4TH SD-1

Bond, Anchorage,Development Length
Instruction Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
• understand the importance of bond and why is it essential to provide

between steel and concrete,
• explain the development length,
• understand the need for anchoring the tensile bars,
• justify the superiority of deformed bars to smooth mild steel bars,
• define the design bond stress,
• understand the reason for different values of design bond stresses of plain
bars and deformed bars in tension and compression,
• determine the development length of a single bar and bars bundled in

contact,
• derive the expression to check the development length of bars in tension,
• specify the salient points of anchoring bars in tension, compression and

shear,
• determine the bearing stress and check the same,
• take adequate precautions when the direction of reinforcement changes,
• specify the salient points of splicing and welding of reinforcement to make

it longer,
• apply the theory for designing beams in different situations as may arise.
Introduction
The bond between steel and concrete is very important and essential so
that they can act together without any slip in a loaded structure. With the perfect
bond between them, the plane section of a beam remains plane even after
bending. The length of a member required to develop the full bond is called the
anchorage length. The bond is measured by bond stress. The local bond stress
varies along a member with the variation of bending moment. The average value
throughout its anchorage length is designated as the average bond stress. In our
calculation, the average bond stress will be used.
Thus, a tensile member has to be anchored properly by providing

additional length on either side of the point of maximum tension, which is known
as ‘Development length in tension’. Similarly, for compression members also, we
have ‘Development length Ld in compression’.
It is worth mentioning that the deformed bars are known to be superior to

the smooth mild steel bars due to the presence of ribs. In such a case, it is
needed to check for the sufficient development length Ld only rather than
checking both for the local bond stress and development length as required for
the smooth mild steel bars. Accordingly, IS 456, cl. 26.2 stipulates the
requirements of proper anchorage of reinforcement in terms of development
length Ld only employing design bond stress τbd.
Design Bond Stress

(a) Definition
The design bond stress τbd is defined as the shear force per unit nominal
surface area of reinforcing bar. The stress is acting on the interface between bars
and surrounding concrete and along the direction parallel to the bars.
This concept of design bond stress finally results in additional length of a

bar of specified diameter to be provided beyond a given critical section. Though,
the overall bond failure may be avoided by this provision of additional
development length Ld, slippage of a bar may not always result in overall failure
of a beam. It is, thus, desirable to provide end anchorages also to maintain the
integrity of the structure and thereby, to enable it carrying the loads. Clause 26.2
of IS 456 stipulates, “The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any
section shall be developed on each side of the section by an appropriate
development length or end anchorage or by a combination thereof.”
(b) Design bond stress – values
Section 6.15.1 mentions that the local bond stress varies along the length
of the reinforcement while the average bond stress gives the average value
throughout its development length. This average bond stress is still used in the
working stress method and IS 456 has mentioned about it in cl. B-2.1.2.
However, in the limit state method of design, the average bond stress has been
designated as design bond stress τbd and the values are given in cl. 26.2.1.1.
The same is given below as a ready reference.
Table 6.4 τbd for plain bars in tension
Grade of M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 and
concrete above
Design
Bond 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
Stress τbd
in N/mm2
For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786, these values shall be increased by 60

per cent. For bars in compression, the values of bond stress in tension shall be
increased by 25 per cent.
Development Length
(a) A single bar
Figure 6.15.1(a) shows a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly

distributed load. Because of the maximum moment, the Ast required is the
maximum at x = L/2. For any section 1-1 at a distance x < L/2, some of the
tensile bars can be curtailed. Let us then assume that section 1-1 is the
theoretical cut-off point of one bar. However, it is necessary to extend the bar for
a length Ld as explained earlier. Let us derive the expression to determine Ld of
this bar.
Figure 6.15.1(b) shows the free body diagram of the segment AB of the
bar. At B, the tensile force T trying to pull out the bar is of the value T = (π φ 2
σs /4), where φ is the nominal diameter of the bar and σs is the tensile stress in
bar at the section considered at design loads. It is necessary to have the
resistance force to be developed by τbd for the length Ld to overcome the
tensile force. The resistance force = π φ (Ld) (τbd). Equating the two, we get
π φ (Ld) (τbd) = (π φ 2 σs /4)

(6.11)
Equation 6.11, thus gives
φ σs
Ld =
4 τ bd
(6.12)
The above equation is given in cl. 26.2.1 of IS 456 to determine the development
length of bars.
The example taken above considers round bar in tension. Similarly, other
sections of the bar should have the required Ld as determined for such sections.
For bars in compression, the development length is reduced by 25 per cent as
the design bond stress in compression τbd is 25 per cent more than that in
tension (see the last lines below Table 6.4). Following the same logic, the
development length of deformed bars is reduced by 60 per cent of that needed
for the plain round bars. Tables 64 to 66 of SP-16 present the development
lengths of fully stressed plain and deformed bars (when σs = 0.87 fy) both under
tension and compression. It is to be noted that the consequence of stress
concentration at the lugs of deformed bars has not been taken into consideration.
(b) Bars bundled in contact
The respective development lengths of each of the bars for two, three or
four bars in contact are determined following the same principle. However, cl.
26.2.1.2 of IS 456 stipulates a simpler approach to determine the development
length directly under such cases and the same is given below:
“The development length of each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the
individual bar, increased by 10 per cent for two bars in contact, 20 per cent for
three bars in contact and 33 per cent for four bars in contact.”
However, while using bundled bars the provision of cl. 26.1.1 of IS 456
must be satisfied. According to this clause:
• In addition to single bar, bars may be arranged in pairs in contact or in

groups of three or four bars bundled in contact.
• Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties to ensure the bars
remaining together.
• Bars larger than 32 mm diameter shall not be bundled, except in columns.
Curtailment of bundled bars should be done by terminating at different

points spaced apart by not less than 40 times the bar diameter except for
bundles stopping at support (cl. 26.2.3.5 of IS 456).
6.15.4 Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension

The following are the stipulation of cl. 26.2.3.3 of IS 456.
(i) At least one-third of the positive moment reinforcement in simple members

and one-fourth of the positive moment reinforcement in continuous members
shall be extended along the same face of the member into the support, to a
length equal to Ld/3.
(ii) Such reinforcements of (i) above shall also be anchored to develop its design
stress in tension at the face of the support, when such member is part of the
primary lateral load resisting system.
(iii) The diameter of the positive moment reinforcement shall be limited to a

diameter such that the Ld computed for σs = fd in Eq. 6.12 does not exceed the
following:
M1
( Ld ) when σ s = fd ≤ + Lo
V
(6.13)
where M1 = moment of resistance of the section assuming all reinforcement at

the section to be stressed to fd,
fd = 0.87 fy,
V = shear force at the section due to design loads,

Lo = sum of the anchorage beyond the centre of the support and the
equivalent anchorage value of any hook or mechanical anchorage
at simple support. At a point of inflection, Lo is limited to the
effective depth of the member or 12 φ , whichever is greater, and
φ = diameter of bar.
It has been further stipulated that M1/V in the above expression may be
increased by 30 per cent when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a
compressive reaction.
6.15.5 Derivation of the Limiting Ld (Eq. 6.13)
At the face of simple support and at the points of inflection in continuous

beams, the tensile capacity to be developed is normally small although the rate
of change of tensile stress in the bars is high. These bond stresses are
designated as flexural bond stress.
Figure 6.15.2(a) shows the tensile bar AB near the support of a beam and
Fig. 6.15.2(b) explains the stresses and forces in the free body diagram of the
segment CD of the bar. The tensile force at C (TC) is greater than that at D (TD).
Considering z as the lever arm (distance between the centres of gravity of tensile
and compressive force), we have
MC = TC (z)
(6.14)
MD = TD (z)
Again TC - TD = πφ (dx) τ bd
(6.15)
From Eqs.6.14 and 6.15,
MC - MD
= πφτ bd (dx )
z
which gives
dM
= πφ z τ bd
dx
V
or τ bd =
πφz
(6.16)
Equation 6.16 gives the flexural bond stress in the tension reinforcement
at any section. If there are N bars of equal size, we have
V
τ bd =
z ( ∑ 0)
(6.17)
where ∑ 0 = N π φ = total perimeter of all bars in tension at the section.
Again, for N bars of equal diameter, we get from Eq. 6.11:
N π φ Ld τ bd = Ast σ s = Ast 0.87 f y (when σ s = 0.87 f y ),
which gives:
0.87 f y Ast
τ bd =
Ld (∑ 0)
(6.18)
Equations 6.17 and 6.18 give:
0.87 f y Ast V
=
Ld (∑ 0) z (∑ 0)
M1
or Ld =
V
(6.19)
where M 1 = 0.87 f y Ast z is the moment of resistance at the section and
V = shear force at the section
From Eq.6.19, we find that the ratio of M1/V at the section must be equal to or
greater than Ld if the design bond stress τbd is to be restricted within limit. The
stipulation of additional Lo in the expression of Eq.6.13 is for additional safety.
The meaning of Lo has been mentioned in sec. 6.15.4 (iii).
6.15.6 Anchoring Reinforcing Bars

Section 6.15.2(a) mentions that the bars may be anchored in combination
of providing development length to maintain the integrity of the structure. Such
anchoring is discussed below under three sub-sections for bars in tension,
compression and shear respectively, as stipulated in cl. 26.2.2 of IS 456.
(a) Bars in tension (cl. 26.2.2.1 of IS 456)
The salient points are:
• Derformed bars may not need end anchorages if the development length
requirement is satisfied.
• Hooks should normally be provided for plain bars in tension.
• Standard hooks and bends should be as per IS 2502 or as given in Table

67 of SP-16, which are shown in Figs.6.15.3 a and b.
• The anchorage value of standard bend shall be considered as 4 times the

diameter of the bar for each 45o bend subject to a maximum value of 16
times the diameter of the bar.
• The anchorage value of standard U-type hook shall be 16 times the

diameter of the bar.
(b) Bars in compression (cl. 26.2.2.2 of IS 456)
Here, the salient points are:

• The anchorage length of straight compression bars shall be equal to its
development length as mentioned in sec. 6.15.3.
• The development length shall include the projected length of hooks, bends
and straight lengths beyond bends, if provided.
(c) Bars in shear (cl. 26.2.2.4 of IS 456)
The salient points are:
• Inclined bars in tension zone will have the development length equal to
that of bars in tension and this length shall be measured from the end of
sloping or inclined portion of the bar.
• Inclined bars in compression zone will have the development length equal
to that of bars in tension and this length shall be measured from the mid-
depth of the beam.
• For stirrups, transverse ties and other secondary reinforcement, complete

development length and anchorage are considered to be satisfied if
prepared as shown in Figs.6.15.4.
6.15.7 Bearing Stresses at Bends (cl. 26.2.2.5 of IS 456)

The bearing stress inside a bend is to be calculated from the expression:
Fbt
Bearing stress =
rφ
(6.20)
where Fbt = tensile force due to design loads in a bar or group of bars,
r = internal radius of the bend, and
φ = size of the bar or bar of equivalent area in bundled bars.
The calculated bearing stress of Eq.6.20 shall not exceed the following:
1.5 f ck
Calculated bearing stress >/
1 + 2 φ /a
(6.21)
where fck = characteristic cube strength of concrete
a = center to center distance between bars or groups of bars

perpendicular to the plane of the bend. For bars adjacent to the face
of the member, a shall be taken as cover plus size of the bar φ .
6.15.8 Change in Direction of Reinforcement (cl. 26.2.2.6 of

IS 456)
In some situations, the change in direction of tension or compression
reinforcement induces a resultant force. This force may have a tendency to split
the concrete and, therefore, should be taken up by additional links or stirrups.
Normally, this aspect is taken care while detailing of bars is carried out.
6.15.9 Reinforcement Splicing (cl. 26.2.5 of IS 456)
Reinforcement is needed to be joined to make it longer by overlapping
sufficient length or by welding to develop its full design bond stress. They should
be away from the sections of maximum stress and be staggered. IS 456 (cl.
26.2.5) recommends that splices in flexural members should not be at sections
where the bending moment is more than 50 per cent of the moment of resistance
and not more than half the bars shall be spliced at a section.
(a) Lap Splices (cl. 26.2.5.1 of IS 456)
The following are the salient points:
• They should be used for bar diameters up to 36 mm.
• They should be considered as staggered if the centre to centre distance of

the splices is at least 1.3 times the lap length calculated as mentioned
below.
• The lap length including anchorage value of hooks for bars in flexural
tension shall be Ld or 30 φ , whichever is greater. The same for direct
tension shall be 2Ld or 30 φ , whichever is greater.
• The lap length in compression shall be equal to Ld in compression but

not less than 24 φ .
• The lap length shall be calculated on the basis of diameter of the smaller
bar when bars of two different diameters are to be spliced.
• Lap splices of bundled bars shall be made by splicing one bar at a time
and all such individual splices within a bundle shall be staggered.
(b) Strength of Welds (cl. 26.2.5.2 of IS 456)
The strength of welded splices and mechanical connections shall be

taken as 100 per cent of the design strength of joined bars for compression
splices.
For tension splices, such strength of welded bars shall be taken as 80 per
cent of the design strength of welded bars. However, it can go even up to 100
per cent if welding is strictly supervised and if at any cross-section of the member
not more than 20 per cent of the tensile reinforcement is welded. For mechanical
connection of tension splice, 100 per cent of design strength of mechanical
connection shall be taken.
6.15.10 Numerical Problems
Problem 1:
Determine the anchorage length of 4-20T reinforcing bars going into the
support of the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 6.15.5. The factored shear
force Vu = 280 kN, width of the column support = 300 mm. Use M 20 concrete
and Fe 415 steel.
Solution 1:
Table 6.4 gives
τbd for M 20 and Fe 415 (with 60% increased) = 1.6(1.2) = 1.92 N/mm2
Eq.6.12 gives
φ σs 0.87(415) φ
Ld = = (when σ s = 0.87 f y ) = 47.01φ ...... (1)
4 τ bd 4(1.92)
Eq.6.13 gives
M1
( Ld ) when σ s = f d ≤ + Lo
V
Here, to find M1, we need xu

0.87 f y Ast 0.87(415) (1256)
xu = = = 209.94 mm
0.36 f ck b 0.36(20) (300)
xu,max = 0.48(500) = 240 mm
Since xu < xu,max ; M1 = 0.87 fy Ast (d – 0.42 xu)
or M1 = 0.87(415) (1256) {500 – 0.42(209.94)} = 187.754 kNm
and V = 280 kN
We have from Eq.6.13 above, with the stipulation of 30 per cent increase
assuming that the reinforcing bars are confined by a compressive reaction:
M1
Ld ≤ 1.3 ( ) + Lo ...... (2)
V
From Eqs.(1) and (2), we have
M1
47.01φ ≤ 1.3 ( ) + Lo
V
187.754(10 6 )
or 47.01φ ≤ 1.3 { }; if Lo is assumed as zero.
280(10 3 )
or φ ≤ 18.54 mm
Therefore, 20 mm diameter bar does not allow Lo = 0.
Determination of Lo:
M1
1.3 ( ) + Lo ≥ 47.01φ
V
M1 187754
Minimum Lo = 47.01φ - 1.3 ( ) = 47.01(20) - 1.3( ) = 68.485 mm
V 280
So, the bars are extended by 100 mm to satisfy the requirement as shown in
Fig.6.15.6.
Design of Slabs:- One-way Slabs
Instructional Objectives:
• state the names of different types of slabs used in construction,
• identify one-way and two-way slabs stating the limits of ly /lx ratios for one
and two-way slabs,
• explain the share of loads by the supporting beams of one- and two-way
slabs when subjected to uniformly distributed vertical loads,
• explain the roles of the total depth in resisting the bending moments,
shear force and in controlling the deflection,
• state the variation of design shear strength of concrete in slabs of different

depths with identical percentage of steel reinforcement,
• assume the depth of slab required for the control of deflection for different
support conditions,
• determine the positive and negative bending moments and shear force,
• determine the amount of reinforcing bars along the longer span,
• state the maximum diameter of a bar that can be used in a particular slab
of given depth,
• decide the maximum spacing of reinforcing bars along two directions of

one-way slab,
• design one-way slab applying the design principles and following the
stipulated guidelines of IS 456,
• draw the detailing of reinforcing bars of one-way slabs after the design.
8.18.1 Introduction
Slabs, used in floors and roofs of buildings mostly integrated with the
supporting beams, carry the distributed loads primarily by bending. It has been
mentioned in sec. 5.10.1 of Lesson 10 that a part of the integrated slab is
considered as flange of T- or L-beams because of monolithic construction.
However, the remaining part of the slab needs design considerations. These
slabs are either single span or continuous having different support conditions like
fixed, hinged or free along the edges (Figs.8.18.1a,b and c). Though normally
these slabs are horizontal, inclined slabs are also used in ramps, stair cases and
inclined roofs (Figs.8.18.2 and 3). While square or rectangular plan forms are
normally used, triangular, circular and other plan forms are also needed for
different functional requirements. This lesson takes up horizontal and rectangular
/square slabs of buildings supported by beams in one or both directions and
subjected to uniformly distributed vertical loadings.
The other types of slabs, not taken up in this module, are given below. All
these slabs have additional requirements depending on the nature and
magnitude of loadings in respective cases.
(a) horizontal or inclined bridge and fly over deck slabs carrying heavy
concentrated loads,
(b) horizontal slabs of different plan forms like triangular, polygonal or

circular,
(c) flat slabs having no beams and supported by columns only,
(d) inverted slabs in footings with or without beams,
(e) slabs with large voids or openings,
(f) grid floor and ribbed slabs.

8.18.2 One-way and Two-way Slabs
Figures 8.18.4a and b explain the share of loads on beams supporting

solid slabs along four edges when vertical loads are uniformly distributed. It is
evident from the figures that the share of loads on beams in two perpendicular
directions depends upon the aspect ratio ly /lx of the slab, lx being the shorter
span. For large values of ly, the triangular area is much less than the trapezoidal
area (Fig.8.18.4a). Hence, the share of loads on beams along shorter span will
gradually reduce with increasing ratio of ly /lx. In such cases, it may be said that
the loads are primarily taken by beams along longer span. The deflection profiles
of the slab along both directions are also shown in the figure. The deflection
profile is found to be constant along the longer span except near the edges for
the slab panel of Fig.8.18.4a. These slabs are designated as one-way slabs as
they span in one direction (shorter one) only for a large part of the slab when ly
/lx > 2.
On the other hand, for square slabs of ly /lx = 1 and rectangular slabs of
ly /lx up to 2, the deflection profiles in the two directions are parabolic
(Fig.8.18.4b). Thus, they are spanning in two directions and these slabs with ly /lx
up to 2 are designated as two-way slabs, when supported on all edges.
It would be noted that an entirely one-way slab would need lack of support
on short edges. Also, even for ly /lx < 2, absence of supports in two parallel
edges will render the slab one-way. In Fig. 8.18.4b, the separating line at 45
degree is tentative serving purpose of design. Actually, this angle is a function of
ly /lx .
This lesson discusses the analysis and design aspects of one-way slabs.
The two-way slabs are taken up in the next lesson.
8.18.3 Design Shear Strength of Concrete in Slabs

Experimental tests confirmed that the shear strength of solid slabs up to a
depth of 300 mm is comparatively more than those of depth greater than 300
mm. Accordingly, cl.40.2.1.1 of IS 456 stipulates the values of a factor k to be
multiplied with τ c given in Table 19 of IS 456 for different overall depths of slab.
Table 8.1 presents the values of k as a ready reference below:
Table 8.1 Values of the multiplying factor k
Overall 300 or 275 250 225 200 175 150 or

depth of more less
slab (mm)
k 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30
Thin slabs, therefore, have more shear strength than that of thicker slabs.
It is the normal practice to choose the depth of the slabs so that the concrete can
resist the shear without any stirrups for slab subjected to uniformly distributed
loads. However, for deck slabs, culverts, bridges and fly over, shear
reinforcement should be provided as the loads are heavily concentrated in those
slabs. Though, the selection of depth should be made for normal floor and roof
slabs to avoid stirrups, it is essential that the depth is checked for the shear for
these slabs taking due consideration of enhanced shear strength as discussed
above depending on the overall depth of the slabs.
8.18.4 Structural Analysis
As explained in sec. 8.18.2, one-way slabs subjected to mostly uniformly
distributed vertical loads carry them primarily by bending in the shorter direction.
Therefore, for the design, it is important to analyse the slab to find out the
bending moment (both positive and negative) depending upon the supports.
Moreover, the shear forces are also to be computed for such slabs. These
internal bending moments and shear forces can be determined using elastic
method of analysis considering the slab as beam of unit width i.e. one metre
(Fig.8.18.1a). However, these values may also be determined with the help of the
coefficients given in Tables 12 and 13 of IS 456 in cl.22.5.1. It is worth
mentioning that these coefficients are applicable if the slab is of uniform cross-
section and subjected to substantially uniformly distributed loads over three or
more spans and the spans do not differ by more than fifteen per cent of the
longer span. It is also important to note that the average of the two values of the
negative moment at the support should be considered for unequal spans or if the
spans are not equally loaded. Further, the redistribution of moments shall not be
permitted to the values of moments obtained by employing the coefficients of
bending moments as given in IS 456.
For slabs built into a masonry wall developing only partial restraint, the
negative moment at the face of the support should be taken as Wl/24, where W
is the total design loads on unit width and l is the effective span. The shear
coefficients, given in Table 13 of IS 456, in such a situation, may be increased by
0.05 at the end support as per cl.22.5.2 of IS 456.
8.18.5 Design Considerations

The primary design considerations of both one and two-way slabs are
strength and deflection. The depth of the slab and areas of steel reinforcement
are to be determined from these two aspects. The detailed procedure of design
of one-way slab is taken up in the next section. However, the following aspects
are to be decided first.
(a) Effective span (cl.22.2 of IS 456)
The effective span of a slab depends on the boundary condition. Table 8.2
gives the guidelines stipulated in cl.22.2 of IS 456 to determine the effective span
of a slab.
Table 8.2 Effective span of slab (cl.22.2 of IS 456)
Sl.No. Support condition Effective span

1 Simply supported not built integrally Lesser of (i) clear span +
with its supports effective depth of slab, and (ii)
centre to centre of supports
2 Continuous when the width of the Do
support is < 1/12th of clear span
3 Continuous when the width of the (i) Clear span between the
support is > lesser of 1/12th of clear supports
span or 600 mm
(i) for end span with one end fixed (ii) Lesser of (a) clear span +
and the other end continuous or for half the effective depth of slab,
intermediate spans, and (b) clear span + half the
width of the discontinuous
(ii) for end span with one end free and support
the other end continuous,
(iii) The distance between the
(iii) spans with roller or rocker centres of bearings
bearings.
4 Cantilever slab at the end of a Length up to the centre of
continuous slab support
5 Cantilever span Length up to the face of the
support + half the effective
depth
6 Frames Centre to centre distance
(b) Effective span to effective depth ratio (cls.23.2.1a-e of IS 456)
The deflection of the slab can be kept under control if the ratios of
effective span to effective depth of one-way slabs are taken up from the
provisions in cl.23.2.1a-e of IS 456. These stipulations are for the beams and are
also applicable for one-way slabs as they are designed considering them as
beam of unit width. These provisions are explained in sec.3.6.2.2 of Lesson 6.
(c) Nominal cover (cl.26.4 of IS 456)
The nominal cover to be provided depends upon durability and fire

resistance requirements. Table 16 and 16A of IS 456 provide the respective
values. Appropriate value of the nominal cover is to be provided from these
tables for the particular requirement of the structure.
(d) Minimum reinforcement (cl.26.5.2.1 of IS 456)
Both for one and two-way slabs, the amount of minimum reinforcement in
either direction shall not be less than 0.15 and 0.12 per cents of the total cross-
sectional area for mild steel (Fe 250) and high strength deformed bars (Fe 415
and Fe 500)/welded wire fabric, respectively.
(e) Maximum diameter of reinforcing bars (cl.26.5.2.2)
The maximum diameter of reinforcing bars of one and two-way slabs shall
not exceed one-eighth of the total depth of the slab.
(f) Maximum distance between bars (cl.26.3.3 of IS 456)
The maximum horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcing bars

shall be the lesser of (i) three times the effective depth, or (ii) 300 mm. However,
the same for secondary/distribution bars for temperature, shrinkage etc. shall be
the lesser of (i) five times the effective depth, or (ii) 450 mm.
8.18.6 Design of One-way Slabs

The procedure of the design of one-way slab is the same as that of
beams. However, the amounts of reinforcing bars are for one metre width of the
slab as to be determined from either the governing design moments (positive or
negative) or from the requirement of minimum reinforcement. The different steps
of the design are explained below.
Step 1: Selection of preliminary depth of slab
The depth of the slab shall be assumed from the span to effective depth
ratios as given in section 3.6.2.2 of Lesson 6 and mentioned here in sec.8.18.5b.
Step 2: Design loads, bending moments and shear forces
The total factored (design) loads are to be determined adding the

estimated dead load of the slab, load of the floor finish, given or assumed live
loads etc. after multiplying each of them with the respective partial safety factors.
Thereafter, the design positive and negative bending moments and shear forces
are to be determined using the respective coefficients given in Tables 12 and 13
of IS 456 and explained in sec.8.18.4 earlier.
Step 3: Determination/checking of the effective and total depths of slabs
The effective depth of the slab shall be determined employing Eq.3.25 of

sec.3.5.6 of Lesson 5 and is given below as a ready reference here,
Mu,lim = R,lim bd2 …. (3.25)
where the values of R,lim for three different grades of concrete and three
different grades of steel are given in Table 3.3 of Lesson 5 (sec.3.5.6). The value
of b shall be taken as one metre.
The total depth of the slab shall then be determined adding appropriate
nominal cover (Table 16 and 16A of cl.26.4 of IS 456) and half of the diameter of
the larger bar if the bars are of different sizes. Normally, the computed depth of
the slab comes out to be much less than the assumed depth in Step 1. However,
final selection of the depth shall be done after checking the depth for shear force.
Step 4: Depth of the slab for shear force
Theoretically, the depth of the slab can be checked for shear force if the
design shear strength of concrete is known. Since this depends upon the
percentage of tensile reinforcement, the design shear strength shall be assumed
considering the lowest percentage of steel. The value of τ c shall be modified
after knowing the multiplying factor k from the depth tentatively selected for the
slab in Step 3. If necessary, the depth of the slab shall be modified.
Step 5: Determination of areas of steel
Area of steel reinforcement along the direction of one-way slab should be

determined employing Eq.3.23 of sec.3.5.5 of Lesson 5 and given below as a
ready reference.
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast d {1 – (Ast)(fy)/(fck)(bd)} …. (3.23)
The above equation is applicable as the slab in most of the cases is under-
reinforced due to the selection of depth larger than the computed value in Step 3.
The area of steel so determined should be checked whether it is at least the
minimum area of steel as mentioned in cl.26.5.2.1 of IS 456 and explained in
sec.8.18.5d.
Alternatively, tables and charts of SP-16 may be used to determine the

depth of the slab and the corresponding area of steel. Tables 5 to 44 of SP-16
covering a wide range of grades of concrete and Chart 90 shall be used for
determining the depth and reinforcement of slabs. Tables of SP-16 take into
consideration of maximum diameter of bars not exceeding one-eighth the depth
of the slab. Zeros at the top right hand corner of these tables indicate the region
where the percentage of reinforcement would exceed pt,lim. Similarly, zeros at
the lower left and corner indicate the region where the reinforcement is less than
the minimum stipulated in the code. Therefore, no separate checking is needed
for the allowable maximum diameter of the bars or the computed area of steel
exceeding the minimum area of steel while using tables and charts of SP-16.
The amount of steel reinforcement along the large span shall be the
minimum amount of steel as per cl.26.5.2.1 of IS 456 and mentioned in
sec.8.18.5d earlier.
Step 6: Selection of diameters and spacings of reinforcing bars (cls.26.5.2.2
and 26.3.3 of IS 456)
The diameter and spacing of bars are to be determined as per cls.26.5.2.2

and 26.3.3 of IS 456. As mentioned in Step 5, this step may be avoided when
using the tables and charts of SP-16.
8.18.7 Detailing of Reinforcement

Figures 8.18.5a and b present the plan and section 1-1 of one-way
continuous slab showing the different reinforcing bars in the discontinuous and
continuous ends (DEP and CEP, respectively) of end panel and continuous end
of adjacent panel (CAP). The end panel has three bottom bars B1, B2 and B3
and four top bars T1, T2, T3 and T4. Only three bottom bars B4, B5 and B6 are
shown in the adjacent panel. Table 8.3 presents these bars mentioning the
respective zone of their placement (DEP/CEP/CAP), direction of the bars (along
x or y) and the resisting moment for which they shall be designed or if to be
provided on the basis of minimum reinforcement. These bars are explained
below for the three types of ends of the two panels.
Table 8.3 Steel bars of one-way slab (Figs.8.18.5a and b)
Sl.No. Bars Panel Along Resisting moment

1 B1, B2 DEP x + 0.5 Mx for each,
2 B3 DEP y Minimum steel

3 B4, B5 CAP x + 0.5 Mx for each,
4 B6 CAP y Minimum steel

5 T1, T2 CEP x - 0.5 Mx for each,
6 T3 DEP x + 0.5 Mx
7 T4 DEP y Minimum steel
Notes: (i) DEP = Discontinuous End Panel

(ii) CEP = Continuous End Panel
(iii) CAP = Continuous Adjacent Panel
(i) Discontinuous End Panel (DEP)
• Bottom steel bars B1 and B2 are alternately placed such that B1 bars are
curtailed at a distance of 0.25 lx1 from the adjacent support and B2 bars
are started from a distance of 0.15lx1 from the end support. Thus, both
B1 and B2 bars are present in the middle zone covering 0.6lx1, each of
which is designed to resist positive moment 0.5Mx. These bars are along
the direction of x and are present from one end to the other end of ly.
• Bottom steel bars B3 are along the direction of y and cover the entire
span lx1 having the minimum area of steel. The first bar shall be placed
at a distance not exceeding s/2 from the left discontinuous support,
where s is the spacing of these bars in y direction.
• Top bars T3 are along the direction of x for resisting the negative
moment which is numerically equal to fifty per cent of positive Mx. These
bars are continuous up to a distance of 0.1lx1 from the centre of support
at the discontinuous end.
• Top bars T4 are along the direction of y and provided up to a distance of

0.1lx1 from the centre of support at discontinuous end. These are to
satisfy the requirement of minimum steel.
(ii) Continuous End Panel (CEP)
• Top bars T1 and T2 are along the direction of x and cover the entire ly.
They are designed for the maximum negative moment Mx and each has
a capacity of -0.5Mx. Top bars T1 are continued up to a distance of
0.3lx1, while T2 bars are only up to a distance of 0.15lx1.
• Top bars T4 are along y and provided up to a distance of 0.3lx1 from the
support. They are on the basis of minimum steel requirement.
(iii) Continuous Adjacent Panel (CAP)
• Bottom bars B4 and B5 are similar to B1 and B2 bars of (i) above.
• Bottom bars B6 are similar to B3 bars of (i) above.
Detailing is an art and hence structural requirement can be satisfied by more

than one mode of detailing each valid and acceptable.

(a) Problem 8.1
Design the one-way continuous slab of Fig.8.18.6 subjected to uniformly

distributed imposed loads of 5 kN/m2 using M 20 and Fe 415. The load of floor
finish is 1 kN/m2. The span dimensions shown in the figure are effective spans.
The width of beams at the support = 300 mm.
Solution of Problem 8.1
The basic value of span to effective depth ratio for the slab having simple
support at the end and continuous at the intermediate is (20+26)/2 = 23 (cl.23.2.1
of IS 456).
Modification factor with assumed p = 0.5 and fs = 240 N/mm2 is obtained

as 1.18 from Fig.4 of IS 456.
Therefore, the minimum effective depth = 3000/23(1.18) = 110.54 mm. Let

us take the effective depth d = 115 mm and with 25 mm cover, the total depth
D = 140 mm.
Step 2: Design loads, bending moment and shear force
Dead loads of slab of 1 m width = 0.14(25) = 3.5 kN/m
Dead load of floor finish =1.0 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5(4.5) = 6.75 kN/m
Factored live load = 1.5(5.0) = 7.50 kN/m
Total factored load = 14.25 kN/m
Maximum moments and shear are determined from the coefficients given
in Tables 12 and 13 of IS 456.
Maximum positive moment = 14.25(3)(3)/12 = 10.6875 kNm/m
Maximum negative moment = 14.25(3)(3)/10 = 12.825 kNm/m
Maximum shear Vu = 14.25(3)(0.4) = 17.1 kN
Step 3: Determination of effective and total depths of slab
From Eq.3.25 of sec. 3.5.6 of Lesson 5, we have
Mu,lim = R,lim bd2 where R,lim is 2.76 N/mm2 from Table 3.3 of sec. 3.5.6
of Lesson 5. So, d = {12.825(106)/(2.76)(1000)}0.5 = 68.17 mm
Since, the computed depth is much less than that determined in Step 1, let
us keep D = 140 mm and d = 115 mm.
Step 4: Depth of slab for shear force
Table 19 of IS 456 gives τ c = 0.28 N/mm2 for the lowest percentage of

steel in the slab. Further for the total depth of 140 mm, let us use the coefficient
k of cl. 40.2.1.1 of IS 456 as 1.3 to get τ c = k τ c = 1.3(0.28) = 0.364 N/mm2.
Table 20 of IS 456 gives τ c max = 2.8 N/mm2. For this problem τ v = Vu /bd
= 17.1/115 = 0.148 N/mm2. Since, τ v < τ c < τ c max , the effective depth d = 115 mm
is acceptable.
From Eq.3.23 of sec. 3.5.5 of Lesson 5, we have
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast d {1 – (Ast)(fy)/(fck)(bd)}
(i) For the maximum negative bending moment
12825000 = 0.87(415)(Ast)(115){1 – (Ast)(415)/(1000)(115)(20)}
or Ast2 - 5542.16 Ast + 1711871.646 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, we have the negative Ast = 328.34 mm2
(ii) For the maximum positive bending moment
10687500 = 0.87(415) Ast(115) {1 – (Ast)(415)/(1000)(115)(20)}
or Ast2 - 5542.16 Ast + 1426559.705 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, we have the positive Ast = 270.615 mm2
Alternative approach: Use of Table 2 of SP-16
(i) For negative bending moment
Mu/bd2 = 0.9697
Table 2 of SP-16 gives: ps = 0.2859 (by linear interpolation). So, the area of
negative steel = 0.2859(1000)(115)/100 = 328.785 mm2.
(ii) For positive bending moment
Mu/bd2 = 0.8081
Table 2 of SP-16 gives: ps = 0.23543 (by linear interpolation). So, the area of
positive steel = 0.23543(1000)(115)/100 = 270.7445 mm2.
These areas of steel are comparable with those obtained by direct

computation using Eq.3.23.
Distribution steel bars along longer span ly
Distribution steel area = Minimum steel area = 0.12(1000)(140)/100 = 168

2
mm . Since, both positive and negative areas of steel are higher than the
minimum area, we provide:
(a) For negative steel: 10 mm diameter bars @ 230 mm c/c for which Ast
= 341 mm2 giving ps = 0.2965.
(b) For positive steel: 8 mm diameter bars @ 180 mm c/c for which Ast =
279 mm2 giving ps = 0.2426
(c) For distribution steel: Provide 8 mm diameter bars @ 250 mm c/c for
which Ast (minimum) = 201 mm2.
Step 6: Selection of diameter and spacing of reinforcing bars
The diameter and spacing already selected in step 5 for main and
distribution bars are checked below:
For main bars (cl. 26.3.3.b.1 of IS 456), the maximum spacing is the
lesser of 3d and 300 mm i.e., 300 mm. For distribution bars (cl. 26.3.3.b.2 of IS
456), the maximum spacing is the lesser of 5d or 450 mm i.e., 450 mm. Provided
spacings, therefore, satisfy the requirements.
Maximum diameter of the bars (cl. 26.5.2.2 of IS 456) shall not exceed
140/8 = 17 mm is also satisfied with the bar diameters selected here.
Figure 8.18.7 presents the detailing of the reinforcement bars. The
abbreviation B1 to B3 and T1 to T4 are the bottom and top bars, respectively
which are shown in Fig.8.18.5 for a typical one-way slab.
The above design and detailing assume absence of support along short
edges. When supports along short edges exist and there is eventual clamping
top reinforcement would be necessary at shorter supports also.
Chapter:- Shear, Bond
& Development Length
Limit State of Collapse: Shear
Problem 1:
Determine the shear reinforcement of the simply supported beam of

effective span 8 m whose cross-section is shown in Fig. 6.14.1. Factored shear
force is 250 kN. Use M 20 and Fe 415.
Solution 1:
Here, Ast = 2-25T + 2-20T gives the percentage of tensile reinforcement
100 (1609)
p = = 1.43
250 (450)
From Table 6.1 of Lesson 13, τc = 0.67 + 0.036 = 0.706 N/mm2 (by linear
interpolation).
Employing Eq. 6.1 of Lesson 13,
Vu 250 (10 3 )
τv = = = 2.22 N/mm 2 and τcmax = 2.8 N/mm2 (from Table
bd 250 (450)
6.2 of Lesson 13).
Hence, τc < τv < τcmax. So, shear reinforcement is needed for the shear force
(Eq. 6.4 of Lesson 13).
Vus = Vu – τc b d = 250 – 0.706 (250) (450) (10-3) = 170.575 kN
Providing 8 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups, we have
Asv = 2 (50) = 100 mm2
Hence, spacing of the stirrups as obtained from Eq. 6.5 of Lesson 13:
0.87 f y Asv d 0.87 (415) (100) (450)

sv = = = 95.25 mm, say 95 mm.
Vus 170575
For 10 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups, (Asv = 157 mm2), spacing
0.87 (415) (157) (450)

sv = = 149.54 mm
170575
According to cl. 26.5.1.5 of IS 456, the maximum spacing of the stirrups = 0.75
d = 0.75 (450) = 337.5 mm = 300 mm (say).
Minimum shear reinforcement (cl. 26.5.1.6 of IS 456) is obtained from (Eq.6.3 of

sec. 6.13.7 of Lesson 13):
Asv 0.4
≥
(b) s v 0.87 ( f y )
0.4 b s v 0.4 (250) (145)

From the above, Asv(minimum) = = = 40.16 mm 2 .
0.87 f y 0.87 (415)
So, we select 10 mm, 2 legged stirrups @ 145 mm c/c.
Problem 2:
Design the bending and shear reinforcement of the tapered cantilever

beam of width b = 300 mm and as shown in Fig. 6.14.2 using M 20 and Fe 415
(i) without any curtailment of bending reinforcement and (ii) redesign the bending
and shear reinforcement if some of the bars are curtailed at section 2-2 of the
beam. Use SP-16 for the design of bending reinforcement.
Solution 2:
75 (3.5) (3.5)
M u at section 1 - 1 = = 459.375 kNm
2
Mu 459.375 (10 6 )
2
= = 6.125 N/mm 2
bd 300 (500) (500)
Solution 1:
Here, Ast = 2-25T + 2-20T gives the percentage of tensile reinforcement
100 (1609)
p = = 1.43
250 (450)
From Table 6.1 of Lesson 13, τc = 0.67 + 0.036 = 0.706 N/mm2 (by linear
interpolation).
Employing Eq. 6.1 of Lesson 13,
Vu 250 (10 3 )
τv = = = 2.22 N/mm 2 and τcmax = 2.8 N/mm2 (from Table
bd 250 (450)
6.2 of Lesson 13).
Hence, τc < τv < τcmax. So, shear reinforcement is needed for the shear force
(Eq. 6.4 of Lesson 13).
Vus = Vu – τc b d = 250 – 0.706 (250) (450) (10-3) = 170.575 kN
Providing 8 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups, we have
Asv = 2 (50) = 100 mm2
Hence, spacing of the stirrups as obtained from Eq. 6.5 of Lesson 13:
0.87 f y Asv d 0.87 (415) (100) (450)

sv = = = 95.25 mm, say 95 mm.
Vus 170575
For 10 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups, (Asv = 157 mm2), spacing
0.87 (415) (157) (450)

sv = = 149.54 mm
170575
According to cl. 26.5.1.5 of IS 456, the maximum spacing of the stirrups = 0.75
d = 0.75 (450) = 337.5 mm = 300 mm (say).
Minimum shear reinforcement (cl. 26.5.1.6 of IS 456)

Reinforcing bars of 3-28T + 1-16T give 2048 mm2.
Asc at section 2-2 = (0.686) (400) (300)/100 = 823.2 mm2.
Reinforcing bars of 2-20T + 2-12T give 854 mm2.
Though it is better to use 4-28T as Ast and 2-20T + 2-16 as Asc with proper
curtailment from the practical aspects of construction, here the bars are selected
to have areas close to the requirements for the academic interest only.
Figure 6.14.4 shows the reinforcement at sec. 2-2.
Case (i): No curtailment (all bars of bending reinforcement are continued):
Bending moment Mu at section 2-2 = 234.375 kNm
Shear force Vu at section 2-2 = 187.5 kN
Effective depth d at section 2-2 = 450 – 50 = 400 mm, and
Width b = 300 mm
tanβ = (550 – 200)/3500 = 0.1
Clause 40.1.1 of IS 456 gives (Eq.6.2 of sec. 6.13.3 of Lesson 13):

Mu
Vu − tanβ
d (10 3 ) {187.5 - 234.375 (0.1)/0.4}
τv = = = 1.074 N/mm 2
bd (300) (400)
(Here, the negative sign is used as the bending moment increases numerically in
the same direction as the effective depth increases.)
Continuing 4-28T and 3-16T bars (= 3066 mm2), we get
p = 3066 (100)/300 (400) = 2.555 %
Table 6.1 of Lesson 13 gives τc = 0.82 N/mm2 < τv (= 1.074 N/mm2). Hence,
shear reinforcement is needed for shear force obtained from Eq. 6.4 of Lesson
13:
Vus = Vu - τv b d = 1.875 – 0.82 (300) (400) (10-3) kN = 89.1 kN
From cl.40.4 of IS 456, we have (Eq.6.5 of sec. 6.13.8 of Lesson 13),
0.87 f y Asv d
Vus =
sv
where Asv = 100 mm2 for 8 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups. This gives sv =
162.087 mm (f y = 415 N/mm2). IS 456, cl. 26.5.1.6 gives the spacing
considering minimum shear reinforcement (Eq.6.3 of sec. 6.13.7 of Lesson 13):
0.87 f y Asv
sv ≤
0.4 b
or sv ≤ 300.875 mm
Hence, provide 8 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups @ 150 mm c/c, as shown in Fig.
6.14.3.
Case (ii): With curtailment of bars:
Clause 26.2.3.2 of IS 456 stipulates that any one of the three conditions is
to be satisfied for the termination of flexural reinforcement in tension zone (see
sec. 6.13.10 of Lesson 13). Here, two of the conditions are discussed.
(a) Condition (i):
2 V
τv ≤ (τ c + us ), which gives Eq. 6.9 of Lesson 13 as
3 bd
Vus ≥ (1.5 τv – τc) b d
After the curtailment, at section 2-2 Ast = 2048 mm2 (3-28T + 1-16T bars), gives
p = 2048 (100)/300 (400) ≅ 1.71 %. Table 6.1 of Lesson 13 gives τc = 0.7452
N/mm2 when p = 1.71% (making liner interpolation). Now from Eq. 6.2 of Lesson
13:
Mu
Vu − tanβ
d (10 3 ) {187.5 - 234.375 (0.1)/0.4}
τv = = = 1.074 N/mm 2
bd (300) (400)
So, Vus = {1.5 (1.074) – 0.7452} (300) (400) (10-3) kN = 103.896 kN
which gives the spacing of stirrups (Eq. 6.5):
0.87 f y Asv d
sv ≤
Vus
Using 8 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups (Asv = 100 mm2), we have:
sv = 0.87 (415) (100) (400)/(103.896) (103) = 139.005 mm
Hence, provide 8 mm, 2 legged vertical stirrups @ 130 mm c/c, as shown in Fig.
6.14.4.
Design of Staircases
• classify the different types of staircases based on geometrical

configurations,
• name and identify the different elements of a typical flight,
• state the general guidelines while planning a staircase,
• determine the dimensions of trade, riser, depth of slab etc. of a staircase,
• classify the different staircases based on structural systems,
• explain the distribution of loadings and determination of effective spans of

stairs,
• analyse different types of staircases including the free-standing staircases

in a simplified manner,
• design the different types of staircases as per the stipulations of IS 456.
9.20.1 Introduction
Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to
different floors and roof of the building. It consists of a flight of steps (stairs) and
one or more intermediate landing slabs between the floor levels. Different types
of staircases can be made by arranging stairs and landing slabs. Staircase, thus,
is a structure enclosing a stair. The design of the main components of a
staircase-stair, landing slabs and supporting beams or wall – are already covered
in earlier lessons. The design of staircase, therefore, is the application of the
designs of the different elements of the staircase.
9.20.2 Types of Staircases
Figures 9.20.1a to e present some of the common types of staircases

based on geometrical configurations:
(a) Single flight staircase (Fig. 9.20.1a)

(b) Two flight staircase (Fig. 9.20.1b)
(c) Open-well staircase (Fig. 9.20.1c)
(d) Spiral staircase (Fig. 9.20.1d)
(e) Helicoidal staircase (Fig. 9.20.1e)
Architectural considerations involving aesthetics, structural feasibility and

functional requirements are the major aspects to select a particular type of the
staircase. Other influencing parameters of the selection are lighting, ventilation,
comfort, accessibility, space etc.
9.20.3 A Typical Flight
Figures 9.20.2a to d present plans and sections of a typical flight of

different possibilities. The different terminologies used in the staircase are given
below:
(a) Tread: The horizontal top portion of a step where foot rests
(Fig.9.20.2b) is known as tread. The dimension ranges from 270 mm for
residential buildings and factories to 300 mm for public buildings where large
number of persons use the staircase.
(b) Nosing: In some cases the tread is projected outward to increase the
space. This projection is designated as nosing (Fig.9.20.2b).
(c) Riser: The vertical distance between two successive steps is termed
as riser (Fig.9.20.2b). The dimension of the riser ranges from 150 mm for public
buildings to 190 mm for residential buildings and factories.
(d) Waist: The thickness of the waist-slab on which steps are made is
known as waist (Fig.9.20.2b). The depth (thickness) of the waist is the minimum
thickness perpendicular to the soffit of the staircase (cl. 33.3 of IS 456). The
steps of the staircase resting on waist-slab can be made of bricks or concrete.
(e) Going: Going is the horizontal projection between the first and the last
riser of an inclined flight (Fig.9.20.2a).
The flight shown in Fig.9.20.2a has two landings and one going. Figures
9.2b to d present the three ways of arranging the flight as mentioned below:
(i) waist-slab type (Fig.9.20.2b),

(ii) tread-riser type (Fig.9.20.2c), or free-standing staircase, and
(iii) isolated tread type (Fig.9.20.2d).
9.20.4 General Guidelines

The following are some of the general guidelines to be considered while
planning a staircase:
• The respective dimensions of tread and riser for all the parallel steps
should be the same in consecutive floor of a building.
• The minimum vertical headroom above any step should be 2 m.
• Generally, the number of risers in a flight should be restricted to twelve.
• The minimum width of stair (Fig.9.20.2a) should be 850 mm, though it is

desirable to have the width between 1.1 to 1.6 m. In public building,
cinema halls etc., large widths of the stair should be provided.
9.20.5 Structural Systems
Different structural systems are possible for the staircase, shown in Fig.
9.20.3a, depending on the spanning direction. The slab component of the stair
spans either in the direction of going i.e., longitudinally or in the direction of the
steps, i.e., transversely. The systems are discussed below:
(A) Stair slab spanning longitudinally
Here, one or more supports are provided parallel to the riser for the slab
bending longitudinally. Figures 9.20.3b to f show different support arrangements
of a two flight stair of Fig.9.20.3a:
(i) Supported on edges AE and DH (Fig.9.20.3b)
(ii) Clamped along edges AE and DH (Fig.9.20.3c)
(iii) Supported on edges BF and CG (Fig.9.20.3d)
(iv) Supported on edges AE, CG (or BF) and DH (Fig.9.20.3e)
(v) Supported on edges AE, BF, CG and DH (Fig.9.20.3f)
Cantilevered landing and intermediate supports (Figs.9.20.3d, e and f) are

helpful to induce negative moments near the supports which reduce the positive
moment and thereby the depth of slab becomes economic.
In the case of two flight stair, sometimes the flight is supported between
the landings which span transversely (Figs.9.20.4a and b). It is worth mentioning
that some of the above mentioned structural systems are statically determinate
while others are statically indeterminate where deformation conditions have to
taken into account for the analysis.
Longitudinal spanning of stair slab is also possible with other
configurations including single flight, open-well helicoidal and free-standing
staircases.
(B) Stair slab spanning transversely
Here, either the waist slabs or the slab components of isolated tread-slab
and trade-riser units are supported on their sides or are cantilevers along the
width direction from a central beam. The slabs thus bend in a transverse vertical
plane. The following are the different arrangements:
(i) Slab supported between two stringer beams or walls (Fig.9.20.5a)

(ii) Cantilever slabs from a spandreal beam or wall (Fig.9.20.5b)
(iii) Doubly cantilever slabs from a central beam (Fig.9.20.5c)
9.20.6 Effective Span of Stairs
The stipulations of clause 33 of IS 456 are given below as a ready
reference regarding the determination of effective span of stair. Three different
cases are given to determine the effective span of stairs without stringer beams.
(i) The horizontal centre-to-centre distance of beams should be

considered as the effective span when the slab is supported at top and bottom
risers by beams spanning parallel with the risers.
(ii) The horizontal distance equal to the going of the stairs plus at each
end either half the width of the landing or one meter, whichever is smaller when
the stair slab is spanning on to the edge of a landing slab which spans parallel
with the risers. See Table 9.1 for the effective span for this type of staircases
shown in Fig.9.20.3a.
Table 9.1 Effective span of stairs shown in Fig.9.20.3a
Sl. No. x y Effective span in metres

1 <1m <1m G+x+y
2 <1m ≥ 1m G+x+1
3 ≥ 1m <1m G+y+1
4 ≥ 1m ≥ 1m G+1+1
Note: G = Going, as shown in Fig. 9.20.3a
9.20.7 Distribution of Loadings on Stairs

Figure 9.20.6 shows one open-well stair where spans partly cross at right
angle. The load in such stairs on areas common to any two such spans should
be taken as fifty per cent in each direction as shown in Fig.9.20.7. Moreover, one
150 mm strip may be deducted from the loaded area and the effective breadth of
the section is increased by 75 mm for the design where flights or landings are
embedded into walls for a length of at least 110 mm and are designed to span in
the direction of the flight (Fig.9.20.7).

Most of the structural systems of stair spanning longitudinally or
transversely are standard problems of structural analysis, either statically
determinate or indeterminate. Accordingly, they can be analysed by methods of
analysis suitable for a particular system. However, the rigorous analysis is
difficult and involved for a trade-riser type or free standing staircase where the
slab is repeatedly folded. This type of staircase has drawn special attraction due
to its aesthetic appeal and, therefore, simplified analysis for this type of staircase
spanning longitudinally is explained below. It is worth mentioning that certain
idealizations are made in the actual structures for the applicability of the
simplified analysis. The designs based on the simplified analysis have been
found to satisfy the practical needs.
Figure 9.20.8a shows the simply supported trade-riser staircase. The
uniformly distributed loads are assumed to act at the riser levels (Fig.9.20.8b).
The bending moment and shear force diagrams along the treads and the bending
moment diagram along the risers are shown in Figs.9.20.8c, d and e,
respectively. The free body diagrams of CD, DE and EF are shown in
Figs.9.20.8f, g and h, respectively. It is seen that the trade slabs are subjected to
varying bending moments and constant shear force (Fig.9.20.8f). On the other
hand the riser slabs are subjected to a constant bending moment and axial force
(either compressive or tensile). The assumption is that the riser and trade slabs
are rigidly connected. It has been observed that both trade and riser slabs may
be designed for bending moment alone as the shear stresses in trade slabs and
axial forces in riser slabs are comparatively low. The slab thickness of the trade
and risers should be kept the same and equal to span/25 for simply supported
and span/30 for continuous stairs.
Figure 9.20.9a shows an indeterminate trade-riser staircase. Here, the

analysis can be done by adding the effect of the support moment MA
(Fig.9.20.9b) with the results of earlier simply supported case. However, the
value of MA can be determined using the moment-area method. The free body
diagrams of two vertical risers BC and DE are show in Figs.9.20.9c and d,
respectively.
9.20.9 Illustrative Examples

Two typical examples of waist-slab and trade-riser types spanning
longitudinally are taken up here to illustrate the design.
Example 9.1:
Design the waist-slab type of the staircase of Fig.9.20.10. Landing slab A

is supported on beams along JK and PQ, while the waist-slab and landing slab B
are spanning longitudinally as shown in Fig.9.20.10. The finish loads and live
loads are 1 kN/m2 and 5 kN/m2, respectively. Use riser R = 160 mm, trade T =
270 mm, concrete grade = M 20 and steel grade = Fe 415.
Solution:
With R = 160 mm and T = 270 mm, the inclined length of each step =
{(160)2 + (270)2}½ = 313.85 mm.
(A) Design of going and landing slab B
Step 1: Effective span and depth of slab
The effective span (cls. 33.1b and c) = 750 + 2700 + 1500 + 150 = 5100
mm. The depth of waist slab = 5100/20 = 255 mm. Let us assume total depth of
250 mm and effective depth = 250 – 20 – 6 = 224 mm (assuming cover = 20 mm
and diameter of main reinforcing bar = 12 mm). The depth of landing slab is
assumed as 200 mm and effective depth = 200 – 20 – 6 = 174 mm.
Step 2: Calculation of loads (Fig.9.20.11, sec. 1-1)
(i) Loads on going (on projected plan area)
(a) Self-weight of waist-slab = 25(0.25)(313.85)/270 = 7.265 kN/m2
(b) Self-weight of steps = 25(0.5)(0.16) = 2.0 kN/m2
(c) Finishes (given) = 1.0 kN/m2
(d) Live loads (given) = 5.0 kN/m2
Total = 15.265 kN/m2
Total factored loads = 1.5(15.265) = 22.9 kN/m2
(ii) Loads on landing slab A (50% of estimated loads)
(a) Self-weight of landing slab = 25(0.2) = 5 kN/m2
(b) Finishes (given) = 1 kN/m2
(c) Live loads (given) = 5 kN/m2
Total = 11 kN/m2
Factored loads on landing slab A = 0.5(1.5)(11) = 8.25 kN/m2
(iii) Factored loads on landing slab B = (1.5)(11) = 16.5 kN/m2
The loads are drawn in Fig.9.20.11.
Step 3: Bending moment and shear force (Fig. 9.20.11)
Total loads for 1.5 m width of flight = 1.5{8.25(0.75) + 22.9(2.7) +

16.5(1.65)}
= 142.86 kN
VC = 1.5{8.25(0.75)(5.1 – 0.375) + 22.9(2.7)(5.1 – 0.75 – 1.35)
+ 16.5(1.65)(1.65)(0.5)}/5.1 = 69.76 kN
VD = 142.86 – 69.76 = 73.1 kN
The distance x from the left where shear force is zero is obtained from:
x = {69.76 – 1.5(8.25)(0.75) + 1.5(22.9)(0.75)}/(1.5)(22.9) = 2.51 m
The maximum bending moment at x = 2.51 m is
= 69.76(2.51) – (1.5)(8.25)(0.75)(2.51 – 0.375)
- (1.5)(22.9)(2.51 – 0.75)(2.51 – 0.75)(0.5) = 102.08 kNm.
For the landing slab B, the bending moment at a distance of 1.65 m from
D
= 73.1(1.65) – 1.5(16.5)(1.65)(1.65)(0.5) = 86.92 kNm
Step 4: Checking of depth of slab
From the maximum moment, we get d = {102080/2(2.76)}½ = 135.98

mm < 224 mm for waist-slab and < 174 mm for landing slabs. Hence, both the
depths of 250 mm and 200 mm for waist-slab and landing slab are more than
adequate for bending.
For the waist-slab, τ v = 73100/1500(224) = 0.217 N/mm2. For the waist-

slab of depth 250 mm, k = 1.1 (cl. 40.2.1.1 of IS 456) and from Table 19 of IS
456, τ c = 1.1(0.28) = 0.308 N/mm2. Table 20 of IS 456, τ c max = 2.8 N/mm2.
Since τ v < τ c < τ c max , the depth of waist-slab as 250 mm is safe for shear.
For the landing slab, τ v = 73100/1500(174) = 0.28 N/mm2. For the

landing slab of depth 200 mm, k = 1.2 (cl. 40.2.1.1 of IS 456) and from Table 19
of IS 456, τ c = 1.2(0.28) = 0.336 N/mm2 and from Table 20 of IS 456, τ c max = 2.8
N/mm2. Here also τ v < τ c < τ c max , so the depth of landing slab as 200 mm is
safe for shear.
Step 5: Determination of areas of steel reinforcement

(i) Waist-slab: Mu/bd2 = 102080/(1.5)224(224) = 1.356 N/mm2. Table 2 of SP-
16 gives p = 0.411.
The area of steel = 0.411(1000)(224)/(100) = 920.64 mm2. Provide 12

mm diameter @ 120 mm c/c (= 942 mm2/m).
(ii) Landing slab B: Mu/bd2 at a distance of 1.65 m from VD (Fig. 9.20.11) =

86920/(1.5)(174)(174) = 1.91 N/mm2. Table 2 of SP-16 gives: p = 0.606. The
area of steel = 0.606(1000) (174)/100 = 1054 mm2/m. Provide 16 mm diameter
@ 240 mm c/c and 12 mm dia. @ 240 mm c/c (1309 mm2) at the bottom of
landing slab B of which 16 mm bars will be terminated at a distance of 500 mm
from the end and will continue up to a distance of 1000 mm at the bottom of waist
slab (Fig. 9.20.12).
Distribution steel: The same distribution steel is provided for both the slabs as
calculated for the waist-slab. The amount is = 0.12(250) (1000)/100 = 300
mm2/m. Provide 8 mm diameter @ 160 mm c/c (= 314 mm2/m).
Step 6: Checking of development length and diameter of main bars
Development length of 12 mm diameter bars = 47(12) = 564 mm, say

600 mm and the same of 16 mm dia. Bars = 47(16) = 752 mm, say 800 mm.
(i) For waist-slab

M1 for 12 mm diameter @ 120 mm c/c (= 942 mm2) = 942(102.08)/920.64
= 104.44 kNm. With V (shear force) = 73.1 kN, the diameter of main bars ≤
{1.3(104440)/73.1}/47 ≤ 39.5 mm. Hence, 12 mm diameter is o.k.
(ii) For landing-slab B
M1 for 16 mm diameter @ 120 mm c/c (= 1675 mm2) =

1675(102.08)/1650.88 = 103.57 kNm. With V (shear force) = 73.1 kN, the
diameter of main bars ≤ {1.3(103570)/73.1}/47 = 39.18 mm. Hence, 16 mm
diameter is o.k.
The reinforcing bars are shown in Fig.9.20.12 (sec. 1-1).
(B) Design of landing slab A
The effective span is lesser of (i) (1500 + 1500 + 150 + 174), and (ii) (1500
+ 1500 + 150 + 300) = 3324 mm. The depth of landing slab = 3324/20 = 166 mm,
< 200 mm already assumed. So, the depth is 200 mm.
Step 2: Calculation of loads (Fig.9.20.13)
The following are the loads:
(i) Factored load on landing slab A(see Step 2 of A @ 50%) = 8.25 kN/m2
(ii) Factored reaction VC (see Step 3 of A) = 69.76 kN as the total load of

one flight
(iii) Factored reaction VC from the other flight = 69.76 kN
Thus, the total load on landing slab A
= (8.25)(1.5)(3.324) + 69.76 + 69.76 = 180.65 kN

Due to symmetry of loadings, VE = VF = 90.33 kN. The bending moment is
maximum at the centre line of EF.
Step 3: Bending moment and shear force (width = 1500 mm)
Maximum bending moment = (180.65)(3.324)/8 = 75.06 kNm
Maximum shear force = 0.5(180.65) = 90.33 kN
In Step 3 of A, it has been observed that 135.98 mm is the required depth

for bending moment = 102.08 kNm. So, the depth of 200 mm is safe for this
bending moment of 75.06 kNm. However, a check is needed for shear force.
τ v = 90330/1500(174) = 0.347 N/mm2 > 0.336 N/mm2
The above value of τ c = 0.336 N/mm2 for landing slab of depth 200 mm has
been obtained in Step 4 of A. However, here τ c is for the minimum tensile steel
in the slab. The checking of depth for shear shall be done after determining the
area of tensile steel as the value of τ v is marginally higher.
For Mu/bd2 = 75060/(1.5)(174)(174) = 1.65 N/mm2, Table 2 of SP-16

gives p = 0.512.
The area of steel = (0.512)(1000)(174)/100 = 890.88 mm2/m. Provide

12 mm diameter @ 120 mm c/c (= 942 mm2/m). With this area of steel p =
942(100)/1000(174) = 0.541.
Distribution steel = The same as in Step 5 of A i.e., 8 mm diameter @ 160
mm c/c.
Step 6: Checking of depth for shear
Table 19 and cl. 40.2.1.1 gives: τ c = (1.2)(0.493) = 0.5916 N/mm2. τ v =

0.347 N/mm2 (see Step 3 of B) is now less than τ c (= 0.5916 N/mm2). Since, τ v
< τ c < τ c max , the depth of 200 mm is safe for shear.
The reinforcing bars are shown in Fig. 9.20.14.
Example 9.2:
Design a trade-riser staircase shown in Fig.9.20.15 spanning

longitudinally. Landing slabs are supported on beams spanning transversely. The
dimensions of riser and trade are 160 mm and 270 mm, respectively. The finish
loads and live loads are 1 kN/m2 and 5 kN/m2, respectively. Use M 20 and Fe
415.
Solution:
The distribution of loads on landings common to two spans perpendicular

to each other shall be done as per cl. 33.2 of IS 456 (50% in each direction),
since the going is supported on landing slabs which span transversely. The
effective span in the longitudinal direction shall be taken as the distance between
two centre lines of landings.
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur

(A) Design of going
Figure 9.20.16 shows the arrangement of the landings and going. The
effective span is 4200 mm. Assume the thickness of trade-riser slab = 4200/25 =
168 mm, say 200 mm. The thickness of landing slab is also assumed as 200
mm.
Step 2: Calculation of loads (Fig. 9.20.17)

The total loads including self-weight, finish and live loads on projected
area of going (1500 mm x 2465 mm) is first determined to estimate the total
factored loads per metre run.
(i) Self-weight of going
(a) Nine units of (0.2)(0.36)(1.5) @ 25(9) = 24.3 kN
(b) One unit of (0.27)(0.36)(1.5) @ 25(1) = 3.645 kN
(c) Nine units of (0.07)(0.2)(1.5) @ 25(9) = 4.725 kN
(ii) Finish loads @ 1 kN/m2 = (1.5)(2.465)(1) = 3.6975 kN
(iii) Live loads @ 5 kN/m2 = (1.5)(2.465)(5) = 18.4875 kN
Total = 54.855 kN
Factored loads per metre run = 1.5(54.855)/2.465 = 33.38 kN/m
(iv) Self-weight of landing slabs per metre run = 1.5(0.2)(25) = 7.5 kN/m
(v) Live loads on landings = (1.5)(5) = 7.5 kN/m
(vi) Finish loads on landings = (1.5)(1) = 1.5 kN/m
Total = 16.5 kN/m
Factored loads = 1.5(16.5) = 24.75 kN/m
Due to common area of landings only 50 per cent of this load should be
considered. So, the loads = 12.375 kN/m. The loads are shown in Fig.9.20.17.
Step 3: Bending moment and shear force
Total factored loads = 33.38(2.465) + 12.375(0.85 + 0.885) = 103.75 kN
VC = {12.375(0.85)(4.2 – 0.425) + 33.38(2.465)(0.885 + 1.2325)
+ 12.375(0.885)(0.885)(0.5)}/4.2 = 52.09 kN
VD = 103.75 – 52.09 = 51.66 kN
The distance x from the left support where shear force is zero is now
determined:
52.09 – 12.375(0.85) – 32.38(x – 0.85) = 0
or x = {52.09 – 12.375(0.85) + 33.38(0.85)}/33.38 = 2.095 m
Maximum factored bending moment at x = 2.095 m is
52.09(2.095) – 12.375(0.85)(2.095 – 0.425) – 33.38(2.095 – 0.85)(2.095 –

0.85)(0.5)
= 65.69 kNm
From the maximum bending moment, we have
d = {(65690)/(1.5)(2.76)}½ = 125.97 mm < 174 mm
From the shear force Vu = VA, we get τ v = 52090/(1500)(174) = 0.199

N/mm2. From cl. 40.2.1.1 and Table 19 of IS 456, we have τ c = (1.2)(0.28) =
0.336 N/mm2. Table 20 of IS 456 gives τ c max = 2.8 N/mm2. Since, τ v < τ c < τ c max ,
the depth of 200 mm is accepted.
Mu/bd2 = 65.69(106)/(1500)(174)(174) = 1.446 N/mm2

Table 2 of SP-16 gives, p = 0.4416, to have Ast = 0.4416(1000)(174)/100 =
768.384 mm2/m. Provide 12 mm diameter bars @ 140 mm c/c (= 808 mm2) in
form of closed ties (Fig.9.20.18).
Distribution bars: Area of distribution bars = 0.12(1000)(200)/100 = 240

2
mm /m.
Provide 8 mm diameter bars @ 200 mm c/c. The reinforcing bars are shown in
Fig. 9.20.18.
(B) Design of landing slab
With total depth D = 200 mm and effective depth d = 174 mm, the
effective span (cl. 22.2a) = lesser of (1500 + 150 + 1500 + 174) and (1500 + 150
+ 1500 + 300) = 3324 mm.
(i) Factored load of landing slab A = 50% of Step 2 (iv to vi) @ 12.375 kN/m =
12.375(3.324 = 41.1345 kN
(ii) Factored reaction VC from one flight (see Step 3) = 52.09 kN
(iii) Factored reaction VC from other flight = 52.09 kN
Total factored load = 145.32 kN. Due to symmetry of loads, VG = VH =

72.66 kN. The bending moment is maximum at the centre line of GH.
Step 3: Bending moment and shear force (width b = 1500 mm)
Maximum bending moment = 145.32(3.324)/8 = 60.38 kNm

Maximum shear force VG = VH = 145.32/2 = 72.66 kN
From bending moment: d = {60380/(1.5)(2.76)}½ = 120.77 mm < 174

mm. Hence o.k.
From shear force: τ v = 72660/(1500)(174) = 0.278 N/mm2
From Step 4 of A: τ c = 0.336 N/mm2, τ c max = 2.8 N/mm2. Hence, the

depth is o.k. for shear also.
Mu/bd2 = 60380/(1.5)(174)(174) = 1.33 N/mm2
Table 2 of SP-16 gives, p = 0.4022. So, Ast = 0.4022(1000)(174)/100 = 699.828

mm2. Provide 12 mm diameter bars @ 160 mm c/c (= 707 mm2).
Distribution steel area = (0.12/100)(1000)(200) = 240 mm2
Provide 8 mm diameter @ 200 mm c/c (= 250 mm2).

Step 6: Checking of development length
The moment M for12 mm @ 160 mm c/c (707mm ) = (707/699.828)60.38 = 60.998 kNm.
The shear force V = 72.66 kN. The diameter of the bar should be
less/equal to {(1.3)(60.998)(10 )/72.66(10 )}/47 = 23.2 mm. Hence 12 mm
diameter bars are o.k.
Use L= 47(12) = 564 mm,=600 mm (say).

The reinforcing bars are shown in Fig. 9.20.20.
Q.8: Design the open-well staircase of Fig.9.20.21. The dimensions of risers and
trades are 160 mm and 270 mm, respectively. The finish loads and live
loads are 1 kN/m2 and 5 kN/m2, respectively. Landing A has a beam at the
edge while other landings (B and C) have brick walls. Use concrete of grade
M 20 and steel of grade Fe 415.
A.8:
Solution:
In this case landing slab A is spanning longitudinally along sec. 11 of

Fig.9.20.21. Landing slab B is common to spans of sec. 11 and sec. 22, crossing
at right angles. Distribution of loads on landing slab B shall be made 50 per cent
in each direction (cl. 33.2 of IS 456). The effective span for sec. 11 shall be from
the centre line of edge beam to centre line of brick wall, while the effective span
for sec. 22 shall be from the centre line of landing slab B to centre line of landing
slab C (cl. 33.1b of IS 456).
(A) Design of landing slab A and going (sec. 11 of Fig.9.20.21)

The effective span = 150 + 2000 + 1960 + 1000 = 5110 mm. The depth of
waist slab is assumed as 5110/20 = 255.5 mm, say 250 mm. The effective depth
= 250 – 20 – 6 = 224 mm. The landing slab is also assumed to have a total depth
of 250 mm and effective depth of 224 mm.
(i) Loads on going (on projected plan area)
(a) Self weight of waist slab = 25(0.25)(313.85/270) = 7.265 kN/m2
(b) Self weight of steps = 25(0.5)(0.16) = 2.0 kN/m2
(c) Finish loads (given) = 1.0 kN/m2
(d) Live loads (given) = 5.0 kN/m2
Total = 15.265 kN/m2
So, the factored loads = 1.5(15.265) = 22.9 kN/m2
(ii) Landing slab A
(a) Self weight of slab = 25(0.25) = 6.25 kN/m2
(b) Finish loads = 1.00 kN/m2
(c) Live loads = 5.00 kN/m2
Total = 12.25 kN/m2
Factored loads = 1.5(12.25) = 18.375 kN/m2
(iii) Landing slab B = 50 per cent of loads of landing slab A = 9.187 kN/m2
The total loads of (i), (ii) and (iii) are shown in Fig.9.22.
Total loads (i) going = 22.9(1.96)(2) = 89.768 kN
Total loads (ii) landing slab A = 18.375(2.15)(2) = 79.013 kN
Total loads (iii) landing slab B = 9.187(1.0)(2) = 18.374 kN
Total loads = 187.155 kN
The loads are shown in Fig. 9.20.22.
Step 3: Bending moment and shear force (width = 2.0 m, Fig. 9.20.22)
VP = {79.013(5.11 – 1.075) + 89.768(5.11 – 3.13) + 18.374(0.5)}/5.11
= 98.97 kN
VJ = 187.155 – 98.97 = 88.185 kN
The distance x where the shear force is zero is obtained from:
98.97 – 79.013 – 22.9(2)(x – 2.15) = 0
or x = 2.15 + (98.97 – 79.013)/22.9(2) = 2.586 m
Maximum bending moment at x = 2.586 m (width = 2 m)
= 98.97(2.586) – 79.013 – (22.9)(2)(0.436)(0.436)(0.5) = 161.013 kNm
Maximum shear force = 98.97 kN
Step 4: Checking of depth
From the maximum moment d = {161.013(103)/2(2.76)}½ = 170.8 mm <

224 mm. Hence o.k.
From the maximum shear force, τ v = 98970/2000(224) = 0.221 N/mm2.

For the depth of slab as 250 mm, k = 1.1(cl. 40.2.1.1 of IS 456) and τ c =
1.1(0.28) = 0.308 N/mm2 (Table 19 of IS 456). τ c max = 2.8 N/mm2 (Table 20 of IS
456). Since, τ v < τ c < τ c max , the depth of slab as 250 mm is safe.

Mu/bd2 = 161.013(103)/2(224)(224) = 1.60 N/mm2. Table 2 of SP-16
gives p = 0.494, to have Ast = 0.494(1000)(224)/100 = 1106.56 mm2/m. Provide
12 mm diameter bars @ 100 mm c/c (= 1131 mm2/m) both for landings and waist
slab.
Distribution reinforcement = 0.12(1000)(250)/100 = 300 mm2/m. Provide

8 mm diameter @ 160 mm c/c (= 314 mm2).
Development length of 12 mm diameter bars 7(12) = 564 mm. Provide

Ld = 600 mm.
For the slabs M1 for 12 mm diameter @ 100 mm c/c =

(1131)(161.013)/1106.56 = 164.57 kNm. Shear force = 98.97 kN. Hence, 47 φ ≤
1.3(164.57)/98.97 ≤ 2161.67 mm or the diameter of main bar φ ≤ 45.99 mm.
Hence, 12 mm diameter is o.k. The reinforcing bars are shown in Fig.9.20.23.
(B) Design of landing slabs B and C and going (sec. 22 of Fig.9.20.21)

The effective span from the centre line of landing slab B to the centre line
of landing slab C = 1000 + 1960 + 1000 = 3960 mm. The depths of waist slab
and landing slabs are maintained as 250 mm like those of sec. 11.
(i) Loads on going (Step 2(i) of A) = 22.9 kN/m2
(ii) Loads on landing slab B (Step 2(iii)) = 9.187 kN/m2
(iii) Loads on landing slab C (Step 2(iii)) = 9.187 kN/m2
Total factored loads are:
(i) Going = 22.9(1.96)(2) = 89.768 kN
(ii) Landing slab A = 9.187(1.0)(2) = 18.374 kN
(iii) Landing slab B = 9.187(1.0)(2) = 18.374 kN
Total = 126.506 kN
The loads are shown in Fig.9.20.24.
Step 3: Bending moment and shear force (width = 2.0 m, Fig.9.20.24)
The total load is 126.506 kN and symmetrically placed to give VG = VH =

63.253 kN. The maximum bending moment at x = 1.98 m (centre line of the span
3.96 m = 63.253(1.98) – 18.374(1.98 – 0.5) – 22.9(2)(0.98)(0.98)(0.5) = 76.05
kNm. Maximum shear force = 63.253 kN.
Since the maximum bending moment and shear force are less than those
of the other section (maximum moment = 161.013 kNm and maximum shear
force = 98.97 kN), the depth of 250 mm here is o.k. Accordingly, the amount of
reinforcing bars are determined.
Mu/bd2 = 76.05(103)/2(224)(224) = 0.76 N/mm2. Table 2 of SP-16 gives

p = 0.221. The area of steel = (0.221)(1000)(224)/100 = 495.04 mm2. Providing
12 mm diameter @ 220 mm c/c gives 514 mm2, however let us provide 12 mm
diameter @ 200 mm c/c (565 mm2) as it is easy to detail with 12 mm diameter @
100 mm c/c for the other section. Distribution bars are same as for sec. 11 i.e., 8
mm diameter @ 160 mm c/c.
For the slab reinforcement 12 mm dia. @ 200 mm c/c, M1 =

(565)(76.05)/495.04 = 86.80 kNm, V = 63.25 kN. So, the diameter of main bar φ
≤ {(1.3)(86.80)(103)/(63.25)}/47, i.e., ≤ 37.96 mm. Hence, 12 mm diameter bars
are o.k. Distribution steel shall remain the same as in sec. 11, i.e., 8 mm
diameter @ 160 mm c/c.
The reinforcing bars are shown in Fig.9.20.25. Figures 9.20.23 and

9.20.25 show the reinforcing bars considered separately. However, it is worth
mentioning that the common areas (landing B and C) will have the bars of larger
areas of either section eliminating the lower bars of other section.
Design of Slabs:- Two-way Slabs
• determine the shear force of two-way slabs subjected to uniformly

distributed loads,
• state the two types of two-way slabs mentioning the differences between
them,
• determine the preliminary depth of two-way slabs of different support

conditions from the span to effective depth ratios as given in IS 456,
• explain the provisions of torsion reinforcing bars at two types of corners of

a restrained two-way slab,
• design the two types of two-way slabs applying the different methods
explained in this lesson and draw the detailing of reinforcing bars.
8.19.1 Introduction
Lesson 18 explains the various types of slabs with different support
conditions, plan forms, horizontal/inclined etc. Moreover, sec. 8.18.2 of Lesson
18 illustrates the sharing of uniformly distributed loads to the supporting beams of
both one and two-way slabs including the profiles of deflection (Figs.8.18.4a and
b). It is, thus, understood that two-way slabs span in both directions having the
aspect ratio of ly/lx up to 2, considering lx as the shorter span. This lesson
presents the different aspects of analysis and design of two-way slabs. Many of
the stipulations of IS 456 are the same as those of one-way slabs. While
mentioning the common stipulations with their respective section in Lesson 18,
this lesson presents other relevant requirements regarding the analysis, design
and detailing of two-way slabs. Numerical problems are also solved to illustrate
the applications of the theory in the design of two-way slabs.
8.19.2 Two-way Slabs

Two-way slabs subjected mostly to uniformly distributed loads resist them
primarily by bending about both the axis. However, as in the one-way slab, the
depth of the two-way slabs should also be checked for the shear stresses to
avoid any reinforcement for shear. Moreover, these slabs should have sufficient
depth for the control deflection. Thus, strength and deflection are the
requirements of design of two-way slabs.
8.19.3 Design Shear Strength of Concrete
Design shear strength of concrete in two-way slabs is to be determined
incorporating the multiplying factor k from Table 8.1 of Lesson 18 in the same
manner as discussed in sec. 8.18.3 of Lesson 18.
8.19.4.1 Computation of shear force
Shear forces are computed following the procedure stated below with
reference to Fig.8.19.1.
The two-way slab of Fig. 8.19.1 is divided into two trapezoidal and two
triangular zones by drawing lines from each corner at an angle of 45o. The loads
of triangular segment A will be transferred to beam 1-2 and the same of
trapezoidal segment B will be beam 2-3. The shear forces per unit width of the
strips aa and bb are highest at the ends of strips. Moreover, the length of half the
strip bb is equal to the length of the strip aa. Thus, the shear forces in both strips
are equal and we can write,
Vu = W (lx/2)
(8.1)
where W = intensity of the uniformly distributed loads.
The nominal shear stress acting on the slab is then determined from
τ v = Vu / bd (8.2)
8.19.4.2 Computation of bending moments
Two-way slabs spanning in two directions at right angles and carrying

uniformly distributed loads may be analysed using any acceptable theory.
Pigeoud’s or Wester-guard’s theories are the suggested elastic methods and
Johansen’s yield line theory is the most commonly used in the limit state of
collapse method and suggested by IS 456 in the note of cl. 24.4. Alternatively,
Annex D of IS 456 can be employed to determine the bending moments in the
two directions for two types of slabs: (i) restrained slabs, and (ii) simply
supported slabs. The two methods are explained below:
(i) Restrained slabs
Restrained slabs are those whose corners are prevented from lifting due
to effects of torsional moments. These torsional moments, however, are not
computed as the amounts of reinforcement are determined from the computed
areas of steel due to positive bending moments depending upon the intensity of
torsional moments of different corners. This aspect has been explained in Step 7
of sec. 8.19.6. Thus, it is essential to determine the positive and negative
bending moments in the two directions of restrained slabs depending on the
various types of panels and the aspect ratio ly/lx.
Restrained slabs are considered as divided into two types of strips in each
direction: (i) one middle strip of width equal to three-quarters of the respective
length of span in either directions, and (ii) two edge strips, each of width equal to
one-eighth of the respective length of span in either directions. Figures 8.19.2a
and b present the two types of strips for spans lx and ly separately.
The maximum positive and negative moments per unit width in a slab are
determined from
M x = α x w l x2
(8.3)
M y = α x w l y2
(8.4)
where α x and α y are coefficients given in Table 26 of IS 456, Annex D, cl. D-

1.1. Total design load per unit area is w and lengths of shorter and longer spans
are represented by lx and ly, respectively. The values of α x and α y , given in
Table 26 of IS 456, are for nine types of panels having eight aspect ratios of ly/lx
from one to two at an interval of 0.1. The above maximum bending moments are
applicable only to the middle strips and no redistribution shall be made.
Tension reinforcing bars for the positive and negative maximum moments
are to be provided in the respective middle strips in each direction. Figure 8.19.2
shows the positive and negative coefficients α x and α y .
The edge strips will have reinforcing bars parallel to that edge following
the minimum amount as stipulated in IS 456.
The detailing of all the reinforcing bars for the respective moments and for
the minimum amounts as well as torsional requirements are discussed in sec.
8.19.7(i).
(ii) Simply supported slabs
The maximum moments per unit width of simply supported slabs, not
having adequate provision to resist torsion at corners and to prevent the corners
from lifting, are determined from Eqs.8.3 and 8.4, where α x and α y are the
respective coefficients of moments as given in Table 27 of IS 456, cl. D-2. The
notations Mx, My, w, lx and ly are the same as mentioned below Eqs.8.3 and
8.4 in (i) above.
The detailing of reinforcing bars for the respective moments is explained in

sec. 8.19.7(ii).
The coefficients α x and α y of simply supported two-way slabs are
derived from the Grashoff-Rankine formula which is based on the consideration
of the same deflection at any point P (Fig.8.19.3) of two perpendicular
interconnected strips containing the common point P of the two-way slab
subjected to uniformly distributed loads.
8.19.5 Design Considerations

The design considerations mentioned in sec. 8.18.5 of Lesson 18 in (a),
(c), (d), (e) and (f) are applicable for the two-way slabs also. However, the
effective span to effective depth ratio is different from those of one-way slabs.
Accordingly, this item for the two-way slabs is explained below.
Effective span to effective depth ratio (cl. 24.1 of IS 456)
The following are the relevant provisions given in Notes 1 and 2 of cl.
24.1.
• The shorter of the two spans should be used to determine the span to
effective depth ratio.
• For spans up to 3.5 m and with mild steel reinforcement, the span to
overall depth ratios satisfying the limits of vertical deflection for loads up to
3 kN/m2 are as follows:
Simply supported slabs 35
Continuous slabs 40
• The same ratios should be multiplied by 0.8 when high strength deformed
bars (Fe 415) are used in the slabs.
8.19.6 Design of Two-way Slabs

The procedure of the design of two-way slabs will have all the six steps
mentioned in sec. 8.18.6 for the design of one-way slabs except that the bending
moments and shear forces are determined by different methods for the two types
of slab.
While the bending moments and shear forces are computed from the
coefficients given in Tables 12 and 13 (cl. 22.5) of IS 456 for the one-way slabs,
the same are obtained from Tables 26 or 27 for the bending moment in the two
types of two-way slabs and the shear forces are computed from Eq.8.1 for the
two-way slabs.
Further, the restrained two-way slabs need adequate torsional reinforcing

bars at the corners to prevent them from lifting. There are three types of corners
having three different requirements. Accordingly, the determination of torsional
reinforcement is discussed in Step 7, as all the other six steps are common for
the one and two-way slabs.
Step 7: Determination of torsional reinforcement
Three types of corners, C1, C2 and C3, shown in Fig.8.19.4, have three
different requirements of torsion steel as mentioned below.
(a) At corner C1 where the slab is discontinuous on both sides, the

torsion reinforcement shall consist of top and bottom bars each with layers of bar
placed parallel to the sides of the slab and extending a minimum distance of one-
fifth of the shorter span from the edges. The amount of reinforcement in each of
the four layers shall be 75 per cent of the area required for the maximum mid-
span moment in the slab. This provision is given in cl. D-1.8 of IS 456.
(b) At corner C2 contained by edges over one of which is continuous, the
torsional reinforcement shall be half of the amount of (a) above. This provision is
given in cl. D-1.9 of IS 456.
(c) At corner C3 contained by edges over both of which the slab is

continuous, torsional reinforcing bars need not be provided, as stipulated in cl. D-
1.10 of IS 456.
8.19.7 Detailing of Reinforcement

As mentioned in sec. 8.19.6, Step 5 of sec. 8.18.6 explains the two
methods of determining the required areas of steel required for the maximum
positive and negative moments. The two methods are (i) employing Eq.3.23 as
given in Step 5 of sec. 8.18.6 or (ii) using tables and charts of SP-16. Thereafter,
Step 7 of sec. 8.19.6 explains the method of determining the areas steel for
corners of restrained slab depending on the type of corner. The detailing of
torsional reinforcing bars is explained in Step 7 of sec. 8.19.6. In the following,
the detailings of reinforcing bars for (i) restrained slabs and (ii) simply supported
slabs are discussed separately for the bars either for the maximum positive or
negative bending moments or to satisfy the requirement of minimum amount of
steel.
(i) Restrained slabs
The maximum positive and negative moments per unit width of the slab
calculated by employing Eqs.8.3 and 8.4 as explained in sec. 8.19.4.2(i) are
applicable only to the respective middle strips (Fig.8.19.2). There shall be no
redistribution of these moments. The reinforcing bars so calculated from the
maximum moments are to be placed satisfying the following stipulations of IS
456.
• Bottom tension reinforcement bars of mid-span in the middle strip shall
extent in the lower part of the slab to within 0.25l of a continuous edge, or
0.15l of a discontinuous edge (cl. D-1.4 of IS 456). Bars marked as B1,
B2, B5 and B6 in Figs.8.19.5 a and b are these bars.
• Top tension reinforcement bars over the continuous edges of middle strip
shall extend in the upper part of the slab for a distance of 0.15l from the
support, and at least fifty per cent of these bars shall extend a distance of
0.3l (cl. D-1.5 of IS 456). Bars marked as T2, T3, T5 and T6 in Figs.8.19.5
a and b are these bars.
• To resist the negative moment at a discontinuous edge depending on the

degree of fixity at the edge of the slab, top tension reinforcement bars
equal to fifty per cent of that provided at mid-span shall extend 0.1l into
the span (cl. D-1.6 of IS 456). Bars marked as T1 and T4 in Figs.8.19.5 a
and b are these bars.
• The edge strip of each panel shall have reinforcing bars parallel to that
edge satisfying the requirement of minimum amount as specified in sec.
8.18.15d of Lesson 18 (cl. 26.5.2.1 of IS 456) and the requirements for
torsion, explained in Step 7 of sec. 8.19.6 (cls. D-1.7 to D-1.10 of IS 456).
The bottom and top bars of the edge strips are explained below.
• Bottom bars B3 and B4 (Fig.8.19.5 a) are parallel to the edge along lx for
the edge strip for span ly, satisfying the requirement of minimum amount
of steel (cl. D-1.7 of IS 456).
• Bottom bars B7 and B8 (Fig.8.19.5 b) are parallel to the edge along ly for
the edge strip for span lx, satisfying the requirement of minimum amount
• Top bars T7 and T8 (Fig.8.19.5 a) are parallel to the edge along lx for the
edge strip for span ly, satisfying the requirement of minimum amount of
steel (cl. D-1.7 of IS 456).
• Top bars T9 and T10 (Fig.8.19.5 b) are parallel to the edge along ly for
the edge strip for span lx, satisfying the requirement of minimum amount
The detailing of torsion bars at corners C1 and C2 is explained in

Fig.8.19.7 of Problem 8.2 in sec. 8.19.8.
The above explanation reveals that there are eighteen bars altogether
comprising eight bottom bars (B1 to B8) and ten top bars (T1 to T10). Tables 8.4
and 8.5 present them separately for the bottom and top bars, respectively,
mentioning the respective zone of their placement (MS/LDES/ACES/BDES to
designate Middle Strip/Left Discontinuous Edge Strip/Adjacent Continuous Edge
Strip/Bottom Discontinuous Edge Strip), direction of the bars (along x or y), the
resisting moment for which they shall be determined or if to be provided on the
basis of minimum reinforcement clause number of IS 456 and Fig. No. For easy
understanding, plan views in (a) and (b) of Fig.8.19.5 show all the bars
separately along x and y directions, respectively. Two sections (1-1 and 2-2),
however, present the bars shown in the two plans. Torsional reinforcements are
not included in Tables 8.4 and 8.5 and Figs.8.19.5 a and b.
Table 8.4 Details of eight bottom bars
Sl.No. Bars Into Along Resisting Cl.No. of Fig.No.

Moment IS 456
1 B1, B2 MS x Max. + D-1.3,1.4 8.19.5a, c,
Mx d
2 B3 LDES x Min. D-1.7 8.19.5a, c
Steel
3 B4 ACES x Min. D-1.7 8.19.5a, c
Steel
4 B5, B6 MS y Max. + D-1.3,1.4 8.19.5b, c,
My d
5 B7 BDES y Min. D-1.7 8.19.5b, d
Steel
6 B8 ACES y Min. D-1.7 8.19.5b, d
Steel
Notes: (i) MS = Middle Strip

(ii) LDES = Left Discontinuous Edge Strip
(iii) ACES = Adjacent Continuous Edge Strip
(iv) BDES = Bottom Discontinuous Edge Strip
Table 8.5 Details of eight top bars
Sl.No. Bars Into Along Resisting Cl.No. of Fig.No.

Moment IS 456
1 T1 BDES x + 0.5 Mx D-1.6 8.19.5a,
d
2 T2, T3 ACES x - 0.5 Mx D-1.5 8.19.5a,
for each d
3 T4 LDES y + 0.5 My D-1.6 8.19.5b,
c
4 T5, T6 ACES y -0.5 My D-1.5 8.19.5b,
for each c
5 T7 LDES x Min. D-1.7 8.19.5a,
Steel c
6 T8 ACES x Min. D-1.7 8.19.5a,
Steel c
7 T9 LDES y Min. D-1.7 8.19.5b,
Steel d
8 T10 ACES y Min. D-1.7 8.19.5b,
Steel d
Notes: (i) MS = Middle Strip

(ii) LDES = Left Discontinuous Edge Strip
(iii) ACES = Adjacent Continuous Edge Strip
(iv) BDES = Bottom Discontinuous Edge Strip
(ii) Simply supported slabs
Figures 8.19.6 a, b and c present the detailing of reinforcing bars of simply

supported slabs not having adequate provision to resist torsion at corners and to
prevent corners from lifting. Clause D-2.1 stipulates that fifty per cent of the
tension reinforcement provided at mid-span should extend to the supports. The
remaining fifty per cent should extend to within 0.1lx or 0.1ly of the support, as
appropriate.
Problem 8.2
Design the slab panel 1 of Fig.8.19.7 subjected to factored live load of 8

kN/m2 in addition to its dead load using M 20 and Fe 415. The load of floor finish
is 1 kN/m2. The spans shown in figure are effective spans. The corners of the
slab are prevented from lifting.
Solution of Problem 8.2
The span to depth ratio with Fe 415 is taken from cl. 24.1, Note 2 of IS
456 as 0.8 (35 + 40) / 2 = 30. This gives the minimum effective depth d =
4000/30 = 133.33 mm, say 135 mm. The total depth D is thus 160 mm.
Step 2: Design loads, bending moments and shear forces
Dead load of slab (1 m width) = 0.16(25) = 4.0 kN/m2

Dead load of floor finish (given) = 1.0 kN/m2
Factored dead load = 1.5(5) = 7.5 kN/m2
Factored live load (given) = 8.0 kN/m2
Total factored load = 15.5 kN/m2
The coefficients of bending moments and the bending moments Mx and

My per unit width (positive and negative) are determined as per cl. D-1.1 and
Table 26 of IS 456 for the case 4, “Two adjacent edges discontinuous” and
presented in Table 8.6. The ly / lx for this problem is 6/4 = 1.5.
Table 8.6 Maximum bending moments of Problem 8.2
For Short span Long span

αx Mx (kNm/m) αy My (kNm/m)
Negative moment at 0.075 18.6 0.047 11.66
continuous edge
Positive moment at 0.056 13.89 0.035 8.68
mid-span
Maximum shear force in either direction is determined from Eq.8.1

(Fig.8.19.1) as
Vu = w(lx/2) = 15.5 (4/2) = 31 kN/m
Step 3: Determination/checking of the effective depth and total depth of

slab
Using the higher value of the maximum bending moments in x and y

directions from Table 8.6, we get from Eq.3.25 of Lesson 5 (sec. 3.5.5):
Mu,lim = R,lim bd2
or d = [(18.6)(106)/{2.76(103)}] 1/2 = 82.09 mm,
where 2.76 N/mm2 is the value of R,lim taken from Table 3.3 of Lesson 5
(sec. 3.5.5). Since, this effective depth is less than 135 mm assumed in
Step 1, we retain d = 135 mm and D = 160 mm.
Step 4: Depth of slab for shear force
Table 19 of IS 456 gives the value of τ c = 0.28 N/mm2 when the lowest
percentage of steel is provided in the slab. However, this value needs to be
modified by multiplying with k of cl. 40.2.1.1 of IS 456. The value of k for the
total depth of slab as 160 mm is 1.28. So, the value of τ c is 1.28(0.28) =
0.3584 N/mm2.
Table 20 of IS 456 gives τ c max = 2.8 N/mm2. The computed shear stress
τ v = Vu/bd = 31/135 = 0.229 N/mm2.
Since, τ v < τ c < τ c max , the effective depth of the slab as 135 mm and
the total depth as 160 mm are safe.
The respective areas of steel in middle and edge strips are to be

determined employing Eq.3.23 of Step 5 of sec. 8.18.6 of Lesson 18. However, in
Problem 8.1 of Lesson 18, it has been shown that the areas of steel computed
from Eq.3.23 and those obtained from the tables of SP-16 are in good
agreement. Accordingly, the areas of steel for this problem are computed from
the respective Tables 40 and 41 of SP-16 and presented in Table 8.7. Table 40
of SP-16 is for the effective depth of 150 mm, while Table 41 of SP-16 is for the
effective depth of 175 mm. The following results are, therefore, interpolated
values obtained from the two tables of SP-16.
Table 8.7 Reinforcing bars of Problem 8.2
Particulars Short span lx Long span ly

Table Mx Dia. & Table My Dia. &
No. (kNm/m) spacing No. (kNm/m) spacing
Top steel for 40,41 18.68 10 mm @ 40,41 8 mm @
negative > 18.6 200 mm c/c 12.314 200 mm
moment > 11.66 c/c
Bottom steel for 40,41 8 mm @ 40,41 9.20 8 mm @
positive moment 14.388 170 mm c/c > 8.68 250 mm
> 13.89 c/c
The minimum steel is determined from the stipulation of cl. 26.5.2.1 of IS

456 and is
As = (0.12/100)(1000)(160) = 192 mm2
and 8 mm bars @ 250 mm c/c (= 201 mm2) is acceptable. It is worth mentioning
that the areas of steel as shown in Table 8.7 are more than the minimum amount
of steel.
Step 6: Selection of diameters and spacings of reinforcing bars
The advantages of using the tables of SP-16 are that the obtained values
satisfy the requirements of diameters of bars and spacings. However, they are
checked as ready reference here. Needless to mention that this step may be
omitted in such a situation.
Maximum diameter allowed, as given in cl. 26.5.2.2 of IS 456, is 160/8 =

20 mm, which is more that the diameters used here.
The maximum spacing of main bars, as given in cl. 26.3.3(1) of IS 456, is

the lesser of 3(135) and 300 mm. This is also satisfied for all the bars.
The maximum spacing of minimum steel (distribution bars) is the lesser of

5(135) and 450 mm. This is also satisfied.
Figures 8.19.8 and 9 present the detailing of reinforcing bars.

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Bond, Anchorage,Development Length

• understand the importance of bond and why is it essential to provide

• explain the development length,

• understand the need for anchoring the tensile bars,

• justify the superiority of deformed bars to smooth mild steel bars,

• define the design bond stress,

• determine the development length of a single bar and bars bundled in

• derive the expression to check the development length of bars in tension,

• specify the salient points of anchoring bars in tension, compression and

• determine the bearing stress and check the same,

• take adequate precautions when the direction of reinforcement changes,

• specify the salient points of splicing and welding of reinforcement to make

Thus, a tensile member has to be anchored properly by providing

It is worth mentioning that the deformed bars are known to be superior to

Design Bond Stress

This concept of design bond stress finally results in additional length of a

(b) Design bond stress – values

For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786, these values shall be increased by 60

(a) A single bar

Figure 6.15.1(a) shows a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly

π φ (Ld) (τbd) = (π φ 2 σs /4)

Equation 6.11, thus gives

(b) Bars bundled in contact

• In addition to single bar, bars may be arranged in pairs in contact or in

• Bars larger than 32 mm diameter shall not be bundled, except in columns.

Curtailment of bundled bars should be done by terminating at different

6.15.4 Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension

(i) At least one-third of the positive moment reinforcement in simple members

(iii) The diameter of the positive moment reinforcement shall be limited to a

where M1 = moment of resistance of the section assuming all reinforcement at

V = shear force at the section due to design loads,

6.15.5 Derivation of the Limiting Ld (Eq. 6.13)

At the face of simple support and at the points of inflection in continuous

From Eqs.6.14 and 6.15,

where ∑ 0 = N π φ = total perimeter of all bars in tension at the section.

Again, for N bars of equal diameter, we get from Eq. 6.11:

N π φ Ld τ bd = Ast σ s = Ast 0.87 f y (when σ s = 0.87 f y ),

Equations 6.17 and 6.18 give:

where M 1 = 0.87 f y Ast z is the moment of resistance at the section and

V = shear force at the section

6.15.6 Anchoring Reinforcing Bars

The salient points are:

• Hooks should normally be provided for plain bars in tension.

• Standard hooks and bends should be as per IS 2502 or as given in Table

• The anchorage value of standard bend shall be considered as 4 times the

• The anchorage value of standard U-type hook shall be 16 times the

(b) Bars in compression (cl. 26.2.2.2 of IS 456)

Here, the salient points are:

(c) Bars in shear (cl. 26.2.2.4 of IS 456)

The salient points are:

• For stirrups, transverse ties and other secondary reinforcement, complete

6.15.7 Bearing Stresses at Bends (cl. 26.2.2.5 of IS 456)

r = internal radius of the bend, and

φ = size of the bar or bar of equivalent area in bundled bars.

where fck = characteristic cube strength of concrete

a = center to center distance between bars or groups of bars

6.15.8 Change in Direction of Reinforcement (cl. 26.2.2.6 of

(a) Lap Splices (cl. 26.2.5.1 of IS 456)

The following are the salient points:

• They should be used for bar diameters up to 36 mm.