( ))

E = + (3.3)

Var(

Var ( ) (3.4)

where f =

The constants and are chosen such that the variance of the proposed estimator is minimum. The following theorem

obtains the value of

This variance of the proposed estimator given by equation (2.2.4) is minimum if

or if (3.5)

and =( (3.6)

Thus, the minimum value of the proposed estimator is given by

Var ( =

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III. COMPARISON
To Compare the efficiencies of various estimators, the following variances of the mean per unit, ratio and regression estimators are
required

Simple: var( )= (4.1)

Ratio: var( (4.2)

Regression: var( = (4.3)

Theorem 4.1: The proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

Var( var( ) (4.4)

This implies

(4.5)

Hence the proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

Theorem4.2 :The proposed estimator is more efficient than the regression estimator if

Var( var( ) (4.6)

This implies

(4.7)

(4.8)

Hence the proposed estimator is more efficient than the regression estimator if

The equation (4.7) clearly suggests that if then the proposed estimator becomes the regression estimator.

IV. CONSIDERING ANOTHER ESTIMATOR

Considering the estimator as:

= + ( regression) (5.1)

= + ( ))

are constants such that


(5.2)

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Also we consider the estimator based on paired observations as follows:

= + )) (5.3)

= + )) (5.4)

= + ) (5.5)

are constants with no restrictions.

+ ( ))]

E = + (5.6)

+ )]

+ ) (5.7)

+ )]

+ ) (5.8)

+ )]

+ ) (5.9)

Var(

Var( ) (5.10)

where f =

Var( )
(5.11)
Var( )
(5.12)

Var( ) (5.13)

The constants and are chosen such that the variance of the proposed estimator is minimum. The following theorem
obtains the value of

This variance of the proposed estimator given by equation (5.10) is minimum if

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or if (5.14)

and =( (5.15)

Thus, the minimum value of the estimator is given by

Var( = which is same as the variance of the regression estimator.

To find the minimum variance of the proposed estimator given by equation (5.11) we differentiate the equation w.r.t.
and equate it to zero. Thus we get

Or (5.16)

Thus, the minimum value of the estimator is obtained by substituting in equation (2.4.11) and we get the
minimum value as

Var( = (5.17)

Also the minimum value of the estimator is obtained if we differentiate the equation w.r.t. and solving for

and the minimum variance as

Var( = (5.18)

Similarly the minimum variance of the estimator is given by substituting

And we get the minimum variance of as

Var( which is same as the variance of the regression estimator.

V. COMPARISON

6.1: The proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

Var( var( ) (6.1)

This implies

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(6.2)

Hence the proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

6.2: The proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

Var( var( ) (6.3)

This implies

Hence the proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

(6.4)

6.3. The proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

Var( var( ) (6.5)

This implies

(6.6)

Hence the proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if
(6.7)

6.4. The proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

Var( Var ( ) (6.8)

This implies

(6.9)

Hence the proposed estimator is more efficient than the mean per unit estimator if

VI. EMPIRICAL STUDY

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For Empirical Study we consider the example dealing with a complete enumeration of 256 commercial pea orchards in North Carolina
in June 1946 as given in Cochran (1983) , pp. 174-175,200. In example we have

6009 = 4439 3898 r= 0.887

1.14 n=100 N=256 = 44.45 56.47

β λ b W1 W2 (gen) (reg) (mg) (mm)


0.5 1 1.138789 -0.9 1.9 119.3773 30.7645 18.70958 180.343
0.5 1 1.138789 0 1 26.98626 5.81292 6.270469 98.30742
0.5 1 1.138789 1 0 36.61734 36.61734 62.02219 36.61734
1 2 1.138789 0.1 0.9 22.63047 6.120965 20.30005 58.91736
0.2 1 1.138789 0.5 0.5 17.02709 13.51403 24.99199 74.51151
0.5 0.5 1.138789 0.6 0.4 18.58119 16.90251 56.39851 57.57204

VII. CONCLUSION
From the above study we have the conclusion that the proposed estimators are better than simple mean per unit estimators in many
practical situations. Also (mg) is better than any other estimators if W 1 is negative or close to zero & (reg) is better if W2 > W1.
Thus theoretically and from above study we see that the proposed estimators are better than existing ones in many practical situations
under certain conditions.

REFERENCES
[1] 1. Cochran, William G. (1977), Sampling Techniques, 3rd edition. New York : John Wiley and Sons.
[2] 2. Jessen, R.J. (1978). Statistical surveys techniques. John Wiley and Sons.

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The Emerging Development Model in India Differently-


Abled Entrepreneurs
SHANIMON.S

Associate Professor, PG Department Of Commerce, GPM Government College, Manjeshwer, Kasaragode (Distt.) ,Kerala (State), South India, India.
Research Scholar, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala (State), India.
[email protected]

Dr. M. SHAHUL HAMEEDU

Associate professor, Research and Post Graduate Department of Commerce, Iqubal College, Perengamala, Thiruvananthapuram (Dist),Kerala State,
South India, India.
[email protected]

Abstract: Many initiatives are undertaken to improve the empowerment of people with disabilities in developing countries
especially in India. However, an adequate development in proportion to the pre-determined programmes and budget allocation never
attained to date. This systematic literature review aims to describe and assess a new model of development and empowerment in
people with disability, suitable for use in developing countries especially in India. A systematic literature review was conducted.
Articles and reports were considered when they described the development, validation, translation or the use of an instrument to
measuring empowerment in the context of disability. The study revealed a new model of development, Differently-abled entrepreneurs
highly motivated, enthusiastic, successful entrepreneurs, who contribute to the total wealth of a developing nation. The study is purely
an empirical study used to measure empowerment of disabled people through the development of entrepreneurial quality, innovation
and creativity. Further research is needed to develop, evaluate, assess, the importance of present study in other developing countries.
India is often described as an old civilization but a young country. As the country enters its 65th year of independent existence the
description of youth does not seem too apposite. It can now be termed young by reason of the fact that 50% of its billion plus
population consists of persons below 25 years of age and 65% of the population is below 35 years. Differently-abled entrepreneurs, a
new breed in the developmental spectrum of developing India. Each and every disabled people have a residual potential power than
their non-disabled peers. Six to seven percentage of population in India is people with disability nearly 8 to 9 crore people the number
is increasing with accidents and aging. Nearly one third of total number of people in India is affected with some sort of disability.
Differently -abled entrepreneurs emerged as a need of an existence, than financially motivated. Who contribute a major chunk to the
economic development of our nation.

Key words: Differently-abled entrepreneurs, Residual potential, Entrepreneurship, Disability.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship Development is a rapidly growing distinct field of study. Entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship
development has become an everyday buzzword, Policy makers, economists, academics and even common people are talking about it.
Seminars , conferences and workshops are being conducted every year across the world. Which emphasised on the importance of
entrepreneurship to country, society as well as individual development ( Bechard and Toulouse 1998 ). Today entrepreneurship is
regarded as one of the best economic development strategies to develop country's economic growth and sustain the country's
competitiveness in facing the increasing trends of Globalisation (Schaper and Volery 2004 ). Entrepreneurship is a major engine

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driving many nationa's economic growth, innovation and competitiveness . At the same time many studies shown there is a positive
relation ship between entrepreneurship and economic growth. Many studies have been made in the subject of entrepreneurship in
general and other relative field, women entrepreneurship, Ethnic entrepreneurship, Social entrepreneurship, Bureaucratic
entrepreneurship, Edu entrepreneurship and other allied topics. Entrepreneurship and social development, No work and studies has not
been found out in the field of Empowerment and Development of Socially disadvantaged through entrepreneurship development .
Especially entrepreneurship development among differently-abled.

World Scenario

Persons with disabilities make up an estimated 15 per cent of the world’s population, over one billion–80% of whom live in
developing countries. They frequently experience discrimination and face barriers to participation in all aspects of society – for
example, in accessing Education, employment, health care and transportation. Some persons with disabilities face multiple barriers to
their participation, due to discrimination on the basis of other grounds, including race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national, ethnic, indigenous or social origin, property, birth and age. As a result, persons with disabilities are at a high risk of
poverty, which in itself increases the likelihood of having a disability. Given that persons with disabilities represent a significant
portion of the world population, and are more likely to live in poverty than their non-disabled peers, their inclusion in all development
activities is essential, if internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are to be
achieved in an equitable manner.The inclusion of persons with disabilities in development programming also makes sense from an
economic perspective. Excluding persons with disabilities from the world of work has costs for societies, in terms of their productive
potential, the cost of disability benefits or pensions, where these exist, and the implications for their families. This exclusion may cost
countries between 1 and 7 per cent of Gross Domestic Product. These costs to society can be minimized by dismantling barriers to
participation of persons with disabilities, in education, skills development, enterprise development and employment, as well as poverty
reduction and development programmes.

Indian Context

Six to seven per cent of the population in India is disabled according to the census begin from February 9, 2011. The 2001
census found 21 million persons with disability that is 2.13 % of the total population. There is a lack of political will in understanding
seriousness of disability issues which has led to inadequate allocation of resources for the disabled in the country. With a small
national budget allocation, no wonder the various measures which the government and the society have taken for the welfare of the
disabled touch only the fringe of the problem. The plith of the blind, the deaf, the mute, the mentally challenged and the orthopedically
handicapped continues to be distressing. Mainly because of the bulk of them are poor, enjoying no political clout, there needs come
quite low in the order of priorities of the government. Whatever Government facilities that are available for the disabled are in the
nature of mere crumbs.

In India, persons with disabilities are more likely to be poor, hold fewer assets, and incure greater debts. The causal
relationship between disability and chronic poverty has been widely discussed but still lacks wider comprehensive research showing
how this relationship really operates and can be self-fuelling. A few studies have been made, which show that persons with
disabilities, more often than other groups, lack access to basic services, employment, credit, land and other resources that could reduce
poverty. The vicious circle between disability and poverty varies as well within and between cultures and contexts, but is generally

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acknowledged to be strong. Poverty has to be seen not only from the economic perspective, but also from the point of social exclusion
and powerlessness. In developing countries, persons with disabilities and their families often live in poor and unsafe conditions and all
persons with disabilities experience discrimination. Exclusion from full participation in social and economic life and from education
opportunities substantially increases the risk of poverty.In India people living in poverty are at higher risk of serious health problems
and accidents due to restricted access to health care, poor nutritional access, poor working and living conditions, which might lead to
impairment and worsen the present condition. If a person acquires a type of impairment, he or she usually faces barriers to health
services, education, employment, and other public services, and finds himself/herself often denied the opportunities that could help
them to escape poverty. Disability can lead and cause poverty by preventing the full participation of persons with disabilities in the
economic and social life of their communities, especially if appropriate support services and reasonable accommodation are not
available. The link between poverty and disability is due to discrimination, social exclusion and denial of rights together with lack of
access to basic services, not the impairment itself.Some persons with disabilities, such as women, persons with intellectual,
psychosocial or multiple disabilities as well as elderly people, are more at risk of experiencing poverty than others. In some
communities girls and women with disabilities receive less care and food, have less access to health care and rehabilitation services
and fewer education and employment opportunities. They also tend to have lower marriage prospects than boys or men with
disabilities, and to be at a higher risk of physical, sexual and mental abuse.

The number of handicapped people in India increases by about 5 million every year. Majority of them cannot hope for
medical, educational and vocational aid. According to the report of National Statistical Survey (NSS) disability transition in India is
predicted to be most rapid. Between 1990 and 2020, there is predicted to be a halving of disability due to communicable diseases, a
doubling of disability due to accidents and injuries, and more than 40 per cent in the share of disability due to non- communicable
diseases such as cardiovascular and stroke. At present six to seven per cent of the total population in India is a person with differently
abled. The study is more significant in the social, cultural, educational and economic dimensions.

Governmental Schemes:

In India large number of programmes are being implemented through national and apex institutions dealing with various
categories of disabilities. These institutions conduct short- and long-term courses for various categories of personnel for providing
rehabilitation services to those needing them. Under the Scheme of Assistance to the Disabled for Purchase/Fitting of Aids and
Appliances (ADIP), approximately 2 lakh persons with disabilities are provided assistive devices every year. During 2010- 11, ` 27.71
crore was released to implementing agencies up to December 2010 against a revised allocation of ` 90 crore under the scheme. The
target is to cover 2 lakh persons with disabilities. Under the Deen Dayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS), ` 37.64 crore has
been released up to December 2010 against a revised allocation of ` 90 crore during 2010-11 to voluntary organizations for running
special schools for children with hearing, visual, and mental disability and vocational rehabilitation centres for persons with various
disabilities and for manpower development in the field of mental retardation and cerebral palsy. The targeted number of beneficiaries
is 76,000.

National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation (NHFDC)

National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation plays an important and vital role for the
development and empowermemt of handicapped people in our country, The Corporation provides financial assistance to disabled

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people for their Business and economically viable projects. The total amount of financial assistance provided by the Corporation in the
States and UT,s of India upto the date 12/12/2012 was 1805.89 lakhs with a total number of beneficiaries 2604. Differently abled
entrepreneurs in Kerala and other 30 States and Union Teritories change the specturm of development.

Frome the above


data the number of
people with
disability has increasing year to year who build and develop their life more secure through new ,innovative and self-supporting
ventures. In the past fifteen years number of differently-abled entrepreneurs ever increasing. Differently-abled entrepreneurs, a new
breed in the developmental spectrum of developing India. Each and every disabled people have a residual potential power than their
non-disabled peers. Six to seven percentage of population in India is people with disability nearly 8 to 9 crore people the number is
increasing with accidents and aging. Nearly one third of total number of people in India is affected with some sort of disability.
Differently -abled entrepreneurs emerged as a need of an existence, than financially motivated. They contribute a major chunk to the
economic development of our nation.

The Corporation has been able to increase the disbursement of loan as well as coverage of beneficiaries during the year
under review as compared to the previous financial year 2010-11. Comparative data of disbursement made in the previous two
financial years is , In the Financial Year 2011-12 Amt. Disbursed (in Crores) was Rs:50.86 and in 2010-11 financial year the Amt.
Disbursed (in Crores) was Rs: 31.84 and the No. Of Beneficiaries Assisted (including estimated no. of beneficiaries against
advance funds on average loan basis) 10625 in (2011-2012) and 6356 in (2010-2011).

SCHEME-WISE PERFORMANCE

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The scheme-wise performance of the Corporation in respect of disbursement of loan during the financial year under report is
as under:

Sl No. Schemes/Sectors Amount Number of


(in Crores) Beneficiaries
1 Trading / Sales Activities 20.55 4283
2 Service Sector Activities 11.93 2339
3 Agricultural ( Allied) Activities 13.06 3534
4 Agricultural Activities 0.98 69
5 Small business Activities 1.09 220
6 Purchase of vehicle for commercial hiring 2.7 162
7 Educational loan 0.55 18
8 Microcredit scheme 0 0
Total 50.86 10625

DISABILITY-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF LOAN MADE DURING THE YEAR

The Corporation aims at serving all categories of persons with disabilities and no special preference is attached to
particular category of the target group,it has been observed that major part of the loan off-take is for the benefit of OH
category amongst target group.

Disability Type Amount Beneficiaries


(in Crore)
Orthopedically Handicapped 42.68 8914
Mentally 1.32 270
Visually 3.14 591
Hearing 3.72 850
Total 50.86 10625

GENDERWISE DISTRIBUTION OF LOAN


The gender-wise distribution of loan assistance by the Corporation during
2011-12 is as under:

Gender Beneficiaries Loan Disbursement

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Number % Amount (in Crore) %


Female 3174 25.91 14.78 29.88
Male 7451 74.01 36.08 70.12
Total 10625 100 50.86 100

Number of beneficiaries with respect of the choice areas/activities of the target group.

The Corporation has been extending loans for the benefit of Persons with Disabilities for various income generating
activities. As a matter of policy, the beneficiary is free to make his own choice of project /venture which he wants to set up. The
corporation does not in any way influence the decision of the beneficiary. Under the aforesaid circumstances, the following data
exhibit the number of beneficiaries with respect of the choice areas/activities of the target group.

Sl.no. Scheme/Sectors Beneficiaries Disbursement


In absolute In % age Amount In % age
number (in crore)
Trading / Sales Activities 35866 55.71 167.74 23.06
Service Sector Activities 11620 18.05 64.68 20.46
Agricultural ( Allied) Activities 8889 13.81 38.64 12.22
Agricultural Activities 798 1.24 9.65 3.05
Small business Activities 1116 1.73 7.37 2.33
Purchase of vehicle for commercial hiring 890 1.38 19.62 6.21
Educational loan 58 0.09 1.36 0.43
Microcredit scheme 5148 8 7.06 2.23
Total 64385 100 316.12 100

IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES

Funds of the Corporation are channelized through State Channelizing Agencies (SCAs)
nominated through respective State/UT Government. These agences, interalia, play the vital role of implementation of schemes
of the Corporation for the benefit of target group in the respective States/U.T.s. The Corporation has been pursuing with certain
States/UTs where the

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State Channelizing Agency (SCA) is yet to be operational. The Corporation has been extending loans for the benefit of Persons with
Disabilities for various income generating activities. As a matter of policy, the beneficiary is free to make his own choice of project
/venture which he wants to set up. The corporation does not in any way influence the decision of the beneficiary.
State Wise Distribution of Loan
Sl no. Name of States 2010-2011 2011-2012
Amount Number of Amount Number of
Disbursed Beneficiaries Disbursed Beneficiaries
Assam 0.91 100 0 0
Chandigarh 0.11 48 0.02 8
Chattisgash 2.33 152 2.85 160
Delhi 0.4 144 0.1 36
Goa 0.1 8 0.1 8
Gujarath 0.3 76 1.7 435
Haryana 1.93 292 9.27 1838
Himachal Pradesh 2.33 208 2.2 228
Jammu&Kashmir 0.99 105 1.57 176
Jharkhand 0.97 78 0 0
Karnataka 1 200 0.7 101
Kerala 0 0 2.18 290
Lakshdweep 0.19 22 0.1 13
MadhyaPradesh 0.86 88 0.02 1
Maharashtra 4.09 310 2.42 319
Meghalaya 0.1. 20 0.53 85
Mizoram 0.5 178 0 0
Orissa 1.76 365 0.36 27
Pondicherry 0.39 74 2.83 392
Punjab 0.73 80 1.5 320
Rajasthan 2.01 239 1.35 124
Sikkim 0.06 2 0.05 13
Tamil Nadu 7.96 3239 8.79 3624
Uttar Pradesh 0 0 4.65 921
Uttaranchal 0.35 56 7.27 1444
West Bengal 1.47 272 0.32 62
Total 31.84 6356 50.86 10625

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY.

 To study the Socio –Economic and general background of disabled persons in India.
 To ascertain entrepreneurship development and economic independency of disabled people living in Indian states and
Union Teritories.

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 To examine the relationship of entrepreneurial talent of disabled people and their educational status and vocational
training.
 To find the effect of entrepreneurship development to solve the economic and general conditions of disabled people in
general.
 To study the scope of proper utilisation of the residual potential of the differently-abled people in entrepreneurship
development.
 To study the changing attitude of Society and contribution of Differently-abled entrepreneurs to the economic development
of country, employment generation and inclusive development of Differently-abled through Entrepreneurship Development.

METHODOLOGY

The study is about entrepreneurship development among differently-abled people in general,The study
mainly focuses on the overall development of disabled people in various spheres of their life such as social, economical,
professional and vocational through proper utilisation of entrepreneurial development activities. The research design and
procedural plan for the study is retrospective-prospective study design.

1. Data collection.

[1] Primary Data.

There are a number of institutions and NGO’s working in the states of India.Each to uplift the pathetic
conditions of disabled people. State sponsored Handicapped development and finance corporations and centrally
promoted National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation are mainly provide financial assistance and
other support for the economical and social upliftment of differently abled people through entreprenership
development programmes. There are a large number of successful entrepreneurs and economically viable ventures
emerged in the past in different states through the various programmes of these institutions.

[2] Secondary Data.

Entrepreneurial Development Index and earlier research studies, personal records constitutes secondary source
of the study data are collected from Governmental and non- governmental organisations with respect of the study.
Published reports of state and central organisations and studies conducted in relative fields and published and non-
published sources constitutes the secondary source.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

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The outcomes of the World Summit for Social Development, held in Copenhagen from 6 to 12 March 1995, and of the
twenty-fourth special session of the General Assembly entitled “World Summit for Social Development and beyond achieving social
development for all in a globalizing world”, held at Geneva from 26 June to 1 July 2000, The World Programme of Action concerning
Disabled Persons, and the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities and the Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in which persons with disabilities are recognized as both development agents and beneficiaries
in all aspects of development, Recalling further its previous resolutions concerning persons with disabilities and further promotion of
equalization of opportunities and mainstreaming of disability in the development agenda and the relevant resolutions adopted by the
General Assembly, Welcoming the fact that, since the opening for signature on 30 March 2007 of the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities and the Optional Protocol thereto, one hundred and forty-seven States have signed and ninety-seven States
and one regional integration organization have ratified the Convention and ninety States have signed and sixty States have ratified the
Optional Protocol, and encouraging all States that have not yet done so to consider signing and ratifying the Convention and the
Optional Protocol, Acknowledging that the majority of the 690 million persons with disabilities in the world live in conditions of
poverty, and in this regard recognizing the critical need to address the impact of poverty on persons with disabilities, Noting that
persons with disabilities make up an estimated 10 per cent of the world’s population, of whom 80 per cent live in developing
countries, and recognizing the important role of international cooperation in supporting national efforts to mainstream disability in the
development agenda, in particular for developing countries.

Around 10 per cent of the world’s population, or 650 million people, live with a disability. There are the world’s
largest minority .This figure is increasing through population growth, medical advances and the ageing process. Eight per cent of the
persons with disabilities live in developing countries. Disability rates are significantly higher among groups with lower educational
attainment in various countries. Women report higher incidents of disability than men. The World Bank estimates that 20 per cent of
the world’s poorest people have some kind of disability. And tend to be regarded in their own communities as the most disadvantaged.
Women with disabilities are recognized to be multiply disadvantaged. Mortality of children with disabilities may be as high as 80 per
cent in developing countries. Comparative studies on disability legislation show that only 45 countries have anti- discrimination and
other disability- specific Laws.

FINDING
1) One may find plethora of public programmes to promote the employment of the persons with disabilities, though their impact
has been quite negligible and mostly confined to urban areas. This is perhaps due to weaknesses in design and implementation.
2) Private sector employment incentives for hiring the persons with disabilities are quite limited. Despite the fact that the Persons
with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 has provided for private sector
incentives policy with a target of 5 per cent of the private sector workforce being persons with disabilities, neither the
Government of India nor State Governments have introduced a general incentives policy (though there is a specific new incentive
provided for formal sector workers in the 2007- 2008 budget). During the fag end of 1990s, employment of persons with
disabilities among larger private firms was only 0.3 per cent of their workforce. Among the multinational companies, the situation
was far worse with only 0.05 per cent of their workforce being the persons with disabilities. One could, however, find a number
of private and public sector firms with far better performance with regard to hiring the persons with disabilities.
3) Public sector employment reservations have also yielded poor outcomes due to design and implementation problems.
4) Notwithstanding the fact that a financial assistance programme for entrepreneurs with disabilities is in place, the beneficiaries
have been negligible so far. This could be corroborated by the fact that more than 11 years have passed since the establishment of

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the National Handicapped Finance Development Corporation (NHFDC) with the mandate of providing financial assistance to the
disabled beneficiaries, the beneficiaries of the NHFDC scheme had percolated down to only 19,643 till 2005. If the NHFDC is to
reach more stakeholders, the scheme requires to be restructured so as to give channelling agencies (including public sector banks)
better incentives.
5) There cannot be denying the fact that a greater number of NGOs have become active in vocational training of the persons
with disabilities and direct employment generation, but the majority of them without accreditation process.
6) The Government of India provides vocational services to the persons with disabilities, but coverage is low and its impact not
known. Seventhly, one may also find a national network of special employment exchanges for the persons with disabilities, but
they have failed to play the desired role in promoting their employment. Though there are employment exchanges in State
capitals, the link between employment exchanges and establishments in the private sector is weak. Consequently, the job
placement ratio is quite abysmal for both special and other exchanges, 0.9 per cent and 0.7 per cent of registered persons with
disabilities respectively in 2003, has roughly halved over the past decade. The downward trend is indicative of shrinking job
avenues in the public sector as also general failure of employment exchanges to reach out to the private employers.
7) Low educational attainment, poor employment prospects and stigma also suggest that the persons with disabilities and their
households are notably worse off than average.
8) Entrepreneurship development among disabled people find more advantage than any other programmes implementing for the
socio-economic upliftment of the group.
9) Desabled people have a residual potential than non-disabled people.
10) Selfsupporting ventures contribute a major chaunk to the economic development of the country with eabled and self-
motivated, independent human.

Conclusion

Around 10 per cent of the world’s population, or 650 million people, live with a disability. There are the world’s
largest minority .This figure is increasing through population growth, medical advances and the ageing process. Eight per
cent of the persons with disabilities live in developing countries. Disability rates are significantly higher among groups with
lower educational attainment in various countries. Women report higher incidents of disability than men. The World Bank
estimates that 20 per cent of the world’s poorest people have some kind of disability. And tend to be regarded in their own
communities as the most disadvantaged. Women with disabilities are recognized to be multiply disadvantaged. Mortality of
children with disabilities may be as high as 80 per cent in developing countries. Comparative studies on disability legislation
show that only 45 countries have anti- discrimination and other disability- specific Laws. The number of handicapped people
in India increases by about 5 million every year. Majority of them cannot hope for medical, educational and vocational aid.
According to the report of National Statistical Survey (NSS) disability transition in India is predicted to be most rapid.
Between 1990 and 2020, there is predicted to be a halving of disability due to communicable diseases, a doubling of
disability due to accidents and injuries, and more than 40 per cent in the share of disability due to non- communicable
disease4s such as cardiovascular and stroke. At present six to seven per cent of the total population in India is a person with
differently abled. The study is more significant in the social, cultural, educational and economic dimensions.

Reference

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1. Reports of WHO, UNDP, UNICEF.

2. 2011 PROVISIONAL CENSUS DATA AND 2001 CENSUS DATA of India.

3. Report of the World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen, 6-12 March 1995.

4. (United Nations publication, Sales No.E.96.IV.8), chap. I, Resolution 1, annexes I and II. General Assembly
resolution S-24/2, annex.3 A/37/351/Add.1 and rr.1, annex, sect. VIII, recommendation I (IV), adopted by the
General Assembly by its resolution 37/52.

5. UN General Assembly resolution 48/96, annex.

6. UN General Assembly Resolution 61/106, annex I.

7. Planning Commission, Government of India “Employment of Persons with Disabilities in Public Sectors in India
Emerging Issues and Trends--An Evaluation Study with Special Reference to Persons with Disabilities Act (1995)”
Commissioned by Planning commission, Government of India 2008 Submitted by Society for Disability and
Rehabilitation Studies.

8. “India Country Profile March 2003 Employment of People with Disabilities: The Impact of Legislation
(Asia and the Pacific) by the ILO InFocus Programme on Skills, Knowledge and Employability in the framework
of a project funded by Development Cooperation Ireland (DCI).

9. Poised For Change First Country Report Of INDIA Submitted in pursuance of Article 35 of the UN Convention
on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD).

10. Ooi Yeng Keat, Christopher Selvarajah,Denny Meyer.(2011). “Inclination towards entrepreneurship among
university students: An emperical study of Malayasian University students”International Journal of Business and
Social Science 2(4):206-220.

11. Brown,Christopher Russell,(2007). “Economic theories of the entrepreneur:A systematic review of the
literature” Cranfield University, United Kingdom,ISBN.

12. Jose c Sanchez, Andrea Gutierrez,(2011), “Entrepreneurship resrarch in Spain: Developments and
Distinctivenass” Psicothema 23(3):458-463.

13. JaAnn C, Carland,James W. Carland, Wayne H Stewart(1996). “seeing what's not there:The enigma of
entreprenership”,Journal of Small Business Strategy,7(1),1-20.

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14. John C McIntosh,Samia Islam (2010), “Beyond the Veil: The influence of islam on female entrepreneurship in a
conservative muslim context” International Management Review ,6(1):103-108.

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Study of Various Plant Species Useful in Each Nakshatra


for Human Society
Dr. Rutesh R. Shah and Dr. R. S. Patel

K K Shah Jarodwala Maninagar Science College, Rambaug, Maninagar, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

Abstract- The Punitvan is a conglomeration of Panchvati, plant species associated with the constellations and are believed
Nakshatra Van, Rashi Van, Navgraha Van and Charak Van. The to have medicinal properties for treating the various diseases.
Punitvan inspires to human society to plant the trees and care
they including all matters. Punitvan is situated in sector 18,
Gandhinagar. It was established in the year 2004.Thus Punitvan
gives us inspiration to protect the plants and to know its uses.
There are various plants planted according to different themes
like planets, constellations, a sign of zodiac, and Panchavati. Study area map
Present paper indicates 27 constellations with 27 plant- species
show importance of individual. In the ancient time our elders
were directly or indirectly connected with the trees. They
believed that plants are useful to different purposes in life.
Recently people believe in astrology, so they can care and protect
the plants regularly.

Index Terms- Punitvan, Plantation, Constellations, Species.


II. MATERIALS & METHODS
The present paper deals with a preliminary study on plant
I. INTRODUCTION species associated with the planets at Punitvan. Its reports

I n our civilization/society all the ceremonies beginning from


the birth to death are celebrated after consulting religious
almanac. The advice of an astrologer is sought on various
botanical name, local name, family, and morphological
characters of various angiosperm plants which are planted in the
Punitvan according to the planets. We have taken photographs
occasions such as Naming Ceremony, Wearing Sacred, Thread, and collected information with several trips. The species were
Marriage, Baby-shower, Land Reverence, Laying of Foundation arranged according to Bentham and Hooker system of
Stone Ceremony or Entering a new building/house, Ceremony classification by using the flora of Gujarat state.
performed before occupying a new dwelling, Journey of a long
duration/distance, Commencing of new
business/profession/industry etc. We have a tradition to consult III. ENUMERATION
the auspicious day, time, moments minutely before starting any The details of all the twenty seven constellations are given
occasion/ceremony. It is clearly seen that there is a great impact hereunder to help you understand their importance in entire life
of planets, status of planets at the time of birth in the horoscope span.
and constellations at the time of ceremony in our routine life. In (1) Ashwini: It is situated at 0o to 13o 20’ in the first
astrology it is clarified that the person can be free from zodiac sign of Aries. It is shaped as a mouth/face of horse and
depression, sickness, physical-social-economical-mental or there are three stars in it. This constellation has windy (Vaayu)
supernatural troubles by planting a tree/plant relevant to the nature (Prakruti) and it directs towards the humanbody above the
constellation existing at the time of his/her birth. This is only the legs. It has blood-red colour.This is divine constellation, its
reason why our ancestors have revered the trees as Gods and origin (Yoni) is Ashwa, East (Purva) Yunja and Adhya Nadi.The
placed them equivalent to the divine elements/Gods-Goddesses. Nirayana Surya stays in this constellation from 14th April to 27th
For this purpose a specific structure had been prepared for April. During 14 to 17 April it is in first phase (Charan), from
devotees to worship a worth-worshipping tree/plant according to 17th to 20th April in second phase (Charan), on 20th April in
the status of divine constellations at the time of birth of a person. third phase (Charan) and on 21st April in fourth phase (Charan).
According to Constellation, Human being is always dominated Its lord of Situation (Dasha-naath) is Ketu. Ashwini, Megha and
by the presence of Sun, Moon and other planetary structures. The Moola are the constellatiions of Ketu.
purchasing power of Gems/Pearls is too costly for poor. Since Zer-Kochalu:(Styrox nuxvomica) Such shell-plants are
ancient times, plants were considered invaluable to Gems/Pearls. used as medicinal herbs in ailment of Fever, Weakness, Neurotic
Tribal inhabiting in forests are “Nature lovers’’ and use plants in problems, Hair-fall, Hair Skin of Skull etc.. They soothe the
various forms and ways. They believe that the dominance of wounds, skin-boils, abscesses; leaves of this plant are used in
weak and obstacle causing factors can be minimized by wearing poultice form. Nowadays this plant is used as insecticides to
or wrapping plants or their parts around their body. So, certain protect crop. It is dangerous in excessive usage. The seeds of this

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plant can be used only after complete purification. Nux Vomika (4) Rohini: Rohini means a red cow in sanskrit and it is the
is worshipping plant for those persons born within the tenure of name of mother of Lord Balaram/Balabhadraji, elder brother of
this constellation. The deity of Ayurveda is God Ashwinikumars. Lord Krishna. She is daughter of Kashyap rushi and Surabhi.
Shell-trees are too much useful in many diseases. The persons Begining from 10o of Taurus (Vrushabh Rashi) and ending at
born in this constellation are therefore related to God 23o 20’ of the same is called Rohini Nakshatra. It is having a
Aswinikumar and a plant like Nux Vomika. shape of a chariot with five stars in it. It is also called as a Cart
(2) Bharani:This constellatiion is situated at 13o20’ to (Shakat). The Nirayan Sun (Surya) remains in this constellation
26o40’ in the Aries. It is shaped like a feminine generative organ in first phase (Charan) from 26th to 28th May, second phase
with three stars situated in it. Its origin (Yoni) is Gaja, East (Charan) from 29th to 31st May, third phase (Charan) from 1st to
(Purva) Yunja, Manushya Gana and Madhya Nadi. Its Lord of 4th June and during 4th to 8th June in fourth phase (Charan). Its
Situation (Dashanaath) is Shukra (Venus). It has a span of 20 first phase (charan) has varg (class) of Garuda where as the
years of Dasha. It is of feminine gender with Royal virtues. It class(Varg) of 2nd 3rd and 4th phase (charan) is Mruga. Its
directs towards the human body’s lower parts of legs. Its colour Origin (Yoni) is Snake (Sarpa), Gana is Human
is red and God is Yama (God of Death). The Nirayana Surya (Manushya) East (Purva) Yunja and Antya nadi. Its God of
stays in this Nakshatra from 29th April to 11th May. It is in the Dasha (Dasha naath) is the Moon (chandra) with a tenure of ten
first phase (charan) from 28th to 30th April, from 1st May to 3rd years.
May in second phase Jamun tree [Syzygium cumini]The fruits of this tree are
(charan) from 4th May to 7th May in third phase (charan) and sweet and tasty. Fresh fruits and their juice is useworthy for
from 7th May to 10th May in fourth phase (charan). A period of patients of diabetes. Generally the fruits are ripe during monsoon
36 minutes of entering (Pravesh) is known as Visha Nadi which are useful in ailments. The young children can be free
(Venom). from stomachache, indigestion, lack of appetite gripping. In case
Amala [Phyllanthus emblica]: Jam of unripe fruits, pickles of scorpion’s bite, the juice of leaves of this treee is very
of this fruits are made which are full of energy, digestive and effective. Its wood is used in construction, furniture as well as
immunative. Its taste is astringent and is helpful in urinal and fuel. The person born during the influence (Prabhav) of this
indigestion problems. Dry fruits are very useful in bleeding, constellation is suggested to worship this tree.
diarrhea and constipation. The fruits are having abundant (5) Mrugshirsha :This constellation has status in Taurus
elements of Vitamin-C. If used with contents of Iron, it soothes (Vrushabh) Rashi from 23o20’ till 6o40’ of Gemini (Mithun)
the patients suffering from Jaundice, Indigestion, Asthama, Rashi. It has a shape of the head of a deer/antelope having three
Coughing etc.Those who belong to this constellation, this tree is stars arranged in it. The God of this Nakshatra is Moon
as good as a worshipping tree. If the person recites hymn (Chandra), class (varga) of its first and second phase (charan) is
(Mantra) of this Nakshatra sitting under the tree as shown below, deer (Mruga) whereas the class (varga) is Cat (Marjar) class
his all the problems are solved and gets good results. (varg) of 3rd and 4th phase (charan). Its origin (Yoni) is Snake
(3) Krutika: It begins form 26o40’ of Aries and till 10o of (Sarpa), dev-gana, East (Purva) yunja and Madhyam Nadi. Its
Taurus is the status of this constellatiion which is named after the vishottari God of position (Dasha-naath) is Mars (Mangal) which
first son of Lord Shiva : Kartikeya. It is shaped like a shaving- has tenure of seven years. The nature (Guna) of this
tool’s end or an end of arrow having six stars in it. Its god is Constellation is hot-tempered (Tamasika) Origin (Yoni) is
Agni Dev (God of Fire), Class (Varg) of Garuda, Origin (Yoni) impotent (Napunshak) and it has supremacy (Aadhipatya) on the
of Mash (Aries), Devil (Rakshasa) Gan, East (Purva) Yunja and eye-brow of a man. It has silver (Ruperi) colour.
Antya Nadi. Its God of Situation (Dasha Naath) is the Sun In this constellation the Nirayan Surya stays from 8th to
(Surya) and Dasha (tenure) is 6 years. It remains form 12th May 11th June in first phase (charan), 12th to 15th June in second
to 14th May in first phase (charan) from 15th May to 18th May Phase (charan), from 16th to 18th June in third phase (charan)
in second phase (charan), 18 to 21st May in third phase (charan) and from 19th to 21st June in fourth phase (charan).
and from 22nd May to 28th May it is in the fourth phase Catechu Tree : (Kher tree) : (Acacia chundra)
(charan). These trees are found in areas of Gujarat, Punjab, Bihar,
Cluster Fig. : (Ficus racemosa): Oudumber is extremely Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gadhwal-Kumaon areas of
useful and virtuous tree. It is cool by nature. Birds, insects and Himachal Pradesh. They are in majority states of India. Extract
worms are attracted towards its fruits because of sweet taste and or powder of Catechu tree wood is its main product being used
worms are found in their fruits. But the fruits are dried and with betel leaf. This extract or powder (Katho) is used to prepare
crushed into powder form for storage purpose. A sweet food is ayurvedic medicines such as Swalp Khadir, Khadirashthi,
prepared using this powder after adding milk, sugar and flour. Khadirashtak etc. This tree is a useful medicine for skin diseases
The leaves of this tree are a very good fodder for domestic particularly Albino (Kustharoga) and toothache as well as pain of
animals. The nector dribbling from its roots is used to prepare molar teeth (Daadh). If the person of this Nakshatra sits and
Oudumbarasava. This Asava is very useful remedy for patients worships following hymn under Catechu tree, his problems are
suffering from Small-Pox, Chicken-Pox, Measles etc.. This is solved and gets good result.
also used in case of diabetes patients. The person born in this (6) Aadra: This constellation exist in Gemini (Mithun)
Nakshatra should worship this tree and recitation of the from 6o40’ to 20o0’. The class (varg) of 1st, 2nd and 3rd phase
following Mantra under this tree will give an expected result of (charan) is Cat (Marjar) and that of 4th phase (charan) is Lion
good furtune. (Lio-Sinh). Its origin (Yoni) is Shwana, Manushya Gana,
Madhya Yunja and Aadhya Nadi. Its shape is like an only bright-

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shining star. Ardra means wet. Lord Rudra (Shiva) is its God is dog (Shwan). The origin (Yoni) of this Nakshatra is Aires
(Devta) and its vishottari nath (God) is Rahu (Dragon’s head) (Mesh), Dev gana, Madhya Yunja and Madhya Nadi. Its swami
having tenure of 18 years. It has command on nerves system of (God) is Saturn (Shani) which has a tenure of 19 years. Pushya
human body. Aardra Nakshatra’s body parts are hands, shoulder means to nurture, to strengthen. It is having hot tempered virtue.
and neck. Some learned people consider its impact on eyes. Its Its colour is reddish black and has command on face. Its swami
colour is green. It is in the tribe of lowest caste (God) is Bruhspati (Jupiter). Bharatji, brother of Lord Rama was
(Executioner- Butcher). It has hot tempered virute (Tamasik born in this constellation.
Guna). The Nirayan Sun (Surya) remains in this constellation in Peepal Tree : Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa)This tree is
first phase (charan) from 22 to 25th June in second phase grown in every part of India. It is a sheddy tree with speedy
(charan) from 26th to 28th June, from 29th June to 1st July in growth.The followers of Hinduism and Buddhism worship this
third phase (charan) and in the fourth phase (charan) from 2nd to tree and consider it as a sacred tree on the earth. Its soft leaves,
6th July. It is believed that this Nakshatra is the best period for buds and fruits are used as a food during famine. Its furits are
commencing education of a child. favoured food of birds and leaves are a good fooder for domestic
Sisam: (Dalbergia sissoo) animals. Its wood is used as wood-board for furniture. Its tender
Indian Rosewood is a deciduous rosewood tree, also known leaves and bark are used as medicine. The bark of this tree is a
as sisu, sheesham, tahli, Tali and also Irugudujava. It is native to very effective medicine in skin diseases particularly eczema.
the Indian Subcontinent and Southern Iran. In Persian, it is This costellation is believed to be a very sacred and auspicious.
called Jag. It is the state tree of Punjab state (India) and the There is a tradition of purchasing gold, jewellery, ornaments
provincial tree of Punjab province (Pakistan). It is primarily during the day of Gurupushyamrut Yoga or Amrutsiddhi Yoga.
found growing along river banks below 900 metres (3,000 ft) The Peepal tree is very sacred and is worshipping tree for
elevation, but can range naturally up to 1,300 m (4,300 ft). The persons of this Nakshatra. The people belonging to this
temperature in its native range averages 10–40 °C (50–104 °F), Nakshatra are found spiritual, peaceloving, calm and full of
but varies from just below freezing to nearly 50 °C (122 °F). D. perseverance because of this sacred tree.
sissoo is a medium to large deciduous tree with a light crown (9) Aashlesha :This constellation exists in Cancer (Kark)
which reproduces by seeds and suckers. It can grow up to a from 16o40’ to 30o. Ashlesh means to hug or to embrace. Its
maximum of 25 m (82 ft) in height and 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft class (varg) is shwan (Dog), origin (Yoni) is Marjar (Cat),
10 in) in diameter, but is usually smaller. Trunks are often Rakshasa (Devil) Gan, Madhy Yunja and Anty Nadi. This is a
crooked when grown in the open. Leaves are leathery, alternate, virtuous Nakshatra. Its Dasha naath is Mercury (Budh) having
pinnately compound and about 15 cm (5.9 in) long. Flowers are tenure (Dasha Varsh) of 17 years. It is circle shaped or a snake
whitish to pink, fragrant. shaped with five stars in it. Its deity; is Serpant-God. Laxman
(7) Punarvasu : This constellation exists between Gemini and Shatrughna, borthers of Lord Rama were born during the
20o to 3o20’ of Cancer. 1st, 2nd and 3rd phase (charan) of this period of this constellation. The Nirayan Surya (Sun) remains in
constellation are in Gemini and 4th phase (charan) is in Cancer. this constellation from 3rd to 10th August. Its command is on
Its first and second phase (charan) are of Cat (Marjar Varga) and Ears. Its colour is reddish black with Stree Yoni (Female Origin).
third as well as fourth phase (charan) are of Cancer (Mesh Naagkesar : Mesua Tree (Mesua ferrea)
Varga). Its origin (Yoni) is Marjar, Devgana, Madhya Yunja and This middle sized tree is found in the Himalayan range,
Aadhya Nadi. Punarvasu means to dwell-reside again. There are Andaman Islands, Southern India and North-East India. It is
four stars in this Nakshatra. Aditi is its God of worship. Aditi is found in a range of 1500 mts. in Andaman Islands. It is also
the mother of Lord Vishnu and the Sun. She is wife of Kashyam found in Nepal.This tree is ever-green, beautiful tree with blue
Rushi. There are twelve Aaditya who are her sons. Lord Rama coloured round-stems. Its stem is straight and sticky. The pistil of
was born during this constellation when it was in the fourth its flower is known as Naagkeshar. It is always used as medicine.
phase (charan). Its colour is like lead. It has command over the This tree having large quantity of leaves is grown generally in
nose. It is a male constellaiton and is endowed with virtues. the compound of temples, gardens and road-sides. Its wood is
Bamboo-Tree: (Vaans) : (Dendrocalamus strictus) :This very strong and is known as Iron-wood. Naagkeshar is the
tree is generally found in every part of India. It is mostly grown worshipping tree for persons of “Aashlesha”, “Vishakha” and
in Western and Southern India. In Gujarat it is found in the “Anuradha” constellations. The Gods of them are Naag (Snake
forests of Dang and Rajpipla. This tree is of many varities in case God), Indra and Surya (Sun) respectively. It is believed that the
of its length, thickness etc.Every bamboo tree is having knots flower, pistil and the tree are respectively worshipped by these
(Ganth) from which a very effective medicinal object named Constellations. The God of this constellation is Serpant God.
Vansh-Lochan is obtained. This herb/medicinal object is used not (10) Magha :This constellation remains in Leo (Sinh) from
only in India but also in Japan and China. The leaves of this are 0o to 13o20’. There are five stars in a straight line. Some people
boiled and pasted on the joints of human body to treat consider six stars in it and imagine it as a figure/shape of a house.
rheumatism (Sandhiva). This constellation’s person is advised to The Gods of this constellation are forefathers (Pitruo), Class
worship the bamboo tree. Similar to bamboo’s usefulness, the (Varg) of Mouse (Mushak), its origin (Yoni) is of Mouse
person belonging to this Nakshatra is ready to help others. (Mushak), Rakshas (Devil) Gana, Madhy Yunja and Antya Nadi.
(8) Pushya: The Pushya constellation being a very It has command over lips and chin. Its colour is creamy and
prosperous is having three stars in it. It exists in 3o20’ to 16o40’ virtue is hot-tempered (Tamasik). Its origin (Yoni) is lady.
of Cancer (Kark). The class (Varg) of first, second and third Banyan Tree (Vat Vruksha-Vad) (Ficus benghalensis)
phase (charan) is Aries (Mesh) and that of fourth phase (charan)

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This tree is found everywhere in India. Banyan Tree is years. Lord Sun (Suryanarayan) is the God of this constellation.
symbol of long life-span, strength and prosperity. It is huge with There are twelve Aaditya and Surya is one of them. It has
spreaded green leaves and airy-roots resulting into a great and command on the fingers of hand and is having dark green colour.
unending tree. All the parts of this tree are used as medicine. Its Jasmine Plant : [Jasminum auriculatum] Jasmine plant is
gum is used to treat boils, joint-pain, toothache and cracks of grown in compound, gardens and parks. Jasmine leaves are used
heels. Its fruits are given to stop diabetes and germ is a resulting on jaw-pain, mouth-boils and anaemia. Jatyadi Oil made from its
medicine in family-planning and guineaworm. In Indian flowers is used on the unhealing wounds which are not getting
civilization, Banyan tree is of great importance. A chaste & well for a longer period. Hast is a very powerful constellation but
devotional wife worships this sacred tree on full-moon day its plant is a delicate one. The person should follow the worship
(Poornima) of Jyestha month (Eighth month of Vikram Era). under this tree/near the plant and recite following hymn (Mantra)
There is a mythological ancient incident of Satyavan who was which will remove all the troubles from the life and there will be
dead. But his chaste-devotional wife Savitri worshipped this tree peace, prosperity and fulfilment of all wishes.
: observed the vow of the tree and could get her husband alive (14) Chitra : Chitra mean a brightening, shining, gorgeous
from death-bed. Majority Indians worship this tree. sharp pearl. Sometime it seems like a lamp. This constellation is
(11) Purva Falguni :This Constellation exists in Leo made of only one star and is a symbol of prosperity. Lord
(Sinh) from 13o20’ to 26o40’.The God of this constellation is Vishwakarma is the deity for worship for the persons of this
Bhag which one of the names of Surya (Sun). He is the son of constellation. It remains at 23o20’ of Virgo to 6o40’ of Libra.
Aditi. Its shape is of a bed-stead’s four legs. In the two square The class (Varg) of first two (1&2) phase (charan) is Mouse
sides of these legs three are two stars on each one. The class (Mushak) and for remaining two (3&4) phase (charan) is
(varg) of first phase (charan) is Mouse (Mushak) and that of the deer/antelape (Mruga). Its origin (Yoni) is Tiger (Vyaghra),
second, third and fourth phase (charan) is dog (Shwan). Its origin Rakshasa (Devil) Gana, Madhya Yunja and Madhya Nadi. Its
(Yoni) is Mouse (Mushak), Manushya Gan, Madhya Yunja and Vishottari God is Mars (Mangal) with tenure of seven years. It
Madhya Nadi. Its Vishottari God (Vishottari Dasha-Naath) is has a tenure of seven years. It is a female (Stree) constellation
Venus (Shukra) with a tenure of 20 years. It has covetous-greedy having command on the neck. It is having hot-tempered
quality. It has command on the right hand. Its colour is light blue. (Tamasik) virute (Guna).
The Nirayan Sun (Surya) reamains in this constellation during Bili Vruksha : Bael Tree [Aegle marmelos] This green tree
the period from 31st August to 12th September. is found in lower sloppy regions of the Himalayas, Western,
Kesudo-Khakharo : [Butea monosperma] This tree is Northern and Southern India. It is grown everywhere as a sacred
found in every part of Gujarat. Its flowers having red colour of tree in India.The fruit of this tree is sweet-hot, bitter, digestive
rays of rising Sun are main characteristics. These flowers are and stimulative. So it is used as a medicine in indigestion,
very useful on boils and skin ailments so it is called Shataghra. diarrhoea, acidity and gripping. Its root, bark and leaves are used
The coal of this tree is destroyer of stinking smell/bad-odour. Its in Typhus/Typhoid (Enteric fever). The oil extracted from its
gum is useful in bleeding and diarrhoea. The seeds of the flower seeds is used as a remedy of Scrofula (Kanthmala). The sticky
are useful to treat worms. substance on the seed is used to join broken things. It is also used
(12) Uttara Falguni: This constellation exists in Leo in drawing, painting, colouring. Its mixture with lime powder is
(Sinh) 26o40’ to 10o of Virgo (Kanya). The class (Varg) of 1st used as cement.This tree is a favourite one of Lord Shiva and its
and 2nd phase (charan) is Dog (Swan) and that of 3rd and 4th God of worship is Lord Vishwakarma. It is believed that this tree
phase (charan) is Mouse (Mushak). Its origin (Yoni) is of a cow, must have been asociated with Chitra constellation because of its
Manushya Gana, Madhya Yunja and Aadhya Nadi. The shape is great ability annd power. The scientific name of the fruit is
like legs of bed-stead with two stars. Its God is Aryama. It is one “Anvardhak”. In Greek mythology a golden fruit was grown in
of the twelve Aaditya. The Sun remains in this Constellation for the garden in Herra, which was worshipped by the deities-Eagle
a period from 13th September to 26th September. Gods. In protuguese language its meaning is Marmolis which is a
Payer-Peepar - Khadak : Indian Laurel [Ficus rumphii] golden fruit. They worshipped this golden fruit by calling it
This tree is found in Gujarat, West Bengal, Central India and Eagle-Marmolis- a devine fruit.
Himachal Pradesh. They are grown in the forests of Southern (15) Swati: This is a constellation of Libra (Tula) having
Parts and on road-sides.This tree is similar to peepal tree with status from 6o40’ to 20o. There is only one star in this
similar medicinal cheracteristics. The bark decoction of this tree constellation and shape is of a coral (Paravalun). The class
can treat wounds of burn.The people belonging to this (Varg) of first to third phase (charan) is deer/antelope (Mruga)
constellation may suffer from back-pain, neuro-ailments, and for the 4th phase (charan) is Snake (Sarp). Its origin (Yoni)
bleeding etc. is Mahishini (Queen/female buffalo) Dev gana, Madhya Yunja
(13) Hast : This Constellation stays in Virgo from 10o to and Antya Nadi. Its command is on the chest having black
23o20’. There are five stars in it arranged in a shape of colour. This is a female origin (Stree-Yoni) constellation with
palm/paw. The Nirayan Surya (Sun) exists in this constellation hot-tempered nature (Tamasik Guna). Its Vishottari Dasha-Naath
for the period from 27th September to 10th October. The class (God of Condition) is Dragon’s Head (Rahu) with tenure of 18
(varg) of first phase (charan) is Mouse (Mushak), second phase years. The Sun exists in this constellation from 24th October to
(charan) is Aries (Mesh) and that of third and fourth phase is Dog 6th November.
(Swan). Its origin (Yoni) is Mahishini (Queen/Female Buffalo), Arjuna Tree (Arjun Sadad) (Terinalia arjuna)This is a
Madhya Yunja, Aadhya Nadi and Dev-gena. Its God of situation big evergreen tree with spreaded branches with vast shed. It is
(Dasha - Naath) is Moon (Chandra) which has a tenure of ten naturally found on the banks of the rivers and streams. It is also

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grown in the gardens-parks and roadsides for shed-purpose.This virtues (Satvaguni) It has female origin (Stree Yoni), cream
tree-wood is used for making agricultural tools, building colour with commad on right-side of the body.
material, small boats, rafts, Ply-wood and water-tubs. The bark Shimalo: [Bombax malbaricum]This tree is found
of this tree is used for rearing tussar silk-worms. The bark is also everywhere in India. It blossoms during summer without leaves.
used as a medicinal object in heart-disease and joining of It is thorny with attractive shape of branches. Different parts of
fractured bones. The extract of fresh leaves is useful in ear-pain. this tree are used as medicine. Its red-coloured gum is hard,
(16) Vishakha: This constellation exists in Libra (Tula) energetic and cold but creates brain-power. Its thorns are useful
from 20o to 3o20’ of Scorpio (Vruschik). Its third phase (charan) in pimples. The wood is soft and therefore it is used in match
is in Libra and fourth phase (charan) is in Scorpio (Vruschik). It box, packing and plywood industries.
is in the shape of an Arch (Toran) with 4 Stars in it. The class (19) Mula : Mula means the root of a tree/plant/dynasty and
(Varg) of this Constellation is Snake (Sarp), Origin (Yoni) is also means the very first of its kind. It remains in the sagittarius
Tiger (Vyaghra), Rakshasa (Devil) Gana. Madhya Yunja and till 13o20’. A group of eleven stars in the shape of the tail of a
Anty Nadi. It is a female’s origin (stree-Yoni). It is endowed lion is its outlook. The Goddess wearing black clothes-Nirit is its
with Virtues (Satvaguni). The Sun usually remains in this Goddess. She swells in the kingdom of dead. It represents the
constellation from 7th November till 19th November. Indra evils. The 1st and 2nd phase (charan) of this Mula constellation
(King of Gods) and Agni (God of Fire) are Gods of this is Deer (Mruga) and 3rd as well as 4th phase class (Varg) is
constellation. Mouse (Mushak). The Dog (Swan) is its origin (Yoni), Rakhsas
VIKLO: (Mytenus emarginata) Shrub or small tree up to 6 (Devil) Gana, Antya Yunja and Aadhya Nadi. Its command is on
m high; bark pale brown, smooth, cracked; branches terete, with the left side of the body with bluish-red colour. This is an
pale lenticels; spines axillary or terminating short lateral shoots. impotent (Napunshak) conntellation.
Leaves thick, coriaceous. Garmalo: [Cassia fistula] : is known as the golden shower
(17) Anuradha:This constellation exists in Scorpio tree and by other names, is a flowering plant in the
(Vruschik) from 3o20’ to16o40’. It has four stars arranged in a family Fabaceae. The species is native to the Indian
shape of Lotus (Kamal) or Umbrella (Chhatri). The class of this Subcontinent and adjacent regions of Southeast Asia. It ranges
constellation is Snake (Sarp Varg), Antya Nadi, Madhy Yunja, from southern Pakistan eastward
Dev-gana and origin (Yoni) of Tiger (Vyaghra). Its gender is throughout India to Myanmar and Thailand and south to Sri
male. Its God of position (Dasha-Naath) is Saturn (Shani) which Lanka. It is closely associated with the Mullai region of Sangam
has a tenure of 17 years. Maitra is its God of worship. Maitra is landscape. It is the national tree of Thailand, and its flower is
one of the twelve Aaditya. Thailand's national flower. It is also state flower of Kerala in
Borsalli: : (Mimusops elengi) is a medium-sized evergreen India and of immense importance amongst Malayali population.
tree found in tropical forests in South Asia, Southeast Asia and It is a popular ornamental plant and is an herbal medicine. Cassia
northern Australia. English common names include Spanish fistula is widely grown as an ornamental plant in tropical and
cherry, medlar, and bullet wood. In it is called maulsari in subtropical areas. It blooms in late spring. In Ayurvedic
Hindi, bakul in Sanskrit, Bengali, Malayali, medicine, the golden shower tree is known as aragvadha,
Manipuri,magizamaram in Tamil, and ranja in Kannada. Its meaning "disease killer". The fruit pulp is considered
timber is valuable, the fruit is edible, and it is used in traditional a purgative, and self-medication or any use without medical
medicine. As the trees give thick shade and flowers emit supervision is strongly advised against in Ayurvedic texts.
fragrance, it is a prized collection of gardens. The bark, flowers, (20) Purvashadha : This constellation stays in Sagittarius
fruits, and seeds of Bakula are astringent, cooling, anthelmintic, (Dhana) from 13o20’ 26o40’. Its shapes is like Tusk with four
tonic, and febrifuge. It is mainly used in dental ailments like stars.The class (varg) of 1st phase (charan) is Mouse (Mushak),
bleeding gums, pyorrhea, dental caries, and loose teeth. Extracts 2nd is Snake (Sarp), third phase (charan) is Mouse (Mushak) and
of flowers are used against heart diseases, leucorrhoea, fourth phase-class (charan-varg) is Dog (Swan). Its origin (Yoni)
and menorrhagia, and act as antiduretic in polyuria and antitoxin. is Monkey (Vanar), Manushya (Man) Gan, Anty-yunja and
The snuff made from the dried and powdered flowers is used in a Madhya Nadi. Lord Varun (Rain God) is its God-deity and its
disease called ahwa in which strong fever, headache, and pain in lord of position (Dasha Naath) is Venus (Shukra). Its tenure is 20
the neck, shoulders, and other parts of the body occurs. Ripened years. Generally the Sun is in this constellation for the period
fruits facilitate a cure for burning urination. The ripe fruit from 29th December to 10th January.
pounded and mixed with water is given to promote delivery in Netar: [Calamus rotang] is one of the
childbirth. The powder of dried flowers is a brain tonic and scandent rattan palms used for Malacca cane in the making of
useful as a snuff to relieve headache. Decoction of bark is used to furniture, baskets, walking-sticks, umbrellas, tables and
wash the wounds. general wickerwork, and is found in Southwest Asia. The basal
(18) Jyestha: Jyestha means the biggest. This constellation section of the plant grows vertically for 10 metres or so, after
exists in Scorpio (Vruschik) from 16o40’ to 30o. There are three which the slender, tough stem of a few centimetres in diameter,
stars in the shape of an earring (Kundal). The God of this grows horizontally for 200 metres or more. It is extremely
constellation is Indra. Its first phase (charan) is of Sarpa-varga flexible and uniform in thickness, and frequently has sheaths and
(Snake-class) and class (varg) of 2nd, 3rd and 4th phase (charan) petioles armed with backward-facing spines which enable it to
is Deer (Mruga). Its origin (Yoni) is of Deer (Mruga), Rakshas scramble over other plants. It has pinnate, alternate leaves, 60-80
(Devil) Gana, Aadhya Nadi and Antya Yunja. It is endowed with cm long, armed with two rows of spines on the upper face. The
plants are dioecious, and flowers are clustered in attractive

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inflorescences, enclosed by spiny spathes. The edible fruits are (Dasha-Naath) is Mars (Mangal) which has tenure of seven
top-shaped, covered in shiny, reddish-brown imbricate scales, years. It has silver-blue colour and origin (Yoni) is woman
and exude an astringent red resin known medicinally and (Stree). It posseses
commercially as "Dragon's blood". Calamus is a genus of some hot-tempered virtue (Tamasik Guna). The deities of this
300 species found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. They are constellation are Ashta Vishwadeva-Ashta Vasava. They are
mostly slender-stemmed leaf-climbers, where the pinnae at the spiritual deities are like the Sun. Their nos are eight so good-
outer end of the leaf have been modified into stout, backward- auspicious work should not be done during the period.
pointing spines. Khijado (Sami) (Prosopis cineria)This tree is found in
(21) Uttarashadha : This constellation remains in Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan and other States. This tree is of two
Sagittarius (Dhan) from 26o40’ to 10o of Capricorn (Makar). types in size i.e. big and small. It is very useful in cough, phlegm,
The first phase (charan) is of Sagittarius (Dhan) and the Psychosis and other ailments. It is a good fodder for domestic
remaining phases (2-3-4 charan) are of Capricorn (Makar). There animals in dry-areas. Its leaves, bark and pod are used in these
are four stars of a bed-stead shape. Vishwadeva are God of this ailments. The person under influence of this constellation has too
Nakshatra. These Gods have command on brain-cells of a much thohgtfullness so he should worship this tree and recite
person. The class of 1st and 2nd phase is Mouse (Mushak varg) following hymn (Mantra) sitting under the tree.
and 3rd & 4th phase (charan) class (varg) is Lion (Sinh) (Leo). (24) Shatbhisha-Shattaraka-Shattara : Shatbhisha or
Its origin (Yoni) is Mangoose (Noliya) Manushya Gana, Antya Shattaraka or Shattara constellation is from 6o40’ to 20o of
Yunja and Antya Nadi. Its God-master is Sun and the tenure is 6 Aquarius (Kumbh). Its all the four phases (charan) are in
years. The Sun remains in this constelation for a period from Aquarius. This constellation is in a circle shape with 100
11th January to 23rd January. (hundred) stars in it Varun (Rain God) is its deity. It remains
Jack Fruit tree (Fanas) [Artocarps heterophyllus]This tree during the period from 20th February to 3rd March. Its first
is found in hot regions. Its is an evergreen, huge & fruitful tree. phase (charan) is Manjar (Cat) class (varg) and remaining three
Its average hight is 15 mts. It is found in Northern India, Eastern are of Mesh (Aires) varg (Class). It has Horse Origin (Ashwa
States and Western ghat of South India. It is also grown in hot- Yoni), Rakshas (Devil) Gana, Antya Yunja and Aadhya Nadi. Its
humid regions. West Bengal, Bihar and South India states sow master-Swami is Dragon’s head (Rahu) which has period of 18
the seeds of this tree. In South India, the fruits are grown with a years. Its command, is on right thing. It is of neutar (Napunshak)
period of 8 to 10 years. But in Northern part they grow later than gender (Jati) and possesses hot-temper (Tamasik Gun) virtues.
this. The fruits are hanging on the main stem or main-big Kadamb : (Anthocephalus cadamba)This is an evergreen
branches. Pickles and vegetables are made from unripe-raw tree with huge-sheddy leaves of medium size and round shape. It
fruits. The ripe fruit is very tasty and healthy-nourishing. Its is found everywhere in India. In the Himalayas it is found at the
wood is used in furniture, musical instruments and wood-carving. hight of 1200 mts. The fruits of this tree are green-yellow with
Small fiber got from beating green wood give Safron/orange sweet juice in lucrative shape. Its wood is soft. It is used in
colour. This colour is used by Buddhist Monks in colouring furniture, building material, tea container boxes and packing
sacred clothes. The Gum extracted from this tree is also found material. The wood is useful in carving & designing, Gum, Wax
useful. This tree should be worshipped by the people of and resin are also available from this tree. The bark and juice of
Uttarashadha constellation. leaves is useful in Cardiac porblems, bloodpressure and
(22) Shravan : This constellation is of Lord Vishnu. Vishnu Rheumatism. Its bark and roots are very effective to children in
means the only one who has achieved the highest hights. Some case of fever and stomachache. This tree is very favoured by
people consider only 22 constellations and they count Abhijeet as Lord Krishna.
the 22nd constellation so 22nd is Shravan. Shravan means to (25) Purva-Bhadrapad: This constellation exists at 20o of
hear. There are three stars in it, and is called as three steps of Aqurius (Kumbh) till 3o20’ of Pisces (Min). Its three phases
Lord Vishnu. The deity of this constellation is Lord Vishnu. It is (charan) are in Aquarius (Kumbh) and 4th phase (charan) is in
also believed that this constellation pertains to Goddess Pisces (Min). It is a conch shape with two stars and deity is Lord
Saraswati, the Shiva. In this constellation 1st and 2nd phase (charan) are of
Goddess of Learning. Godess Saraswati is worshipped on the Mesh Varg (Aries class), 3rd & 4th phase (charan) are of Sarp
bright fifth day (Shukal Panchami) when the Sun is in Shravan varg (Snake class). Its origin (Yoni) is Lion (Sinh-Leo),
constellation and Moon is in Revati Constellation. Manushya Gana, Antya Yunja and Aadhya Nadi. The Sun
Aakado(Calotroopis gigantea) This tree is found everywhere in remains in this constellation from 4th to 14th March.
India. It is grown in forests, sandy soil, barren land and ruined Mango Tree (Mangifera indica)Mango tree is found in hot
houses.We consider this as a useless tree and avoid a medicinal and semi-hot regions in hilly as well as plain regions. This tree is
herb. Its leaves, roots, bark are used in cough, asthama, lack of grown in Hamachal Pradesh, Orissa, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar,
appetite etc. Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and areas of
(23) Dhanishtha Dhanishtha mean wealthy-rich. This is a Western Ghar and Eastern Ghat. Mango tree is a very useful tree
constellation of four stars in shape of a Mrudang (Drum Played and everyone loves its fruits. Mango is considered as one of the
at both ends). Its first and second phase (charan) are in Capricorn best and sweetest fruit of the world. Pickles and Powder are
(Makar), third & fourth phase (charan) are in Aqaurius made from unripe fruits. Its wood is used for fuel and building
(Kumbha). Its class (varg) is Cat (Manjar), origin is Sinh (Lion- material. During festivals and auspicious occasions, green leaves
Leo), Anty Yunja and Madhya Nadi. The Sun stays in this of mango tree are tied in string and kept at the entrance door for
constellation from 7th to 19th February. Its God of condition good omen. During the Yagna leaves are kept on the pot. During

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the Yagna ceremony its wood is considered sacred as a fuel. For IV. RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS
the person born during this constellation, Mango tree is Total 27 plant species belonging to 24 genera and 18families
considered as a sacred tree for worship. were recorded.
(26)Uttara Bhadrapad: This constellation exists in Pisces
(Min) from 3o20’ to 16o20’. Uttara Bhadrapad means a beautiful
left-leg. It gives strength to control anger. It also denotes long- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
distance travel, sacrifice and spiritual progress. It is constellation
of two stars. Its first phase class (charan varg) is Snake (Sarp), We are very thankful to the Authorities of The Forest
second is Aries (Mesh) third is Lion (SInh-Leo) and that of Department, Govt. of Gujarat to give The Permission to Study
foruth is Snake (Sarp). Its origin (Yoni) is Cows (Gau), Madhya Our Research area Punitvan.
Nadi, Antya Yunja, Manushya Gana and Master (Swami) is
Saturn (Shani). Its duration is 19 years. Snake God is its deity
and the Sun remains in this constellation from 17th to 30th REFERENCES
March. [1] D.D.Thakkar, R. R. Shah And R.S. Patel, A Preliminary Study on Plant
Neem Tree (Limado) (Azadirachta indica)Hot atmospheric species associated with astrology at Punitvan, Gandhinagar (Gujarat) India
Life Sciences Leaflets 16:541 – 545, (ISSN 0976-1098) June 2011
areas of dry weather and forests of this area have abundant
[2] K. J. Mehta, Jyotish yatra “Kirit jyotish granthmal”
growth of this neem tree. This tree is grown everyhwere. In the
[3] Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat State, Part I and II, Sardar Patel
North and Western part of India. It is grown largely. This tree University, Vallabh Vidyanagar.
has a quality of inseticide. It is sheddy tree for travellers. In [4] Vruksh Upasana, Van Vibhagh, Gujarat Rajya.
towns and villages this tree is grown on road-sides, open land
and near houses. A bitter juice is available from every part of this
tree. It is given a very important status in Ayurvedic sect of
AUTHORS
treatment. Soap-cake is made from its extracted oil. It is also
effective in some other diseases. Its dried leaves are kept in First Author – Dr. Rutesh R. Shah, K K Shah Jarodwala
foodgrains and woolen-clothes to protect them from harmful Maninagar Science College, Rambaug, Maninagar, Ahmedabad,
insects and ants. It is also used for ailment of animals. Its wood is Gujarat, India, E.mail: [email protected]
used for building material and agricultural tools. This tree is must Second Author – Dr. R. S. Patel, K K Shah Jarodwala
to worship for those who are born in Uttara Bhadrapada Maninagar Science College, Rambaug, Maninagar, Ahmedabad,
Constellation. Gujarat, India
(27) Rewati: This constellation exists from 16o40’ to 30o
of Pisces (Min). There are 32 stars in the shape of a Mridang
(Drum played at both ends). Pusan is its deity. Pusan means the
deity giving nutrition and prosperity. Pusan is one of the 12
Aaditya. The class (varg) of 1st and 2nd phase (charan) is Sanke
(Sarp) and that of 3rd & 4th is Lion (Sinh-leo). Its origin (Yoni)
is Elephant (Gaja), Dev-gana, Purva Yunja, Antya nadi and
Swami - Adhipati is Mercury (Budha). Its tenure is 17 years. The
sun remains in this constellation from 31st March to 13th April.
The command of this constellation is on shin-bone (Ghunti-
Ankle). Its colour is blue and stree-Yoni. This constellation
possesses endowment of virtues (Satvaguni).
Mahudo (Madhuca indica) This is a huge, shedy evergreen tree
found in all the forests of Southern India. It is also found in
Guajrat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhyapradesh. They
are grown in some plains of Northern India and some regions of
Southern India. Oil is extracted from the seeds of its fruits to use
in washing-soap-cakes. In some village on the outskirt of forest
this oil is used in cooking. It is believed that this oil is used as
mixture in vegetable ghee. A healthy nutritious cattle food is also
prepared. The tribal people gather the flowers, dry them and use
in routine food. The flowers are also used to prepare wine so it is
called wine-tree. Wood is used for building material and leaves
are used as fodder for the domestic animals. The flowers of this
tree are also used as medicinal herb. The people who are born
during the period of this constellation should worship this tree.

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Word of Mouth and Its Impact on Marketing


Fatima Naz

Department of Business Studies, Kinnaird College for Women Lahore, 93-Jail Road Lahore, Pakistan

Abstract- As a result different aims were drawn; the initial aim of information between consumers and increasing more and more
this research is to study the attention of the customers in word of the Word-of-Mouth fact. Appreciation to the Internet, consumers
mouth to power their online purchasing activities. The next aim have the widest likely cause of information to be successful in
is to analyze the people influenced by interest of word of mouth. this way. A bundle of blogs, forums and social networking
The following aim is to examine the marketing behavior bearing websites in the World Wide Web present customers the means of
in mind the internet progress and word of mouth, their getting and sharing this kind of information (Chu & Kim, 2011).
consideration for word of mouth marketing. Thus, the Word-of-Mouth trend developed firstly through Face-
In the form of research questions the aims of study are: to-face communication's way is now also available by means of
 How community utilizes and multiplies word of mouth all the technologies together with the Internet, most important
information about online purchasing experience? consumers to the e-Word-of Mouth trend (Fakharyan&Elyasi,
 How communities perceive word of mouth marketing? 2012). The Internet enhanced the technique to be in touch with
 How marketers take word of mouth phenomenon and people around you or around the world. Online word-of-mouth
how they handle it? became more admired with better use of online social network
tools such as Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter. Communication
Index Terms- Belief, Power, Inspiration, Self expression, vehicles such as face-to-face connections, phones, mobile
Positive attitude to online marketing, Forwarding of contents, devices, and even e-mails are replaced by social networks (Ho, J.
Purchasing decision and Standard marketing. Y., & Dempsey 2010).
Marketing is a significant division of the companies'
strategies. These strategies are more and more inventive and
I. INTRODUCTION disturbing in people lives. Currently, Word-of-Mouth is also a
great aspect in marketing and more above all in e-Marketing. The
E xact from the start, humans have constantly communicated
with each other, sharing and talking about everything,
everywhere any time. In this mode, it is really easy to share point
diverse tools used by marketers in order to pass on information to
likely customers are present everywhere on the Web, from
advertisements to opinion on blogs or forums. (Hung & Li,
of views, experiences, disagreements, or constant advices and to 2007). Whether companies like it or not, people chat online about
build up informal communications. Therefore, people can easily a variety of products and services. Companies frequently are not
explain their last experience without any trouble and give their successful in trying to stop public online discussions of their
experience about the product, the website, the eminence of the products by limitation the use of their company names and
service etc. The past thirty years have seen the fast progress of brands in discussion groups (Huang, J. H., & Chen, Y. F,
the Internet and the different way to communicate with each 2006).WOM also called E-WOM (Electronic Word of Mouth)
other building sharing of information easier and more efficient. can be originating in effective communities: consumer reviews,
Within a high-speed moving globe and in our modern customer blogs, forums, and social networks (Yi-Wen Fan & Yi-Feng
society, where everything is altering rapidly, where products and Miao 2012). Communal norms or opinions in the effective
services are fast becoming out of date, and where firms suggest communities affect approval of eWOM, mainly between regular
to the customers an ever more diverse collection of products and internet users (Kozinets, et. al. 2010).
services, customers need to face the brutal competition that It is ever harder to make a choice to purchase a computer or
engages companies to magnetize customers. Consumer buying even a coffee machine. Many people take friend’s advices and
behavior is becoming more observant what they buy. (Lange& remain alert of all the substitutes given to them. Many analysts
Elliot, 2012). Even if most of the time they will license the say that the person can make the accurate and stable decision
cheapest ones with the top quality, it is not actually simple to be (Ren et al, 2013). Most persons found that social set-ups have a
sure that it is the good one. People gather concerning information greater influence on others than themselves, and that third person
and opinions about product from people before purchasing. influence undesirably on individual’s behavioral aim related to
(Attia et al, 2012) word of mouth communication (Cengiz& Yayla,2007).. Online
‘’Word-of-mouth is defined as any positive or negative word of mouth occurs just among few people, but a message is
statement made by customers experiences about a product or sent by people on various discussion platforms where many other
company, which is made available to a mass of people and users notice it directly.
institutions using the Internet (Hennig- et .al. 2004). Word of
Mouth (WOM) can also be clear as the method of
communication between two noncommercial people and without
II. LITERATURE REVIEW & HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
benefit in the business they are talking about (Taylor et. al, 2012)
Following consuming the product, more and more Early studies on WOM have shown that it has an important
consumers are keen to response, creating an exchange of impact on customer decisions (Allsopet al.2007), and helps to

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present a good post-purchase wakefulness. Word-of-Mouth members, and then you will give more response to someone with
might have different kinds of special effects in the present world. experience and information in this field. The persons most
Initially, it could be optimistic or unconstructive effects. affected by this are people in towering uncertainty-avoidance
Secondly, it could have an effect on the product, the brand, the culture (Osmonbekov.et. al. 2010), who need to be more at
service or even the employees' performance within the company easiness and who will ask advice from their dependable relatives.
(McGriff, J. A, 2012). Word-of-Mouth's effects might have One of the strongest networks of communication in the market is
dissimilar targets. A successful product sharing could be affected word of mouth (Allsop et al). Word-of-Mouth has a dissimilar
by positive word of mouth and lack of negative word of mouth impacting people that are without a fundamental knowledge of
(Mcgriff, J. A, 2012). An additional target could be the entrance this part of business .When you do not have any experience in a
of a brand in a fresh market. If the brand has not a good part of business you will be more biased by someone who will
representation by the Word-of-Mouth distribution, it will be tell you something positive or negative about a picky brand.
really hard for the company to set off its products and services in (Goldsmith, R. E., & Horowitz, D 2006).Alternatively if you
this fresh market. have your own standard brand you will be less tempted by
In the earlier period, online shopping has crossed the space another brand that a comparative advises you to purchase.
to become primarily well-known, particularly among the little Though Word-of-Mouth communication about the brand that you
and wealthy (Chai, S., & Kim, M, 2010). Nonetheless, due to the are usually using is negative you will be perhaps extra affected.
quality concerns and other customer supposed risks (Thorson
&Rodgers, 2006), the challenges of e-shopping, mostly with H1:Customer perceived belief, power; inspiration in their
respect to awareness and doubt, have begun to surface (Sharma links is absolutely associated to their engagement in WOM
&Arroyo, 2012). Consumers who want to purchase products behaviors in making decision on the basis of marketing
from online markets, they need positive, dependable, and honest H2: The self-expression of WOMmessage has a straight
evaluation about products. Online systems and electronic-Word- positive outcome on the possibility that the message will be
of-Mouth (e-WOM) help customers make such up to date mutual with others.
decisions. H3: High (versus low) perceived WOM interactivity will
At present new technologies are all over the place around give way further positive attitudes to the online marketing i.e.
us. These new technologies altered our way to communicate and website, impressions of the applicant, and voting intentions.
to interconnect with people. People now use more technology H4:The need to belong will positively affect the forwarding
platforms such as email, chitchat, phone or social networking of Contents through all possible means of communications i.e.
websites (Herr et. al. 1991) than previous to, when they used electronic media, print media, social media etc.
face-to-face communication or mails. Usability of these H5: Word of mouth positively affects the purchasing
technologies makes them more eye-catching and facilitates decision and standard marketing
people's communication. The communication's technology,
which is the most motivating for Word-of-Mouth, is the social
networking websites in World Wide Web. These kinds of III. METHODOLOGY
websites could be finding in the form of blogs, forums or 3.1 Research design:
personal pages such as Facebook or MySpace (Vilpponen et al Impact of word of mouth on purchasing behavior of
2006). They are typically created by some people who broaden communities will be seen in this research. And for that
the site to their own personal networks and steadily the number descriptive study will be done on consume attitudes and
of people following and concerned in this site grows up behaviors in relation to shopping, personal productivity,
(Thurauet. al. 2009). (Brown et. al.2007) studied the impact for advertising, and entertainment.
an individual to control another individual by social networking
websites. They accomplished in the importance of this
technology to share out an idea from individual to individual and
then from this individual to one more individual. Furthermore
they ended that someone with few friends will have a better
impact on his friends when he will pass on a message than
someone with a lot of friends (Brown et. al. 2007).
In corporation, a significant effect of Word-of-Mouth is the
customer purchase (Osmonbekovet. al. 2009). From short-range
effect to lasting effect, Word-of-Mouth communication is a good
way for enterprises to catch the attention of new customers. It is
achievable to measure it thanks to Word-of-Mouth referrals and
to the sign-up processes (Thurauet. al. 2009). If customers never
heard about a brand or if they never thought to buy a product or a
service by this brand, the actuality that some connections suggest
this brand to them will most likely affect their behavior and
guide them to choose this brand over another one. A lot of people
seek out recommendation from other people before buying
something. The first persons that you will talk with are family

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IV. CONCLUSION
Impact of word of mouth on marketing arises due to social
media where people see comments of the people who did
shopping from such places. They see whether or not it would be
effective for them to buy such things or not.so maketers become
aware of people choices now and they try to improve or produce
better quality,due to customers loyalty.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We authors would like to thank respected Dr.Fareeha Zafar
for her valuable guidance through understanding of subject and
professional guidance which help us in the completion of this
term paper.

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AUTHORS
First Author – Fatima Naz, Department of Business Studies
Kinnaird College for Women Lahore, 93-Jail Road Lahore,
Pakistan. Tel: +92-42-9203788

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