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BIOLOGY 1 (SB015)_ ASSIGNMENT 2021/2022 BIO
WAKELET BLOG: EXPRESSION OF BIOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
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NAME: NURUL AINA HAKIMA BINT I ISHAK HELMI
MAT RIC NUMBER: MS2013171774
PRACT ICUM: H6T 3B
CONCEPT OF CENTRAL DOGMA
T he ‘Central Dogma’ is the process which
the instructions in DNA are converted into a
functional product. It was first proposed in
1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the
structure of DNA. T he central dogma of
molecular biology explains the flow of genetic
information, from DNA to RNA, to make a
functional product, a protein.
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DNA makes RNA makes proteins
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Transcription- the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA
Translation- the actual synthesis of a protein, which occurs under the direction of
mRNA
DNA REPLICATION: Semi-conservative model
T he original DNA molecules acts as template, producing 2 DNA molecules; each DNA consists
of one old and one new strands
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The process of DNA replication
DNA helicase opens up the DNA at the replication fork.
Single-strand binding proteins coat the DNA around the replication fork to prevent
rewinding of the DNA.
Topoisomerase works at the region ahead of the replication fork to prevent
supercoiling.
DNA primase synthesizes RNA primers complementary to the DNA strand.
DNA polymerase III extends the primers, adding on to the 3' end, to make the bulk of
the new DNA.
RNA primers are removed and replaced with DNA by DNA polymerase I.
T he gaps between DNA fragments are sealed by DNA ligase.
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: TRANSCRIPTION AND
TRANSLATION
Protein synthesis is the process of creating protein molecules. In biological systems, it
involves amino acid synthesis, transcription, translation, and post-translational events
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Genetic code: T he sequence of nucleotides in DNA or mRNA that determines the amino acid
sequence of proteins.
Codon: A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA of mRNA the specifies a particular amino
acid. T he basic unit of genetic code.
Anticodon: A specialised base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognized a
particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule
GENET IC CODE TABLE
PROT EIN SYNT HESIS: T RANSCRIPT ION
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Transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular biology: DNA → RNA.It is the
transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA. During transcription, a strand of mRNA is
made to complement a strand of DNA.
Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. T he steps are
illustrated in the figure below.
Initiation is the beginning of transcription.It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase
binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. T his signals the DNA to unwind so the
enzyme can “read” the bases in one of the DNA strands. T he enzyme is ready to make a
strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.
Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.
Termination is the ending of transcription. T he mRNA strand is complete, and it
detaches from DNA.
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In eukaryotic cells, mRNA is modified after transcription.
RNA splicing removes introns and joins exons to create an mRNA molecule with a
continuous coding sequence only.
Introns- noncoding
Exons- coding regions
Catalysed by spliceosome
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tRNA
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Functions:transfers amino acid from cytoplasm to a growing polypeptide chain in a
ribosome.
Attachment of amino acid to its tRNA is called amino acid activation-catalysed by
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
Ribosomes
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Facilitate the coupling of anticodons (tRNA) with codons (mRNA).
Each ribosome has 3 binding sites for tRNA.
Function: Site of protein synthesis
P site: holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
A site: holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain.
E site: discharged tRNA leaves the ribosome
PROT EIN SYNT HESIS: T RANSLAT ION
Initiation ("beginning"): in this stage, the ribosome gets together with the mRNA and
the first tRNA so translation can begin.
Elongation ("middle"): in this stage, amino acids are brought to the ribosome by tRNAs
and linked together to form a chain.
Termination ("end"): in the last stage, the finished polypeptide is released to go and do
its job in the cell.
STAGE 1: INIT IAT ION
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A ribosome (which comes in two pieces, large and small)
An mRNA with instructions for the protein we'll build
An "initiator" tRNA carrying the first amino acid in the protein, which is almost always
methionine (Met)
During initiation, these pieces must come together in just the right way. Together, they form
the initiation complex, the molecular setup needed to start making a new protein.
STAGE 2: ELONGAT ION
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Each time a new codon is exposed:
A matching tRNA binds to the codon
T he existing amino acid chain (polypeptide) is linked onto the amino acid of the tRNA via
a chemical reaction
T he mRNA is shifted one codon over in the ribosome, exposing a new codon for reading
During elongation, tRNAs move through the A, P, and E sites of the ribosome, as shown
below. T his process repeats many times as new codons are read and new amino acids are
added to the chain.
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STAGE 3: T ERMINAT ION
Termination is the stage in which the finished polypeptide chain is released.It begins when a
stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA) enters the ribosome, triggering a series of events that
separate the chain from its tRNA and allow it to drift out of the ribosome. After termination,
the polypeptide may still need to fold into the right 3D shape, undergo processing (such as
the removal of amino acids), get shipped to the right place in the cell or combine with other
polypeptides before it can do its job as a functional protein.
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SYNTHESIS OF VIRAL PROTEINS
(PANDEMIC OF COVID-19)
Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses that cause illness ranging from the common
cold to more severe diseases. A novel coronavirus (nCoV) is a new strain that has not been
previously identified in humans.
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T he virus replication occurs in seven stages, namely;
Attachment
It is the first step of viral replication. T he virus attaches to the cell membrane of the host cell.
It then injects its DNA or RNA into the host to initiate infection.In animal cells these viruses
get into the cell through the process of endocytosis which works through fusing of the virus
and fusing of the viral envelope with the cell membrane of the animal cell and in plant cells it
enters through the process of pinocytosis which works on pinching of the viruses.
Entry
T he cell membrane of the host cell invaginates the virus particle, enclosing it in a pinocytotic
vacuole. T his protects the cell from antibodies like in the case of the Coronavirus disease.
Uncoating
Cell enzymes (from lysosomes) strip off the virus protein coat. T his releases or renders
accessible the virus nucleic acid or genome.
Transcription / mRNA production
For some RNA viruses, the infecting RNA produces messenger RNA (mRNA). T his is
translation of the genome into protein products. For others with negative stranded RNA and
DNA, viruses are produced by transcription then translation. T he mRNA is used to instruct
the host cell to make virus components. T he virus takes advantage of the existing cell
structures to replicate itself.
Synthesis of virus components
T he following components are manufactured by the virus using the host's existing
organelles:
Viral proteins: Viral mRNA is translated on cellular ribosomes into two types of viral
protein:
Structural: proteins which make up the virus particle
Nonstructural: proteins not found in the virus particle, mainly enzymes for virus
genome replication
Viral nucleic acid (genome replication): New viral genomes are synthesized;templates are
either the parental genome or newly formed complementary strands, in the case of
singlestranded genomes. T hese genomes are made by either a viral polymerase or (in some
DNA viruses) a cellular enzyme, particularly in rapidly dividing cells.
Virion assembly
A virion is simply an active or intact virus particle.In this stage, newly synthesized genome
(nucleic acid), and proteins are assembled to form new virus particles. T his may take place in
the cell's nucleus, cytoplasm, or at plasma membrane for most developed viruses.
Release (Liberation Stage).
T he viruses, now being mature are released by either sudden rupture of the cell, or gradual
extrusion (force out) of enveloped viruses through the cell membrane. T he new viruses may
invade or attack other cells, or remain dormant in the cell.In the case of bacterial viruses, the
release of progeny virions takes place by lysis of the infected bacterium. However, in the case
of animal viruses, release usually occurs without cell lysis.
Diagram for the Synthesis of Viral Proteins.
BRIEF EXPLANAT ION ON T HE SYNT HESIS OF VIRAL PROT EINS
1.Virus attaches to cell membrane of infected host cell.
2.Virus enters the infected host cell & releases viral genome.
3.Viral genome is transcribed to form viral mRNA.
4.Viral mRNA is translated by ribosomes of host cell to produce viral proteins.
5.Viral proteins are self-assembled with viral genome to form new virus particles.
6.T he new viruses are released to attack other host cells.
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PREVENT ING T RANSLAT ION OF VIRAL mRNA
◾During this pandemic of COVID-19, researchers are continuously trying to find ways to
prevent translation of the viral mRNA.
◾Some possible ways:
1.Prevent attachment of ribosomes to the viral mRNA (using inhibitor RNA).
2.Block the start codon of the viral mRNA (using antisense oligonucleotides).
3.Degradation of the viral mRNA (using RNase or ribozymes).
MECHANISM OF LAC OPERON
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In the absence of lactose:
T he operon is 'switched off'.
Repressor protein active and binds to the operator.
Prevent RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter.
Transcription of the 3 structural genes cannot occur.
T he 3 enzymes cannot be synthesised
In the presence of lactose:
T he operon is 'switched on'.
Some of the lactose are converted to its isomer, allolactose
Allolactose binds to the repressor protein, inactivating the protein.
Repressor protein change its conformation and cannot bind to the operator.
Allow RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter
lacZ, lacY and lacA are transcribed
Enzyme β-galactosidase, permease and transacetylase are synthesised
Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose.
Key points:
T he lac operon of E. coli contains genes involved in lactose metabolism. It's expressed
only when lactose is present and glucose is absent.
T wo regulators turn the operon "on" and "off" in response to lactose and glucose
levels:the lac repressor and catabolite activator protein (CAP).
T he lac repressor acts as a lactose sensor.It normally blocks transcription of the
operon, but stops acting as a repressor when lactose is present. T he lac repressor
senses lactose indirectly, through its isomer allolactose.
Catabolite activator protein (CAP) acts as a glucose sensor.It activates transcription of
the operon, but only when glucose levels are low. CAP senses glucose indirectly,
through the "hunger signal" molecule cAMP.
REFERENCES
For books:
Campbell, N.A., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., & Reece, J.B. (2018).
Biology: A global approach (11th ed.). Pearson Education Limited
For articles from website:
Hannah Wilgar, & Laura Olivares Boldu (2016). What is the 'Central Dogma'?.
Retrieve from https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-the-central-dogma
Andrey Kopot, M.D., Aleksey Vovk, (2019). Concept of DNA replication. Retrieve from
https://aklectures.com/lecture/replication-transcription-and-translation/summary-
Shaun Pletsch (2017). DNA Replication, Transcription, Translation. Retrive from
https://blogs.ubc.ca/mrpletsch/2017/02/04/2-7-dna-replication-transcription-translation/
For videos from YouTube:
MEDSimplified. (2019, December 09). Lac Operon & Gene Regulation Made Easy - Best
Explanation. https://youtu.be/EjRXz1xAdow
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