Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering: Shuai Heng, Xianzhong Li, Xiao Liu, Yan Chen

Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 76 (2020) 103161
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jngse
Experimental study on the mechanical properties of bedding planes in shale

Shuai Heng a, b, Xianzhong Li a, b, Xiao Liu a, b, *, Yan Chen a
a
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, Henan 454000, China
b
Collaborative Innovation Center of Coalbed Methane and Shale Gas for Central Plains Economic Zone, Jiaozuo, Henan 454000, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keyword: Multi-stage fracturing of horizontal wells to recover shale gas has attracted substantial renewed interest in the
Longmaxi shale physical and mechanical characteristics of shale. The mechanical characteristics, typically the strong anisotropy,
Bedding planes significantly affect the nucleation and propagation of hydraulic fractures, as the nucleation mechanisms and
Mechanical properties
propagation pathways primarily depend on the interaction between the actual in situ stress conditions and the
Anisotropy
Fracture propagation
anisotropic mechanical properties. However, there remains a lack of effective experimental data on the me
chanical properties of the rock matrix and bedding planes. To investigate the mechanical properties, a series of
tests, including Brazilian, direct shear and three-point-bending (TPB) tests, were performed on variously shaped
Longmaxi shale samples in distinct bedding orientations relative to the loading directions. The results showed
that the tensile strength, cohesion, internal friction angle and mode-I fracture toughness of the bedding planes
are 4.713 MPa, 8.93 MPa, 31.216� and 0.566 MPa⋅m1/2, respectively, which are significantly lower than the rock
matrix, corresponding to values of 13.164 MPa, 16.175 MPa, 36.222� and 0.957 MPa⋅m1/2, respectively. This
finding demonstrated that the bedding layers are weakness planes on tensile strength, shear strength and fracture
toughness in a quantitative manner. However, the values for the rock matrix and Arrester orientation are
generally very similar; hence, the mechanical parameters of the rock matrix, especially the fracture toughness
and tensile strength, can be approximated by the values determined in the Arrester orientation. For fractures
propagating in the direction normal or oblique to bedding, a complex fracture geometry with tortuous propa
gation pathways is usually generated by bedding cracking and/or fracture deviation towards the bedding-parallel
orientation. The mechanical characteristics of the bedding layers play a vitally important part in shale gas
development, including the fracture-initiation pressure (FIP) prediction, borehole stability analysis, hydraulic
fracture propagation pathways, and complex fracture network generation.
1. Introduction petroleum engineering. More recently, worldwide large-scale shale gas

exploitation has attracted much renewed attention on the anisotropy of
Shale, with characteristics of breaks along bedding or parallel shale. The anisotropy was attributed to the favourably oriented platy
layering or thin laminations less than 1 cm in thickness, is a widely clay minerals during sedimentation, the presence of pre-existing dis
distributed fine-grained sedimentary rock. Shale plays an important role continuities such as foliation, schistosity, bedding planes, micro-cracks,
not only in hydrocarbon resources but also in geological underground fractures, and joints (Jin et al., 2018; Lisjak et al., 2014; Loon, 2008).
storage, where shale can behave as source rocks, cap rocks, and/or both. The pre-existing discontinuities, particularly the natural fractures and
Many economic and practical issues (e.g., borehole stability evaluation, bedding layers, usually act as weakness planes that not only produce
reservoir properties, seal integrity and hydraulic fracturing) are heavily mechanical properties that vary with the bedding orientations relative
affected by the physical and mechanical behaviour of shale under in situ to the loading directions but also divert fracture propagation (Chandler
conditions. et al., 2016; Heng et al., 2015b, c; Jin et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2015).
Until now, many researchers have noted that anisotropy is one of the Previous work related to the discontinuities in shale has mostly
most typical characteristics that must be given due attention in shale- concentrated on the mechanical anisotropy induced by the bedding
related engineering, whether it is applied in mining, tunnel excava planes. In general, mechanical properties, including strength, deform
tions, foundations, civil engineering, slopes, nuclear waste disposal, or ability, and fracturability, are the focus of most experimental studies
* Corresponding author
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Liu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2020.103161
Received 9 September 2019; Received in revised form 2 December 2019; Accepted 9 January 2020
Available online 21 January 2020
1875-5100/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Heng et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 76 (2020) 103161
because they are basic characteristics required for laboratory and field et al., 2018; Heng et al., 2015b; Lee et al., 2015). However, all these
investigations. Therefore, a variety of experimental methods have been studies were focused on the weakness of the bedding planes in resisting
employed to explore the anisotropic mechanical properties of shale. fracture growth. The fracture toughness of the rock matrix and bedding
Uniaxial and triaxial compression tests have always been the most planes has not been completely studied.
common methodologies to measure mechanical anisotropy and its In general, until now, the anisotropic mechanical properties of shale
variation with increasing confining pressure (Chen et al., 2014; Cho have received wide attention. A number of available results have been
et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2015; Heng et al., 2015c; Jin et al., 2018; presented, such as bedding planes weakness in terms of strength prop
McLamore and Gray, 1967; Niandou et al., 1997). The results indicated erties, and the important roles played by bedding planes in fracture
that significant anisotropy of strength, deformability, and fracturability propagation. However, the mechanical properties of the bedding planes,
are exhibited for shale, with the greatest strength obtained either in the such as the tensile strength, fracture toughness and shear strength, are
bedding normal or bedding parallel orientation. The lowest value was not systemically studied to provide quantitative values, and even weak
typically obtained in specimens with bedding oriented at approximately planes exist in other rocks. It has been accepted by almost all researchers
a 30� angle to the compressive load. A strictly monotonous change was that the tensile and shear strength of the bedding planes are substan
observed for the elastic modulus of samples with distinct bedding ori tially lower than the rock matrix. Moreover, the bedding tensile strength
entations. The greatest and lowest elastic moduli were obtained when has often been assumed to be zero in analogue and numerical models of
the bedding was oriented parallel and perpendicular to the loading di fracture propagation and magma intrusion (Blanton, 1982; Kavanagh
rection, respectively. With the increase in confining pressure in triaxial and Pavier, 2014). Previous work related to these weakness planes has
compression tests, the strength anisotropy was always reduced. How focused mostly on discontinuities without tensile strength but with
ever, the deformability anisotropy, which was characterized by the friction, which is quite different from the field situation (Gu et al., 2011;
elastic modulus, was customarily increased. Moreover, failure mecha Lee et al., 2015; Kavanagh et al., 2014; Renshaw and Pollard, 1995;
nism anisotropy was also observed in the uniaxial and triaxial Warpinski and Teufel, 1987; Wang et al., 2018). Consequently, this
compression tests; however, the degree of anisotropy was gradually study can not only help us to better understand the mechanical char
reduced with the increase in confinement (Chen et al., 2014; Cho et al., acteristics of the rock matrix and bedding layers but also provide
2012; Heng et al., 2015c; Jin et al., 2018; Niandou et al., 1997). The important parameters for borehole stability analysis, hydraulic frac
Brazilian test was performed on disc-shaped specimens to understand turing design, FIP prediction, and the generation of complex fracture
the tensile strength anisotropy and fracturability anisotropy (He and pathways.
Afolagboye, 2018; Hou et al., 2016a, b; Mokhtari and Tutuncu, 2016; In this study, Brazilian, direct shear, and TPB tests were performed
Vervoort et al., 2014;Wang et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2015). The test on variously shaped specimens with distinct bedding orientations rela
results were also strongly dependent on the bedding orientations with tive to the loading directions, to measure the tensile strength, shear
respect to the loading directions, suggesting significant anisotropy of the strength and mode-I fracture toughness of the rock matrix and bedding
tensile strength and failure mechanism. Moreover, a direct shear test layers of Longmaxi shale. The mechanisms by which the bedding planes
was also conducted by Heng et al. (2015a) to explore the shear strength influenced the strength characteristics and failure mechanisms were
(parameters) anisotropy and fracturability anisotropy. Not surprisingly, then revealed. Finally, the importance of the mechanical properties of
distinct anisotropy was also shown for the shear strength (parameters) the bedding planes was assessed in controlling the borehole stability,
and failure mechanism. To summarize, all the researchers accepted the fracture propagation pathways, and formation of complex fracture
fact that mechanical anisotropy mainly resulted from low bedding geometry.
strength, but none of them exhaustively studied the mechanical char
acteristics of the bedding layers. 2. Sample selection and specimen preparation
The bedding layers also act as planes of weakness that deviate frac
ture growth. Many field observations and laboratory tests have 2.1. Sample selection
demonstrated that the branched fractures, non-planar growth fractures
and complex fracture networks that are widely grown in layered shale The Sichuan Basin in Southwest China is one of the main regions for
contribute to the well-developed bedding planes (Geshi, 2008; Sturze shale gas exploration and development in China. Shale gas development
negger et al., 2007; Warpinski and Teufel, 1987). The bedding plane has in the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the eastern Sichuan Basin
a great impact on fracture growth, whether a fracture passes through or has achieved major breakthroughs in recent years. It has been
is deviated / arrested at a bedding plane (Cooke and Underwood, 2001; commercialized in the Jiaoshiba area in Fuling district and Changning
Larsen et al., 2010). The stiffness (elastic modulus) and strength of the area in the Yibin district. However, as relatively intact cores were
bedding planes are typically lower than the intact rock, and they are extremely difficult to acquire from subsurface shale gas wells due to easy
widely accepted as weakness planes, especially in tensile and shear splitting of the bedding planes during coring, the tested samples were
strength. However, fracture toughness is usually regarded as a critical taken from an outcrop of the Longmaxi shale in the Shizhu District,
mechanical parameter to quantify the resistance of a material to frac Chongqing City in the eastern Sichuan Basin. The location of the study
ture. Therefore, the fracture toughness and its anisotropy are essential to block is shown in Fig. 1. The shale obtained in this outcrop is a dark-
evaluate the impact of bedding layers on the generation of complex black shale with a relatively simple lithology. It is also a fine-grained
fracture geometry. Three-point-bending (TPB) tests were conducted on shale, with well-developed laminations. The layered laminations
variously shaped samples to study the anisotropic fracture toughness formed in sedimentation can be observed using a digital microscope
and its effect on fracture propagation (Chandler et al., 2016; Dou et al., through thin shale slices, as shown in Fig. 2. The laminations, which
2019; Forbes Inskip et al., 2018; Heng et al., 2015b; Lee et al., 2015; Luo typically occur as parallel planar structure, are approximately 1.0 mm in
et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017a). The test results revealed strong thickness (He and Afolagboye, 2017). The presence of bedding planes
anisotropy for the fracture toughness, with values ranging from 0.2-1.5 can lead to a remarkably anisotropic action on the strength and me
MPa⋅m0.5. The lowest and greatest values were obtained for cracks chanical behaviour of the shale.
propagating parallel and perpendicular to the bedding, respectively. The During sampling, the serious weathering surfaces of the outcrops
strong anisotropy of fracture toughness was thought to be a possible were first removed. The bottom fresh outcrops with good preservation
mechanism for the generation of the intricate fracture morphology. and relatively weak damage were collected. The selected large blocks
Fractures that progress in the direction normal or oblique to the bedding should be relatively intact and without visible large-scale pre-existing
planes typically deviate towards the weak bedding parallel orientation natural cracks or flaws, and they also should be far away from the pyrite
under certain stress conditions (Chandler et al., 2016; Forbes Inskip nodule belt and quartz and feldspar veins. The collected blocks with the
2
Fig. 1. Location of the study block where the tested specimens were collected.
defined, as illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4. As shown in Figs. 3 and 4, the

crack faces are perpendicular to the bedding, but the crack grows in the
bedding parallel direction for the Divider specimens. Both the crack
faces and crack growth are parallel to the bedding for Short Transverse
specimens. However, both the crack faces and crack growth are
perpendicular to the bedding for the Arrester orientation. For a hori
zontally layered shale formation, the three typical crack orientations in
turn correspond to a vertical fracture progressing vertically, a vertical
Fig. 2. Magnified view of the lamination structure of the shale using a digital
microscope (He and Afolagboye, 2018).
smallest dimensions larger than 300 mm were instantly sealed with

polyvinyl chloride (PVC) thin-film to avoid weathering, wetting-drying
cycles, and collision during processing and transportation.
2.2. Sample preparation
Shale is a typical sedimentary rock and is usually considered to be a

transversely isotropic material with varying mechanical behaviour with
Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of the three typical crack orientations relative to
the loading direction relative to the isotropy (bedding) plane (Amadei,
the sample axis, bedding planes and loading direction in Brazilian tests: Divider,
1996; Jin et al., 2018). For a transversely isotropic material, three
Short Transverse, and Arrester. The solid lines in the disc-shaped transverse
typical crack orientations with regard to the isotropy plane, namely,
section depict the bedding planes.
Divider, Short Transverse, and Arrester (Chong et al., 1987), can be
Fig. 3. Schematic diagrams of the three typical crack orientations relative to bedding in Straight-Notched bending (SNB) specimens: Divider, Short Transverse, and
Arrester (Chong et al., 1987). The dashed lines on the specimens depict the bedding planes.
3
fracture progressing horizontally, and a horizontally oriented fracture pathways.

extending horizontally (i.e., extending along a bedding layer), respec For the TPB tests, Straight-Notched bending (SNB) specimens with
tively. The three typical crack orientations not only are the basic fracture the three principal crack orientations shown in Fig. 3 were used to
propagation modes in shale but can also be used to evaluate the me measure the mode-I fracture toughness of the bedding planes and rock
chanical properties of the shale matrix and bedding layers. matrix. All the beam specimens measuring 50 mm in diameter and 200
To achieve the mechanical characteristics of the bedding planes and mm in length were manufactured by sawing and slicing cores drilled in
rock matrix, various shapes of specimens with different bedding orien the bedding normal and bedding parallel directions from a large block.
tations were cored from the obtained large irregularly shaped shale Considering that a V-notch was profoundly difficult to process for rocks,
blocks in directions perpendicular and parallel to bedding. For each especially for bedded rock such as shale with well-developed bedding
type, at least five specimens were prepared and tested for each bedding planes, the TPB specimens were all U-notch specimens. According to the
orientation to improve the reliability of the measurements. In particular, standards of TPB fracture mechanical tests (American Society for Testing
the specimen axes with predetermined directions parallel and normal to and Materials (ASTM), 1996; Hatheway, 2009), a straight notch with a
bedding should be accurately oriented during coring. This process was length of approximately 2.7 mm, which was elaborately processed down
found to be a huge challenge to achieve without breaking the specimens, the middle using circular diamond saw blades, was introduced in each
as specimens usually split easily along the bedding planes. Various specimen. The ratio of the notch length to the specimen diameter was
fabrication techniques relying on man-made, cutting, flattening and maintained from 0.35-0.5. The manufactured specimens for each type
polishing were introduced. The man-made method kept the bedding were divided into three sub-groups according to the three principal
planes intact and allowed good control over the sample dimensions as crack orientations. Typical SNB specimens are presented in Fig. 5d.
well as the parallelism of the end surfaces. During core cutting and notch processing, special attention should be
For the Brazilian tests, disc-shaped specimens were employed to paid to avoid micromechanical damage to the samples. The errors of the
measure the indirect tensile strength of rock in the direction normal to height/length and diameter of the specimens for each type should be
the compressive load. During sample processing, cylindrical cores kept in the � 0.5 mm range. The end face parallelism for each type of
measuring 50 mm in diameter were cored first from a single large block specimens should be maintained within � 0.02 mm after polishing.
(Fig. 5a). The cores were then cut into 25-mm-thick disc-shaped speci Moreover, the tested specimens should be intact and free of macroscopic
mens, following the method suggested by the International Society for cracks or flaws. Before the tests, to prevent the sample heterogeneity
Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (Bieniawski and Hawkes, 1978). The specimens generated from the pre-existing micro-cracks or quartz and feldspar
in the Arrester and Short Transverse orientations were cut from the cores veins from introducing considerable errors in the test results, the sam
cored parallel to bedding, and the Divider samples were cut from the ples with an abnormal compressional wave (P-wave) velocity were first
cores cored normal to bedding. Some of the prepared discs are presented removed using an acoustic wave tester. The prepared specimens were
in Fig. 5b. also sealed with PVC thin-film and immediately fastened with adhesive
For the direct shear tests, the specimens with a diameter of 50 mm tape and stored in a dry room at room temperature to avoid weathering.
and height of 100 mm were cored from a single large block (Fig. 5c). The
samples were classified into two groups according to the bedding ori
entations with regard to the coring directions: bedding normal and 2.3. Specimen properties
bedding parallel specimens. These two types of specimens were
employed to evaluate the shear strength indexes of the rock matrix and The shale had a mean bulk density of 2.586 g/cm3 and a mean
bedding layers, respectively, as well as the shear fracture propagation porosity of approximately 3.6 %. The mineral composition identified
using X-ray diffraction (XRD) was found to have a mean fraction of
Fig. 5. (a) Shale block from Longmaxi Formation outcrop. Typical specimens for the (b) Brazilian test; (c) direct shear test; (d) TPB test.
4
53.41 % quartz, 14.38 % albite, 4.59 % pyrite, and 6.39 % clay minerals. expressed as follows:
The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) tests were performed on sam " rffiffiffiffi !cos 2θb #
ples drilled parallel and perpendicular to bedding to determine the 2P 4 E cos 4θb
σt ¼ ðb 1Þ (2)
mechanical characteristics of the Longmaxi shale. The obtained physico- πHD E0 4
mechanical characteristics are listed in Table 1.
pffiffiffiffiffiffi0ffi � 0 �
EE 1 2ν
3. Experimental methodology b¼ (3)
2 G0 E0
3.1. Brazilian tests where E and E’ represent the elastic moduli in the directions parallel and
perpendicular to the transverse isotropy plane (bedding plane),
The Brazilian tests (also called indirect tension tests) were conducted respectively. θb represents the angle from the diametrical load to the
on a rock mechanics test system MTS 815.04 developed by MTS Cor normal direction of bedding. θb is different from the bedding inclination
poration in the USA. The test system is an electro-hydraulic servo-con angle θ which is defined as the angle between the diametrical load and
trol apparatus, having a maximum axial force of 4600 kN and a the bedding planes (Fig. 6). The relationship between the angle θb and θ
maximum axis displacement of 100 mm. The experimental arrangement is θb þ θ ¼ 90� . ν’ represents Poisson’s ratio in the direction normal to
of the Brazilian tests with specimens placed with regard to the bedding bedding. G’ represents the shear modulus in the bedding-normal plane.
orientations is presented in Fig. 4. Before the tests, the P-wave velocity
around the disc diameter was measured for each specimen without
3.2. Direct shear tests
macroscopic cracks or quartz and feldspar veins during and after the
preparation. To increase the reliability of the test results, the specimens
Despite several inherent defects (Heng et al., 2015), including the
with great dispersion of the P-wave velocity were first excluded.
non-uniform distributed stress (stress concentration at both ends of the
During testing, the discs were first inserted into the special Brazilian
shear plane), principal stress rotation induced by the moment, and
frame, which contained two curved loading jaws, and then diametrically
predetermined shear plane, the direct shear test has long been consid
(vertically) compressed up to split horizontally under the displacement
ered a major test method to evaluate the shear mechanical behaviour of
controlling method with a constant rate of 0.005 mm/s. The tests were
interfaces, rock joints, and other geo-mechanical discontinuities. There
terminated when the fractures completely passed through the discs. The
is, therefore, a critical need to produce slip along a specific plane be
peak loads were detected from the abrupt drop points in the continu
tween different parts or materials. As the stress vectors characterized by
ously recorded applied load – time curves. For each crack orientation, 5
two variables with a tangential component and a normal component in
samples were tested and then averaged to obtain the tensile strength.
the 2D stress condition (two tangential components in the 3D condition)
The diametric compression produces uniformly distributed tensile
can be reproduced only in the direct shear test. Thus, direct shear test is
stresses perpendicular to the vertical diameter of the disc. The indirect
an extremely effective method to measure the shear strength indexes for
tensile strength is often estimated as per the assumption that cracks
a specific plane, such as the rock matrix and bedding layers.
nucleate and propagate from the position where the greatest tensile
The direct shear tests were carried out using the RMT-150C rock
stress occurs, that is, from the centre of the disc. The ISRM-suggested
mechanics testing system, a self-developed electro-hydraulic servo
formula for estimating the tensile strength, σ t, in the Brazilian tests is
control machine, with a peak load of 1000 kN and maximum output
given by (Hatheway, 2009)
displacement up to 50 mm. The test system can be used for rocks and
2P concrete subjected to uniaxial and triaxial compression and direct
σt ¼ (1)
πHD shearing. Before the tests, the specimens with visible macro-cracks or
quartz and feldspar veins and abnormal P-wave velocity were first
where P represents the peak load, and H and D represent the height/ excluded.
thickness and diameter of the tested disc-shaped specimen, respectively. The force diagram of a specimen placed in a shear box is displayed in
This formula gives the tensile stress normal to the vertical diameter Fig. 7. The vertical normal stress σn exerted on the specimen and the
at the centre of the disc-shaped specimen upon failure. Fracture should horizontal shear stress τ acting on the predefined shear plane can be
initiate from the centre of the disc and then extend outward along the determined from Eq. (4):
loading diameter (Wang et al., 2004). This situation is usually suitable 8
for isotropic rocks. However, for anisotropic or transversely isotropic >
>
N
< σn ¼
rocks, the fractures do not usually nucleate and propagate from the A
(4)
centre of the disc because of the different stress distributions between >
: τ¼Q
>
the isotropic and anisotropic rocks (Claesson and Bohloli, 2002; Chen A
et al., 1998). This implies that Eq. (1) is not suitable for bedded shale, as
the cracks are more likely to nucleate from the loading jaws because of where N represents the normal load applied perpendicular to the pre
the high concentrated stress and the growth is usually complex with defined shear plane, Q represents the shear load, and A represents the
tortuous fracture pathways. To settle this problem, Claesson and Bohloli nominal area of the shear plane.
(2002) presented a relatively more accurate approximate formula to The shear strength τ to the normal stress σ n can be described by the
evaluate the tensile strength of anisotropic rock. The new formula is Mohr criterion. The envelope of the Mohr criterion, also known as the
Mohr–Coulomb criterion, will degenerate into a straight line when a
Table 1
Physico-mechanical characteristics of the Longmaxi shale drilled parallel and perpendicular to bedding.
Bedding orientation Density (kg/ Porosity Mineralogy UCS Young’s modulus Poisson’s Shear modulus
m3) (%) (MPa) (GPa) ratio (GPa)
Bedding-normal 2586 3.6 53.41 % quartz, 14.38 % albite, 4.59 % pyrite and 118 14.06 0.367 7.8
orientation 6.39 % clay minerals
Bedding-parallel 118.4 25 0.312 9.53*
orientation
*
The shear modulus in the bedding-parallel orientation is not independent, and it can be determined by the expression of G ¼ E=2ð1 þ μÞ.
5
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the definition of θb and θ in the Brazilian tests. Both θb and θ vary between 0� and 90� , and the relationship between them is θb þ
θ ¼90� .
Fig. 8. Mohr–Coulomb envelope in a linear form.

Fig. 7. Force diagram of a specimen placed to the shear box during the direct
shear test (Heng et al., 2015a). Mohr–Coulomb envelop has degenerated into a form of linear, two
points are sufficient to determine c and ϕ (ϕr).
The test procedures are described below. First, a sample is placed in
the shear box; then, the normal force N is applied to the predetermined
value; finally, the shear force Q is applied up to specimen failure. To
obtain the shear mechanical properties of the rock matrix and bedding
layers, a series of direct shear tests were performed in the σ n – range
between 12.5 and 50 MPa at 12.5-MPa intervals on specimens oriented
relatively small normal stress is applied. The Mohr–Coulomb criterion parallel and perpendicular to the bedding. When testing, the normal
takes the form force was first applied to the predefined value at a rate of 1 kN/s, and
τ ¼ σ n tan ϕ þ c (5) then the normal stress was kept unchanged. The shear force was exerted
at a rate of 0.002 mm/s under the control method of horizontal shear
where c represents the cohesion, and ϕ represents the angle of internal displacement. When the residual shear strength was reached, the test
friction. was terminated. It must be noted that, when the specimens cored par
When the shear stress dropped down to a residual value, the upper allel to the bedding were sheared, only the case in which the shear di
and lower halves of the specimen would slide along the shear fracture rection was normal to bedding was considered in this study.
surface, i.e., the cohesion of the shear plane was lost completely, and the
rock was under a state of pure friction. Therefore, the residual friction
3.3. Three-point bending tests
angle of the intended shear plane, ϕr, could be determined from the
expression
Fracture toughness, KIC, characterizing the resistance of a material to
τr ¼ σn tan ϕr (6) crack propagation at which a crack begins to grow, is a widely used
parameter. Also as an important index of the fragmentation process, it
whereτr represents the residual shear strength. plays a dictating role in solving many engineering problems, such as
The stress state represented by the Mohr–Coulomb envelope on the hydraulic fracturing, rock cutting, crater blasting, explosive fracturing,
shear plane is presented in Fig. 8, where τ1 and τ2 are the shear strengths tunnelling, underground excavation and mining (Chen et al., 2008; Kipp
corresponding to the two distinct normal stresses σ1 and σ2. As the et al., 1980; Schmidt, 1976; Simonson et al., 1978). Therefore, a
6
profound understanding of the fracture toughness, along with its rela

tionship with structural planes, is important for practices in rock engi
neering. The mode-I fracture toughness and its anisotropy is considered
in this study as tensile fracture is a main failure type in rocks, especially
in hydraulic fracturing.
TPB is a major method for determining a material’s fracture tough
ness by measuring the load required to extend a fracture from a pre-
existing processed sharp notch. The TPB tests were conducted on a
special TPB test frame using the MTS 815.04 rock mechanics testing
system. The special test frame, mainly using a bend fixture to help locate
Fig.10. Schematic diagram of the loading configuration in the TPB tests.
strain and displacement transducers on the specimen, is shown in Fig. 9.
The SNB samples were placed on the two supporting rollers on the
loading platform so that the middle effective tested span Sd ¼ 160 mm in 4. Mechanical properties of bedding planes
the tests, as shown in Fig. 10. The pre-crack mouths of these SNB
specimens all faced downwards at the mid-point between the two sup 4.1. Tensile strength of bedding planes
porting rollers. The central loading roller was then lowered from above
onto the specimens at a low loading rate. The crack mouth opening As can be inferred from Fig. 4b, the Divider specimens, with their
displacement (CMOD) was tested using a clip gauge with a precision of core axes perpendicular to the bedding, were measured to determine the
0.001 mm. The specimens were then loaded to failure using the tensile strength of the shale matrix, as the cross-sections of the speci
load–CMOD control method with an unchanged loading rate of 0.03 mens are transverse isotropy planes. The Short Transverse specimens
mm/min, which could eliminate the effect of contact deformation be (Fig. 4c), with core axes parallel to bedding, were measured to obtain
tween the loading roller, supporting rollers and specimens. For the three the tensile strength of the bedding layers when the compressive force
typical crack orientations, 5 samples were tested for each crack was applied parallel to the bedding. As a comparison, the Arrester
orientation. specimens (Fig. 4a) with core axes parallel to bedding but applied load
The fracture toughness KIC for the SNB specimens in the TPB tests can normal to bedding were also tested to evaluate the effect of the bedding
be determined using the following equations (American Society for layers on the tensile strength of the rock matrix.
Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1996):
� � 4.1.1. Experimental results
Sd Pmax � a � The testing results for the three principal crack orientations are
KIC ¼ 0:25 y (7)
D D1:5 D tabulated in Table 2. The failure strength, which is also called the
apparent tensile strength, shown in Table 2 was obtained as per Eq. (1).
� �0:5 � � �4:5 �0:5
12:75 a
1 þ 19:65 a The data presented in Table 2 can be illustrated more intuitively in
�a�
Fig. 11. As can be observed from Table 2 and Fig. 11, the mean apparent
D D
y ¼ � �0:25 (8)
D
1 Da tensile strength values of 13.164 MPa, 5.024 MPa, and 9.886 MPa were
obtained for the Divider, Short Transverse and Arrester samples,
respectively. Significant anisotropy was shown for the apparent tensile
where Sd represents the span between the two supporting rollers at
strength. More specifically, the apparent tensile strength of the rock
which the load is imposed down the middle and here 160 mm, Pmax
matrix and bedding layers were 13.164 MPa and 5.024 MPa, respec
represents the peak load needed to propagate the pre-crack of length a,
tively. The value of the rock matrix was much higher than the bedding
and D represents the specimen diameter.
planes, with a degree of anisotropy as high as 2.62. The anisotropy de
gree is defined as the ratio of the greatest to the lowest apparent tensile
strength. This result demonstrated that the bedding layers were weak
ness planes in terms of tensile strength. For specimens in the Arrester
orientation, the apparent tensile strength was 9.886 MPa, which is
obviously lower than the rock matrix but much greater than the bedding
planes. This means that when compressive load is applied normally to
bedding, the tensile strength is still influenced by the bedding planes
and, to a certain extent, weakens the tensile strength. It should be noted
that the tested tensile strength in this orientation is not the value of the
rock matrix.
4.1.2. Fracture patterns and failure mechanisms

The fracture morphology of the specimens with the three typical
crack orientations after the Brazilian tests is displayed in Fig. 12. As
presented in Fig. 12, the main fracture that initiated and propagated
along the loading diameter only occurred for specimens in the Short
Transverse orientation. However, the main fractures bypassed the centre
of the discs and formed cambered fracture pathways in the Divider and
Arrester specimens. This finding implied that the fractures did not
nucleate and propagate from the centre of the discs in these two crack
orientations. The fractures initiated from the loading jaws and then
propagated towards the centre of the discs. However, the fractures
deviated away from the loading diameter and formed cambered path
ways due to the tensile-shear fracturing produced by the existence of the
Fig. 9. Special test frame of the TPB test in the MTS 815.04 rock mechanics
bedding planes. This phenomenon suggested that the obtained tensile
test system. strength in the Arrester and Divider specimens was not absolute splitting
7
Table 2
Failure strengths of the specimens tested across the three typical fracture orientations.
Bedding orientation Specimen No. Thickness /mm Diameter /mm Peak Load /kN Failure strength /MPa
Divider Y-2 25.69 48.96 27.071 13.702

Y-3 25.49 49.12 27.51 13.988
Y-4 25.66 48.98 26.373 13.359
Y-5 25.63 49.18 25.176 9.922
Y-6 26.14 49.46 30.151 14.847
Mean value - - - 13.164
Short Transverse Y-0-1-1 25.74 49.15 9.252 4.658
Y-0-2 25.67 49.11 9.645 4.871
Y-0-3 24.81 49.09 10.679 5.582
Y-0-4 25.59 49.09 11.036 5.593
Y-0-5 25.09 49.08 8.543 4.417
Mean value - - - 5.024
Arrester Y-90-1 24.93 49 19.251 10.033
Y-90-2 25.77 49.15 19.023 9.562
Y-90-3 25.65 49.2 20.278 10.230
Y-90-4 25.77 49.17 19.63 9.863
Y-90-5 24.82 49.12 18.614 9.742
Mean value - - - 9.886
For the Short Transverse specimen, fractures initiated from the

centre of the discs and then propagated towards the two loading jaws
until they completely penetrated the specimens. The fracture surface
was completely along a bedding plane without secondary fractures, as
presented in Fig. 12b. The surface morphology of the bedding plane after
splitting is shown in Fig. 13. As presented in Fig. 13, the rupture plane
was relatively even and smooth with no secondary fractures generated
from the bedding plane. Consequently, the measured failure strength
was the apparent tensile strength of the bedding layers. The failure
mechanism was purely tensile failure along the bedding plane.
4.1.3. Revision of the test results

One basic assumption of the Brazilian tests is that the fracture should
nucleate from the centre of the disc and then propagate outward along
the loading direction (Wang et al., 2004). However, the fracture usually
initiated from the regions near the loading jaws or along structural
planes in anisotropic rocks, other than the disc centre. Furthermore, the
fracture usually bypassed the disc centre and produced a curved fracture
pathway during propagation. This suggested that a large error might be
Fig. 11. Variation in failure strength of samples with the three principal crack introduced if the tensile strength was determined using Eq. (1). There
orientations. fore, the test results must be revised using the anisotropic solution
method shown in Eq. (2).
strength but failure strength. In addition, secondary fractures along the However, to obtain the tensile strength of the bedded shale using Eq.
bedding could be clearly observed for the specimens in the Arrester (2), the five independent elastic constants (E, E’, ν, ν’, G’) should first be
orientation. The delamination of the bedding planes mainly resulted determined. The five elastic constants shown in Table 3 were deter
from the induced tension by diametrical compression. Generally, two mined using specimens with different bedding orientations under uni
types of failure modes were observed: first, a failure mode in which axial compression tests (Heng et al., 2015c). The revised tensile strength
fractures initiated and propagated along the loading diameter without for the three principal crack orientations was acquired using Eq. (2). As
branches (secondary fractures); second, a failure mode in which frac seen from Table 4 and Fig. 14, the results obtained using Eq. (2) differ
tures nucleated and propagated from the loading jaws and deflected from those obtained using Eq. (1), especially for the specimens in the
away from the loading diameter with secondary fractures along the Arrester and Short Transverse orientations. The error of the results,
bedding. which is variable and unfixed, is dependent on the bedding orientation
The cambered fracture pathways demonstrated that the fracture and elastic constants of the shale. There is little difference between the
growth in the Divider orientation was also influenced by the bedding tensile strength in the Short Transverse configuration obtained using
planes, although the cross-section of the specimens is the transverse Eqs. (1) and (2), whereas a large difference is observed in the Arrester
isotropy plane and the stress distribution in the disc was not influenced orientation. This result implies that the tensile strength determined
by the bedding planes under the assumption of plane stress. This finding using Eq. (1) is very close to the actual value for the bedding planes and
implies that the measured failure strength in the Divider orientation is rock matrix. The tensile strength can be evaluated using Eq. (1) for the
not the actual tensile strength for the shale matrix. However, the failure bedding layers and rock matrix without considering the anisotropy of
strength could not be revised using Eq. (2), as the bedding planes were the shale. However, a great error will be introduced if the tensile
parallel to the transversal surface of the disc. Fortunately, the fracture strength in the Arrester orientation is estimated using Eq. (1), as Eq. (1)
pathways were nearly along the loading diameter (Fig. 12a), that is, the severely underestimates the value. The actual tensile strength for the
actual tensile strength of the rock matrix would be very close to the rock matrix and bedding layers of Longmaxi shale was 12.130 and 4.713
failure strength. Therefore, the tested failure strength could be approx MPa, respectively.
imated as the tensile strength of the shale matrix.
8
Fig. 12. Failure patterns for the three principal crack orientations after the Brazilian tests.
9
normal to bedding are summarized in Table 5. The Mohr-Coulomb en

velopes and corresponding shear strength parameters presented in
Fig. 16 and Table 6 were obtained from the peak and residual shear
strengths versus normal stresses shown in Table 5.
As can be observed in Fig. 16a and Table 6, the shear strength pa
rameters evaluated by regression analysis were c � 8.93 MPa and ϕ �
31.216� for the bedding planes. However, for the rock matrix, the pa
rameters were c � 16.175 MPa and ϕ � 36.222� . This finding shows that
the bedding layers were weakness planes both on the angle of internal
friction and on the cohesion, though the angle of internal friction was
not much lower than the rock matrix. The relatively small difference in
the internal friction angle between the rock matrix and bedding layers
indicated that the bedding surface was not sufficiently smooth but had a
certain degree of roughness and asperities. This further illustrated that
shear fractures would initiate and grow more easily along the bedding
planes. Shear fractures may nucleate and extend preferentially along the
bedding layers under certain stress state. Consequently, the bedding
layers usually act as weakness planes that deviate the shear fracture
towards the bedding orientation.
Fig. 13. Surface morphology of the bedding planes after the Brazilian tests. As presented in Fig. 16b and Table 6, the residual friction angles of
the bedding planes and rock matrix of Longmaxi shale were 28.027� and
Table 3 36.778� , respectively. The difference between ϕr and ϕ for the rock
The five elastic constants of Longmaxi shale. matrix was extremely small or even slightly larger, which might be a
E (GPa) E’ (GPa) ν ν’ G’ (GPa)
result of the increasing roughness of the shear fracture surface induced
by the bedding cracking when sheared normal to the bedding. However,
25 14.06 0.312 0.367 7.8
ϕr was significantly lower than ϕ for the bedding planes. The large dif
ference between ϕr and ϕ was attributed to the relatively smooth
4.2. Shear strength of bedding planes bedding planes, and the bedding surface became smoother with the
increase in normal stress.
As shown in Fig. 7, the bedding-normal specimens, with their core
axes perpendicular to the bedding, were sheared to measure the shear 4.2.2. Failure patterns and failure mechanisms
strength indexes of c and ϕ for the rock matrix. The bedding-parallel The fracture surface morphology of the bedding planes and rock
specimens, with core axes parallel to the bedding, were sheared to matrix under normal stresses of 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50 MPa are shown in
measure the shear strength indexes for the bedding layers. Fig. 17. As presented in Fig. 17, the fracture surfaces of the bedding
planes under different normal stresses were all completely along the
4.2.1. Experimental results bedding planes. The fracture surfaces were smooth, and the smoothness
Fig. 15 presents the shearing stress versus the shearing displacement variation was minute with the increase in normal stress. However, for
curves of specimens with shearing force perpendicular and parallel to the rock matrix, the fracture surface gradually became smoother with
bedding under various normal stresses. As presented in Fig. 15, shear the increase in normal stress. Striations on the fracture plane under
stress often reaches a peak in an elastic manner and then rapidly declines normal stress of 50 MPa were extremely pronounced, whereas bedding
to a residual shear stress, although a turning point can be clearly splitting could still be observed from the fracture surface. Although the
observed mainly as a result of the closure of the micro-cracks or flaws in specimens were sheared in the direction normal to bedding, bedding
the specimens. Peak and residual shear strengths increased coevally splitting could still be clearly observed under all normal stresses.
with the increase in applied normal stresses, but the ratio between them However, the degree of bedding splitting gradually weakened with the
gradually declined. For the specimens sheared parallel to the bedding, increase in normal stress. This result implies that normal stress can
an entirely different trend, particularly after the peak, was presented in
the curves of shearing stress versus shearing displacement, as the
intended shear planes were the bedding planes, supposing that the
bedding planes were exactly horizontally oriented. Compared with the
rock matrix, the shear stress in the bedding-parallel specimens dropped
precipitously to the residual stress after the peak, demonstrating the
rapid loss of the interlayer cemented strength between the laminations
once the bedding began to slide and further suggesting that the lami
nations were weakness planes on cohesion.
The direct shear test results of the specimens sheared parallel and
Table 4
Tensile strength of Longmaxi shale in the three principal crack orientations
calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2).
Bedding orientation Apparent tensile Tensile strength Error
strength (MPa) (MPa) (%)
Divider (Rock matrix) 13.164 13.164 0

Short Transverse 5.024 4.713 6.19
(Bedding plane)
Fig. 14. Comparison of the tensile strength of Longmaxi shale in the three
Arrester 9.886 12.130 22.70
principal crack orientations calculated using Eq. (1) and (2).
10
Fig. 15. Shearing stress vs. shearing displacement curves of samples under Fig. 16. Mohr-Coulomb envelopes for the rock matrix and bedding layers of
various normal stresses in the direction of bedding: (a) bedding-normal and (b) Longmaxi shale: (a) peak shear stress and (b) residual shear stress.
bedding-parallel.
Macroscopic shear fracture zones were generated by the further devel

restrain bedding cracking. A large number of experiments have shown opment and coalescence of en-echelon micro-fractures. For the bedded
that en-echelon micro-cracks oriented at an angle of less than 45� to the shale, the shear-induced en-echelon cracks typically developed along
shear direction are generated around the shear planes in direct shear the bedding planes. The cracking degree and cracking orientations of the
tests due to the shear-induced tensile stress (Cheng et al., 2019; Healy en-echelon cracks were closely related to the bedding orientation, which
et al., 2006; Olson and Pollard, 1991; Reches and Lockner, 1994). suggested that the bedding cracking in the specimens sheared normal to
bedding resulted from the tensile stress induced by the shearing force.
Table 5 The shear-induced tensile stress obtained using Eqs. (9) and (10) is
Test results of the specimens sheared perpendicular and parallel to bedding approximately in the direction oriented at an angle of α (α < 45� ) from
under different normal stresses. the shear direction around the intended shear plane, as shown in Fig. 18.
Bedding Specimen Normal Peak shear Residual shear � rffi�ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
orientation No. stress stress stress τr/MPa σ1 σn σn 2
¼ � þ τ2 (9)
σn/MPa τ/MPa σ3 2 2
Bedding- Y9-24 12.5 16.281 12.108
parallel Y9-23 25 25.697 13.658 2τ
tan 2 α ¼ (10)
Y9-21 37.5 31.885 17.069 σn
Y9-20 50 39.362 27.176
Bedding- Y0-15 12.5 26.934 14.256 where σ1 and σ 3 represent the greatest and smallest principal stresses,
normal Y0-24 25 31.16 19.353
respectively. The shear stress τ in the shear plane varies along the shear
Y0-25 37.5 41.74 30.875
Y0-9 50 52.95 33.649 plane (Heng et al., 2015a).
11
Table 6
Shear strength indexes for the rock matrix and bedding layers of Longmaxi shale.
Bedding orientation Peak shear strength envelopes R2 ϕ/� c/MPa Residual shear strength envelopes R2 ϕr/�
Bedding planes τ ¼ 0.606σn þ 8.93 0.921 31.216 8.93 τr ¼ 0.532σn 0.720 28.027
Rock matrix τ ¼ 0.732σn þ 16.17 0.953 36.222 16.175 τr ¼ 0.747σn 0.818 36.778
As can be inferred from Eqs. (9) and (10), the inequality σ 3 < 0 will deviation of approximately 17 %. The relatively larger scatter, corre
be satisfied identically if the normal compressive stress σ (σ > 0) is sponding to the complete fracture along the bedding planes, was mainly
applied. This phenomenon implies that the minimum principal stress σ3 attributed to the strong heterogeneity of the bedding planes. For the
is always the tensile stress, regardless of the value of σ. Τhe angle α specimens in the Divider orientation, KIC, with value of 0.957 MPa⋅m1/2,
between σ3 and the shear force Q is less than 45� identically, because was slightly lower than the Arrest orientation but significantly larger
tan2α > 0 is satisfied for any value of σ. It follows from here that tensile than the Short Transverse. This result implies that the fracture toughness
cracks will nucleate first at the points of the greatest tensile stress, that in the Divider orientation is still influenced by the bedding planes and
is, at the two ends of the intended shear plane (Heng et al., 2015a). The partly weakens the fracture toughness, although the crack propagation
tensile cracks are usually oriented at an angle of α (α < 45� ) to the shear direction is parallel to the bedding.
direction. Moreover, the tensile cracks are often arranged in en-echelon In general, the fracture toughness is determined by the relative
geometry when they are generated around the intended shear plane. orientation between the pre-crack, bedding planes and loading direc
This may be one of the main mechanisms for the formation of en-echelon tion. The higher fracture toughness was yielded in specimens with crack
cracks in direct shear tests. The larger the applied normal stress σ , the planes normal to the bedding, whereas the lowest was obtained in the
smaller is the angle of α under the same shear stress, and the less is the specimens with crack plane and crack growth parallel to the bedding.
possibility of en-echelon crack generation. Therefore, the applied This phenomenon illustrates that the bedding planes is weak in terms of
normal compressive stress can suppress the generation of en-echelon resisting fracture, while the rock matrix is strong. For fractures propa
cracks, and the degree of bedding cracking clearly weakens with the gating in the direction normal or oblique to the bedding, they will
increase in σ. This was demonstrated by the test results of the specimens deviate towards the bedding planes with the lowest fracture toughness
in the two bedding orientations. However, a pure shear stress state will under certain stress states; thus, branching and deflection of fractures is
occur if σ ¼ 0, because both σ1 ¼ τ and σ3 ¼ –τ are non-zero, and α ¼ 45� usually generated at weak bedding planes.
is obtained in this loading condition. The nucleated en-echelon tensile
cracks were oriented at 45� to the shear direction under the state of pure 4.3.2. Failure patterns and failure mechanisms
shear stress. Typical failure patterns and fracture surface morphology of speci
It can be inferred that the shearing strength of the bedding layers was mens with the three principal fracture orientations after TPB tests are
dominantly controlled by the bedding, and shear sliding along bedding presented in Fig. 20. As presented in Fig. 20, all the fractures initiated
was the failure mechanism. However, the shearing strength of the matrix from the tips of the start-cracks, but there was a great difference in the
was mainly controlled by the rock matrix, and the failure mechanism propagation pathways and fracture surface morphology, as elaborated
was shear failure across the bedding with bedding tensile cracking. below.
For the Arrester specimen, the fracture was initiated straight from
4.3. Fracture toughness of bedding planes the pre-crack tip, but it deviated away from its original direction and
continued to progress along a bedding plane due to weak bedding
As shown in Fig. 3, the Divider specimens, with crack faces normal to cracking. As the tensile stress induced by the applied load was parallel to
but crack growth parallel to the bedding, were measured to obtain the the specimen axis in the TPB tests when the fracture developed along the
mode-I fracture toughness of the shale matrix in TPB tests. The crack bedding, the fracture deviated once again and then extended nearly
orientation was similar to the Divider specimens in Brazilian tests, which along the pre-crack orientation. Due to the weak bedding cracking and
are tested to obtain the tensile strength of the rock matrix. The Short induced tensile stress, the fracture deviated vertically two times when it
Transverse specimens (Fig. 3), with crack faces and crack growth di intersected weak bedding planes. The fracture deviated towards the pre-
rections parallel to the bedding, were tested to obtain the bedding’s crack at a relatively small angle in the following extension, mainly
fracture toughness. As a contrast to the rock matrix, the Arrester spec owing to the tensile-shear fracture induced by the bedding planes. The
imens with crack faces and crack growth perpendicular to the bedding stepped propagation pathway, which deflected at a certain angle from
were tested to evaluate the effect of bedding layers on the fracture the pre-crack, can be clearly observed in Fig. 20a. The irregular stepped
toughness of the rock matrix. inclined failure surface is also shown in Fig. 20a. This characteristic has
usually been attributed to the layered structure of shale.
4.3.1. Experimental results For the specimen in the Divider orientation, fracture was also initi
The fracture toughness of specimens in each crack orientation was ated from the pre-crack tip but deviated at a certain angle from the pre-
calculated and tabulated in Table 7. The variation of the measured crack during extension, which made the fracture deflect at the initial
values of specimens in the three principal crack orientations is presented stage of propagation. The deflection angle gradually decreased with
in Fig. 19. As presented in Table 7 and Fig. 19, significant anisotropy was fracture progression because of the induced tensile stress at the fracture
observed in fracture toughness. The anisotropy degree of the fracture tip. The propagation direction was roughly parallel to the pre-crack
toughness was approximately 2.025. The highest fracture toughness was when the specimen ruptured completely. A cambered fracture path
obtained in the Arrest orientation, with mean values as high as 1.146 that deviated at a certain angle from the pre-crack could be clearly
MPa⋅m1/2, but the smallest scatter with a standard deviation of observed from the fractured surface. The curved fracture path changed
approximately 4 % was shown in this crack orientation. The lowest slowly from a step to a gentle decline mainly as a result of tensile-shear
fracture toughness was obtained in the Short Transverse configuration, fracture. The fracture surface was relatively smooth, and weak bedding
with values as low as 0.566 MPa⋅m1/2, that is, when the pre-crack plane cracking could not be observed, but the layered sedimentary structure
was predesigned along a bedding plane, the least energy was needed to was extremely pronounced (Fig. 20b).
extend the crack along the bedding plane, and the smallest fracture For the specimen in the Short Transverse configuration, the fracture
toughness was yielded in this crack orientation. However, the values in was produced from the pre-crack tip and then developed almost purely
this crack orientation exhibited the greatest scatter with a standard along a bedding plane. Therefore, the fracture path did not deflect
12
Fig. 17. Fracture surface morphology of the bedding planes and rock matrix under normal stresses between 12.5 and 50 MPa at 12.5-MPa intervals: (a) bedding
planes and (b) rock matrix.
13
during fracture propagation: fracture path deflection, weak bedding

cracking and delamination of weak bedding. In general, more than one
mechanism would have an effect. The greatest fracture toughness
anisotropy would be produced when all three mechanisms were exerted.
For the specimens in the three principal crack orientations, the phe
nomenon of weak bedding delamination could not be observed, but the
mechanisms of fracture path deflection and weak bedding cracking all
showed an effect. Hence, strong anisotropy was exhibited for fracture
toughness. The mechanisms of fracture path deflection and weak
bedding cracking produced the greatest fracture toughness for the
specimens in the Arrester orientation. The mechanism of fracture path
deflection contributed to the next largest fracture toughness for the
specimens in the Divider orientation. None of the three toughening
mechanisms caused the lowest fracture toughness for the specimens in
the Short Transverse orientation.
4.4. Mechanical properties of bedding planes
Based on the relationship between the relative orientations of

bedding, pre-crack and loading directions in specimens with different
shapes, as well as the fracture geometries and failure mechanisms under
different types of tests, the mechanical characteristics of the rock matrix
and bedding layers of Longmaxi shale are tabulated in Table 8. As shown
in Table 8, the bedding layers were weakness planes not only on the
fracture toughness and tensile strength but also on the shear strength,
cohesion, and friction. Therefore, tensile fractures propagating in the
direction normal or oblique to the bedding will typically deviate towards
the weak bedding orientation under certain stress conditions. However,
for shear fractures progressing in the direction normal or oblique to the
bedding, bedding cracking induced by tensile stress will produce a more
Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of the stress states around shear plane under: (a) complicated fracture geometry.
pure shear test (b) direct shear test.
5. Discussion
during extension, and the specimen was divided into two equal parts by
the fracture surface. The fracture plane was entirely along the bedding 5.1. The effect of heterogeneity on mechanical characteristics of bedding
plane, and radiolarites and graptolites could be observed from the layers
relatively flat fracture surface (Fig. 20c).
Thus, the fracture toughness of shale is determined not only by the Generally, the measured mechanical characteristics of the rock ma
fracture path deflection but also by the weak bedding cracking. To trix and bedding layers of Longmaxi shale are closely correlated with the
further analyse the anisotropic fracture toughness, it is essential to mineral composition, heterogeneity, development degree of micro-
deeply understand the anisotropic fracture mechanism. Based on the fractures and bedding planes, as well as other factors associated with
relationship between the bedding orientations, fracture growth pathway the obtained specimens. Even a tiny fabrication error and the imper
and fracture surface morphology, it can be inferred that the anisotropic fectly horizontally or vertically oriented bedding in the preparation will
fracture toughness can be estimated by incorporating the toughening have a dramatic influence on the test results, especially for the bedding
effects in the fracture process. planes. It is a great challenge to create all the test specimens without
The fracture toughness anisotropy of layered shale originated from breaking them because shale is readily to split into thin pieces along the
distinct toughening mechanisms shown by local fracture activities thin laminations. This implies that the measured mechanical
Table 7
Results of the fracture toughness of specimens in the three principal crack orientations.
Crack Diameter, D/ Notch length, a/ Notch width,t/ Peak compressive load, Fracture toughness Mean fracture toughness�Standard
Orientation mm mm mm Pmax/kN /MPa⋅m0.5 deviation/MPa⋅m0.5
Arrester 50.58 18.6 2.7 1.807 1.202 1.146�0.042

50.91 22.78 2.72 1.393 1.165
50.30 18.42 2.8 1.680 1.128
51.01 16.1 2.76 2.032 1.148
50.86 18.8 3.0 1.650 1.088
Divider 51.08 19.9 2.72 1.437 0.993 0.957 � 0.074
49.90 19.5 2.94 1.236 0.909
50.31 19.3 2.85 1.269 0.896
50.42 18.47 2.78 1.375 0.918
49.86 18.8 2.73 1.512 1.071
Short 50.70 17.86 2.74 1.082 0.685 0.566 � 0.097
Transverse 50.64 17.36 2.82 0.994 0.615
49.62 17.80 2.74 0.834 0.589
49.51 16.78 2.87 0.669 0.434
50.05 18.34 2.79 0.748 0.509
14
planes, with standard deviations of approximately 17 % and 11 %,

respectively. This also demonstrates the high heterogeneity of the
bedding planes in shale, which will make the problem more serious.
Accordingly, the spatial variability and anisotropy of the mechanical
behaviour and failure mechanisms make it extremely difficult to deter
mine the mechanical characteristics of the bedding layers in the
subsurface.
5.2. Comparison with previous studies
The mechanical characteristics of the rock matrix and bedding layers

of shale have been measured previously by many researchers. However,
these mechanical properties have not been exhaustively studied for one
type of shale, and most studies have focused on anisotropic mechanical
properties resulting from the variation of bedding orientations with re
gard to the loading directions. The mechanical properties of several
types of shale are presented in Tables 9, 10 and 11, which were collected
from the literature in which the values were measured in more than one
of the three principal crack orientations. The σ t values from all of the
studies (Table 9) show a very similar tendency, with very close σ t values
for the rock matrix and Arrester orientation, although much greater
values compared with the bedding planes. However, σ t values for the
rock matrix, i.e., for the Divider orientation, were measured only by
extremely few researchers. The σt value for the Arrester orientation was
regarded as the tensile strength of the rock matrix by many scholars, but
there were essential differences in the bedding orientation with respect
to the compressive load. The σ t value for the Divider orientation is the
true tensile strength for the rock matrix. Fortunately, σ t values for the
Divider and Arrester orientations are generally comparable and will not
cause too much error if the σ t value for the Arrester orientation is taken
as the σ t value for the rock matrix.
To better understand the variations of σt values for the bedding
layers and rock matrix of Longmaxi shale, a box plot (Fig. 20) was drawn
to show the distribution of all σt values collected from the literature
presented in Table 9. As presented in Fig. 20, σt values range from 3.09
to 9.23 MPa for the bedding planes, although the largest σ t indicated by
‘�’ in Fig. 20 is an outlier, which was excluded from the following
analysis. The largest σt value was measured using TPB methodology,
which is not a sufficiently accurate approach to measure the tensile
strength of rocks. σt values of the bedding planes have a mean value of
Fig.19. Variation of the measured fracture toughness of specimens in the three
principal crack orientations: (a) Fracture toughness for each crack orientation
4.359 � 1.262 MPa with a standard deviation of approximately 28.95 %.
and (b) mean fracture toughness and standard deviation for each crack orien σ t values range from 5.55 to 13.61 MPa for the Arrester orientation, with
tation. Error bars show � standard deviation. mean values and standard deviations of approximately 8.605 � 2.499
MPa and 29.04 %, respectively. The high standard deviation of σt values
characteristics of the bedding layers will be greater than the mean values for the bedding planes and Arrester orientation is attributed to the dif
even under the same conditions, as only the blocks with high cemented ference between the testing method, loading rate, testing environment,
strength of bedding planes can be drilled to obtain specimens with water content, mineral composition, and bedding development degree
different shapes. In fact, bedding in outcrop shale is typically more of the tested specimens. However, only two available experimental data
developed than the subsurface as a result of weathering and disturbance. sets on σ t values for the rock matrix (Divider orientation) have been
The measured mechanical properties are often lower than in the sub obtained to date. Two data points are not sufficient to plot a box diagram
surface, although the samples in outcrops have a similar rock compo for the rock matrix. The bedding planes have the lowest σ t value of 4.359
sition, provenance, sedimentary facies and depositional structure � 1.262 MPa, whereas the rock matrix has the greatest value of 11.075
compared with the subsurface. However, the geological conditions, MPa and the Arrester orientation has an intermediate of 8.605 � 2.499
physical properties, and rock mechanics are usually distinct as a result of MPa.
the high in situ stresses and high temperatures in subsurface wells at As presented in Table 10, the KIC values from all the studies also show
depths as deep as several kilometres. The weathering in the outcrops a similar tendency, with very similar KIC values for the rock matrix and
consistently aggravates the textural differences in rocks, especially for Arrester orientation, but much greater values compared with the
shale, as well as the variation in grain composition, grain size, pores and bedding planes. The KIC value for the Divider orientation is the fracture
fracture shapes and sizes. Therefore, the mechanical characteristics of toughness of the shale matrix, because the crack planes are perpendic
the bedding layers determined in this study only provide a reference for ular to but the crack grows parallel to the bedding. The influence of the
actual engineering applications in a qualitative manner. Furthermore, bedding orientation on crack growth is smallest in this crack orientation.
lamination with gaps or defects and distributed micro-pores may also The KIC values for the Divider and Arrester orientation are generally very
lead to a more complicated fracture path, affecting the measured frac similar and will not produce too much error if the KIC value for the
ture toughness and strength. This phenomenon can be validated by the Arrester orientation is taken as the fracture toughens of the rock matrix.
larger scatter in fracture toughness and tensile strength of the bedding A box diagram (Fig. 21) presents the variations of all KIC values of
Longmaxi shale collected from the literature listed in Table 10. As shown
15
Fig. 20. Failure patterns and fracture surface morphology of the SNB specimens for the three principal crack orientations after the TPB tests (Heng et al., 2015b).
16
Table 8
Mechanical characteristics of the matrix and bedding planes of Longmaxi shale.
Bedding Tensile Shear strength Cohesion c/ Internal friction Residual shear Friction Residual friction Fracture toughness
orientation strength/MPa envelopes MPa angle ϕ/� strength envelopes coefficient angle ϕr/� KIC/MPa⋅m1/2
Bedding 4.713 τ ¼ 0.606σn þ 8.93 31.216 τr ¼ 0.532σn 0.532 28.027 0.566

planes 8.93
Rock matrix 13.164 τ ¼ 0.732σn þ 16.175 36.222 τr ¼ 0.747σn 0.747 36.778 1.146
16.17
Table 9
Summary of σ t values measured in more than one of the three typical fracture orientations.
Material Short transverse (Bedding planes)/MPa Divider (Rock Matrix)/MPa Arrester/MPa Methodology Reference
Longmaxi Shale 4.71 13.16 12.13 Indirect tension This study

5.15 8.99 6.96 Indirect tension Teng et al., 2018
4.26 - 5.55 Indirect tension Wang et al., 2016
3.47 - 6.61 Indirect tension Yang et al., 2015
6.90 - 10.12 Indirect tension Zhang et al., 2018
3.09 - 7.07 Indirect tension He and Afolagboye, 2018
3.48 - 9.57 Indirect tension Hou et al., 2016a
3.7 - 7.64 Indirect tension Hou et al., 2016b
5.74 - 8.33 Direct tension Luo et al., 2018
9.23 13.61 TPB Dou et al., 2019
Mancos Shale 4.54 5.81 7.28 Indirect tension Chandler et al., 2016
2.56 - 2.77 Indirect tension Simpson, 2013
5.611 4.55 Indirect tension Na et al., 2017
Nash Point Shale 3.69 8.65 7.63 Indirect tension Forbes Inskip et al., 2018
Marcellus Shale 2.73 - 8.69 Direct tension Jin et al., 2018
3.30 - 6.05 Indirect tension Jin et al., 2018
Table 10
Summary of ΚIC values measured in more than one of the three typical fracture orientations.
Material Short transverse (Bedding planes)/MPa⋅m0.5 Divider (Rock Matrix)/MPa⋅m0.5 Arrester/ MPa⋅m0.5 Methodology Reference
Longmaxi Shale 0.57 0.957 1.15 SNB bend This study

0.63 1.189 1.13 CCNSCB Zhao et al., 2018
0.53 0.995 0.73 NSCB Zhao et al., 2018
0.93 - 1.37 Box-shaped cube Dou et al., 2019
0.61 - 0.72 CCNBD Suo et al., 2018
0.703 - 0.92 CCNBD Wang et al., 2017a
0.66 - 0.83 SCB Wang et al., 2017a
Mancos Shale 0.16 0.49 0.57 Short-rod Chandler et al., 2017
0.36 0.47 - Double-torsion Chandler et al., 2018
0.32 - 0.71 Chevron bend Brevik and Dissertation, 2016
Nash Point Shale 0.24 0.71 0.74 SCB Forbes Inskip et al., 2018
Marcellus Shale 0.64 0.68 0.75 TPB Jin et al., 2018
- 0.48 0.73 SCB Lee et al., 2015
Note. CCNSCB ¼ cracked chevron notched semi-circular bending method; NSCB ¼ notched semi-circular bending method; CCNBD ¼ cracked chevron notched
Brazilian disc method; SCB ¼ Semi-circular bend method.
in Fig. 21, the KIC values range from 0.53 to 0.93 MPa⋅m0.5 for the As shown in Table 11, for the bedding planes, the internal friction
bedding planes and from 0.53 to 0.93 MPa⋅m0.5 for the Arrester orien angle and cohesion are all noticeably lower than the rock matrix for all
tation. However, only three available experimental data sets on KIC types of shale. However, there are great differences in the shear strength
values for the rock matrix (Divider orientation) have been obtained up parameters between distinct shales because of the dramatic changes in
to date. which is insufficient to plot a box diagram for the rock matrix. clay mineral content (Zhang et al., 2019). The higher the clay mineral
The KIC value for the bedding planes is 0.662 � 0.131 MPa⋅m0.5 with a content, the smaller is the angle of internal friction and cohesion for the
standard deviation of approximately 19.79 %. The mean fracture bedding layers and rock matrix. For a certain type of shale, the influence
toughness in the Arrester orientation is 0.979 � 0.245 MPa⋅m0.5, but the of mineral composition on the shear strength parameters is relatively
greatest scatter is observed in this crack orientation, with a standard small. To estimate the variations of the shear strength parameters of
deviation of approximately 25.03 %. The higher dispersion of KIC values Longmaxi shale, two box diagrams (Fig. 22) were plotted to show the
for the Arrester orientation can be demonstrated by the length of the distributions of the internal friction angle and cohesion collected from
interquartile ranges and whiskers presented in Fig. 21. The mean frac the literature presented in Table 11.
ture toughness of the rock matrix is 1.047 � 0.124 MPa⋅m0.5, which is As presented in Fig. 22, the cohesion ranges from 1.81 to 15 MPa for
slightly larger than the Arrester specimens but both noticeably larger the bedding planes and 4.09 to 25.22 MPa for the rock matrix, whereas
than the bedding planes. However, the KIC values for the rock matrix are the angle of internal friction ranges from 12.37� to 31.54� for the
not usually higher than the Arrester orientation, i.e., the greatest frac bedding planes and 32.24� to 49.875� for the rock matrix. The cohesion
ture toughness is obtained in either the Arrester or Divider orientation. of the bedding planes has a mean value of 7.92 � 4.44 MPa with a
The high scatter of KIC values for the bedding planes and Arrester standard deviation as high as 56.06 %; however, the cohesion of the rock
orientation is mainly attributed to the difference in testing method. matrix is 15.99 � 7.48 MPa with a standard deviation of up to 46.78 %.
17
Table 11
Summary of shear strength indexes of the rock matrix and bedding layers.
Material Bedding planes Rock Matrix Methodology Reference
Shear strength Cohesion c/ Internal friction Shear strength Cohesion c/ Internal friction
envelope MPa angle ϕ/� envelope MPa angle ϕ/�
Longmaxi τ ¼ 0.606σn þ 8.93 31.216 τ ¼ 0.732σn þ 16.175 36.222 Direct shear This study
Shale 8.93 16.17
τ ¼ 0.485σn þ 4.91 25.9 τ ¼ 0.630σn þ 25.22 32.24 Direct shear Yan et al., 2017
4.91 21.54
τ ¼ 0.380σn þ 5.28 20.81 τ ¼ 0.643σn þ 16.61 32.76 Direct shear Ma, 2015
5.28 16.61
τ ¼ 0.402σn þ 1.81 12.37 τ ¼ 1186σn þ 4.09 49.875 Direct shear Yang, 2016
12.37 4.09
τ ¼ 0.507σn þ 4.70 26.90 τ ¼ 1.09σn þ 7.77 47.50 Direct shear Cui et al., 2016
4.7 7.77
τ ¼ 0.41σn þ 8.56 22.30 τ ¼ 0.716σn þ 9.2 35.62 - Wang et al., 2017b
18.28 9.2
τ ¼ 0.600σn þ 7.62 31.54 τ ¼ 0.690σn þ 24.12 35.72 Triaxial Zeng et al., 2018
18.28 34.48 compression
τ ¼ 0.371σn þ 14.45 20.37 τ ¼ 0.790σn þ 19.31 38.33 Triaxial Liu et al., 2016
τ ¼ 0.580σn þ 15.0 30.0 τ ¼ 0.905σn þ 21.38 42.17 - Liang et al., 2014
15.0 21.38
Mancos shale τ ¼ 0.483σn þ 12.4 25.8 τ ¼ 0.600σn þ 18.3 31.0 Triaxial Fjær and Nes, 2014
Permian Shale τ ¼ 0.600σn þ 18.28 30.96 τ ¼ 0.690σn þ 34.48 34.61 Triaxial Chenevert and
18.28 34.48 compression Gatlin, 1965
Trafalgar Shale τ ¼ 0.756σn þ 5.3 37.1 τ ¼ 0.912σn þ 10 10 42.4 Triaxial Aoki et al., 1993
5.3 compression
Tournemire τ ¼ 0.40σn þ 6.1 6.10 21.80 τ ¼ 0.40σn þ 14.92 21.80 - Lee et al., 2013
Shale 14.92
Pedernales τ ¼ 0.50σn þ 2.07 26.57 τ ¼ 0.60σn þ 8.19 30.96 - Lee et al., 2013
Shale 2.07 8.19
Pierre 1 Shale τ ¼ 0.34σn þ 3.07 18.78 τ ¼ 0.47σn þ 4.39 25.17 Triaxial Lee et al., 2013
Fig. 22. Box plots of the fracture toughness (KIC) for the bedding layers and
Fig. 21. Box plots of the tensile strength (σT) for the bedding layers and rock
rock matrix of Longmaxi shale collected from the existing literature.
matrix of Longmaxi shale collected from the existing literature. The box spans
from the lower (Q1) to the upper (Q3) quartile value (interquartile range) with a
line at the median. The box indicates the range of the central 50 % of the data, measured cohesion. The mean cohesion of the rock matrix is approxi
the dot in the box indicates the mean value. The "whiskers" below and above the mately twice as much as that of the bedding planes, which is consistent
box show the locations of the maximum and minimum values. The data indi with the test results in this study. However, for the angle of internal
cated by ‘�’ at the extremes represents the outliers. The length of the whiskers friction, the bedding planes have a mean value of 24.60 � 6.28� with a
indicates the discrete degree of the data. standard deviation of approximately 25.53 %, whereas the rock matrix
has a mean value of 38.94 � 6.28� with a standard deviation of
The extremely high dispersion of the cohesion is attributed to the testing approximately 16.13 %. The dispersion of the internal friction angle is
methodology, specimen shapes and dimensions, and loading rate. The significantly lower than the cohesion, which can also be demonstrated
testing methodology and specimen shapes and dimensions have a great by the length of the interquartile ranges and whiskers presented in
influence on the test results. The specimen sizes and shapes vary greatly Figs. 22a and b.
in direct shear tests; however, cylindrical samples measuring 50 mm in Generally, based on a large amount of experimental data, these
diameter and 100 mm in height are usually employed in triaxial findings further demonstrate that the bedding layers in shale are
compression tests. The larger the sample size, the smaller is the
18
weakness planes not only on the fracture toughness and tensile strength
but also on the angle of internal friction, cohesion and shear strength.
This is the main explanation for why high anisotropic mechanical
behaviour and complex fracture geometers can be observed in bedded
shales.
5.3. Application
The mechanical parameters of the rock matrix and bedding layers,

including the tensile strength, fracture toughness, cohesion and internal
friction angle, play a vitally important part in shale gas development
because these mechanical parameters are highly correlated with bore
hole breakout, collapse, leakage and fracture complexity in the course of
well drilling, completion and hydraulic fracturing.
Hydraulic fracturing is essential to increase reservoir permeability by
enhancing the fracture complexity. This process generates highly
conductive flowing channels by creating new fractures and reactivating
pre-existing natural fractures. The initiation of hydraulic fracture is
dominantly determined by the in situ stress field and tensile strength of
surrounding rocks. Accurate prediction of fracture initiation pressure
(FIP) not only can provide a critical parameter for the design of well
drilling and hydraulic fracturing, but it can also offer an important
guarantee for other engineering projects to operate with safety and high
efficiency. Although the predictive precision of FIP can satisfy the en
gineering requirement to a certain degree, the predicted and actual
values are still quite different in some cases, especially for bedded
shales. The main reason for this phenomenon is that the conventional
prediction is based on the assumption that shales are isotropic in terms
of mechanical properties, thus neglecting the characteristic of strong
anisotropy. The FIP is affected more by the anisotropic tensile strength
than the stress distribution around a horizontal well in bedded shales
(Ma et al., 2019). Therefore, fractures will be nucleated preferentially
from the bedding planes at the borehole wall under certain stress con
ditions because of the sharp variation in tensile strength between the
shale matrix and bedding layers (e.g., points A and B in Fig. 23). This
finding suggests that the FIP will be much lower in bedded shales than in
isotropic rocks under the same in situ stress conditions. The higher the
contrast between the rock matrix and bedding layers in tensile strength,
the lower is the FIP. The overestimation of the FIP will result in fracture
formation, mud lost to circulation and gas leakage, which will add to the
drilling time and increase costs. Therefore, the tensile strength contrast
must be considered in the FIP prediction.
Moreover, hydraulic fracture may also be initiated from the bedding Fig. 23. Box plots of the shear strength indexes of the bedding layers and rock
planes at the borehole wall due to shear failure because of the great matrix of Longmaxi shale collected from the existing literature: (a) cohesion
and (b) angle of internal friction.
contrast between the rock matrix and bedding planes in shear strength.
The main reason for this may be: (1) compared with the rock matrix,
shear failure along the bedding planes is particularly easier; (2) the stiffness and fracture toughness than the rock matrix. The great contrasts
presence of the bedding planes may evidently change the stress distri in these two parameters usually favour hydraulic fracture deflection
bution and aggravate the stress concentration at the borehole wall; (3) towards the weaker bedding-parallel (Short transverse) orientation.
the softening effect of injection fluid on shale may enlarge the contrast However, the fracture deflection at weak bedding planes is primarily
between the bedding planes and rock matrix in mechanical properties, determined by the fracture toughness contrast, whereas the effect of
especially shear strength. Therefore, the weakness of the bedding planes Young’s modulus contrast is limited (Ouchi et al., 2017), particularly
in shear strength must also be taken in account in FIP prediction, that is, when small geo-stress differences are present. The fracture toughness of
the great contrast between the bedding planes and rock matrix in me the bedding planes is much weaker than the rock matrix, which implies
chanical properties must be both considered in calculating the borehole that the bedding planes play a dominant role in fracture propagation and
stresses and introducing the rock failure criteria. The rock failure criteria potentially reflects a preferred fracture pathway. Fractures that develop
should consider the tensile and shear failure along the rock matrix and in the direction normal or oblique to bedding typically deviate towards
bedding planes. the weaker bedding-parallel orientation (Forbes Inskip et al., 2018; Lee
However, propagation of the hydraulic fracture is determined by the et al., 2015), therefore, the great contrast in fracture toughness is
combination of the regional geo-stress field, injection fluid pressure, and responsible for the complexity of hydraulic fracture propagation path
mechanical properties, especially those relating to fracture propagation, ways (Heng et al., 2019). The bedding heterogeneity usually compli
including fracture toughness and stiffness (Young’s modulus). The cates the fracture propagation behaviour. It is the fracture toughness of
bedding planes usually act as weakness planes that deviate fracture the bedding planes that predominantly determines whether a hydrau
growth. Therefore, the hydraulic fracture progress is greatly affected by lically induced fracture crosses or is deviated/arrested at a bedding
the bedding planes, especially when the geo-stress differences are small plane. The fracture toughness contrast between the bedding planes and
(Thiercelin et al., 1987). The bedding planes often have much weaker rock matrix is usually employed to predict the propagation behaviour of
19
6. Conclusions
The existence of laminations in shale can result in anisotropic me

chanical behaviour, anisotropic failure mechanisms, serious borehole
instability and complex fracture geometry. To exhaustively evaluate the
mechanical characteristics of the matrix and bedding layers, a series of
Brazilian, direct shear, and TPB tests were conducted on variously
shaped shale specimens in different bedding orientations relative to the
loading directions to determine the tensile strength, shear strength and
fracture toughness. The mechanisms by which the bedding planes in
fluence strength characteristics and failure patterns were then revealed.
Finally, the importance of the bedding planes was assessed during the
course of shale gas exploitation, including the FIP prediction, borehole
stability analysis, hydraulic fracturing, and complex fracture geometry
generation. Based on the experimental results and analysis, the main
conclusions obtained were as follows:
(1) The tensile strength, together with the failure modes, of shale
Fig. 24. The cross section (normal to borehole axis) of a borehole drilled in depend considerably on the bedding orientation with respect to
shale with well-developed bedding planes in anisotropic in situ stress field. the loading direction. The greatest tensile strength is obtained for
the rock matrix (Divider orientation), with values as high as
fracture (hydraulic fracture) at bedding planes. 13.683 MPa. The lowest value of 4.713 MPa is obtained for the
Hydraulic fractures are typically tensile fractures; however, they will bedding planes (Short Transverse orientation), which is obvi
convert into tensile-shear fractures or pure shear fractures when they ously lower than the rock matrix. The tensile strength for the
deviate away from their original propagation directions (He and specimens in the Arrester orientation is 12.130 MPa, which is
Hutchinson, 1989; Heng et al., 2019; Xu and Rosakis, 2003). The frac much greater than the bedding planes but slightly lower than the
ture deviation is mainly determined by shear fracturing. However, shear rock matrix. Two types of failure modes are observed for the
fracturing tends to dominate in bedded shale because of the presence of Brazilian tests. For the bedding planes and rock matrix, fractures
bedding planes and their strong heterogeneity (Li et al., 2018a, b). Shear initiate and propagate along the loading diameters without
fracturing creates a complex fracture pathway by interconnecting with branches (secondary fractures). For the Arrester specimens,
natural fractures or weak bedding planes, thereby playing a crucial role fractures nucleate and propagate from the loading jaws and then
in the generation of fracture networks (Li et al., 2018a, b). All these deviate away from the loading diameters with secondary frac
findings indicate that not only tensile fracture but also shear fracture or tures along the bedding.
tensile-shear (mixed mode (I-II)) fracture occur in the hydraulic frac (2) The slip-weakening of peak shear strength was displayed in the
turing of shale. While this study, and even the most recent studies, is curves of shearing stress versus shearing displacement, both for
focused on the mode-I fracture toughness, most realistic cases involve the bedding planes and rock matrix. The cohesion, internal fric
both tensile and shear fractures, and even tensile-shear fractures. tion angle and peak shear strength for the bedding layers, with
Therefore, it is imperative to better understand the critical stress in values of c � 8.93 MPa and ϕ � 31.216� , are much lower than the
tensity factors or fracture toughness in tensile-shear or pure shear stress rock matrix, with c � 16.175 MPa and ϕ � 36.222� . This indicates
conditions for the rock matrix and bedding planes in future studies. that the bedding layers are weak both on the cemented strength
Despite shear strength of the bedding planes being of great impor and friction. The shear strength of the bedding planes is domi
tance to fracture propagation, the most important application is to nantly controlled by the bedding layers, with shear sliding along
evaluate the borehole stability for horizontal wells in layered shale (Fjær bedding being the failure mechanism. The shearing strength of
and Nes, 2014; Liang et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2017). Borehole instability the matrix is controlled mainly by the rock matrix, and the failure
is always a big challenge to shale gas exploitation, especially for hori mechanism is shear failure across bedding with bedding tensile
zontal wells drilled in shale with well-developed bedding layers. As cracking.
presented in Fig. 23, when a horizontal well is drilled along or at a (3) Significant anisotropy of fracture toughness is exhibited for
shallow angle to the bedding planes, the failures may generate not only Longmaxi shale in the three principal fracture orientations,
at the positions near the rock matrix (point B in Fig. 23), but also at and namely, Divider, Short Transverse, and Arrester. The highest KIC
near the bedding planes (points A and C in Fig. 23). This is because the is approximately 1.146 MPa⋅m1/2, obtained in the Arrest orien
surrounding rocks around the borehole are typically easier to shear slip tation, where the pre-crack is perpendicular to the bedding. The
along the bedding planes due to their weak shear strength; furthermore, lowest KIC, with a value as low as 0.566 MPa⋅m1/2, is obtained in
there is a much higher stress concentration at the bedding planes the bedding planes (Short transverse configuration), where the
(Zhang, 2013). The higher stress concentration and weaker shear pre-crack is parallel to the bedding. The KIC value in the rock
strength of the bedding planes make the borehole highly unstable. matrix (Divider orientation) is 0.957 MPa⋅m1/2, which is slightly
Therefore, the mud weight needed to maintain the wellbore stability will lower than the Arrest orientation but much higher than the
be overestimated if the shear strength contrast between the rock matrix bedding planes. Two mechanisms, with weak bedding cracking
and bedding layers is ignored. However, the overestimated mud weight and fracture path deflection, are responsible for the strong frac
might result in fracture formation or lost circulation due to tensile ture toughness anisotropy.
rupture along the bedding planes (point A in Fig. 23). Meanwhile, the (4) The tensile strength, angle of internal friction, cohesion, shear
mud weight that induces fracture formation occurred in point A will be strength, and fracture toughness are significantly lower for the
lower than an isotropic rock due to the much lower tensile strength of bedding layers than the rock matrix, as verified not only by the
the bedding layers. Consequently, the great contrast in tensile and shear test results presented in this research but also by related studies
strength and variation in the redistributed stresses around the borehole where the values were measured in more than one of the three
must be taken into account in borehole stability analysis for horizontal principal crack orientations. This suggests that the bedding layers
wells drilled in bedded shale.
20
are weakness planes not only on tensile strength, shear strength, Double-Torsion Fracture Toughness Measurements in Shale. J. Geophys. Res.: Solid
Earth 123 (12), 10–517.
cohesion, and friction resistance but also on fracture toughness.
Chandler, M.R., Meredith, P.G., Brantut, N., Crawford, B.R., 2016. Fracture toughness
(5) Fracture toughness and tensile strength values for the Divider and anisotropy in shale. J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth 121 (3), 1706–1729.
Arrester orientations are generally very similar; therefore, these Chandler, M.R., Meredith, P.G., Brantut, N., Crawford, B.R., 2017. Effect of temperature
values of the rock matrix can be approximated by the values on the fracture toughness of anisotropic shale and other rocks. Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ.
454 (1), 295–303.
measured in the Arrester orientation in the Brazilian and TPB Chen, C.H., Chen, C.S., Wu, J.H., 2008. Fracture toughness analysis on cracked ring disks
tests. of anisotropic rock. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 41 (4), 539–562.
(6) The mechanical characteristics of the rock matrix and bedding Chen, C.S., Pan, E., Amadei, B., 1998. Determination of deformability and tensile
strength of anisotropic rock using Brazilian tests. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 35 (1),
layers play a vitally important part in the course of shale gas 43–61.
development, including FIP prediction, borehole stability anal Chen, T.Y., Feng, X.T., Zhang, X.W., Cao, W., Fu, C.J., 2014. Experimental study on
ysis, hydraulic fracture propagation, and complex fracture ge mechanical and anisotropic properties of black shale. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng 33,
1772–1779.
ometry generation. Chenevert, M.E., Gatlin, C., 1965. Mechanical anisotropies of laminated sedimentary
(7) Tensile fractures propagating in the direction normal or oblique rocks. Soc. Petrol. Eng. J. 5 (01), 67–77.
to the bedding will typically deviate towards the bedding parallel Cheng, L., Xu, J., Peng, S., Liu, Y., Chen, G., Li, X., Qin, Y., 2019. Mesoscopic Crack
Initiation, Propagation, and Coalescence Mechanisms of Coal under Shear Loading.
orientation under certain stress conditions. However, for shear Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 52 (6), 1979–1992.
fractures propagating in the direction normal or oblique to the Cho, J.W., Kim, H., Jeon, S., Min, K.B., 2012. Deformation and strength anisotropy of
bedding, bedding cracking induced by tensile stress will also Asan gneiss, Boryeong shale, and Yeoncheon schist. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 50,
158–169.
produce a complex fracture geometry. A greater fracturing vol
Chong, K.P., Kuruppu, M.D., Kuszmaul, J.S., 1987. Fracture toughness determination of
ume usually provides a higher permeability pathway than frac layered materials. Eng. Fract. Mech. 28 (1), 43–54.
ture length alone, such an increase in the fracture volume with Claesson, J., Bohloli, B., 2002. Brazilian test: stress field and tensile strength of
tortuous propagation pathways, and potentially has a beneficial anisotropic rocks using an analytical solution. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 39 (8),
991–1004.
effect by increasing gas recovery. Cooke, M.L., Underwood, C.A., 2001. Fracture termination and step-over at bedding
interfaces due to frictional slip and interface opening. J. Struct. Geol. 23 (2-3),
223–238.
Author Contributions Cui, Y.H., Liu, H.B., Yang, H.P., Ma, T.S., 2016. Mechanisms of sidewall stability loss in
horizontal wells drilled for shale gas development in jiaoshiba block. Oil Drill. prod.
Shuai Heng conceived and designed the experiments and wrote the Technol. 05, 545–552.
Dou, F., Wang, J.G., Zhang, X., Wang, H., 2019. Effect of joint parameters on fracturing
paper; Xianzhong Li and Yan Chen performed the experiments and
behavior of shale in notched three-point-bending test based on discrete element
analyzed the data; Xiao Liu conceived and designed the experiments and model. Eng. Fract. Mech. 205, 40–56.
revised and improved the paper. Fjær, E., Nes, O.M., 2014. The impact of heterogeneity on the anisotropic strength of an
outcrop shale. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 47 (5), 1603–1611.
Forbes Inskip, N.D., Meredith, P.G., Chandler, M.R., Gudmundsson, A., 2018. Fracture
properties of Nash Point shale as a function of orientation to bedding. J. Geophys.
Declaration of interests Res.: Solid Earth 123 (10), 8428–8444.
Gao, Q., Tao, J., Hu, J., Yu, X.B., 2015. Laboratory study on the mechanical behaviors of
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial an anisotropic shale rock. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 7 (2), 213–219.
Geshi, N., 2008. Vertical and lateral propagation of radial dikes inferred from the flow-
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence direction analysis of the radial dike swarm in Komochi Volcano, Central Japan.
the work reported in this paper. J. Volcanol. Geoth. Res. 173 (1-2), 122–134.
Gu, H., Weng, X., Lund, J. B., Mack, M. G., Ganguly, U., Suarez-Rivera, R., 2011.
Hydraulic fracture crossing natural fracture at non-orthogonal angles, a criterion, its
Acknowledgements validation and applications. In: SPE 139984 Presented at the Hydraulic Fracturing
Technology Conference, The Woodlands, Texas, 24-26 January.
This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Hatheway, A. W., 2009. The complete ISRM suggested methods for rock
characterization, testing and monitoring; 1974–2006.
Foundation of China (No. 51804100, 51704097 and 41872176), the Key He, J., Afolagboye, L.O., 2018. Influence of layer orientation and interlayer bonding
Programs of Universities in Henan Province of China (No. 19A440010), force on the mechanical behavior of shale under Brazilian test conditions. Acta
and the Doctor Foundation of Henan Polytechnic University (No. Mech. Sinica 34 (2), 349–358.
He, M.Y., Hutchinson, J.W., 1989. Crack deflection at an interface between dissimilar
760207/011). elastic materials. Int. J. Solids. Struct. 25 (9), 1053–1067.
Healy, D., Jones, R.R., Holdsworth, R.E., 2006. Three-dimensional brittle shear
fracturing by tensile crack interaction. Nature 439 (7072), 64.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Heng, S., Guo, Y., Yang, C., Daemen, J.J., Li, Z., 2015a. Experimental and theoretical
study of the anisotropic properties of shale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 74, 58–68.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. Heng, S., Liu, X., Li, X., Zhang, X., Yang, C., 2019. Experimental and numerical study on
org/10.1016/j.jngse.2020.103161. the non-planar propagation of hydraulic fractures in shale. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 179,
410–426.
Heng, S., Yang, C.H., Guo, Y.T., Wang, C.Y., Wang, L., 2015b. Influence of bedding
References planes on hydraulic fracture propagation in shale formations. Chin. J. Rock Mech.
Eng. 34 (2), 228–237.
Heng, S., Yang, C.H., Zhang, B.P., Guo, Y.T., Wei, Y.L., 2015c. Experimental research on
Amadei, B., 1996. Importance of anisotropy when estimating and measuring in situ
anisotropic properties of shale. Rock Soil Mech 36 (3), 609–616.
stresses in rock. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 33 (3), 293–325.
Hou, P., Gao, F., Yang, Y.G., Zhang, Z.Z., Gao, Y.N., Zhang, X.X., Zhang, J., 2016a. Effect
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1996. E399-90 Standard test
of bedding plane direction on acoustic emission characteristics of shale in Brazilian
method for plane-strain fracture toughness of metallic materials. ASTM Book of
tests. Rock Soil Mech 37 (6), 1603–1612.
Standards, Am. Soc. for Test. and Mater., West Conshohocken, Pa.
Hou, P., Gao, F., Yang, Y.G., Zhang, Z.Z., Zhang, X.X., 2016b. Effect of bedding
Aoki, T., Tan, C.P., Bamford, W.E., 1993. Effects of deformation and strength anisotropy
orientation on failure of black shale under Brazilian tests and energy analysis. Chin.
on borehole failures in saturated shales. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr.
J. Geotech. Eng. 38, 930–939.
30 (7), 1031–1034.
Jin, Z., Li, W., Jin, C., Hambleton, J., Cusatis, G., 2018. Anisotropic elastic, strength, and
Bieniawski, Z.T., Hawkes, I., 1978. Suggested methods for determining tensile strength of
fracture properties of Marcellus shale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 109, 124–137.
rock materials. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 15 (3), 99–103.
Kavanagh, J.L., Pavier, M.J., 2014. Rock interface strength influences fluid-filled fracture
Blanton, T. L., 1982. An experimental study of interaction between hydraulically induced
propagation pathways in the crust. J. Struct. Geol. 63, 68–75.
and pre-existing fractures. In: SPE 10847 Presented at the SPE Unconventional Gas
Kipp, M.E., Grady, D.E., Chen, E.P., 1980. Strain-rate dependent fracture initiation. Int. J.
Recovery Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 16-18 May.
Fract. 16 (5), 471–478.
Brevik, N. Ø., 2016. Experimental study of fracture toughness in sedimentary rocks (M. S.
Larsen, B., Gudmundsson, A., Grunnaleite, I., Sælen, G., Talbot, M.R., Buckley, S.J.,
Dissertation). Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim,
2010. Effects of sedimentary interfaces on fracture pattern, linkage, and cluster
Norway.
formation in peritidal carbonate rocks. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 27 (7), 1531–1550.
Chandler, M.R., Fauchille, A.L., Kim, H.K., Ma, L., Mecklenburgh, J., Rizzo, R.,
Azeem, M., 2018. Correlative Optical and X-Ray Imaging of Strain Evolution During
21
Lee, H., Chang, C., Ong, S.H., Song, I., 2013. Effect of anisotropic borehole wall failures Sturzenegger, M., Sartori, M., Jaboyedoff, M., Stead, D., 2007. Regional deterministic
when estimating in situ stresses: A case study in the Nankai accretionary wedge. Mar. characterization of fracture networks and its application to GIS-based rock fall risk
Petrol. Geol. 48, 411–422. assessment. Eng. Geol. 94 (3-4), 201–214.
Lee, H.P., Olson, J.E., Holder, J., Gale, J.F., Myers, R.D., 2015. The interaction of Suo, Y., Chen, Z., Rahman, S., 2018. Experimental and Numerical investigation of
propagating opening mode fractures with preexisting discontinuities in shale. Fracture Toughness of Anisotropic Shale Rocks. In: Paper URTEC-2902970 Presented
J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth 120 (1), 169–181. at the SPE/AAPG/SEG Unconventional Resources Technology Conference, Houston,
Li, N., Zhang, S.C., Zou, Y.S., Ma, X.F., Wu, S., Zhang, Y.N., 2018a. Experimental Analysis Texas, USA, 23-25 July.
of Hydraulic Fracture Growth and Acoustic Emission Response in a Layered Teng, J.Y., Tang, J.X., Zhang, C., 2018. Experimental study on tensile strength of layered
Formation. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 51 (4), 1047–1062. water-bearing shale. Rock Soil Mech 39 (4), 1317–1326.
Li, N., Zhang, S., Zou, Y., Ma, X., Zhang, Z., Li, S., Sun, Y., 2018b. Acoustic emission Thiercelin, M., Jeffrey, R. G., Naceur, K. B., 1987. The Influence of Fracture Toughness
response of laboratory hydraulic fracturing in layered shale. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. on the Geometry of Hydraulic Fractures. In: SPE 16431 Presented at the Low
51 (11), 3395–3406. Permeability Reservoirs Symposium, Denver, Colorado, 18-19 May.
Liang, C., Chen, M., Jin, Y., Lu, Y., 2014. Wellbore stability model for shale gas reservoir Vervoort, A., Min, K.B., Konietzky, H., Cho, J.W., Debecker, B., Dinh, Q.D., Tavallali, A.,
considering the coupling of multi-weakness planes and porous flow. J. Nat. Gas Sci. 2014. Failure of transversely isotropic rock under Brazilian test conditions. Int. J.
Eng. 21, 364–378. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 70, 343–352.
Liu, X., Zeng, W., Liang, L., Lei, M., 2016. Wellbore stability analysis for horizontal wells Wang, H., Zhao, F., Huang, Z., Yao, Y., Yuan, G., 2017a. Experimental study of mode-I
in shale formations. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 31, 1–8. fracture toughness for layered shale based on two ISRM-suggested methods. Rock
Lisjak, A., Grasselli, G., Vietor, T., 2014. Continuum–discontinuum analysis of failure Mech. Rock Eng. 50 (7), 1933–1939.
mechanisms around unsupported circular excavations in anisotropic clay shales. Int. Wang, X., Shi, F., Liu, C., Lu, D., Liu, H., Wu, H., 2018. Extended finite element
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 65, 96–115. simulation of fracture network propagation in formation containing frictional and
Loon, V.L., 2008. Preferred orientations and anisotropy in shales: Callovo-Oxfordian cemented natural fractures. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 50, 309–324.
shale (France) and Opalinus Clay (Switzerland). Clays Clay Miner 56 (3), 285–306. Wang, Y., Zhuang, Z., Liu, Z., Yang, H., Li, C., 2017b. Finite element analysis for inclined
Luo, Y., Xie, H.P., Ren, L., Zhang, R., Li, C.B., Gao, C., 2018. Linear elastic fracture wellbore stability of transversely iso-tropic rock with HMCD coupling based on weak
mechanics characterization of an anisotropic shale. Sci. Rep. 8 (1), 8505. plane strength criterion. Sci. China Technol. Sci. 60 (4), 624–637.
Ma, T. S., 2015. Research on the mechanisms of borehole collapse instability for Wang, J., Xie, L., Xie, H., Ren, L., He, B., Li, C., Gao, C., 2016. Effect of layer orientation
horizontal wells in shale gas reservoirs (Ph.D. Dissertation). Southwest Petroleum on acoustic emission characteristics of anisotropic shale in Brazilian tests. J. Nat. Gas
University, Chengdu, China. Sci. Eng. 36, 1120–1129.
Ma, T., Liu, Y., Chen, P., Wu, B., Fu, J., Guo, Z., 2019. Fracture-initiation pressure Wang, Q.Z., Jia, X.M., Kou, S.Q., Zhang, Z.X., Lindqvist, P.A., 2004. The flattened
prediction for transversely isotropic formations. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 176, 821–835. Brazilian disc specimen used for testing elastic modulus, tensile strength and fracture
McLamore, R., Gray, K.E., 1967. The mechanical behavior of anisotropic sedimentary toughness of brittle rocks: analytical and numerical results. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
rocks. Journal of Engineering for Industry, 89(1. J. Eng. Ind. 89 (1), 62–73, 6273. Sci. 41 (2), 245–253.
Mokhtari, M., Tutuncu, A.N., 2016. Impact of laminations and natural fractures on rock Warpinski, N.R., Teufel, L.W., 1987. Influence of geologic discontinuities on hydraulic
failure in Brazilian experiments: A case study on Green River and Niobrara fracture propagation. J. Pet. Technol. 39 (02), 209–220.
formations. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 36, 79–86. Xu, L.R., Rosakis, A.J., 2003. An experimental study of impact-induced failure events in
Na, S., Sun, W., Ingraham, M.D., Yoon, H., 2017. Effects of spatial heterogeneity and homogeneous layered materials using dynamic photoelasticity and high-speed
material anisotropy on the fracture pattern and macroscopic effective toughness of photography. Optic Laser. Eng. 40 (4), 263–288.
Mancos Shale in Brazilian tests. J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth 122 (8), 6202–6230. Yan, C., Deng, J., Cheng, Y., Li, M., Feng, Y., Li, X., 2017. Mechanical properties of gas
Niandou, H., Shao, J.F., Henry, J.P., Fourmaintraux, D., 1997. Laboratory investigation shale during drilling operations. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 50 (7), 1753–1765.
of the mechanical behaviour of Tournemire shale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 34 (1), Yang, Z., 2016. Study on Physical and Mechanical Anisotropy of Shale and Failure
3–16. Characteristics in Tension-Shear State. Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China.
Olson, J.E., Pollard, D.D., 1991. The initiation and growth of en echelon veins. J. Struct. Yang, Z.P., He, B., Xie, L.Z., Li, C.B., Wang, J., 2015. Strength and failure modes of shale
Geol. 13 (5), 595–608. based on Brazilian test. Rock Soil Mech 36 (12), 3447–3455.
Ouchi, H., Foster, J.T., Sharma, M.M., 2017. Effect of reservoir heterogeneity on the Zeng, W., Liu, X., Liang, L., Xiong, J., 2018. Analysis of influencing factors of wellbore
vertical migration of hydraulic fractures. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 151, 384–408. stability in shale formations. Arab. J. Geosci. 11 (18), 532.
Reches, Z.E., Lockner, D.A., 1994. Nucleation and growth of faults in brittle rocks. Zhang, F., An, M., Zhang, L., Fang, Y., Elsworth, D., 2019. The Role of Mineral
J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth. 99 (B9), 18159–18173. Composition on the Frictional and Stability Properties of Powdered Reservoir Rocks.
Renshaw, C.E., Pollard, D.D., 1995. An experimentally verified criterion for propagation J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth. 124 (2), 1480–1497.
across unbounded frictional interfaces in brittle, linear elastic materials. Int. J. Rock Zhang, J., 2013. Borehole stability analysis accounting for anisotropies in drilling to
Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 32 (3), 237–249. weak bedding planes. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 60, 160–170.
Schmidt, R.A., 1976. Fracture-toughness testing of limestone. Exp. Mech. 16 (5), Zhang, S.W., Shou, K.J., Xian, X.F., Zhou, J.P., Liu, G.J., 2018. Fractal characteristics and
161–167. acoustic emission of anisotropic shale in Brazilian tests. Tunn. Undergr. Sp. Tech. 71,
Simonson, E.R., Abou-Sayed, A.S., Clifton, R.J., 1978. Containment of massive hydraulic 298–308.
fractures. Soc. Petrol. Eng. J. 18 (01), 27–32. Zhao, Z.J., Liu, D.A., Cui, Z.D., Tang, T.W., Han, W.G., 2018. Experimental study of
Simpson, N. D. J., 2013. An analysis of tensile strength, fracture initiation and determining fracture toughness K-IC of shale by semi-disk three-point bending. Rock
propagation in anisotropic rock (gas shale) using Brazilian tests equipped with high Soil Mech 39, 258–266.
speed video and acoustic emission (Ph.D. Dissertation). Norwegian University of
Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
22

Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering: Shuai Heng, Xianzhong Li, Xiao Liu, Yan Chen

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering: Shuai Heng, Xianzhong Li, Xiao Liu, Yan Chen

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering: Shuai Heng, Xianzhong Li, Xiao Liu, Yan Chen

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 76 (2020) 103161

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

Experimental study on the mechanical properties of bedding planes in shale

1. Introduction petroleum engineering. More recently, worldwide large-scale shale gas

defined, as illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4. As shown in Figs. 3 and 4, the

smallest dimensions larger than 300 mm were instantly sealed with

2.2. Sample preparation

Shale is a typical sedimentary rock and is usually considered to be a

fracture progressing horizontally, and a horizontally oriented fracture pathways.

Fig. 8. Mohr–Coulomb envelope in a linear form.

profound understanding of the fracture toughness, along with its rela­

4.1.2. Fracture patterns and failure mechanisms

Divider Y-2 25.69 48.96 27.071 13.702

For the Short Transverse specimen, fractures initiated from the

4.1.3. Revision of the test results

normal to bedding are summarized in Table 5. The Mohr-Coulomb en­

Divider (Rock matrix) 13.164 13.164 0

Macroscopic shear fracture zones were generated by the further devel­

during fracture propagation: fracture path deflection, weak bedding

4.4. Mechanical properties of bedding planes

Based on the relationship between the relative orientations of

Arrester 50.58 18.6 2.7 1.807 1.202 1.146�0.042

planes, with standard deviations of approximately 17 % and 11 %,

5.2. Comparison with previous studies

The mechanical characteristics of the rock matrix and bedding layers

Bedding 4.713 τ ¼ 0.606σn þ 8.93 31.216 τr ¼ 0.532σn 0.532 28.027 0.566

Longmaxi Shale 4.71 13.16 12.13 Indirect tension This study

Longmaxi Shale 0.57 0.957 1.15 SNB bend This study

The mechanical parameters of the rock matrix and bedding layers,

The existence of laminations in shale can result in anisotropic me­

You might also like

profound understanding of the fracture toughness, along with its rela

normal to bedding are summarized in Table 5. The Mohr-Coulomb en

Macroscopic shear fracture zones were generated by the further devel

The existence of laminations in shale can result in anisotropic me