11/3/2023

Railway Engineering

1.Introduction
2.History
3.Roll of indian railway in national development
4.Alignment
5.Function of permanent way
6.Component of permanent way
6.1Rails
6.2Sleepers
6.3Fasteners
6.4Ballast

OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION

Types of components and functions:

• Gauge
• Rail
• Fittings
• Ballast
• Embankments
• Subgrade

1
 11/3/2023

OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION

⚫ Coning of wheel
⚫ Super-elevation
⚫ points and crossing
⚫ signaling and Interlocking
⚫ Yard
⚫ junction and terminal.

INTRODUCTION

Rail transportation, also known as railroads or railways, is a crucial mode of land

transportation that involves the movement of goods and passengers on a network of
tracks or rails. It has been a fundamental part of global transportation systems for
centuries.

2
 11/3/2023

HISTORY

Rail transportation dates back to the early 19th century when steam locomotives were
first introduced. The invention of the steam engine and the development of iron and
steel tracks revolutionized transportation.

The first passenger train in India ran between

Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane on 16 April
1853. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three
steam locomotives – Sahib, Sindh and Sultan; it
carried 400 people and ran on a line of 34
kilometres (21 mi) built and operated by the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway.

Roll of Indian Railway in National Development

The Indian Railways has played a significant role in the national development of India for
several reasons:
1. Connectivity:* Indian Railways is one of the largest rail networks in the world, spanning the
entire country. It connects remote villages, towns, and cities, making transportation
accessible to even the most far-flung areas. This connectivity promotes economic growth
and social development.
2. Economic Growth:* The railways are a crucial mode of transportation for goods and people.
They facilitate the movement of raw materials, agricultural produce, and finished goods
across the country. This lowers transportation costs, boosts trade, and supports various
industries.
3. Employment:* Indian Railways is a significant employer, providing jobs to millions of people
directly and indirectly. From station staff to engineers, it offers diverse job opportunities,
contributing to livelihoods and reducing unemployment.
4. Tourism:* The railways promote tourism by offering scenic train routes, heritage trains, and
affordable travel options. This contributes to the tourism industry's growth and the country's
overall revenue.

3
 11/3/2023

5. Social Inclusion:* Railways have made travel affordable for a wide range of people,
including those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. This promotes social
inclusion and allows people to access healthcare, education, and other essential
services in different parts of the country.
6. Industrial Development:* The establishment of railway networks often leads to the
growth of industries and towns along the railway lines. This, in turn, contributes to
regional development and economic diversification.
7. Energy Efficiency:* Compared to road transportation, railways are more energy-
efficient and environmentally friendly. They help reduce the carbon footprint by
transporting goods and passengers in a more sustainable manner.
8. Strategic Importance:* Indian Railways also plays a crucial role in national security
and defense by facilitating the rapid movement of troops and military equipment.
In summary, Indian Railways serves as the backbone of the country's transportation
infrastructure and plays a multifaceted role in promoting economic growth, social
development, and national integration.

Alignment

The basic requirements of railway alignment include:

1. *Straight Sections:* Straight tracks are necessary for trains to operate at high
speeds efficiently.
2. *Gradual Curves:* When curves are necessary, they should have a gentle radius
to avoid excessive wear on wheels and rails.
3. *Proper Gradient:* The track should have a gradient (slope) that allows trains to
climb or descend hills at a manageable pace.
4. *Smooth Transitions:* Smooth transitions between straight and curved sections to
prevent derailments.
5. *Clearances:* Adequate clearance from structures, platforms, and other tracks to
ensure safety.
6. *Proper Drainage:* Good drainage to prevent waterlogging and track damage.
7. *Alignment with Stations:* Proper alignment with railway stations for passenger
convenience.

4
 11/3/2023

functions of permanent way

Basic requirements of an ideal permanent way :-

The alignment of railway line should be correct.

The track should possess sufficient elasticity, sufficient lateral rigidity and
stiffness.
The track should be designed such that the load of train distribute uniformly
over it.
The gauge of track should be correct and uniform.
The friction between the wheels of rolling stock and rail should be minimum.
Facilities of repair, replacement etc of damage portion of track should be
adequate.

Components of permanent way

1. Rails
2. Sleepers
3. Fasteners
4. Ballast.

5
 11/3/2023

1)RAIL :- Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an
unchanging, continuous and level surface for the movement of trains. They are made
of high-carbon steel.

Functions -
● It provides a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
● They provide a smooth pathway with very little friction.
● They serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
● They carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the
formation through sleepers and the ballast.

Types - there are three types of rails.

1. Double headed rails (D. H. Rails)
2. Bull headed rails (B.H. Rails)
3. Flat footed rails (F. F. Rails

2)SLEEPERS :- Sleepers are the traverse members of the track placed below the rails
to support and fix them in position.

Functions -
● It holds the rails in their correct gauge and alignment.
● It gives a firm and supports the rails.
● It transfers the load from the rails to the ballast.
● It acts as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows
and vibrations cause by moving loads.
● It provides longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way.

Types - the sleepers mostly used in Indian railways are

1. Wooden sleepers
2. Cost Iron sleepers
3. Steel sleepers
4. Concrete sleepers

6
 11/3/2023

3) BALLAST :- Ballast is the granular material which is spread on the top of the
railway foundation and around the sleepers.

Functions -
● To hold the sleepers in position.
● To prevent the sleepers from lateral and longitudinal movement.
● To distribute the axle load uniformly from sleepers to a large area of formation.
● To drain rain water from the track.
● To provide easy means of maintaining the correct levels of the two rails in a
track.
Types -
1. Broken stone
2. Gravel
3. Sand
4. Ashes or cinders
5. Moorum

4) FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS :- Fixtures and fastenings are fittings require for
joining of rails end to end also for fixing the rails to sleepers in a track.

Functions -
● To join the rails end to end to form full length of track.
● To fix the rails to sleepers.
● To maintain the correct alignment of track.
● To provide proper expansion gap between rails.
● To maintain the required tilt of rails.
● To sets the points and crossings in proper position.
Types -
1. Fish plates
2. Bearing plates
3. Spikes
4. Chairs
5. Bolts
6. Keys
7. Anticreepers

7
 11/3/2023

GAUGE

• The clear horizontal distance

between the inner faces of two
rails forming the track at the top is
called gauge of the rail.

 There are four types of railway

gauge in India:
1. Broad gauge (B.G) 1.676 m
2. Meter gauge (M.G) 1.00 m
3. Narrow gauge (N.G) 0.762 m
4. Light gauge (L.G) 0.610 m

RAIL

• Rails provide a smooth path for the movement of trains at

high speed.
• They are rolled I sections.
• They are fixed to sleepers by various fastening and rest on
sleepers.

 Types of rails:
1. Double headed rails (D.H. Rails)
2. Bull headed rails (B.H. Rails)
3. Flat footed rails (F.F. Rails)

8
 11/3/2023

TYPES OF RAILS
1. Double headed rails:
• It consists of upper table, web and lower table having upper
and lower table identical and length varying from 6.10 m to
7.32 m
2. Bull headed rails:
• The head is larger than the foot and foot is designed only to
properly hold the wooden keys with which rails are secured to
chairs. The length of rail is generally 18.29m
• 3. Flat footed rails:
• It was originally thought that the flat footed rails could be fixed
to the sleepers directly and would eliminate chairs and keys
required for B.H. rails.

FITTINGS
• The purpose of providing track fittings and fastening in
railway track is to hold the rails in their proper position in
order to ensure the smooth running of trains.
• These fittings and fastening are used for joining rails
together as well as fixing them to the sleepers.
 The different types of fittings commonly used in India
are:
1. Fish plates
2. Spikes
3. Bolts
4. Chairs
5. Blocks
6. Keys
7. Plates

9
 11/3/2023

FITTINGS
1. Fish Plates:- The function of a fish plate is to hold two rails
together in both the horizontal and vertical planes and to
maintain the correct alignment.
2. Spikes:- Spikes are used for holding the rails to the wooden
sleepers. These can be used with or without bearing plates
below the rails.
3. Blocks:- When two rails run very close as in case of check
rails small blocks are inserted in between the two rails and
bolted to maintain the required distance or spacing.
4. Keys:- These are small tapered pieces of timber or steel used
to fix rails to chairs on metal sleepers.
5. Bearing plates:- Bearing plates are used for fixing wooden
sleepers to rails. They are made of M.S. or C.I. and placed
below F.F. rails to distribute the load on a larger area of
timber sleeper.

BALLAST

• It is a layer of broken stone or any other suitable material

which is spread on the top of railway formation and around the
sleeper.
• The ballast is given side slope of 1.5:1.
• Materials used in ballast are granite, trap quartzite, etc.
 Functions of ballast:
• It provides a hard and level bed for sleepers to rest on.
• It discourage the growth of vegetation on the track.
• It imparts some degree of elasticity to the track.

BALLAST

10
 11/3/2023

EMBANKMENTS

• An embankment is an artificial barrier that typically

is used to hold back water or to support a railway.
• It is prepared by levelling the ground and
necessary cutting and filling.
• The embankment is provided side slopes of 1:2.

SUBGRADE

• The role of the subgrade in railways is similar to that of

a building foundation.
• The applied load are transferred by the deflection of
the rail to the ballast and then passed on via the
subgrade to the subsoil.

11
 11/3/2023

Introduction Of Indian Railway

⚫ Historical Significance: Railways have a rich history, dating back to the early 19th
century. They revolutionized transportation by providing a reliable means of moving
goods and people over long distances, fueling industrialization and economic
growth.
⚫ Efficient Land Transport: Railways are known for their efficiency in moving large
volumes of goods and passengers. They offer a dedicated and reliable mode of
land transport, reducing congestion on roads and highways.
⚫ Sustainability: Railways are an eco-friendly mode of transportation. Electric and
hybrid locomotives are increasingly used, reducing carbon emissions and
minimizing environmental impact compared to road and air transport.
⚫ Mass Transit: In urban areas, railways play a crucial role in mass transit systems.
Trains provide a cost-effective and efficient way to move large numbers of
commuters, reducing traffic congestion and air pollution

⚫ Freight Transportation: Railways are essential for transporting bulk commodities

like coal, minerals, and agricultural products. They are especially well-suited for
long-distance freight transportation.
⚫ Global Connectivity: Railways connect countries and continents, forming
international trade corridors. Projects like the Trans-Siberian Railway and the Silk
Road Economic Belt exemplify their global reach.
⚫ Reliability and Safety: Railways are known for their safety and reliability. They
have dedicated tracks, controlled signaling systems, and rigorous safety protocols,
reducing the risk of accidents.
⚫ Economic Impact: Railways contribute significantly to the economy by generating
jobs, fostering trade, and supporting industries related to rail infrastructure and
equipment manufacturing.

12
 11/3/2023

Coning of wheel

⚫ Definition:
The surface of wheels are made in cone shaped at an inclination of 1 in 20, and
the same slope is provided in the rails.
⚫ Concept:

If the tread of the wheels are flat then there will be movement between wheel &
rails due to which vehicle not be maintained in central position due to which there will
be unequal distribution of load. To avoid that coning of wheels should be done.

⚫ How it works :-
⚫ Straight track :-
For smooth riding track should not touches the flange for that track should
touch center of the wheel and this insure by coning of wheels. Coning of Wheel Treads

13
 11/3/2023

⚫ Curved track :-
For outer wheels have to cover greater distance than inner wheel due to
centrifugal force, due to coning of wheels diameter of wheels increases over outer rail
and decreases over in inner rail. Theory of coning

⚫ Purpose
1. Reduces Wear and Tear: Coning helps distribute the wear and tear on both the rails and the
wheels more evenly. Without coning, the outer wheel travels a longer distance than the inner
wheel when negotiating curves, leading to uneven wear and the need for more frequent
maintenance.
2. Enhances Stability: The conical shape of the wheels ensures that the train maintains a
stable and centered position on the tracks, even while negotiating curves at high speeds. This
stability is essential for passenger comfort and safety.
3. Minimizes Lateral Forces: When a train goes around a curve, there are lateral forces at play,
trying to push the train off the tracks. Coning helps counteract these forces by ensuring that
the outer wheel has a slightly larger diameter, which effectively reduces the lateral forces and
helps prevent derailments.
4. Reduces Noise: Coning helps reduce the noise generated by the interaction between the
train wheels and the rails, as it promotes smoother and more even contact between the two.
5. Improves Energy Efficiency: By reducing friction and lateral forces, coning of wheels
contributes to improved energy efficiency in train operations. This is especially important for
high-speed trains where energy conservation is a key consideration.

14
 11/3/2023

6. Enhances Safety: Overall, coning of wheels contributes to the overall safety of

railway operations by reducing the risk of derailments and ensuring that trains can
navigate curves smoothly and safely.
Disadvantages:
1. Due to centrifugal force, the horizontal components tends to turn out and rail has
widening tendency If no base plate is used under void sleeper under the age of the
rails are damaged.
2. Pressure on outer rail is more than inner rail this result in wear of outer rail This
disadvantages can be prevent by tilting of the rails.

Super-elevation

⚫ Super elevation, also known as cant or banking, is a design feature commonly used
in railway tracks to allow trains to safely negotiate curves. It involves tilting the
track or the train itself to counteract the centrifugal forces that occur when a train
travels around a curve. Here's an explanation of super elevation point by point

15
 11/3/2023

⚫ Definition:
1. Super elevation is the process of tilting or banking a railway track laterally
(horizontally) to raise the outer rail higher than the inner rail when a train
approaches and traverses a curve
2. In a super elevated track, the outer rail (the rail on the outer side of the curve) is
raised higher than the inner rail. The height difference between the two rails is
known as the "cant" or "cant deficiency.".
⚫ Purpose:

1. Super elevation serves to counteract the centrifugal force that pushes the train
outward when traveling around a curve. By tilting the track or the train, it helps
maintain stability and prevent derailments.
2. The primary purpose of super elevation is to enhance the safety and stability of
trains on curved sections of the track. Without super elevation, there would be a
greater risk of trains derailing due to the lateral forces acting on the wheels.

• Formula:
The amount of super elevation is typically calculated based on the train's speed and the radius of the curve.
There is a mathematical formula used to determine the correct amount of cant. The formula takes into account factors
like the train's speed, track gauge, and the curve's radius.

16
 11/3/2023

Points And Crossing

⚫ In railway tracks, a "crossing" refers to a specialized track arrangement where two

railway lines intersect or cross each other at the same level. Crossings are
designed to allow trains to move from one track to another safely and efficiently.
There are two main types of crossings: level crossings (grade crossings) and
diamond crossings.

⚫ Level Crossing (Grade Crossing):

A level crossing, also known as a grade crossing or railway crossing, is a point
where a railway track intersects a road or pedestrian pathway at the same level. These
crossings typically involve the use of gates, barriers, flashing lights, or warning signs to
alert road users and pedestrians about approaching trains.
⚫ Purpose:

1. The primary purpose of a level crossing is to facilitate the safe passage of both
trains and road traffic. It allows vehicles and pedestrians to cross the railway
tracks without the need for bridges or tunnels.
2. To prevent accidents, level crossings are equipped with various safety devices to
warn motorists and pedestrians of approaching trains.

17
 11/3/2023

⚫ Diamond Crossing:
A diamond crossing is a more complex type of railway track arrangement
where two railway lines intersect at a specific angle, forming a diamond shape when
viewed from above. The diamond crossing allows trains to move from one track to
another without the need for switching or diverting.
⚫ Purpose:

1. Diamond crossings are used to facilitate the efficient movement of trains from one
track to another, especially in rail yards, junctions, and interchanges. They allow
trains to cross over to different tracks while maintaining the same level.
2. These crossings are often used for routing trains onto parallel tracks, merging or
diverging tracks, or allowing trains to cross tracks without stopping.

⚫ Purpose
⚫ Facilitating Track Interchanges: Crossings enable trains to switch from one track to
another, which is essential for managing train traffic, routing trains onto different lines, or
merging multiple tracks.
⚫ Maintaining Track Levels: Level crossings ensure that roads and pedestrian pathways can
safely cross railway tracks at the same level. This eliminates the need for steep inclines or
declines.
⚫ Enhancing Safety: Safety is a primary concern for both level crossings and diamond
crossings. Safety measures such as warning signs, barriers, gates, and signals are
employed to prevent accidents and protect road users, pedestrians, and train passengers.
⚫ Optimizing Track Utilization: Diamond crossings play a critical role in optimizing the
utilization of railway tracks, particularly in busy rail yards, junctions, and terminals. They
allow for efficient and continuous train movements.
⚫ It's important to note that safety is of paramount importance at railway crossings, and
various safety protocols and equipment are put in place to reduce the risk of accidents and
ensure the safe coexistence of trains and other modes of transportation

18
 11/3/2023

⚫ Types Of Crossing

1) Double Cross

⚫ 2) Diamond Crossing

19
 11/3/2023

Points

Points:
A "point" in railway tracks, often referred to as a railroad switch or turnout, is a
mechanical device that allows trains to change tracks or switch from one track to
another. Points are a fundamental component of railway infrastructure and are
essential for the safe and efficient operation of the rail network.

1. Structure and Components:

⚫ Switch Rails: Points consist of two sets of rails: the mainline or stock rails and the
switch or branch rails. The switch rails are movable and can be adjusted to guide
the train onto a different track.
⚫ Frog: The frog is a diamond-shaped component located at the intersection of the
switch rails and the stock rails. It allows wheels to pass smoothly from one track to
another.
⚫ Point Lever: The point lever is a manual or motorized device that controls the
position of the switch rails. It is operated by a railway signalman or remotely
through a control system.

20
 11/3/2023

2. Purpose of Points:
⚫ Track Divergence: The primary purpose of points is to allow trains to diverge from
the mainline onto a different track. This is essential for routing trains to different
destinations, sidings, yards, or platforms.
⚫ Routing and Sorting: Points enable the sorting of trains onto various tracks for
different purposes, such as freight classification yards where trains are sorted
based on their cargo.
⚫ Avoiding Obstacles: Points are used to divert a train onto a different track to avoid
obstructions or track maintenance work on the mainline.
⚫ Access to Platforms: In passenger rail systems, points provide access to different
platforms at a station, allowing trains to stop and load/unload passengers.
⚫ Crossing Lines: At junctions where multiple railway lines intersect, points are used
to connect tracks, allowing trains to switch between lines.
⚫ Maintenance and Repair: Points are also used to guide maintenance and repair
equipment onto tracks that need attention.

Signaling And Interlocking

Signaling
⚫ Signaling in railways refers to a complex system of visual, auditory, and

electronic devices and protocols designed to control the movement of

trains on a railway network safely and efficiently. The primary purpose of
railway signaling is to prevent accidents, ensure the orderly flow of
trains, and enable the safe and efficient operation of the railway network.
Here, I will explain the key components and principles of railway
signaling and its purposes in detail.

21
 11/3/2023

⚫ Purposes of Railway Signaling:

1. Safety: The primary purpose of railway signaling is to ensure the safety of train
operations. It prevents collisions, derailments, and other accidents by controlling
train movements and ensuring that trains do not enter occupied sections of track.
2. Efficiency: Signaling systems help optimize the use of railway tracks and
infrastructure. By allowing for the orderly flow of trains and managing their speed,
signaling systems maximize the capacity of the railway network.
3. Coordination: In a complex railway network, multiple trains often share the same
tracks. Signaling systems coordinate the movements of trains, allowing them to
pass each other at designated locations like stations and sidings.
4. Routing: Railway signals and interlocking's guide trains onto the correct tracks and
through junctions. This ensures that trains follow their intended routes and avoid
getting onto tracks occupied by other trains.

5. Speed Control: Signaling systems can enforce speed restrictions on sections of

track, especially in areas with curves, gradients, or potential hazards. This helps
prevent accidents due to excessive speed.
6. Emergency Response: In the event of an emergency or a malfunction, signaling
systems can quickly stop all train movements and alert operators to take
appropriate actions.
7. Maintenance and Inspection: Signaling systems can help monitor the condition
of tracks and infrastructure. Track circuits can detect faults or obstructions on the
track, allowing maintenance crews to respond promptly.
8. Operational Information: Railway signaling provides operators with real-time
information about train locations, speeds, and status. This information is crucial for
making operational decisions and responding to unexpected events.

22
 11/3/2023

Interlocking
⚫ An interlocking system in railways is a critical safety mechanism that helps control
the movement of trains and ensures the safety of railway operations. It is a
complex system of signals, switches, and locking devices designed to prevent
conflicting movements of trains, thereby reducing the risk of accidents. The primary
purpose of an interlocking system is to maintain safe distances between trains and
to facilitate the efficient and orderly flow of rail traffic. Let's delve into the details of
how an interlocking system works and its significance.

⚫ Purpose of an Interlocking System:

⚫ Safety: The primary purpose of an interlocking system is to enhance railway safety
by preventing collisions, derailments, and other accidents. It enforces strict rules
and logic to ensure that trains can only move in safe and authorized directions.
⚫ Efficiency: While safety is paramount, an interlocking system also helps optimize
railway operations by allowing for the efficient movement of trains. It ensures that
multiple trains can safely share the same track network without conflicts.
⚫ Traffic Management: Interlocking systems facilitate the orderly flow of rail traffic by
coordinating the movements of trains, avoiding congestion, and reducing delays.
⚫ Redundancy: Interlocking systems are often designed with redundancy to ensure
continuous operation, even in the event of equipment failures or power outages.

23
 11/3/2023

Yard

⚫ In railways, a "yard" refers to a specific area of a rail facility where trains are sorted,
assembled, and disassembled. Railway yards are essential components of a
railway network, responsible for sorting, assembling, maintaining, and facilitating
the transfer of goods and locomotives. They play a crucial role in ensuring the
efficiency and reliability of rail transportation systems.
⚫ It is essentially a large marshaling or classification yard where various railcars and
locomotives are organized to form trains for their respective destinations. Yards
play a crucial role in the efficient operation of a railway network, as they enable the
sorting and routing of rail traffic.

Yard

⚫ Purposes of Railway Yards:

1. Sorting and Assembly: The primary purpose of railway yards is to sort incoming
trains, disassemble them if necessary, and assemble outbound trains based on their
destinations or the next phase of their journey. This ensures the efficient flow of rail
traffic.
2. Maintenance: Engine terminals within railway yards serve as maintenance and
repair centers for locomotives. Regular maintenance and servicing are essential to
keep locomotives in optimal working condition.
3. Storage: Yards also serve as storage facilities for railcars and locomotives not
currently in use, ensuring they are readily available when needed.
4. Crew Change: Some railway yards have facilities for changing train crews, allowing
for continuous operation of trains on long routes.
5. Fueling and Sanding: Yards with locomotive service facilities provide fueling and
sanding services, which are crucial for locomotive operation.

24
11/3/2023

25
 11/3/2023

Junction And Terminal

Junction:
 A junction in a railway system refers to a location where two or more railway lines or
tracks converge, diverge, or intersect. It is a point on the railway network where
trains can change their direction or switch from one track to another.
 Junctions are essential for enabling trains to move between different routes,
branches, or lines, and they often involve complex signaling and switching systems
to ensure safe and efficient operations.
 Junctions can serve various purposes, such as allowing trains to switch between
mainlines, access sidings, or connect with other rail networks.

⚫ Purposes of Railway Junctions:

⚫ Facilitate the merging of multiple railway lines or routes.
⚫ Enable trains to change tracks for various reasons, including changing direction,
accessing different destinations, or avoiding obstacles.
⚫ Improve the overall efficiency and flexibility of the railway network.
⚫ Minimize congestion and delays by providing alternative routes for trains

26
 11/3/2023

Terminal:
⚫ A terminal, in the context of railways, is a facility or station at the end of a railway
line where trains originate, terminate, or are temporarily stored. Terminals are
typically located in urban areas and serve as major transportation hubs.
⚫ Terminals often have various facilities and services, including passenger platforms,
ticketing and waiting areas, freight handling facilities, and maintenance yards.
Passengers and goods may be transferred between different modes of
transportation, such as buses, subways, or trucks, at terminals.
⚫ Terminals can be classified into different types, such as passenger terminals (for
handling passenger trains), freight terminals (for handling cargo and freight trains),
and intermodal terminals (facilities that facilitate the transfer of goods between
trains and other modes of transportation).

⚫ Purposes of Railway Terminals:

⚫ Serve as a starting or ending point for train journeys, allowing passengers to
access different parts of a region or country.
⚫ Facilitate the transfer of passengers and cargo between trains and other forms of
transportation.
⚫ Provide passenger services and amenities to enhance the travel experience.
⚫ Play a crucial role in the integration of rail transportation with urban and regional
transit systems.

27